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Scarica Il Libro in Formato Richard Pankhurst Etiopi Dalle prime testimonianze umane alla repubblica federale InDICE 6 Cenni sulla traslitterazione 7 Preistoria e geografia 19 Punt, i faraoni e i Tolomei, il regno aksumita Titolo originale: Ethiopians. A History e l’avvento della Cristianità © 2006 Black wells, Oxford 51 La dinastia Zagué, le chiese di Lalibela © 2012 Beit casa editrice, Trieste e la “Restaurazione” salomonica ISBN: 978-88-95324-32-6 67 Vita nel Medio Evo: contatti con i vicini musulmani Traduzione: Piero Budinich e Camilla Pieretti e con la remota cristianità In copertina: Foto di Pierangelo Gramignola, 89 Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, la migrazione oromo In quarta di copertina: e la conquista islamica di Massaua 109 Lo spostamento della capitale a nordovest e l’intermezzo cattolico 121 Gondar: ascesa e caduta 145 L’inizio del xix secolo e l’avvento di Tewodros ii 173 Iohannes, Menelik e le Potenze europee La scheda bibliografica è riportata nell’ultima pagina del libro. 205 Gli inizi della modernizzazione: Menelik, Iyasu, Per conoscere le ultime novità visitate il sito www.beitcasaeditrice.it Zauditu e Haile Selassie 231 Invasione, occupazione e liberazione 265 Restaurazione e rivoluzione 295 Note ai capitoli 309 Bibliografia 325 Cronologia essenziale 327 Una transizione lunga vent‘anni, non ancora conclusa di Gian Paolo Calchi Novati 353 Indice dei nomi 359 Repertorio dei nomi geografici e degli argomenti CEnnI SULLA TRASLITTERAZIOnE DELLE PAROLE STRAnIERE L’alfabeto dell’amharico L’amharico (āmariññā) è la lingua ufficiale dell’Etiopia. non esiste una traslitterazione comunemente accettata dell’amharico nell’alfabeto latino. L’alfabeto ge‘ez comprende 260 segni sillabici, divisi in sette ordini a seconda della coloritura vocalica. Eccone uno schema, a titolo puramente illustrativo: I PREISTORIA E GEOGRAfIA la culla dell’umanità Recenti ricerche nel campo della paleoantropologia hanno corroborato la convinzione che la parte etiopica della Rift Valley africana sia stata la culla dell’umanità. D’altronde l’ipotesi che l’umanità abbia calcato i primi passi sul continente africa- no era stata avanzata già da Charles Darwin. All’epoca in cui scriveva, come si ricorderà, esistevano ben poche testimonianze fossili: tuttavia egli dichiarò che era probabile che l’Europa fos- se “un tempo abitata da scimmie, oggi estinte, affini ai gorilla e agli scimpanzé”, che questi ultimi erano “i più vicini parenti dell’uomo” e inoltre che era più “probabile che i nostri primi pro- genitori siano vissuti sul continente africano rispetto a qualsiasi altro luogo”. La paleoantropologia in Etiopia è ancora agli albori. Ha avu- to inizio nel 1963, con la scoperta della “fabbrica” preistorica di utensili in pietra di Melka-Konturé, 88 chilometri a sud di Addis Abeba. Da allora le ricerche paleoantropologiche in questo paese hanno compiuto considerevoli progressi. La più importante testimonianza a sostegno della tesi che la Rift Valley in Etiopia sia stata la prima dimora dell’umanità è la spettacolare scoperta compiuta a Hadar, nella regione di Afar della valle del medio Auàsc, nel 1974. L’équipe franco-statuni- tense guidata da Donald Johanson, dell’Università di Chicago, vi rinvenne infatti i più antichi resti allora conosciuti di ominidi, ossia di antenati dell’uomo che deambulavano in posizione eret- ta. Quei resti, noti agli scienziati con la classificazione di Hadar al 288-1, sono stati datati a 3,2 milioni di anni fa e consistono di poco più della metà dello scheletro di una donna adulta, ora 7 generalmente nota in ambito internazionale con il soprannome mentario risalente a 4,4 milioni di anni fa hanno rinvenuto una di Lucy (ispirato da una canzone dei Beatles), ma chiamata in cinquantina di frammenti di denti, ossa delle braccia e parti del Etiopia Denqenesh o Berqenash. I paleoantropologi, comunque, cranio e della mandibola appartenenti a 17-20 individui diversi, l’hanno denominata Australopithecus afarensis. La prima di que- che rappresentano una specie di primate completamente nuova, ste parole significa “primate meridionale” mentre la seconda fa chiamata Ardipithecus ramidus, da un termine che nella lingua riferimento alla regione di Afar, dove è avvenuta la scoperta. afar locale significa “radice” o “antenato”. Oggi lo scheletro di Lucy è gelosamente custodito al Museo Questi preistorici abitanti dell’odierna Etiopia orientale, an- nazionale di Addis Abeba, dove i visitatori possono vederne un che se decisamente più alti di Lucy, erano molto più piccoli degli accurato calco in gesso. Era alta non più di 107 centimetri e pro- esseri umani attuali. Poco più alti di 1,22 m, probabilmente pe- babilmente pesava appena 27 chili; aveva un cervello piccolo savano intorno ai cinquanta chili.1 finora gli studiosi non hanno come quello di un primate, ma deambulava in posizione eretta. trovato nessun osso femorale o delle gambe che permettesse loro Le ossa della pelvi e delle gambe erano, d’altra parte, quasi iden- di stabilire con certezza se questa specie deambulasse in posi- tiche a quelle degli esseri umani attuali. Anche la mandibola a zione eretta. Le sue braccia comunque erano troppo corte per forma di V somigliava a quella della nostra specie, molto diversa permetterle di appendersi ai rami e avanzare dondolando tra gli dalla disposizione a scatola della dentatura a file parallele che alberi come fanno le scimmie. Sebbene il suo cranio presenti si rinviene nei primati. Generalmente classificata come omini- caratteristiche generalmente primatomorfe, la forma dell’aper- de a causa della deambulazione eretta, sembra tuttavia, a detta tura anteriore alla base del cranio e i denti, assai più piccoli di dello stesso Johanson, una figura “di transizione” che presenta quelli delle scimmie, ricordano gli ominidi di epoche successive. “innumerevoli enigmi” in molti dei suoi tratti. La scoperta ebbe Le ossa dell’Ardipithecus ramidus si inseriscono così perfetta- un’enorme importanza scientifica, tanto più che il suo scheletro mente tra quelle degli esseri umani e quelle delle scimmie antro- sembra indicare che l’umanità, contrariamente a quanto ritenu- pomorfe da far ritenere che rappresentassero l’“anello mancan- to fino ad allora, abbia cominciato a camminare prima ancora di te” cercato da Darwin e da indurre Timothy White a osservare: sviluppare un cervello più grande.1 “Darwin aveva ragione: gli esseri umani si sono evoluti a partire Le successive ricerche, svolte da Johanson e dalla sua équi- dai primati africani”. Tuttavia le tesi secondo cui ci sarebbe un pe a Hadar nel 1976-1977, non sono certo meno degne di nota, solo “anello mancante” richiedono un’attenta considerazione. poichè fruttarono la scoperta di utensili di pietra di fabbrica- Probabilmente l’evoluzione della specie umana è il risultato di zione umana risalenti a circa 2,5 milioni di anni fa. All’epoca una transizione graduale, a causa della quale alcuni fossili avran- si trattava dei più antichi utensili conosciuti al mondo: molto no sembianze più “primatiformi” mentre altri ne avranno di più più antichi, per esempio, dei giustamente famosi ritrovamenti di simili a noi, la specie più “evoluta”. Mary Leakey nella gola di Olduvai in Tanzania, che risalgono ad Secondo i paleoantropologi, se, come è probabile, i membri appena 1,8 milioni di anni e sono quindi relativamente recenti. della specie A. ramidus deambulavano in posizione eretta, avran- Una scoperta non meno importante è quella compiuta no anche potuto fare uso di semplici utensili, poiché non doveva- ad Aramis, nell’area di Afar, 72 km a sud di Hadar, nel dicem- no più appoggiarsi sulle nocche. Probabilmente, l’utilizzo di tali bre 1992. I lavori furono portati avanti da un équipe compo- utensili avrà poi permesso loro di sviluppare un cervello di mag- sta da paleoantropologi americani, giapponesi ed etiopici, giori dimensioni. Deambulare sugli arti inferiori avrà dato loro guidata dal professor Timothy White, dell’Università della un vantaggio rispetto ai loro predecessori, grazie alla capacità di California a Berkeley, dal dottor Gen Suwa dell’Università di tenere in braccio la prole e trasportare con sé il cibo. Gli scien- Tokyo e dal dottor Berhane Asfaw, del laboratorio governativo ziati ipotizzano che questi antichi ominidi probabilmente dor- di Paleoantropologia ad Addis Abeba. Scavando uno strato sedi- missero ancora sugli alberi per essere più sicuri, mentre durante 8 . etiopi preistoria E G eogra f ia . 9 il giorno erano altrettanto a loro agio al suolo. Si ritiene che il del bestiame, altre l’impiego di archi e frecce, di lance e scudi. Gli loro habitat fosse una pianura densamente alberata, abitata da animali dipinti comprendono bovini con e senza gobba, oltre a scimmie, felini dai denti a sciabola, antilopi, iene, facoceri, orsi, capre, elefanti e leoni. pipistrelli e varie specie di roditori. Inoltre, sebbene i membri di La ricerca archeologica sulle prime testimonianze di coltu- quelle specie fossero prevalentemente vegetariani, si pensa che a re agricole in Etiopia è ancora agli inizi. Alcuni autori hanno volte si cibassero della carne abbandonata dai predatori e che si affermato che le graminacee coltivate, compresi il sorgo e il teff radunassero in gruppi per cacciare piccoli animali. Tuttavia, pur (Eragrostis tef), sono originarie dell’Etiopia mentre altri partono deambulando in posizione eretta come gli esseri umani, le loro dal presupposto che siano state importate principalmente dal capacità psichiche potrebbero essere state più simili a quelle di Medio Oriente. Desmond Clark ha avanzato l’ipotesi che il grano altre
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