Red River Basin Water Conservation for Residential, Municipal, Commercial, and Industrial Needs

March 2010

Prepared for: The Red River Basin Commission

Prepared By:

701 Xenia Ave South Suite 600 Minneapolis, MN 55416-3636 HDR Project Number: 0164-116743

This report was prepared as a result of work sponsored, paid for, in whole or in part by the Red River Basin Commission and its funding partners.

The authors thank the members of the Red River Basin Commission Water Supply Working Group for constructive comments and guidance in developing this document. These members include:

Member Organization1

Bruce Grubb City of Fargo

Hazel Sletten City of Grand Forks

Cliff McLain City of Moorhead

Duane Griffin City of Winnipeg

Bob Harrison Manitoba Water Stewardship

Abul Kashem Manitoba Water Stewardship

Bob Bezek Minnesota Department of Natural Resources

Bob White North Dakota State Water Commission

Gordon Martel Pembina Valley Water Cooperative

1 Contributions of the respective Working Group Member does not constitute acceptance of this document by the sponsoring organization.

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Table of Contents Executive Summary ...... 1 1. Purpose and Scope ...... 11 2. Basin Characteristics ...... 14 2.1. Sources of Water ...... 17 2.2. Demographics ...... 20 2.2.1. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative (MB) ...... 22 2.2.2. City of Selkirk (MB) ...... 23 2.2.3. City of Breckenridge (MN) ...... 23 2.2.4. City of Crookston (MN) ...... 25 2.2.5. City of Detroit Lakes (MN) ...... 27 2.2.6. City of East Grand Forks (MN) ...... 29 2.2.7. City of Fergus Falls (MN) ...... 31 2.2.8. City of Moorhead (MN) ...... 33 2.2.9. City of Pelican Rapids (MN) ...... 35 2.2.10. City of Perham (MN) ...... 37 2.2.11. City of Thief River Falls (MN) ...... 39 2.2.12. City of Fargo (ND) ...... 41 2.2.13. City of Grand Forks (ND) ...... 43 2.2.14. City of Harvey (ND)...... 45 2.2.15. City of Valley City (ND) ...... 47 2.2.16. City of West Fargo (ND) ...... 49 2.3. Summary of Census Information ...... 51 3. Analysis of Historical and Projected Water Demand ...... 54 3.1. Historical Water Use ...... 54 3.1.1. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative Water Use (MB) ...... 55 3.1.2. City of Selkirk Water Use (MB) ...... 56 3.1.3. City of Breckenridge (MN) ...... 57 3.1.4. City of Crookston (MB) ...... 58 3.1.5. City of Detroit Lakes (MN) ...... 59

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List of Figures Figure 1. Red River of the North Basin ...... 12 Figure 2. Water Planning Approaches ...... 13 Figure 3. Public Water Supply Permits and Reported Historic Use by Watershed ...... 15 Figure 4. Locations of Representative Communities ...... 16 Figure 5. Red River Basin Map ...... 18 Figure 6. Sources of Water for Public Water Supplies in the Red River Valley ...... 19 Figure 7. PVWC Population Census ...... 22 Figure 8. City of Selkirk Population Census ...... 23 Figure 9. City of Breckenridge Population Census and Projections ...... 24 Figure 10. City of Crookston Population Census and Projections ...... 26 Figure 11. City of Detroit Lakes Population Census and Projections ...... 28 Figure 12. City of East Grand Forks Population Census and Projections ...... 30 Figure 13. City of Fergus Falls Population Census and Projections...... 32 Figure 14. City of Moorhead Population Census and Projections ...... 34 Figure 15. City of Pelican Rapids Population Census and Projections ...... 36 Figure 16. City of Perham Population Census and Projections ...... 38 Figure 17. City of Thief River Falls Population Census and Projections ...... 40 Figure 18. City of Fargo Population Census and Projections ...... 42 Figure 19. City of Grand Forks Population Census and Projections ...... 44 Figure 20. City of Harvey Population Census and Projections ...... 46 Figure 21. City of Valley City Population Census and Projections ...... 48 Figure 22. City of West Fargo Population Census and Projections ...... 50 Figure 23. Combined Census Populations ...... 51 Figure 24. Census of Businesses from U.S. Representative Communities ...... 52 Figure 25. Annual Growth of Businesses from U.S. Representative Communities ...... 53 Figure 26. Annual Payroll of U.S. Representative Communities ...... 53 Figure 27. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative Per Capita Water Use ...... 55 Figure 28. City of Selkirk Per Capita Water Use ...... 56 Figure 29. City of Breckenridge Per Capita Water Use ...... 57 Figure 30. City of Crookston Per Capita Water Use ...... 58 Figure 31. City of Detroit Lakes Per Capita Water Use ...... 59 Figure 32. City of East Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use ...... 60 Figure 33. City of Fergus Falls Per Capita Water Use ...... 61 Figure 34. City of Moorhead Per Capita Water Use...... 62 Figure 35. City of Pelican Rapids Per Capita Water Use ...... 63 Figure 36. City of Perham Per Capita Water Use ...... 64 Figure 37. City of Thief River Falls Per Capita Water Use ...... 65 Figure 38. City of Fargo Per Capita Water Use ...... 66 Figure 39. City of Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use ...... 67

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List of Tables

Table 1. Reservoirs in the Red River Basin ...... 19 Table 2. Lake Ashtabula Storage Accounts ...... 20 Table 3. Business Type Categories and Associated North American Industrial Classification Codes ...... 21 Table 4. PVWC Communities Residential Homes Census ...... 22 Table 5. City of Selkirk Residential Homes Census...... 23 Table 6. City of Breckenridge Business Census ...... 25 Table 7. City of Breckenridge Residential Homes Census ...... 25 Table 8. City of Crookston Business Census ...... 27 Table 9. City of Crookston Residential Homes Census ...... 27 Table 10. City of Detroit Lakes Business Census ...... 28 Table 11. City of Detroit Lakes Residential Homes Census ...... 29 Table 12. City of East Grand Forks Business Census ...... 30 Table 13. City of East Grand Forks Residential Homes Census ...... 31 Table 14. City of Fergus Falls Business Census...... 32 Table 15. City of Fergus Falls Residential Homes Census ...... 33 Table 16. City of Moorhead Business Census ...... 34 Table 17. City of Moorhead Residential Homes Census ...... 35 Table 18. City of Pelican Rapids Business Census ...... 36 Table 19. City of Pelican Rapids Residential Homes Census ...... 37 Table 20. City of Perham Business Census ...... 38 Table 21. City of Perham Residential Homes Census...... 39 Table 22. City of Thief River Falls Business Census ...... 40 Table 23. City of Thief River Falls Residential Homes Census ...... 41 Table 24. City of Fargo Business Census ...... 42 Table 25. City of Fargo Residential Homes Census ...... 43 Table 26. City of Grand Forks Business Census ...... 44 Table 27. City of Grand Forks Residential Homes Census ...... 45 Table 28. City of Harvey Business Census ...... 46 Table 29. City of Harvey Residential Homes Census ...... 47 Table 30. City of Valley City Business Census ...... 48 Table 31. City of Valley City Residential Homes Census ...... 49 Table 32. City of West Fargo Business Census ...... 50 Table 33. City of West Fargo Residential Homes Census ...... 51 Table 34. Estimated Peak Annual and Month Water Use for Droughts 1931 to 2007 ...... 74 Table 35. Historic Winter and Peak Summer Month Water Use ...... 74 Table 36. Conservation Approaches for Residential Indoor Water Uses ...... 79 Table 37. Estimates of Current Adoption of Residential Indoor Water Conservation...... 80 Table 38. Adjusted Potential Future Conservation for Residential Indoor Water Use ...... 80

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Acronyms and Short Forms

AWWA American Water Works Association C/I/I Commercial, Institutional, and light Industrial CIP Capital Improvement Program CWWA Canadian Water and Wastewater Association DCMI Domestic, Commercial, Municipal, and Industrial water use ET Evapotranspiration FAO Food and Agricultural Organization gcd U.S. gallons per capita per day ged U.S. gallons per employee per day HUD U.S. Housing and Urban Development IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (U.S. Green Building Council and Canada Green Building Council) lcd Litres per capita per day led Litres per employee per day MB Province of Manitoba MN State of Minnesota MnDNR Minnesota Department of Natural Resources NAICS North American Industry Classification System NCDC National (U.S.) Climatic Data Center ND State of North Dakota ND SWC North Dakota State Water Commission NEA Northwest Economic Associates NOAA National (U.S.) Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NWS National (U.S.) Weather Service PVWC Pembina Valley Water Cooperative RM Rural Municipality (Manitoba) RRB Red River Basin of the North RRBC Red River Basin Commission RRVWSP EIS Red River Valley Water Supply Project Environmental Impact Statement (Final) SD State of South Dakota UARL Unavoidable Annual Real Losses USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation USDA United States Department of Agriculture USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USGS United States Geological Survey

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Units

To convert from Multiply by To obtain Feet (ft) 0.3048 Metres (m) Miles (mi) 1.6093 Kilometres (km) Inches (in) 25.4 Millimetres (mm) Square Miles (mi2) 2.59 Square Kilometres (km2) Acres (ac) 0.40469 Hectares (ha) Acre-feet (ac-ft) 1.2335 Megalitres (ML) Cubic Feet per Second (cfs) 0.028317 Cubic Metres per Second (cms) Cubic Feet per Second (cfs) 1.9835 Acre-feet per day (acft/day) U.S. Gallons (gal) 3.7854 Litres (L) U.S. Gallons (gal) 1.2 Imperial Gallons2

2 Unless otherwise indicated, all units of “gallons” in this report refer to U.S. gallons.

The Red River of the North (“Red River”) Basin is approximately 48,000 square miles (124,000 km2) in size and includes the U.S. states of South Dakota, North Dakota, and Minnesota and the Canadian province of Manitoba. The Red River forms the boundary between Minnesota and North Dakota; roughly 20,000 mi2 (52,000 km2) of the basin is in North Dakota and 17,000 mi2 (44,000 km2) is in Minnesota. The basin is approximately 10,000 mi2 (30,000 km2) in Manitoba. The South Dakota portion of the basin is roughly 600 mi2 (1,500 km2). Figure ES-1 shows a map of the basin.

Various water supply studies have indicated that water demand may equal or exceed supply in significant portions of the basin during drought conditions (MN DNR, 1987; IISD, 2005; USBR, 2007). This document discusses water conservation approaches and the potential to reduce demand for water as a means to improve the basin’s resiliency and mitigate the impacts of drought. Wolff and Gleick (2002) proposed a “soft path” approach for water conservation. With soft path, water conservation involves supplying the same or comparable services with reduced water use. Inclusion of economic, social, and ecological sustainability in water planning is a critical component. This includes maintaining existing and future business vitality of a community, ensuring that all community residents have access to water, and important habitat needs are met. The goal of this report is to identify water conservation approaches that have the goal of maintaining the same level of residential and business services with reduced water use. While several communities are evaluated as representative of the basin, the report is not intended as a water conservation plan for any given community.

Population and Business Profiles

Sixteen representative communities in the Red River basin were evaluated for water conservation potential. Two of these communities are located in Manitoba, and includes a water cooperative composed of multiple municipalities; nine communities were located in Minnesota and five communities in North Dakota. Table ES-1 shows the current census population of representative communities and historic rates of population growth. In some communities, extended population projections to the year 2050 were available. The populations of some communities have been declining, although the combined population has been increasing.

Business census information was collected from the U.S. Census Bureau for U.S. communities. Figure ES- 2 shows the types of businesses and Figure ES-3 shows the historic rates of growth of these businesses. Sales, services, and health care-social services made up the majority of businesses in the representative communities. Overall, health care and social services had the highest growth rates followed by service- related businesses. Sales-related businesses were mostly unchanged over the past ten years. The overall growth of businesses follows population growth patterns. Communities with declining population generally have declining number of businesses. However, it was not uncommon to have increases in health care and social service businesses even when population has decreased.

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Note: This figure was originally produced in color. Reproduction in monochrome may result in loss of information. Figure ES-1. Map of the Red River Basin

Location Most Recent Census Historic Rate of Projected Population Population Population in Year Growth/Decline 2050 (if available) [% per year] PVWC (MB) 36,465 +0.7% Not Available Selkirk (MB) 9,515 -0.2% Not Available Breckenridge (MN) 3,559 -0.4% 2,540 to 3,600 Crookston (MN) 8,192 +0.1% 6,840 to 8,460 Detroit Lakes (MN) 7,558 +0.3% Not Available East Grand Forks (MN) 7,501 -1.4% 7,470 to 9,800 Fergus Falls (MN) 13,471 +0.6% 12,040 to 23,140 Moorhead (MN) 35,178 +0.02% 37,394 and 50,245 Pelican Rapids (MN) 2,374 +2.3% 2,120 to 4,080 Perham (MN) 2,559 +1.6% 2,290 to 4,400 Thief River Falls (MN) 8,410 +0.3% Not Available Fargo (ND) 90,599 +2.0% 106,390 to 204,300 Grand Forks (ND) 49,321 -0.04% 60,000 to 83,800 Harvey (ND) 1,989 -1.2% Not Available Valley City (ND) 6,826 -0.5% 5,220 to 6,500 West Fargo (ND) 14,940 +1.9% 17,340 to 33,900 Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000. Statistics Canada, 2006. USBR, 2007. Notes: Historic rate of population growth is calculated between respective national census years (1990 and 2000 for the U.S. and 1991 and 2006 for Canada). Moorhead service population includes the town of Dilworth and Oakport Township. Most recent Moorhead service population estimate was 41,089 (U.S. Census, 2009 and Cliff McLain, 2010). USBR population projections adjusted proportionally for Dilworth and Oakport populations.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

Figure ES-3. Annual Growth of Businesses from Representative Communities

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1998 to 2007.

Water use was collected for each representative community. Information was generally collected from 1990 to 2007, although the availability of data varied over the basin. Winter water use, defined here as the months of November to March, tends to show indoor residential water use and non-agricultural business and industries. Water use typically peaks in summer months, defined here as the months of April to October. This increased use is associated with outdoor landscape irrigation and agricultural businesses.

Water use during winter months range from 62 U.S. gallons per person per day (gcd) (232 litres per person per day, lcd) in Manitoba to approximately 130 to 150 U.S. gcd (491 to 574 lcd) in the Minnesota- North Dakota metropolitan areas. Some rural communities reported higher uses. In some communities (for example Manitoba), summer water use is not particularly different from winter use. Other communities have distinctive summer use which is indicative of irrigation activities. Table ES-2 summarizes the water use.

Drought can have a significant impact on water use, with drier years having higher water needs. Using climate data from 1931 to 2007, the potential impacts of past drought events were examined. Maximum peak summer month water use was estimated from past droughts and range from approximately 80 to 260 U.S. gcd (310 to 976 lcd). Table ES-3 projects potential water use in past droughts.

Table ES-2. Historic Winter and Peak Summer Month Water Use

Location Winter Use Summer Use U.S. gcd (lcd) (Peak Month) U.S. gcd (lcd) PVWC 62 (232) 50 - 79 (188 - 299) Selkirk 79 (299) 82 – 106 (310 - 401) Breckenridge 73 (278) 105 - 156 (398 - 592) East Grand Forks 130 (491) 162 - 261 (612 - 986) Moorhead 124 (469) 136 - 229 (514 - 867) Fargo 99 (374) 137 - 275 (519 - 1,039) Grand Forks Residential 31 (118) 51 - 117 (194 - 443) Commercial and Institutional 52 (195) 58 - 90 (220 - 341) Air Force Base 6 (23) 10 - 24 (38 - 91) Industrial 35 - 48 (134 - 181) Unaccounted/unmetered 8 - 15 (29 - 58) Total 152 (574) 155 - 258 (589 - 976) Valley City 91 (343) 125 - 238 (472 - 902) West Fargo 79 (298) 105 - 213 (399 - 808)

Location Peak Estimated Annual Use Peak Estimated Monthly Use U.S. gcd (lcd) Year(s) U.S. gcd (lcd) Date PVWC (MB) 65 (246) 1936, 1952, 75 (283) August 1961 1988, 2006 Selkirk (MB) 91 (344) 2006 104 (393) August 1961 Breckenridge 88 (333) 1934, 1970, 134 (507) August 1993 (MN) 1976, 1980 East Grand Forks 173 (655) 1976 261(988) July 1936 (MN) Moorhead (MN) 147 (556) 1980 195 (738) May 1980 Fargo (ND) 150 (568) 1976 244 (924) August 1976 Grand Forks (ND) 176 (666) 1976 222 (840) July 1936 Valley City (ND) 118 (447) 1952 174 (659) July 1936 West Fargo (ND) 120 (454) 1976 194 (734) August 1976

Water Conservation Approaches

Common water conservation approaches and typical water savings for residential indoor and outdoor, commercial, industrial, and institutional uses were examined. For residential conservation, the application of low flow fixtures and appliances, leak and energy loss prevention was examined. Outdoor lawn irrigation included the planting of drought-resistant plants (xeriscaping), the use of efficient irrigation methods, and rainwater harvesting. In the U.S., certain low-flow fixtures and appliances have been mandated in new spaces since 1994. Manitoba has been consulting with stakeholders in adapting provincial plumbing code to include water efficient residential fixtures.

WaterSmart Manitoba is a provincial water conservation initiative to help Manitobans reduce water use today and for future generations. This initiative is designed to make the people aware of how they consume water and educate people about ways to cut back the consumption and fixing leaks on the water supply system for conserving water. The initiative’s first focus is on programming for single family residential households and in time will provide programs for other water use sectors such as agriculture, municipal and commercial. WaterSmart residential program encompassed four components: (i) public awareness and education; (ii) incentives for the purchase of low-flow toilets; (iii) consultation and regulation development on the prohibition of the sale of high-consumption water fixtures; (iv) targeted assistance for lower-income, single-family households. The residential program currently saves/conserves about 273 million litres of water annually in Manitoba.

Water conservation potential for commercial and industrial water use can vary from business to business. Often business water needs and processes can be unique, requiring detailed conservation review that fits business plans. Based on literature information, the typical potential for business conservation ranges from 16% to 30% savings depending on the type of business.

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Potential water savings were evaluated for several conservation approaches. If full community participation3 in a water conservation program is considered, residential outdoor conservation has the greatest potential. On average, the use of drought resistant landscape vegetation and efficient irrigation could result in a 20 U.S. gcd (76 lcd) savings in summer use. Commercial and industrial conservation could result in an average of 11 U.S. gcd (42 lcd) savings. Residential indoor conservation from adopting low-flow fixtures, appliances and leak and energy loss prevention could result in a 9 U.S. gcd (34 lcd) savings. Finally, in communities having more than a 9% unmetered or unaccounted loss, a 5 U.S. gcd (19 lcd) savings could be provided assuming these are real losses.

A conservation program might not have full participation in a community. When partial participation4 in a water conservation program is assumed, residential outdoor potential savings is significantly less. The higher cost and presumed limited adoption of drought resistant landscaping might result in a 2 U.S. gcd (8 lcd) savings. Residential indoor conservation under partial participation is similar to full participation, with an estimated 8 U.S. gcd (30 lcd) savings. Commercial and industrial savings were estimated at an average of 7 U.S. gcd (26 lcd). Full participation in unaccounted and unmetered loss reduction was still assumed.

Figure ES-3 shows the potential conservation savings, assuming full and partial conservation program participation.

3 Full community participation is defined as every home and business adopting all described conservation measures

4 For this report, partial community participation is defined as: a maximum adoption of residential indoor low-flow fixtures and appliances of 90%; Insulation of hot water pipes and reduction of consumer leaks at a maximum adoption rate of 90%; 10% of homes adopt xeriscaping and other irrigation conservation measures; approximately 60% of businesses participate in detailed water audits and associated conservation efforts. The reduction of unmetered and unaccounted losses is not assumed to be impacted by a reduced participation as these activities are routine maintenance or part of Capital Improvement Programs (CIPs).

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Figure ES-4. Estimated Water Conservation Potential Assuming Full (top) and Partial (bottom) Conservation Program Participation

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The following recommendations are suggested to promote and enhance regional water conservation in the Red River basin:

1. Education, awareness, incentives and regulations for water conservation are essential and should be considered for basin communities.

2. For outdoor water conservation, full community participation is recommended. An outdoor conservation program may include adopting Xeriscaping (planting drought tolerant plants), drip irrigation, rain water harvesting, and water use scheduling. These have the largest potential for water savings but are assumed to be the most difficult to implement.

3. A review is suggested to determine the role that existing conservation, water laws and policies, drought and other water use ordinances, water rates, or private groundwater use may have. The current community outdoor watering restrictions, particularly those contained in emergency drought management ordinances, should be reviewed and adapted when needed for improved effectiveness.

4. For indoor water conservation programs, full community participation is recommended. The most effective conservation such as low-flow fixtures and appliances and other measures, such as retrofit on resale, should be promoted to provide gradual indoor water conservation improvements.

5. Further review is recommended of existing business, agricultural, and other water conservation plans. Potential conservation approaches, such as use of reclaimed non-potable water (known as “grey” or “gray” water systems), should also be reviewed. Business planning strategies that provide sustainable employment for communities, particularly those with declining population, should be a component of water conservation planning programs. Key emerging business sectors for the basin, in particular health care and social services, should be a key part of commercial and industrial water conservation planning.

6. Programs to reduce actual losses in water distribution systems should be supported. Detailed loss analysis can be undertaken to develop target loss rates and refine estimates of real losses in distribution systems. Communities with declining populations may have higher unaccounted/unmetered losses due to reductions in water system funding, although further research is required to establish this linkage. This may indicate a need for additional financial or government assistance to maintain and improve distribution systems for communities facing declining water sales.

7. A Pilot study for outdoor water conservation should be considered in the Red River Basin, based on Fargo’s experience, to determine any value and benefit based on existing summer water use.

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9. Further conservation can be achieved through proper valuation of the real cost of water supply and appropriate “Water Pricing” policies, with consideration of economic impacts to customers.

Red River Basin Water Conservation for Residential, Municipal, Commercial, and Industrial Needs - March 2010 pw://PWAPPOMA001:NorthCentral_Omaha/Documents/D{df463e3c-4c29-4a9e-80a0-30fe98954a5f} 10 1. Purpose and Scope The Red River of the North (“Red River”) Basin is approximately 48,000 square miles5 (124,000 km2) and includes the U.S. states of South Dakota, North Dakota, and Minnesota and the Canadian province of Manitoba. The Red River forms the boundary between Minnesota and North Dakota; roughly 20,000 mi2 (52,000 km2) of the basin is in North Dakota and 17,000 mi2 (44,000 km2) is in Minnesota. The basin is approximately 10,000 mi2 (30,000 km2) in Manitoba. The South Dakota portion of the basin is roughly 600 mi2 (1,500 km2). Figure 1 shows a map of the basin.

Responding and preparing for drought can take many forms, including increasing water supplies, reducing water needs by conserving water, and mitigating drought impacts. The Red River Valley Water Supply Project (USBR, 2007) examined the potential of increasing water supply along with select municipal water conservation. The development of additional water supplies, as with the Red River Valley Water Supply Project, may not be possible in the short term. During this time, the risk of drought and hazards from associated impacts will remain and possibly increase as basin population and water needs change.

This document discusses water conservation approaches and the potential to reduce demand for water as a means to improve the basin’s resiliency and mitigate the impacts of drought. Water conservation has in the past been framed in terms of demand management: approaches to reduce demand rather than increase supply. Wolff and Gleick (2002) noted that often demand management was approached through economic means. The benefit obtained through certain water use was weighed against the cost of providing this water. In traditional demand management approaches, certain water uses may be priced above the benefit obtained to reduce water use.

Wolff and Gleick proposed a “soft path” approach for water conservation as an alternative. Figure 2 contrasts the differences between the soft path approach and traditional supply planning or demand management. Supply planning projects future demand needs and compares this with existing and future water supplies. As demands exceed existing supplies, future supplies are scheduled to become part of the water distribution system. Demand management focuses on economic measures that provide incentives to conserve water with improved efficiency or water pricing. With soft path, water conservation examines how the same or comparable services can be provided with reduced water use. The role of water planning on economic, social, and ecological sustainability is a critical component. This includes maintaining existing and future business vitality of a community, ensuring that all community residents have access to water, and important habitat needs are met. The concepts behind soft path of water conservation are paralleled in guidelines described by the American Water Works Association (AWWA, 2006) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1998).

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Note: This figure was originally produced in color. Reproduction in monochrome may result in loss of information.

Figure 1. Red River of the North Basin

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Source: Brandes and Brooks, August 2007 Figure 2. Water Planning Approaches

This report discusses the current state of water use from representative public water supplies in the Red River basin. Water conservation approaches that have the goal of maintaining the same level of residential and business services with reduced water use are discussed. While several communities are evaluated as representative of the basin, the report is not intended as a water conservation plan for any given community.

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2. Basin Characteristics Sixteen representative public water supplies were selected for water conservation evaluation. These public supplies are located over three jurisdictions of Manitoba, Minnesota, and North Dakota. The selection of these representative communities was based on the watersheds with the highest permitted and reported domestic, commercial, municipal, and industrial water uses. The City of Winnipeg was not included in this study as its water supply is obtained from Shoal Lake. Figure 3 shows the watersheds with the highest permitted public water supply use in the basin. Figure 4 provides a map showing the location of the selected representative communities, which are:

Manitoba o Pembina Valley Water Cooperative6 o City of Selkirk Minnesota o City of Breckenridge o City of Crookston o City of Detroit Lakes o City of East Grand Forks o City of Fergus Falls o City of Moorhead, including Dilworth and Oakport Township o City of Pelican Rapids o City of Perham o City of Thief River Falls North Dakota o City of Fargo o City of Grand Forks, including the Grand Forks Air Force Base o City of Harvey o City of Valley City o City of West Fargo

This section describes the characteristics of the population, housing, and business character of each representative community.

6 The Pembina Valley Water Cooperative (PVWC) is a water cooperative which supplies water to 18 member municipalities and one First Nation. Member municipalities are: the city of Altona; portions of the city of Carman; the Rural Municipality (RM) of Dufferin; the city of Emerson; RM Franklin; the city of Gretna; RM Grey; RM Montcalm; portions of the city of Morden; RM Morris; the city of Morris; the city of Plum Coulee; RM Rhineland; RM Roland; the city of St. Claude; RM Stanley; RM Thompson; and portions of the city of Winkler. The First Nation of Roseau River, although not a formal member, receives water supply from the cooperative.

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Sources: Manitoba Water Stewardship Water Licensing; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Waters Water Permits; North Dakota State Water Commission Notes: Reported and licensed use includes both surface and groundwater water sources. Average reported use is available data from 1988 to 2006. Reported historic use is from North Dakota State Water Commission and Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. No reported historic use data is available for Manitoba or South Dakota. This figure was originally produced in color. Reproduction in monochrome may result in loss of information.

Figure 3. Public Water Supply Permits and Reported Historic Use by Watershed

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Note: This figure was originally produced in color. Reproduction in monochrome may result in loss of information. Figure 4. Locations of Representative Communities

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The proportion of water that public water supplies obtain from surface and ground waters is provided in Figure 6. While South Dakota has the lowest amounts of public water supply, it has the highest proportion of water supply from groundwater at approximately 90% of total permits. Minnesota has the second highest proportional use of groundwater at 60% of the total permits. As of January 2010, approximately 75% of all municipal projects in the Manitoba portion of the Red River Basin are sourced from groundwater. However, these projects tend to be smaller in nature than their surface water counterparts and represent approximately 50% by volume of water allocated (about 10, 000 dam3 or 8,100 acre-feet).About 63% of the surface water volume allocated in the Manitoba portion of the basin (6,300 dam3 or 5,100 acre-feet) is from the main stem of the Red River between the US border and Winnipeg. Selkirk uses groundwater exclusively as a supply. PVWC has three surface water treatment plants: one at Stephenfield Reservoir and two on the Red River.

Surface water is used for approximately 90% of North Dakota public water permits. In addition to the naturally occurring flow in various rivers, storage reservoirs are also used to supplement supply. Regulated reservoirs or lakes in the basin include Lake Traverse in the Bois de Sioux watershed, Lake Ashtabula in the Sheyenne River watershed, Lake Orwell in the Otter Tail River watershed, and the Upper and Lower Red Lakes in the Red Lake River watershed. These reservoirs serve multiple purposes, including habitat, water supply, flood control, water quality enhancement, recreation, and tribal water rights. A reservoir is currently being constructed near Morris, Manitoba for supplemental water supply for the PVWC. Table 1 lists the conservation, flood control, and total storage for reservoirs in the basin.

A portion of reservoir storage is reserved for water supply. This portion is called the conservation pool and may be permitted to specific parties. To fill the conservation pool, a water right or permit is needed from the respective jurisdiction the reservoir is located in. This permit can include information such as priority of water use, the rate of water withdrawal, and the total annual amount of water that may be stored. A storage permit might also specify the months of the year water can be accumulated.

When supplemental water is needed, a permit holder will make a call for water to the respective dam operator. Storage flows resulting from storage releases are considered separately from stream flows generated from natural runoff. Stream flows attributed to natural runoff are distributed to all permit holders on the basis of their priority to the water. Stream flows attributed to a storage account release are legally protected up to the respective account holder’s point of diversion. Once storage water is used, the return flows are considered part of the natural runoff and distributed downstream to all permit holders.

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Note: This figure was originally produced in color. Reproduction in monochrome may result in loss of information. Figure 5. Red River Basin Map

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Sources: Manitoba Water Stewardship Water Licensing; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Waters Water Permits; North Dakota State Water Commission

Figure 6. Sources of Water for Public Water Supplies in the Red River Valley

Table 1. Reservoirs in the Red River Basin

Reservoir Conservation Storage Flood Control Storage Total Storage [acre-feet] [acre-feet] [acre-feet] Lake Traverse Primarily used for flood control 179,967

Lake Ashtabula 70,600 30,700 157,500

Lake Orwell 8,300 5,700 14,000

Upper and Lower Red Limited release to no n/a 2,443,157 Lakes more than 50,000 ac-ft/yr

Homme n/a n/a 3,905

Maple River n/a 60,000 60,000

Morris 286 million imperial n/a 1,056 gallons (1,056 ac-ft)

Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Available on-line at: http://www.mvp.usace.army.mil/. Moore Engineering, "Taming the Lower Sheyenne River", Minnesota Water Resources Conference, 2008. Altona Echo, September 2008.Gordon Martel, personal communication, February 8, 2010.

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Additional information on basin reservoirs and operational policies are described in the Red River Basin Commission report “Red River Basin Immediate Drought Response Process” (RRBC, 2009).

Table 2. Lake Ashtabula Storage Accounts

Ashtabula Permit Holder Permitted Amount [acre-feet] Fargo 35,880 Grand Forks 20,023 Valley City 6,686 West Fargo 954 Lisbon 373 Total 63,916 Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2007

2.2. Demographics Population information was obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau and Statistics Canada. The U.S. census is taken every ten years at the start of each decade. For this report, the 1990 and 2000 census data was compiled. For some metropolitan areas the U.S. Census Bureau provides population and other estimates in between census surveys. The Canada census is taken every five years, starting with the first year of each decade. For this report, census data from 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006 was compiled.

Each census bureau also collects additional information of interest in water conservation planning. The number and age of homes in each community can be an indicator as to the level of existing water conservation measures, as modern homes are more likely to have implemented some level of conservation. Business census data was also compiled. Both the U.S. and Canada compile business census data using the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) standard7. Businesses are classified using a numerical code. For example, businesses related to health care are given a base code of 62. The number of businesses in various categories, shown in Table 3, was compiled. U.S. business census data was collected from 1998 to 2007. Canadian business census data is available for purchase and was not collected for this report.

7 See http://www.census.gov/eos/www/naics/ for NAICS information.

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Table 3. Business Type Categories and Associated North American Industrial Classification Codes

Business Type NAICS Categories (NAICS Code Number) Accommodations and Food Service Accommodation and Food Services (72) Educational Institutions and Information Educational Services (61) Technology Information (51) Government Public Administration (92) Health Care and Social Services Health Care and Social Assistance (62) Meeting and Recreational Facilities Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation (71) Sales Retail Trade (44, 45) Wholesale Trade (42) Management of Companies and Enterprises (55) Real Estate and Rental and Leasing (53) Services Administrative and Support and Waste Management and Remediation Services (56) Finance and Insurance (52) Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services (54) Transportation and Fuels Transportation and Warehousing (48, 49)

Various sources of future population projections are available. These projections may use cohort- component modeling and estimates of migration8. Cohort-component modeling estimates the number of births and deaths that are statistically expected to occur with the existing population over a number of years. A generally younger population may naturally grow as birth rates exceed death rates, while an older population may decline. Migration of people from outside the area or away from a community is another component of population forecasting. Various assumptions may be made on migration trends. The U.S. Census Bureau provides estimates of population changes between census surveys. For the Red River Valley Water Supply Project Environmental Impact Statement (RRVWSP EIS), the Bureau of Reclamation (USBR or “Reclamation”) and Northwest Economics Associates (NEA) provided several population forecasts scenarios to the year 2050 for select communities and counties.

8 See http://www.census.gov/population/www/projections/cohortcomponentmethod.html for additional information on population projections.

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2.2.1. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative (MB) The combined population served by Pembina Valley Water Cooperative (PVWC or “Cooperative”) is shown in Figure 7. The insert of this Figure shows the most recent Census population for each of the 18 towns and rural municipalities which are members of PVWC. The Roseau River First Nation also receives water supply from PVWC. Overall the combined population has increased from 32,815 to 36,465 people from 1991 to 2006 Censuses, for an average growth rate of 0.7% per year. Table 4 shows the age of homes.

The towns of Morden, Carman, and Winkler also maintain separate treatment facilities in addition to supply received through PVWC. Approximately 20% of Morden's supply is from PVWC, 25% of the Carmen supply, and 35% of Winkler's supply (Martell, 2009). The population for these towns have been proportionally adjusted to reflect the extent of the Cooperative's deliveries.

Notes: Member Service Populations (2006): RM Stanley : 6,367; RM Rhineland : 4,125; Altona :3,709; Winkler * : 3,187; RM Morris : 2,662 ;RM Dufferin : 2,199; RM Grey : 2,004; RM Franklin : 1,768; Morris : 1,643; RM Montcalm : 1,317; Morden * : 1,314; RM Thompson : 1,259; RM Roland : 1,002; Plum Coulee : 770; Carman * : 720; Emerson : 689; St. Claude : 588; Gretna : 574; Roseau River : 568

Figure 7. PVWC Population Census

Table 4. PVWC Communities Residential Homes Census

Age of Home Number of Homes (%) Constructed before 1986 9,237 (76%) Constructed between 1986 and 2006 2,935 (24%) Total 12,172 Source: Census of Canada, 1996

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2.2.2. City of Selkirk (MB) The City of Selkirk is located approximately 25 kilometres northeast from Winnipeg. Population has decreased by approximately 0.2% per year, from 9,815 people in 1991 to 9,515 in 2006 (Figure 8). Most homes were constructed prior to 1986, as shown in Table 5.

Figure 8. City of Selkirk Population Census

Table 5. City of Selkirk Residential Homes Census

Age of Home Number of Homes (%) Constructed before 1986 3,245 (85%) Constructed between 1986 and 2006 590 (15%) Total 3,835 Source: Census of Canada, 1996

2.2.3. City of Breckenridge (MN) The City of Breckenridge is located in the Otter Tail River watershed, across the Red River from Wahpeton, ND. Census and population projections are provided in Figure 9. Population declined from 3,721 people in the 1990 census to 3,559 in the 2000 census. Future population projections generally show a continuing decline (-0.4% per year). The Census Bureau and Reclamation projections have the most decline, with the Reclamation 2050 estimate of 2,540 people. The NEA population estimates have a stable to increasing population.

Services, sales, health care, and social services compose the majority of businesses. Sales-related firms compose 26% of total firms and services and health care each are 16% of all businesses. Accommodations and food service businesses make up 11% of the total. Overall, the total number of businesses has been mostly unchanging with a 0.2% annual growth. Of the primary types of businesses, health care and social service businesses have been increasing by 7.4% per year while the number of sales-related businesses have been decreasing by 1.2% per year and service-related businesses declined by 0.5% per year.

The census of age of residential homes is provided in Table 7. Of the 1,581 homes at the year 2000 census, approximately 10% of homes were built after 1994. The median age of homes were constructed in the 1960s.

Figure 9. City of Breckenridge Population Census and Projections

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Table 6. City of Breckenridge Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 14 11% 1.9% 16 Service Educational Institutions and 2 2% 11.1% 9 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 20 16% 7.4% 28 Meeting and Recreational 3 2% -5.6% 3 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 33 26% -1.2% 14 Services 21 16% -0.5% 31 Transportation and Fuels 4 3% 3.7% 3 Other 31 24% -0.7% 7 Total 128 100% 0.2% 17 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Table 7. City of Breckenridge Residential Homes Census

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 42 3% 1995 to 1998 123 10% 1990 to 1994 68 15% 1980 to 1989 118 22% 1970 to 1979 259 39% 1960 to 1969 205 52% 1940 to 1959 433 79% 1939 or earlier 333 100% Total 1,581 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.4. City of Crookston (MN) The population of Crookston has been relatively stable at 8,192 people as of the year 2000 Census (Figure 10). NEA and Reclamation population projections forecasts for Polk County were used to estimate Crookston projections. The Census and NEA migration population models project a population decline, with the NEA migration model forecasting 6,845 people by 2050. The Reclamation population forecast has an increase to 8,461 people by 2050.

The business census is provided in Table 8. The primary business types are sales-related (26% of all businesses), health care and social services (16%), and general services (16%). The total

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Information on the age of residential homes is from the 2000 Census (Table 9). Roughly 6% of residential homes were constructed after 1994. The median age of homes is between 1940 and 1960.

Figure 10. City of Crookston Population Census and Projections

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Table 8. City of Crookston Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 16 7% -1.8% 23 Service Educational Institutions and 6 3% -4.4% 10 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 38 16% 1.0% 39 Meeting and Recreational 4 2% 0.0% 6 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 61 26% -1.0% 11 Services 38 16% -0.6% 6 Transportation and Fuels 4 2% 0.0% 30 Other 69 29% -1.2% 24 Total 236 100% -0.9% 20 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Table 9. City of Crookston Residential Homes Census

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 87 3% 1995 to 1998 126 6% 1990 to 1994 88 9% 1980 to 1989 169 14% 1970 to 1979 616 32% 1960 to 1969 358 43% 1940 to 1959 662 62% 1939 or earlier 1,277 100% Total 3,383 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.5. City of Detroit Lakes (MN) The population of Detroit Lakes has been increasing by 0.3% per year between censuses, from 7,353 people in 1990 to 7,558 in 2000 (Figure 11). As Detroit Lakes was not in the area of study of the RRVWSP EIS, only the Census Bureau population projection is available. This short term projection indicates a continuing increase in population.

The primary business types are sales (26%), services (16%), and health care and social services (10%) as shown in Table 10. Overall the number of firms has been increasing 3.5% per year. Of the primary business types, health care and social service related firms have been increasing at 7.9% per year, services by 3.7% per year, and sales-related firms increasing at 1.3% per year.

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The age of homes is from the 2000 Census, shown in Table 11. Approximately 9% of homes were constructed after 1994. The median age of homes is in the 1960s.

Figure 11. City of Detroit Lakes Population Census and Projections

Table 10. City of Detroit Lakes Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 54 9% 1.4% 18 Service Educational Institutions and 12 2% 3.7% 10 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 60 10% 7.9% 28 Meeting and Recreational 13 2% 3.3% 10 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 167 26% 1.3% 11 Services 101 16% 3.7% 16 Transportation and Fuels 27 4% 13.9% 8 Other 197 31% 4.9% 11 Total 631 100% 3.5% 14 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

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Table 11. City of Detroit Lakes Residential Homes Census

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 87 2% 1995 to 1998 241 9% 1990 to 1994 185 14% 1980 to 1989 292 21% 1970 to 1979 692 39% 1960 to 1969 432 51% 1940 to 1959 1041 78% 1939 or earlier 827 100% Total 3,797 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.6. City of East Grand Forks (MN) Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the population of East Grand Forks declined from 8,821 people to 7,501, or -1.4% per year (Figure 12). Most population projections are for this population to remain relatively unchanged or decrease to 7,466 people by 2050 (NEA migration projection).

Sales and services comprise the majority numbers of business, with 24% and 18% of the totals respectively (Table 12). Health care and social services related businesses comprise 12% of total businesses. The total number of businesses has been relatively stable. Of the primary business types, service-related businesses have been increasing at 3.2% per year and health care-social services related businesses increasing at 2.4% per year. Sales have been decreasing at 0.2% per year.

From the 2000 Census, the median age of homes was from the 1970s (Table 13). Approximately 12% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 12. City of East Grand Forks Population Census and Projections

Table 12. City of East Grand Forks Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 18 8% -0.6% 28 Service Educational Institutions and 4 2% 3.7% 24 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 28 12% 2.4% 15 Meeting and Recreational 6 3% 11.1% 4 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 54 24% -0.2% 17 Services 40 18% 3.2% 11 Transportation and Fuels 9 4% -2.0% 28 Other 67 30% -1.6% 18 Total 227 100% 0.1% 17 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 111 4% 1995 to 1998 249 12% 1990 to 1994 110 15% 1980 to 1989 291 25% 1970 to 1979 974 56% 1960 to 1969 392 69% 1940 to 1959 741 92% 1939 or earlier 237 100% Total 3,105 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.7. City of Fergus Falls (MN) The population of Fergus Falls has been increasing, from 12,678 people in the 1990 Census to 13,471 in the 2000 Census, or 0.6% per year (Figure 13). The Reclamation population projection and NEA migration trend projection assume that this increase will continue, with Reclamation predicting 23,143 people by 2050 and NEA predicting 16,461 people. The NEA population projection with no migration shows a decrease in population to 12,097 by 2050.

The three primary business types are sales-related (27%), services (17%) and health care and social services (14%) (Table 14). Overall, the number of businesses has been increasing at a rate of 1% per year. Of the primary business types, health care and social services has been increasing at 5.6% per year. Service related businesses have been increasing at 1.7% per year, while sales-related firms have been increasing at 0.5% per year.

The age of homes is from the 2000 Census (Table 15). The median age of homes is approximately from the 1960s. Homes constructed after 1994 amount to 8% of the total.

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Figure 13. City of Fergus Falls Population Census and Projections

Table 14. City of Fergus Falls Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 46 7% -0.5% 19 Service Educational Institutions and 25 4% 5.2% 17 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 93 14% 5.6% 34 Meeting and Recreational 12 2% -1.6% 14 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 181 27% 0.5% 13 Services 113 17% 1.7% 6 Transportation and Fuels 16 2% -1.8% 14 Other 194 29% 0.2% 17 Total 680 100% 1.0% 16 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 114 2% 1995 to 1998 367 8% 1990 to 1994 228 12% 1980 to 1989 556 21% 1970 to 1979 868 36% 1960 to 1969 737 49% 1940 to 1959 1,287 70% 1939 or earlier 1,760 100% Total 5,917 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.8. City of Moorhead (MN) Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the combined population of Moorhead, Dilworth, and Oakport Township was relatively unchanged at 35,178 people, although current population estimates are over 40,000 (personal communication with Cliff McLain, 2010) (Figure 14). Because the RRVWSP EIS population projections did not include the town of Dilworth or Oakport Township, these population projections were adjusted proportionally. Population projections that do not consider migration show an increase in population to between 47,469 and 50,245 people by 2050. The population projection which includes historic migration trends projects a relatively stable population of 37,394 in 2050.

The three primary business types by number of firms are sales (25% of total), services (17% of total), and health care and social services (14%), as shown in Table 16. Overall the number of businesses has been increasing by 1.5% per year. Of the primary business types, health care and social services has been increasing by 7.7% per year and services by 1.5% per year. Overall, sales related businesses have not significantly changed.

The age of homes is provided in Table 17. The median age of homes is from the 1970s. Approximately 15% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 14. City of Moorhead Population Census and Projections

Table 16. City of Moorhead Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 69 7% -0.5% 25 Service Educational Institutions and 22 2% 7.7% 64 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 127 14% 7.7% 21 Meeting and Recreational 18 2% 4.3% 13 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 227 25% 0.0% 17 Services 154 17% 1.5% 8 Transportation and Fuels 37 4% 1.3% 12 Other 269 29% 1.3% 11 Total 926 100% 1.5% 16 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later 220 1% Built 2000 to 2004 1,222 10% 1999 to March 2000 169 11% 1995 to 1998 597 15% 1990 to 1994 1,024 22% 1980 to 1989 1,529 32% 1970 to 1979 2,813 51% 1960 to 1969 2,378 67% 1940 to 1959 3,488 90% 1939 or earlier 1,412 100% Total 14,852 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

2.2.9. City of Pelican Rapids (MN) Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the population of Pelican Rapids increased from 1,896 to 2,374 people, or 2.3% per year (Figure 15). While direct population projections were not performed for Pelican Rapids in the RRVWSP EIS, projection information for Otter Tail county was scaled to the municipal population. Population projections which include migration indicate a 2050 population ranging from 2,901 to 4,079 people. Population projections which do not include migration have a decrease in population in 2050 to 2,132 people.

The total number of businesses has been increasing at a rate of 2.3% per year (Table 18). Sales and services make up 21% and 15% of the businesses, respectively. Accommodations and food services constitute 12% while health care and social services makes up 10%. Of these business types, health care and social services are growing the fastest at 12.5% per year followed by accommodations and food service at 9.1% per year. Service related firms have been increasing at 1.4% per year while sales-related firms overall have been declining by 0.9% per year.

The age of homes is from the 2000 census (Table 19). The median age of homes is from the 1960s. Approximately 7% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 15. City of Pelican Rapids Population Census and Projections

Table 18. City of Pelican Rapids Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 20 12% 9.1% 11 Service Educational Institutions and 3 2% 0.0% 15 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 17 10% 12.5% 9 Meeting and Recreational 4 2% 0.0% 3 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 35 21% -0.9% 9 Services 26 15% 1.4% 4 Transportation and Fuels 8 5% 6.7% 9 Other 55 33% 2.8% 21 Total 168 100% 2.3% 12 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 8 1% 1995 to 1998 61 7% 1990 to 1994 32 11% 1980 to 1989 98 21% 1970 to 1979 199 42% 1960 to 1969 86 51% 1940 to 1959 186 70% 1939 or earlier 288 100% Total 958 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.10. City of Perham (MN) Figure 16 shows the Census population and related population projections for Perham. Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the population increased from 2,180 to 2,559 people, or 1.6% per year. While direct population projections were not performed for Pelican Rapids in the RRVWSP EIS, projection information for Otter Tail county was scaled to the municipal population. Population projections which include migration predict a further increase to between 3,127 and 4,396 people by 2050. Population projections without migration have a decrease in population to 2,298 by 2050.

The census of businesses is summarized in Table 20. Sales related businesses constitute 29% of total businesses with general services making up 15%. Health care and social services and accommodations and food service make up 9% and 6% of businesses, respectively. Overall the number of businesses has been increasing by 2% per year. Health care and social service have been increasing by 10.1% per year, while sales and services have been relatively unchanged. Accommodations and food service have been declining by 0.7% per year.

The age of homes is from the 2000 Census, shown in Table 21. The median age is approximately 1960s to 1970s. Roughly 13% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 16. City of Perham Population Census and Projections

Table 20. City of Perham Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 14 6% -0.7% 12 Service Educational Institutions and 8 3% 18.5% 36 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 21 9% 10.1% 26 Meeting and Recreational 6 2% 0.0% 16 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 70 29% 0.9% 12 Services 35 15% 0.3% 8 Transportation and Fuels 7 3% 1.9% 8 Other 80 33% 3.5% 15 Total 241 100% 2.0% 14 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 33 3% 1995 to 1998 117 13% 1990 to 1994 116 23% 1980 to 1989 129 34% 1970 to 1979 164 48% 1960 to 1969 130 59% 1940 to 1959 230 78% 1939 or earlier 253 100% Total 1,172 3% Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.11. City of Thief River Falls (MN) The population of Thief River Falls has increased between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, from 8,138 to 8,410 people, or 0.3% per year (Figure 17). As Thief River Falls was not in the study area of the RRVWSP EIS no long-term population projections are available. The Bureau of Census inter-census projections show the population growth continuing.

Sales constitute 30% of businesses (Table 22). Service-related businesses make up 14% of businesses while health care and social services make up 11% of the total. Overall the number of businesses have been mostly unchanging, with an increase of 0.6% per year. Of the primary business types, health care and social services have been increasing by 1.8% per year and general services by 0.6% per year. Sales have been decreasing at 0.3% per year.

The age of homes information is from the 2000 Census (Table 23). The median age of homes is from the 1960s. Approximately 9% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 17. City of Thief River Falls Population Census and Projections

Table 22. City of Thief River Falls Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 32 8% -0.7% 43 Service Educational Institutions and 8 2% 1.6% 16 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 43 11% 1.8% 31 Meeting and Recreational 10 3% 2.8% 5 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 120 30% -0.3% 23 Services 56 14% 0.6% 6 Transportation and Fuels 20 5% 3.7% 13 Other 109 27% 1.2% 18 Total 398 100% 0.6% 21 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

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Table 23. City of Thief River Falls Residential Homes Census

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 29 1% 1995 to 1998 306 9% 1990 to 1994 119 12% 1980 to 1989 317 20% 1970 to 1979 863 42% 1960 to 1969 448 53% 1940 to 1959 821 74% 1939 or earlier 1,016 100% Total 3,919 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.12. City of Fargo (ND) The city of Fargo's population increased 2.0% per year between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, from 74,195 to 90,599 people (Figure 18). Population projections show increasing populations in the future. Projections using historic migration trends predict a doubling of the current population by 2050, to between 190,743 and 204,300 people. Population projections assuming no migration have an increase in population to 106,386 people by 2050.

Overall the total number of businesses has been increasing by 2.3% per year (Table 24). The majority are service-related (23% of the total) and sales-related (28% of the total). Health care and social services and accommodations and food service make up 9% and 7%, respectively, of the total. Sales have also been increasing by 2.0% per year. The other primary business types have been increasing by 3% to 4% per year.

As Fargo is a metropolitan statistical area, the Census Bureau provides estimates of home ages using 2007 information (Table 25). The median age of homes is from the 1980s. Approximately 24% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 18. City of Fargo Population Census and Projections

Table 24. City of Fargo Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 292 7% 2.8% 30 Service Educational Institutions and 109 3% 2.7% 34 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 362 9% 3.5% 31 Meeting and Recreational 60 2% 6.0% 13 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 1,094 28% 2.0% 20 Services 904 23% 3.4% 22 Transportation and Fuels 163 4% 2.6% 14 Other 934 24% 1.3% 18 Total 3,922 100% 2.3% 22 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later 617 1% Built 2000 to 2004 4,940 12% 1999 to March 2000 1,259 15% 1995 to 1998 4,537 24% 1990 to 1994 4,889 35% 1980 to 1989 6,698 49% 1970 to 1979 8,709 68% 1960 to 1969 3,848 76% 1940 to 1959 6,053 89% 1939 or earlier 5,284 100% Total 46,834 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

2.2.13. City of Grand Forks (ND) The population of Grand Forks was relatively unchanged from the 1990 to 2000 Censuses, from 49,563 to 49,321 people (Figure 19). The year 2000 Census may have been affected by severe flooding in Grand Forks during April 1997. A new record crest at that time of 54 feet inundated roughly 70% of the city. The aftermath of the flood resulted in the evacuation of all residents. The municipal water supply was unavailable for three weeks9. Population projections by NEA result in a range of 59,999 to 63,471 people in 2050. The Bureau of Reclamation’s optimistic projection estimates 83,800 people by 2050.

Sales and service-related businesses constitute the majority of business types, roughly 28% and 20% of the totals respectively (Table 26). Accommodations and food service make up 10% and health care and social services 9%. Overall, the rate of change in the number of businesses since 1998 has increase by 0.5% per year. Of the primary business types, health care and social services and accommodations and food services have increased by more than 2% per year. Services have increased by 1.6% per year, while sales overall have declined by 0.1% per year.

The age of homes is shown in Table 27. The median age was in the 1970s. Approximately 16% of homes were constructed after 1994.

9 National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) Storm Event Database for event NDZ027 (http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi- win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~298057)

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Figure 19. City of Grand Forks Population Census and Projections

Table 26. City of Grand Forks Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 167 10% 2.1% 28 Service Educational Institutions and 44 3% 0.3% 17 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 139 9% 2.2% 27 Meeting and Recreational 31 2% 1.2% 21 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 453 28% -0.1% 20 Services 315 20% 1.6% 14 Transportation and Fuels 79 5% 3.8% 14 Other 378 24% -0.6% 21 Total 1,606 100% 0.5% 20 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later 398 2% Built 2000 to 2004 1,294 8% 1999 to March 2000 520 10% 1995 to 1998 1,357 16% 1990 to 1994 1,371 22% 1980 to 1989 3,001 35% 1970 to 1979 5,354 59% 1960 to 1969 2,746 71% 1940 to 1959 3,513 87% 1939 or earlier 2,968 100% Total 22,522 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

2.2.14. City of Harvey (ND) The population of Harvey has declined from 2,290 to 1,989 people between the 1990 and 2000 censuses, or -1.2% per year (Figure 20). While no extended population forecasts are available, the post-census projection assumes population has continued to decline. The number of businesses has also declined by 2.4% per year from 1998 to 2007 (Table 28). Sales related businesses, constituting 32% of the total, declined by 2.8% per year. Services make up 13% of businesses and have declined by 4.2% per year. Health care and social services makes up 10% of the total and has been declining by 3% per year. Accommodations and Food Service, also making up 10% of the total, have been increasing by 1.1% per year. The median age of homes is from the 1960s, with 5% of homes constructed after 1994 (Table 29).

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Figure 20. City of Harvey Population Census and Projections

Table 28. City of Harvey Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 11 10% 1.1% 8 Service Educational Institutions and 2 2% -3.7% 11 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 11 10% -3.0% 56 Meeting and Recreational 0 0% -11.1% 0 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 36 32% -2.8% 8 Services 15 13% -4.2% 5 Transportation and Fuels 3 3% -2.8% 3 Other 33 29% -0.9% 6 Total 113 100% -2.4% 12 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

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Table 29. City of Harvey Residential Homes Census

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 20 2% 1995 to 1998 31 5% 1990 to 1994 45 9% 1980 to 1989 112 20% 1970 to 1979 233 42% 1960 to 1969 140 55% 1940 to 1959 253 79% 1939 or earlier 223 100% Total 1,057 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.15. City of Valley City (ND) Population of Valley City between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses declined from 7,190 to 6,826 people, or -0.5% per year (Figure 21). Two of the population projections which include migration show a continued decrease in population to between 5,225 and 5,840 people in 2050. The zero migration population projection estimates a population of 6,503 by 2050.

The total number of businesses has decreased by 0.1% per year over the last ten years (Table 30). Of the primary businesses, health care and social services related businesses make up 11% of the total and have been increasing by 3.7% per year. Sales-related businesses, constituting 23% of the total, have been declining in number by 2.1% per year while services (16% of the total) have been mostly unchanged.

The median home age in Valley City is between 1940 and 1960 (Table 31). Approximately 4% of homes were constructed after 1994, based on the 2000 Census data.

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Figure 21. City of Valley City Population Census and Projections

Table 30. City of Valley City Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 27 8% -1.1% 19 Service Educational Institutions and 9 3% -2.0% 12 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 36 11% 3.7% 36 Meeting and Recreational 9 3% 5.6% 12 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 75 23% -2.1% 11 Services 50 16% 0.2% 6 Transportation and Fuels 15 5% 7.4% 8 Other 99 31% 0.3% 14 Total 320 100% -0.1% 15 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later No Data Built 2000 to 2004 No Data 1999 to March 2000 0 0% 1995 to 1998 144 4% 1990 to 1994 43 6% 1980 to 1989 243 13% 1970 to 1979 687 34% 1960 to 1969 376 46% 1940 to 1959 744 69% 1939 or earlier 1,008 100% Total 3,245 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

2.2.16. City of West Fargo (ND) The population of West Fargo has increased between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, from 12,348 to 14,940 people, or 1.9% per year (Figure 22). The U.S. Bureau of Census inter-census projections show a significant increase in population to 23,708 people as of 2007. Migration- based population projections estimate the year 2050 population between 26,632 and 33,900 people. Population projections without historic migration trends have population peaking at 17,343 people in 2050.

The number of businesses has been increasing at a rate of 4.8% per year (Table 32). Sales and service-related businesses make up the significant amount of the total: sales make up 26% of the total with annual growth of 3.6% while services make up 17% of the total with annual growth rates of 15.4%. Health care and social services, accommodations and food services, and transportation businesses each make up between 5% and 8% of the total businesses. Several of the businesses classes have had large increases; for example, health care and social services have been increasing at 7.3% per year.

The age of homes is shown in Table 33. The median home age is from 1990 to 1994, indicative of relatively recent construction activity. Approximately 41% of homes were constructed after 1994.

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Figure 22. City of West Fargo Population Census and Projections

Table 32. City of West Fargo Business Census

Number of Firms Average Total Percent of Annual Employees per Business Category Number Total [%] Growth [%] Firm Accommodations and Food 35 6% 4.4% 16 Service Educational Institutions and 7 1% -4.0% 12 Information Technology Health Care and Social Services 43 7% 7.3% 9 Meeting and Recreational 4 1% -5.6% 26 Sales (Retail, Wholesale, Offices) 159 26% 3.6% 15 Services 105 17% 15.4% 8 Transportation and Fuels 49 8% 1.6% 12 Other 205 34% 5.0% 17 Total 607 100% 4.8% 14 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Note: Total number and employee estimates as of 2007. Average annual growth from 1998 to 2007.

Construction Date Number of Homes Cumulative Percentage Built 2005 or later 646 8% Built 2000 to 2004 1,862 30% 1999 to March 2000 260 33% 1995 to 1998 684 41% 1990 to 1994 629 49% 1980 to 1989 835 59% 1970 to 1979 1,976 82% 1960 to 1969 711 91% 1940 to 1959 648 99% 1939 or earlier 111 100% Total 8,362 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

2.3. Summary of Census Information Overall, the total population of basin representative communities has been increasing at a rate of 0.7% per year. Figure 23 shows the combined populations of the representative communities, with 277,928 people in 1991 and 311,596 people in 2006.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007 and Statistics Canada, 2006. Notes: U.S. Bureau of Census projections and interpolations of Canadian census data were used in non-Census years.

Figure 23. Combined Census Populations

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A summary of types of businesses for U.S. representative communities is shown in Figure 24. Sales and service related business each make up roughly 37% and 26% of total businesses, respectively. Health care and social service related businesses make up 14% of the total while accommodations and food service constitute 11%.

The average rates of growth of these businesses are shown in Figure 25. The total numbers of all businesses have been increasing by 1.4% per year. Of the previously mentioned business types, health care and social service related businesses have the most growth at 3.7% per year. Service- related businesses have been increasing at approximately 2.4% per year. Accommodations and food service business numbers have been increasing by 1.4% per year while sales-related businesses grew at less than 0.7% per year.

The combined payroll of all businesses in U.S. representative communities is provided in Figure 26. The U.S. Census Bureau occasionally suppresses business information due to confidentiality issues. For certain zip coded areas this data was suppressed over the entire period of record, which would indicate that the payroll data is underestimated. In other areas, only certain years were suppressed. Suppressed data for years 1998, 2002, and 2007 appears to cause significant underestimations and not displayed in the Figure. Overall, the combined payroll was almost US $3.5 billion in 1999 which increased by 5.7% per year to total payrolls of almost US $5.0 billion in 2006.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.

Figure 24. Census of Businesses from U.S. Representative Communities

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1998 to 2007.

Figure 25. Annual Growth of Businesses from U.S. Representative Communities

Source: U.S. Census Bureau County Business Patterns, data by zipcode. Notes: Suppressed data in 1998 for Grand Forks, 2002 for Fargo and Fergus Falls, and 2007 for Fargo. Certain zipcodes have suppressed data consistently throughout 1998 to 2007.

Figure 26. Annual Payroll of U.S. Representative Communities

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3. Analysis of Historical and Projected Water Demand This section presents data and analysis of existing water use from public supplies. The magnitude and trends of water use are presented. Trends in water use may indicate existing conservation or other changes, such as changing businesses patterns. Drought and climate can cause water use changes as well. For example, a hot and dry climate can generate more water use for outdoor purposes such as lawn irrigation. A process of climate normalization is used to estimate the impacts of drought. Normalization determines the relative impacts of past historic droughts on water use from approximately 1988 to 2007. Once this relationship is known, the potential impacts of other past droughts, such as the 1930s extended drought, can be estimated. Finally, various estimates of how water is used within a community, such as for residential, commercial, industrial purposes, are provided.

3.1. Historical Water Use Water use was collected for each representative community. Information was generally collected from 1988 to 2007, although the availability of data varied over the basin. Water use may be available in some cases as monthly water treatment utility production or in other cases as a total annual volume. In either case, the treated volume is divided by an estimate of service population to provide an average of water use per person (“per capita water use”).

Annual information shows overall year-to-year trends in water use. Monthly information shows variations in season-to-season water use. Winter water use, defined here as the months of November to March, tends to show indoor residential water use and non-agricultural business and industries. Water use typically peaks in summer months, defined here as the months of April to October. This increased use is often associated with outdoor landscape irrigation and agricultural businesses.

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3.1.1. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative Water Use (MB) Monthly water production data from 2000 to 2008 was provided by PVWC for three regional water treatment plants at Stephfield, Morris, and the Red River regional plants. The production information was divided by the adjusted Canadian population census information to obtain per capita water use. The monthly per capita water use over time is shown in Figure 27.

Annual average per capita water use ranges from 173 to 251 litres per capita per day, lcd (46 to 66 U.S. gallons per capita per day, gcd). There has been an upward trend of approximately 4.1% per year in water use. Winter water use in the most recent years averaged 234 lcd (62 U.S. gcd). Summer water use rates range from 178 lcd to 262 lcd (47 to 69 U.S. gcd). The summer seasonal water use is only slightly more than the winter use, generally 5 to 28 lcd (1 to 7 U.S. gcd) above the winter rate. During the period of record, the peak seasonal summer water use ranged from 188 to 299 lcd (50 to 79 U.S. gcd).

Source: PVWC, 2009.

Figure 27. Pembina Valley Water Cooperative Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.2. City of Selkirk Water Use (MB) Monthly water use for the City of Selkirk from 2002 to 2008 was obtained from Manitoba Water Stewardship (Figure 28). Data for calendar year 2005 was incomplete. Annual average per capita water use ranged from 270 to 349 lcd (71 to 92 U.S. gcd). Annual per capita water use appeared to increase from 2002 to 2004, and decrease in later years. Overall, annual average water use was mostly unchanged. Winter use in the most recent year was 300 lcd (79 U.S. gcd). Seasonal summer use was slightly more than winter use, ranging from 10 to 41 lcd (3 to 11 U.S. gcd) above the winter rate. Peak summer seasonal per capita use ranged from 310 to 401 lcd (82 to 106 U.S. gcd).

Source: Manitoba Water Stewardship, 2009.

Figure 28. City of Selkirk Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.3. City of Breckenridge (MN) Monthly water use for the City of Breckenridge was obtained from the Red River Valley Water Supply Project Final Environmental Impact Statement (RRVWSP EIS) for years 1988 to 2001. Annual water use data was used from the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MN DNR) from 1988 to 2007. Figure 29 shows the monthly and annual water per capita use information. Annual average per capita water use ranged from 82 to 121 U.S. gcd (311 to 458 lcd). Average annual use decreased from 1988 to 2000 and increased from 2001 to 2007. Winter use (based on data from 1988 to 2001) has been declining at a rate of 2.2% per year. The most recent winter use information for 2001 provided a rate of 73 U.S. gcd (278 lcd). Seasonal summer use is distinctly different from winter use, and ranges from 16 to 25 U.S. gcd (62 to 95 lcd) above the winter rate. Peak summer month use ranges from 105 to 156 U.S. gcd (398 to 592 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and MN DNR, 2009. Notes: Annual water use data is inconsistent with monthly data for calendar year 1988.

Figure 29. City of Breckenridge Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.4. City of Crookston (MB) Annual water use data was obtained from the MN DNR. Figure 30 reports this use on a per capita basis. Annual per capita use ranged from 97 to 132 U.S. gcd (365 to 499 lcd). Annual per capita use has been decreasing over the period of record at a rate of 1.4% per year.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 30. City of Crookston Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.5. City of Detroit Lakes (MN) Annual water use was obtained from MN DNR from reported historic use from municipal permits. Figure 31 reports the per capita annual water use. Reported annual water use ranged from a high of 254 U.S. gcd (963 lcd) in 1990 to a low of 138 U.S. gcd (523 lcd) in 1994. Water use is much higher from 1990 to 1992 than in later years. If the period of 1993 to 2007 is considered, water use has been increasing at a rate of 0.8% per year.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 31. City of Detroit Lakes Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.6. City of East Grand Forks (MN) Information on monthly water use was provided by RRVWSP EIS for 1989 to 2002 while annual water use is from the MN DNR for 1989 to 2007. Figure 32 shows the per capita water use. Annual water use ranges from 136 to 191 U.S. gcd (514 to 722 lcd) over the period of record; annual water use has been declining by 0.8% per year, although this change varies from year to year. The winter rate for 2001 was 130 U.S. gcd (491 lcd).

Summer seasonal water use in most years fluctuates from month to month. Summer rates can range widely from 6 to 70 U.S. gcd (21 to 265 lcd) above the winter rate. Peak summer month use has ranged from 162 to 261 U.S. gcd (612 to 986 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 32. City of East Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.7. City of Fergus Falls (MN) Annual water use data was obtained from MN DNR for municipal permits from 1990 to 2007. Figure 33 shows the annual per capita water use. Annual use ranges from 111 to 153 U.S. gcd (419 to 580 lcd) over the period of record. The annual use rate overall has declined by roughly 1.5% per year.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 33. City of Fergus Falls Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.8. City of Moorhead (MN) Water use for the City of Moorhead was obtained from the RRVWSP EIS (providing monthly data for 1988 to 2002) and the MN DNR (providing annual data for 1990 to 2007). The per capita water use was obtained from the water use volumes and combined population of Moorhead and Dilworth. Figure 34 shows the per capita water use. Annual water use ranged from 98 to 140 U.S. gcd (370 to 529 lcd). Annual water use has been mostly unchanged.

Winter water use ranges from 95 to 124 U.S. gcd (360 to 469 lcd). From the available data, winter use has been mostly unchanged. Summer water use usually fluctuates from month to month, and ranges from 0 to 80 U.S. gcd (0 to 303 lcd) above the winter rate. Peak summer month use ranges from 120 to 204 U.S. gcd (455 to 773 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 34. City of Moorhead Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.9. City of Pelican Rapids (MN) Historic reported water use was obtained for 1990 to 2007 from MN DNR (Figure 35). Annual water use ranged from 243 to 479 U.S. gcd (922 to 1,813 lcd), higher than in other communities. Changes in annual water use have generally been decreasing over the period of record by 2.2% per year. This change can vary by year.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 35. City of Pelican Rapids Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.10. City of Perham (MN) Annual water use was obtained from the MN DNR for 1990 to 2007 for the municipal water use permits. The per capita water use is shown in Figure 36. Annual water per capita use ranged from 289 to 414 U.S. gcd (1,094 to 1,565 lcd), higher than in other communities. Generally, the per capita water use was unchanged from 1990 to 1999. After a reported decrease in 2001, annual water per capita use has been increasing.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 36. City of Perham Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.11. City of Thief River Falls (MN) Annual water use for the City of Thief River Falls was obtained from MN DNR for municipal permits. The water use is shown in Figure 37, where annual per capita use ranges from 116 to 158 U.S. gcd (438 to 597 lcd). Over the period of record, the rate of use has been increasing by 1.2% per year.

Source: MN DNR, 2009.

Figure 37. City of Thief River Falls Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.12. City of Fargo (ND) Monthly water use information for Fargo is from the RRVWSP EIS for the years 1988 to 2001 while annual water use information for 1990 to 2007 was obtained from the North Dakota State Water Commission (ND SWC). Figure 38 shows the per capita water use information. Annual per capita use rates range from 114 to 166 U.S. gcd (431 to 628 lcd). Annual use has been declining at a rate of 1.5% per year. The winter use rate has also overall been declining over time, from a high of 157 U.S. gcd (593 lcd) in 1988 to 99 U.S. gcd (374 lcd) in 2002. Based on the annual water use, water use has been relatively unchanged in later years of the period of record. Summer water use ranges from 5 to 53 U.S. gcd (21 to 202 lcd) higher than the winter use. Peak summer month rates range from 137 to 275 U.S. gcd (519 to 1,039 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and ND SWC, 2009.

Figure 38. City of Fargo Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.13. City of Grand Forks (ND) Monthly water use data from 1988 to 2001 from the RRVWSP EIS and 1999 to 2008 was provided by Grand Forks Water Utilities. Average annual rates range from 134 to 168 U.S. gcd (506 to 638 lcd) and winter rates range from 123 to 155 U.S. gcd (466 to 585 lcd) (Figure 39). Winter rates have been increasing over the period of record, at an average rate of 0.7% per year. Summer rates range from 8 to 45 U.S. gcd (31 to 171 lcd) above the winter rates. Peak summer months range from 155 to 258 U.S. gcd (589 to 976 lcd).

Water use information was also provided based on the type of water use. Residential use, shown in Figure 40, accounted on average for 28% of the total use. Winter use for residential purposes has been declining. Commercial, institutional, and light industrial (C/I/I) uses make up approximately 33% of the total (Figure 41). Winter use for C/I/I has been increasing over time. Large industrial uses supplied by the city accounted for 27% of the total use (Figure 42). The winter use has been increasing over time. The large industrial water use does not have a distinctive summer use. Of the remaining uses, approximately 7% was unaccounted or unmetered use and 5% was for the Grand Forks Air Force Base.

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and City of Grand Forks, 2009. Notes: Water supply was disrupted during the April 1997 flood.

Figure 39. City of Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use

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Source: City of Grand Forks, 2009.

Figure 40. City of Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use: Residential

Source: City of Grand Forks, 2009.

Figure 41. City of Grand Forks Per Capita Water Use: Commercial, Institutional, and Light Industrial

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Source: City of Grand Forks, 2009.

Figure 42. City of Grand Forks Per Capita Water use: Industrial

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3.1.14. City of Harvey (ND) Annual water use for Harvey was obtained for 1990 to 2007 from the ND SWC; the per capita water use is plotted in Figure 43. Average annual water use ranges from 290 to 529 U.S. gcd (1,097 to 2,003 lcd), higher than in other communities. The rate of change in water use has been increasing over the period of record, at a rate of approximately 1.3% per year.

Source: ND SWC, 2009.

Figure 43. City of Harvey Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.15. City of Valley City (ND) Monthly water use data for Valley City was obtained from the RRVWSP EIS for 1988 to 2001 and annual water use for 2002 to 2007 from ND SWC. Figure 44 shows the per capita water use. Annual per capita water use rates range from 105 to 127 U.S. gcd (398 to 480 lcd) and winter use rates range from 89 to 125 U.S. gcd (336 to 471 lcd). Winter rates have been declining by an average of 1.9% per year, although most of the decline occurred prior to 1992. Summer rates range from 19 to 45 U.S. gcd (73 to 169 lcd) higher than winter rates, with peak summer months use ranging from 125 to 238 U.S. gcd (472 to 902 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and ND SWC, 2009.

Figure 44. City of Valley City Per Capita Water Use

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3.1.16. City of West Fargo (ND) A combination of monthly use data and annual use data was obtained for 1988 to 2002 from the RRVWSP EIS and for 2003 to 2007 from the ND SWC, respectively (Figure 45). Annual use rates range from 85 to 123 U.S. gcd (322 to 464 lcd) and winter rates range from 78 to 88 U.S. gcd (294 to 335 lcd). While annual rates have been declining over the period of record, winter rates have generally remained unchanged. Summer rates range from 14 to 61 U.S. gcd (53 to 230 lcd) above winter rates. Peak summer months range from 105 to 213 U.S. gcd (399 to 808 lcd).

Source: RRVWSP EIS, 2007 and ND SWC, 2009.

Figure 45. City of West Fargo Per Capita Water Use

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The water use during the recent droughts may not be indicative of peak water use when other historic droughts are considered. In communities where winter use has been decreasing, a repeat of past droughts may result in reduced water use than previously experienced. It is assumed that outdoor water uses may be higher than in non-drought years, while indoor water use may be relatively unchanged and reflect on-going conservation efforts. Alternatively some past droughts may have been more severe than the 1988-1992 or 2006 droughts. Water use during more severe droughts may be higher than in the available data.

When watering lawns and other plants, water is taken up by the plant roots and transpired from leaves. This process is called evapotranspiration (ET). A certain amount of ET is necessary for the health of the plant. Some of the ET need can be provided by rainfall or water stored in the soil. Any remaining deficit might be addressed through watering. For this report, the crop ET water need of turf grass was calculated using the Hargraeves-Samai method (FAO, 2006). This method uses temperature data to estimate ET needs. Other climate information, such as wind speed and humidity, is not used which may increase or decrease the actual ET estimate. Weekly temperature information was evaluated from 1931 to approximately 2007 from multiple climate stations over the basin. The portion of rainfall occurring in each week that reaches the plant’s roots was estimated. The difference between the ET amount and effective precipitation was the calculated irrigation requirement.

The calculated irrigation requirement was compared to the available data of summer seasonal use for representative communities. This formed a relationship showing how differences in dry drought years and wet years affected the summer water use. This relationship was then extended based on available climate data for 1931 to 2006 in Manitoba and 1931 to 2007 in the U.S. By adding the estimated seasonal summer rate for each drought year to the most recent winter rate, a total water need was estimated. Appendix B provides additional climate and water use datasets related to this approach.

Table 34 shows estimated water use for various droughts. The peak estimated annual average use shows the annual average water use in the worse drought of record. The year of the drought is provided; this year varies depending on location in the basin. The single month with the highest estimated water use is also provided showing the peak use in a drought year. For comparison, Table 35 shows the reported peak annual and peak monthly water use for the recent period of record (generally 1988 to 2007).

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Table 34. Estimated Peak Annual and Month Water Use for Droughts 1931 to 2007

Location Peak Estimated Annual Average Peak Estimated Monthly Use Use U.S. gcd (lcd) Year(s) U.S. gcd (lcd) Date PVWC (MB) 65 (246) 1936, 1952, 75 (283) August 1961 1988, 2006 Selkirk (MB) 91 (344) 2006 104 (393) August 1961 Breckenridge 88 (333) 1934, 1970, 134 (507) August 1993 (MN) 1976, 1980 East Grand Forks 173 (655) 1976 261(988) July 1936 (MN) Moorhead (MN) 147 (556) 1980 195 (738) May 1980 Fargo (ND) 150 (568) 1976 244 (924) August 1976 Grand Forks (ND) 176 (666) 1976 222 (840) July 1936 Valley City (ND) 118 (447) 1952 174 (659) July 1936 West Fargo (ND) 120 (454) 1976 194 (734) August 1976

Table 35. Historic Winter and Peak Summer Month Water Use

Location Winter Use Summer Use U.S. gcd (lcd) (Peak Month) U.S. gcd (lcd) PVWC 62 (232) 50 - 79 (188 - 299) Selkirk 79 (299) 82 – 106 (310 - 401) Breckenridge 73 (278) 105 - 156 (398 - 592) East Grand Forks 130 (491) 162 - 261 (612 - 986) Moorhead 124 (469) 136 - 229 (514 - 867) Fargo 99 (374) 137 - 275 (519 - 1,039) Grand Forks residential 31 (118) 51 - 117 (194 - 443) C/I/I 52 (195) 58 - 90 (220 - 341) Air Force Base 6 (23) 10 - 24 (38 - 91) Industrial 35 - 48 (134 - 181) Unaccounted/unmetered 8 - 15 (29 - 58) Total 152 (574) 155 - 258 (589 - 976) Valley City 91 (343) 125 - 238 (472 - 902) West Fargo 79 (298) 105 - 213 (399 - 808)

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3.3. Analysis of Water Use by Customer Group Water use in a community is delivered to several types of customers. While the definitions of each type can vary somewhat across communities, for this report these are referred to as: Domestic or Residential: water used indoors and outdoors in private residences or apartments; Commercial, institutional, and light industrial: water used for commercial, institutions, and light industrial uses; Industrial: large industrial uses obtaining water from the public water supply; Municipal or public uses: water used directly by government institutions; Unaccounted or unmetered: water unaccounted for within the distribution system prior to delivery to the customer premises. This may include authorized unmetered uses (such as street sweeping), unauthorized unmetered uses (such as illegal water taps), or water lost to leaks within the distribution system.

Various studies have estimated the proportions of various types of water use in communities. Figure 46 shows a national U.S. average of water use, average uses for the province of Manitoba, and customer sales in Grand Forks. For the U.S. national uses, roughly two-thirds of use was residential. A quarter of the use was commercial, with the remainder split between industrial and public uses (AWWA, 2006). For Manitoba, roughly one-half was for residential uses. The remainder (40%) was a combination of commercial and industrial uses with 9% listed as unaccounted or unmetered (EC, 2007). In Grand Forks, there was an approximately equal split between residential, commercial, and industrial uses (City of Grand Forks, 2009). Approximately 7% of use was unaccounted or unmetered, and 5% was the average use of the Grand Forks Air Force Base. Based on both the Manitoba and Grand Forks information, water use in the Red River Basin may be more industrial and commercial than residential when compared to national averages.

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Figure 46. Typical Water Use for U.S. National, Manitoba Provincial, and City of Grand Forks

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4.1. Residential Conservation

4.1.1. Indoor Water Uses The use of water within a residential home was researched in several studies. A U.S. Housing and Urban Development (HUD) study placed instrumentation on faucets, toilets, and other fixtures and appliances in volunteer survey homes (HUD, 1984). A study of several U.S. communities was later performed by the American Water Works Association (AWWA, 1999). In this study, a data logger was attached to the exterior water meters of volunteer survey homes. Using a catalog of water use signatures for each appliance and fixture, an inventory of indoor water use was developed. Environment Canada compiled similar estimates of water use (Env. Canada, 2007).

Figure 47 provides the results of the AWWA and Environment Canada studies. The AWWA study is representative of U.S. national residential indoor use while the Environment Canada reflects the national Canadian residential indoor use. While categories between the studies are somewhat different, in general major residential water uses consist of toilets, showers/baths, laundry, and faucets in descending order of magnitude. The AWWA study also noted an average indoor leakage rate of 14%.

4.1.2. Low Flow Fixtures and Appliances Low-flow fixtures include replacement water efficient toilets, showerheads, and faucet aerators, which reduce flows to conserve water. Low flow appliances include clothes washers and dish washers. Table 36 shows the potential water conservation for various low-flow fixtures and appliances.

In the U.S., the Energy Policy Act of 1992 phased in the replacement of common fixtures with low flow equivalents. Specifically, the use of 2.5 U.S. gallons per minute (U.S. gpm) showerheads, 2.2 U.S. gpm faucets in kitchen and bathrooms, and 1.6 U.S.gallons per flush (U.S. gpf) toilets are a standard requirement. The goal of the Energy Policy Act was to generate a 5% to 15% water conservation savings by 2030 (AWWA, 2006). The use of these low-flow fixtures was mandated in 1993 by Minnesota and in 1994 by North Dakota (Vickers, 2002). The National Plumbing Code of Canada (2005), which is currently the Manitoba standard code, does not require the use of low-flow fixtures. Manitoba is currently making changes to the building and plumbing codes for improved water efficiency and conservation using low–flow fixtures.

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Figure 47. Typical Residential Indoor Water Uses for U.S. and Canadian National Populations

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Table 36. Conservation Approaches for Residential Indoor Water Uses

Fixture/Appliance Potential Conservation Showerheads (2.5 U.S. gpm) 2.4 U.S. gcd (9 lcd) Faucet Aerators (2.2 U.S. gpm) 1.6 U.S. gcd (6 lcd) (bath); 0.3 U.S. gcd (1 lcd) (kitchen) Toilets (1.6 U.S. gpf) 10.4 U.S. gcd (39 lcd) Dual Flush Toilets 0% to 50% of 1.6 gpf Toilet Toilet leak repair 5 U.S. gcd (19 lcd) or more Dish washer 0.6 U.S. gcd (2 lcd) Clothes washer 5.5 U.S. gcd (21 lcd) Source: AWWA, 2006

The existing water use information described in Section 3 contains a portion of the current water conservation from the required low-flow fixtures. The portion of U.S. homes constructed or remodeled after 1994 will be mandated to use these water conserving fixtures. The U.S. Census Bureau provides the number of homes built after 1994. The number of remodeled homes was estimated based on the average lifespan of bathroom fixtures, assumed to be 25 years for this report. Half of existing homes are assumed to be remodeled in 25 years. While Manitoba does not currently mandate low-flow fixtures, existing rebate and conservation programs have resulted in a similar voluntary adoption rate.

Table 37 provides the estimated percentage of homes in each representative community in which low-flow fixtures have been assumed to have been adopted. Existing low-flow fixture adoption ranges from 38% to 52%. Representative communities having high population growth rates generally have the highest rates of adoption. Table 38 provides adjusted ranges of low- flow fixture water conservation that may still be achievable in the future.

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Table 37. Estimates of Current Adoption of Residential Indoor Water Conservation

Location Low Flow Fixtures and Appliance Adoption Total Low Flow based on: Fixture Adoption Homes built after Estimated 1994 Remodeling Breckenridge 10% 32% 42% Crookston 6% 34% 40% Detroit Lakes 9% 33% 42% East Grand Forks 12% 32% 44% Fergus Falls 8% 33% 41% Moorhead 6% 34% 40% Pelican Rapids 7% 33% 40% Perham 13% 31% 44% Thief River Falls 9% 33% 42% Fargo 24% 27% 51% Grand Forks 16% 30% 46% Harvey 5% 34% 39% Valley City 4% 34% 38% West Fargo 19% 29% 48% Manitoba 52% (showerhead) 38% (toilet) Notes: Homes built after 1994 from U.S. Bureau of Census. Estimate of remodeling amounts based on toilet lifespan of 25 years (AWWA, 2006). Manitoba adoption estimates from Environment Canada

Table 38. Adjusted Potential Future Conservation for Residential Indoor Water Use

Fixture/Appliance Adjusted Potential Conservation with Estimated Current Low-flow Fixture Adoption Showerheads 1.2 to 1.5 U.S. gcd (5 to 6 lcd) (2.5 U.S. gpm) Faucet Aerators 0.8 to 1.0 U.S. gcd (3 to 4 lcd) (bath); (2.2 U.S. gpm) 0.1 – 0.2 U.S. gcd (1 lcd) (kitchen) Toilets (1.6 U.S. gpf) 5.0 - 6.4 U.S. gcd (19 to 24 lcd) Source: Adjusted from AWWA, 2006 based on estimate of current conservation adoption.

4.1.3. Leak and Energy Loss Prevention Reduction of water leaks in the home can directly lead to water conservation. The U.S. national average estimate is that 14% of residential indoor water use is potentially lost to leaks (AWWA, 2006). Figure 48 shows a water conservation educational poster advocating leak prevention. Approximately 5 U.S. gcd (19 lcd) or more may be conserved if indoor leaks are repaired.

Hot water pipes lose heat energy as water is conveyed from the water heater appliance to faucets or showers. Cold water in the pipes is flushed until a desired temperature is achieved. Conserving heat can also conserve water by reducing the amount of flushed cold water. Insulating coverings are available at home improvement supply stores which can reduce pipe

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Table 39 summarizes potential water conservation from leak and energy loss prevention measures.

Source: Gordon Martel, 2009

Figure 48. Impacts of Unrepaired Leaks

Table 39. Conservation Approaches for Residential Energy and Leak Loss Prevention

Approach Potential Conservation Insulate hot water pipes 2 U.S. gcd (8 lcd) Consumer leak repair 5 U.S. gcd (19 lcd) or more Source: AWWA, 2006

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4.1.4. Residential Landscaping Water Uses Residential outdoor use can be linked to landscape irrigation, car washing, swimming pools, and other related needs. For this report, it is assumed that the prevalent summer residential outdoor use is related to landscape irrigation. One approach that has been examined is to regulate lawn watering using fixed schedules. For example, an “even-odd” schedule arranges for homes with even address numbers to water on even numbered calendar days and vice versa. These scheduling approaches, which may reduce peak water use on a given day, may not lead to overall conservation as lawn water use that would have occurred on one day is moved to the next. Prescribed irrigation schedules may actually lead to overwatering, as home owners use the schedules in place of monitoring actual soil conditions or anticipating forecasted rain (AWWA, 2006). Irrigation water conservation considered here includes replacing turf grass with drought tolerant plants (“xeriscaping”), employing the use more efficient irrigation equipment, or improving soil moisture with rainwater harvesting.

The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the City of Fargo conducted pilot studies of xeriscaping for homes in Fargo (City of Fargo, 2006). The study examined water conservation potential by using drought tolerant landscaping plants as well as the cost to build and maintain these lawns. The study also informally examined public acceptance of xeriscaping through the volunteer rates for the pilot program. Water conservation rates ranged from 10% to 50% reduced water use from traditional turf grass. The average reduced water use savings was 29%.

When watering individual plants, drip irrigation which provides water directly to plant roots can be used in place of sprinklers. This method is more applicable to xeriscaping plantings than turf grass. Irrigation methods can be rated in terms of efficiency, or the proportion of applied water that actually reaches plant roots. Sprinkler irrigation is 65% to 80% efficient, while drip irrigation can be 70% to 95% efficient (USDA, 2004). This indicates an average improvement, or water conservation potential, of 12%.

A final approach considered is augmenting available soil moisture during a drought through rainwater harvesting. A cistern is used to collect and store rainwater captured from rooftops which can be used as a lawn water source. Commercially available 100 or 250 U.S. gallon cisterns can be attached to roof rainspouts to collect water. Historic precipitation data was evaluated to determine how much various sized cisterns could capture excess water. A 1,000 square foot (93 m2) roof was assumed with a 5,000 square foot (464 m2) lawn. Each U.S. 100- gallon cistern was assumed attached to a rainspout that can capture half of the roof area. Lower irrigation efficiencies were used, as cisterns operate by gravity. Average conservation rates of 1% to 2% were estimated for each U.S. 100-gallon cistern.

Table 40 summarizes the considered residential outdoor water conservation approaches.

Approach Potential Conservation (Outdoor water use) Xeriscaping 10% to 50% (29% average) Xeriscaping using drip irrigation 12% reduction Rainwater harvesting 100 U.S. gallon tank 1% to 2% reduction 250 U.S. gallon tank 2% to 5% reduction Source: City of Fargo, 2006; USDA, 2004.

4.2. Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional Conservation Water conservation potential for commercial and industrial water use can vary from business to business. Business water needs and processes are often unique, requiring detailed conservation review that fits business plans. Table 41 lists typical water use (in most cases with units of U.S. gallons per employee per day or ged) for a range of commercial and industrial businesses along with typical water conservation potentials between non-conserving and conserving businesses. Potential conservation rates range from a 16% to 30% savings.

Table 41. Conservation Potentials for Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional Water Use

Business Type Representative Water Use Average Potential Business (U.S. gallons) Water Savings with Conservation [%] Accommodations and Food Hotels 230 ged 16% to 27% Service Restaurants 2 to 10 gcd Educational Institutions and Schools 15 to 25 gcd 20% Information Technology Health Care and Social Services Dentist offices 259 ged 25% Health services 91 ged Hospitals 300 gcd Nursing homes 197 ged Social services 106 ged Meeting and Recreational Amusement parks 427 ged 27% Museums, botanical, 208 ged zoo, gardens Sales Apparel 68 ged 27% Food stores 98 ged Retail trade 93 ged Wholesale 29 to 97 ged Services Construction 21 ged 30% Factories 35 ged Laundromat 50 gcd Manufacturing 133 ged Transportation and Fuels Auto repair services 217 ged 31% Auto service stations 49 ged 16% Source: AWWA, 2006.

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4.3. Distribution and Transmission System Loss Prevention Distribution and system losses can occur in the distribution system prior to delivery to the customer location. These losses may include unmetered and authorized uses, such as street sweeping and fire hydrant flushing, and unmetered and unauthorized uses, such as illegal water taps. Water main breaks also are a source of unaccounted and unmetered water. Figure 49 describes the types of water losses in a water distribution system. Water losses arising from unauthorized uses or metering errors are termed “Apparent Losses” while those resulting from actual leaks are “Real losses”.

Source: AWWA, 2006

Figure 49. Categories of Metered and Unmetered Water Use

The magnitude of unaccounted and unmetered water use can be estimated based on the amount of water produced at the treatment plant less the total amount billed to customers or accounted for in other ways. Within the representative communities where this data was available (Table 42), the proportion of water that was unaccounted or unmetered ranged from approximately 7% for Fargo and Grand Forks to over 15% for Valley City and East Grand Forks. Within Minnesota, state water conservation plans call for an unaccounted/unmetered maximum rate of 9%. For this report, conservation potential was estimated for communities with rates exceeding this amount.

The minimum unaccounted and unmetered water losses generally considered feasible to achieve can be estimated using a relationship called Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL). As it is not possible or practical to have no unaccounted or unmetered losses, the UARL may be an indicator of a conservation target. The UARL factor is calculated using information such as the total number of metered connections and length of distribution pipes. The UARL was not calculated for this report due to limited information. Additionally, the UARL factor may be inaccurate for small communities (AWWA, 2006).

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Table 42. Reported Unaccounted and Unmetered Water Use

Location Estimated Unaccounted/Unmetered Breckenridge 7.9% East Grand Forks 18.1% Fargo 6.7% Grand Forks 7.0% Moorhead 9.0% Valley City 15.8% West Fargo Not provided Source: RRVWS EIS 2007 and City of Grand Forks Water Utilities, 2009

4.4. Other Approaches Other water conservation approaches have been noted in other studies. Some of these approaches are listed here, although not directly applied in conservation potential estimates due to a general lack of data or not fitting within the scope of this report. Table 43 summarizes these additional conservation approaches.

In some cases, there may be one water meter for several units in a multi-family building. Metering of individual apartment, townhomes, or condominium units can provide water use information for residents. Similar to metering individual single family homes, this may provide incentives for individual units to apply water conservation.

Table 43. Select Other Water Conservation Approaches

Approach Potential Conservation Apartment Unit metering varies Car wash 15 U.S. gpv (self service) to 85 U.S. gpv (conveyor) 50% reduction with reclamation Graywater systems 10 to 50 U.S. gcd Public Education 0% to 5% direct reduction; vital component for other approaches Discretionary rate increases 2% savings for each 10% rate increase Source: Vickers, 2002.

Water reclamation measures have been applied to car washes to reduce water use. The typical car wash uses between 15 U.S. gallons per vehicle, gpv, (for self-service washes) to 85 gpv (for automated conveyor washes). After a car is washed, recycling of water involves separating oil, grease, and grit from used water. The filtered water can be used in the next rinsing. Water reclamation can reduce car wash water needs by 50%.

Graywater systems collect and reuse water on a commercial or residential site for non-potable water needs. A graywater system may use both captured rainwater and used potable water.

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Public water conservation education efforts may take the form of direct mailings, inserts in water bills, or presentations to local groups. Some studies have found up to 5% water conservation savings directly attributable to education efforts (RRVWSP EIS, 2007). In other cases, there may be no direct water conservation. Public education and consultation is often a vital component in the implementation of other water conservation measures.

Increasing water billing rates can have an impact on the amount of water use. Some studies have indicated a 2% water use reduction for each 10% increase in billing rates (RRVWSP EIS, 2007). In the Red River basin, several communities have uniform or decreasing block rate structures. Under this billing structure, the rates either stay the same or decrease, respectively, as more water is used (AWE, 2008). This may limit incentives to conserve water. Communities in Minnesota are currently in the process of adopting inclining conservation rate billing structures, where increasing water use results in an increase in billing rates10. The purpose and scope of this report does not consider conservation potential from altering billing rates, in favor of “soft path” approaches that focus on reducing water use through improved water use efficiencies.

4.5. Representative Communities Conservation Potentials Estimates of conservation potentials are provided for representative communities where detailed monthly data is available. While multiple conservation estimates under different assumptions are possible, a fixed conservation profile for this report was used. For residential indoor water use, the low-flow fixtures as required by the U.S. Energy Policy Act of 1992 were selected. While these fixtures are not currently a mandated requirement in the Canadian National Plumbing Code, there is a level of voluntary adoption of low-flow fixtures in Manitoba.

The use of water efficient clothes washers and dishwashers were also included in the conservation profile, as was insulation of hot water pipes and reducing consumer leaks. While no detailed information on residential water leaks in the community-level are available, it was assumed that leak potential savings was the lesser of 14% of residential indoor water use or 5 U.S. gcd. Both of these estimates have been cited as the average extent and possible water conservation savings for residential indoor leakage (AWWA, 2006).

10 Minnesota Statutes, section 103G.291, subd. 4, as amended in 2008

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No specific water conservation strategies were considered for commercial, industrial, and institutional uses, although an estimate of general conservation potential was considered. Estimates of water savings between non-conserving and conserving business types was used along with information on the number of various business types, number of employees, and typical water needs per employee. Specific water audits that consider the type and needs of each business may be needed to determine specific conservation approaches that are applicable. Potential water conservation amounts were calculated for the following business types: Accommodations (Hotels) and Food Service Educational Institutions and Information Technology Health Care and Social Services Meeting and Recreational businesses Sales-related businesses (including retail, wholesale, and offices) Service-related businesses, and Transportation and fuels

Lastly, a reduction in unmetered or unaccounted losses was considered if these losses exceeded 9% of total water production in a community, an action trigger level used in Minnesota water conservation plans. Determination of Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL), which may indicate a higher or lower conservation target, was not performed due to lack of community-specific information. The unmetered/unaccounted losses above 9% were assumed to be real losses associated with distribution system leaks. A community water audit may be needed to determine if a portion of these losses were apparent losses, such as unmetered uses or measurement errors.

Two conservation potential estimates were calculated using the above conservation profile. The first assumed that all non-conserving households and businesses participated in a conservation program. The second potential estimate used a presumed number of households and businesses which may participate, leaving a certain proportion as non-conserving.

As a partial comparison of the reasonableness of the conservation potential calculations, the average of U.S. residential indoor water use for non-conserving and conserving homes was examined. Based on Table 44, the average non-conserving home may use close to 70 U.S. gcd (265 lcd) while a conserving home may use 45 U.S. gcd (170 lcd), or a 36% decrease. Estimates of current residential indoor water use for Grand Forks, PVWC, and Selkirk are below 45 U.S. gcd. Potential residential indoor conservation estimates for Fargo, Breckenridge, Grand Forks,

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Table 44. Typical Residential Indoor Water Use for Non-Conserving and Conserving Homes

Residential Indoor Water Use Non-Conserving Home Conserving Home Toilets 18.5 U.S. gcd (26.7%) 8.2 U.S. gcd (18.0%) Showers 11.6 U.S. gcd (16.8%) 8.8 U.S. gcd (19.5%) Faucets 10.9 U.S. gcd (15.7%) 10.8 U.S. gcd (23.9%) Baths 1.2 U.S. gcd (1.7%) 1.2 U.S. gcd (2.7%) Dishwasher 1.0 U.S. gcd (1.4%) 0.7 U.S. gcd (1.5%) Clotheswasher 15.0 U.S. gcd (21.7%) 10.0 U.S. gcd (22.1%) Leaks 9.5 U.S. gcd (13.7%) 4.0 U.S. gcd (8.8%) Other 1.6 U.S. gcd (2.2%) 1.6 U.S. gcd (3.4%) Total 69.3 U.S. gcd 45.3 U.S. gcd Source: Vickers, 2002.

4.5.1. Full Community Participation Under one assumption, all residential and commercial, industrial, and institutional businesses participate in the conservation program. Figure 50 and Figure 51 summarize the average amounts of conservation potential.

The largest conservation potential is from residential outdoor use, with an average of 20 U.S. gcd or 45% reduction from current water use. The majority of this comes from xeriscaping with additional reductions from drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting. Commercial, industrial, and institutional water use may conserve an average of 11 U.S. gcd or a 19% reduction from current water use. The majority of the conservation is reflected in health care, social services and sales related businesses. The next largest reduction is from residential indoor uses, with an average of 9 U.S. gcd or 16% reduction from current use. The majority of this comes from leak repairs and the installation of low-water clothes washers and toilets. Lastly, reducing unaccounted or unmetered water use in communities where this exceeds 9% of total use results in an average savings of 5 U.S. gcd or 27% reduction.

The winter and peak summer month comparison between current use and estimated conservation is provided in Table 45. Conservation reductions range from 23% to 39% in winter months and 26% to 38% in peak summer months.

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Figure 50. Estimated Average Water Conservation Potential: Full Community Participation

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Figure 51. Average Conservation Potential by Approach: Full Community Participation

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Table 45. Existing and Potential Conservation: Full Community Participation

Location Existing Use Potential Conservation U.S. gcd (lcd) U.S. gcd (lcd) [Percent Change] Winter Peak Summer Winter Peak Summer Month Month PVWC (MB) 62 (235) 75 (284) 57 (216) 66 (250) -7% -11% Selkirk (MB) 79 (299) 104 (394) 73 (276) -7% 90 (341) -13% Breckenridge 73 (276) 134 (507) 67 (254) 107 (405) (MN) -8% -20% East Grand Forks 130 (492) 261 (988) 91 (344) 171 (647) (MN) -30% -34% Moorhead (MN) 124 (469) 195 (738) 96 (363) 143 (541) -23% -26% Fargo (ND) 99 (375) 244 (924) 74 (280) 169 (640) - 25% -31% Grand Forks (ND) 152 (575) 222 (840) 133 (503) 185 (700) -13% -17% Valley City (ND) 91 (344) 174 (659) 72 (273) 124 (469) -21% -28% West Fargo (ND) 79 (299) 194 (734) 69 (261) 145 (549) -13% -25%

4.5.2. Partial Community Participation A conservation program might not have full participation in a community. In additional to financial reasons, additional considerations for a reduced conservation program participation are discussed in Section 4.6. Table 46 lists estimated or assumed maximum levels of adoption of various conservation approaches. For the conservation profile considered in this report, a maximum adoption of residential indoor low-flow fixtures and appliances of 90% is used. Approximately 10% of existing non-conserving homes will not adopt these fixtures or appliances. Insulation of hot water pipes and reduction of consumer leaks is also assumed to have a maximum adoption rate of 90%. For residential outdoor water use, 10% of homes are assumed to adopt xeriscaping and other irrigation conservation measures. Approximately 60% of businesses are assumed to participate in detailed water audits and associated conservation efforts. The reduction of unmetered and unaccounted losses is not assumed to be impacted by a reduced participation as these activities are routine maintenance or part of Capital Improvement Programs (CIPs).

Approach Estimated Maximum Adoption (Source) Residential Indoor Promote Installation of 1.6 U.S. gallon ULF Toilets 90% (USBR) to 100% (AWWA) Promote Installation of Low-Flow Shower Heads 75% (AWWA) to 90% (USBR) Promote Installation of Efficient Clothes Washers 12% (AWWA) to 90% (USBR) Promote Installation of Efficient Dishwashers 90% (USBR) Residential water audits 10% (AWWA) Meter multifamily buildings 25% to 50% (AWWA) No Cost fixtures for low income households 38% of low-income households (USBR) Residential Outdoor Xeriscaping Rebate Program 10% (USBR) Irrigation controllers rebates 10% to 25% (AWWA) Irrigation rain sensor requirements 75% (AWWA) Landscape regulations 50% to 75% (AWWA) Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional Industrial and Commercial Efficiency Measures 60% (USBR) Commercial water audits 30% of top 40% of water users (AWWA) Commercial low-flow fixture rebates 40% to 50% (AWWA) Coin-op Efficient Clothes Washer rebates 25% (AWWA) Hotel water audits 25% (AWWA) Require ultra-low flow fixtures 90% (AWWA) Audits of large irrigated turf areas 25% of top water users (AWWA) Source: RRVWS EIS, 2007 and AWWA, 2006.

Figure 52 and Figure 53 show the potential conservation with assumed limits of participation. Residential indoor water use becomes the largest potential conservation source, at 8 U.S. gcd or 16% of current uses. Leak repair and low-flow appliances and fixtures make up the majority of this conservation. Commercial, industrial, and institutional conservation is the next largest conservation amount at 7 U.S. gcd reduction, or 11% of current uses. Health care, social services, and sales are the majority of this conservation. Unaccounted and unmetered loss conservation is 5 U.S. gcd savings or 27% reduction followed by residential outdoor use at 2 U.S. gcd savings or 4% reduction. The latter is heavily impacted by a presumed 10% participation in low-water landscaping or irrigation method adoption.

Table 47 shows the estimated conservation potentials for communities were seasonal water use information is available.

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Figure 52 Estimated Average Water Conservation Potential: Partial Community Participation

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Figure 53. Average Conservation Potential by Approach: Partial Community Participation

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Table 47. Existing and Potential Conservation: Partial Community Participation

Location Existing Use Potential Conservation with U.S. gcd (lcd) Adoption Limits U.S. gcd (lcd) [Percent Change] Winter Peak Summer Winter Peak Summer Month Month PVWC (MB) 62 (235) 75 (284) 59 (223) 71 (269) -4% -5% Selkirk (MB) 79 (299) 104 (394) 76 (288) 99 (375) -4% -5% Breckenridge 73 (276) 134 (507) 69 (261) 126 (477) (MN) -6% -6% East Grand Forks 130 (492) 261 (988) 95 (360) 207 (784) (MN) -27% -21% Moorhead (MN) 124 (469) 195 (738) 100 (379) 167 (632) -20% -15% Fargo (ND) 99 (375) 244 (924) 77 (291) 212 (803) -23% -13% Grand Forks (ND) 152 (575) 222 (840) 140 (530) 204 (772) -8% -8% Valley City (ND) 91 (344) 174 (659) 74 (280) 147 (556) -19% -16% West Fargo (ND) 79 (299) 194 (734) 70 (265) 179 (678) -11% -8%

4.6. Factors Influencing Conservation Program Participation Several factors may influence the level of participation in and extent of a conservation program (AWWA, 2006). Some of these factors are:

Public support and Community impact Conservation and Cost effectiveness Availability of Secondary Benefits, such as: o Delaying or reducing capital expansion needs o Ability to meet regulatory requirements o Environmental benefits Implementation Issues, such as: o Budget and staff needs o Partnership opportunities

Colorado State University (2009) conducted a survey of desired water conservation outcomes in the western U.S.; North Dakota was included in the survey. The survey examined respondents concerns on the short-term and long-term availability of water supply. Respondents were

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The majority (nearly 70%) of North Dakota survey respondents were supplied from a public water supply. Just over half (51%) of the North Dakota respondents felt that water scarcity was not an immediate short-term issue. When asked if the available water supply was sufficient over the next 25 years, the majority of respondents had concerns. Approximately 76% felt that water supply was insufficient to meet future needs in the next 25 years.

The survey provided several strategies for resolving water scarcity problems. The strategies were general, with no connection to specific projects intended. There were also no contingency aspects examined; for example if a respondent would still support a given strategy if it conflicted with another value such as natural habitat. Strategies were presented in two groups: supply and demand approaches (which included conservation) and regulatory approaches. For supply and demand approaches, North Dakotan respondents preferred water reuse for lawn irrigation and the construction of supply reservoirs (Figure 54). Strategies of residential conservation, regional pipelines, and graywater systems were preferred to a lesser extent. Measures limiting growth of cities or transferring water away from agricultural uses were the least preferred. When regulatory restrictions were considered, respondents listed restriction on private and public (lawn) watering as the preferred options (Figure 55).

Source: Colorado State University, 2009

Figure 54. North Dakota Water Supply Survey Results: Supply and Demand Strategies

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Source: Colorado State University, 2009

Figure 55. North Dakota Water Supply Survey Results: Regulatory Strategies

The survey proposed a hypothetical fixed fee to each water bill over the summer months to fund proposed water scarcity strategies. Over 50% of North Dakotan respondents indicated some willingness to pay between US $5 and US $25 per summer month. The median willingness to pay value was approximately US $17 per summer month.

Table 48 lists representative costs for residential water conservation approaches. An annualized cost for full funding of each measure is provided (based on AWWA, 2006). This annualized cost takes the combined cost of hardware and installation labor which is distributed over the life of the hardware. An interest rate of money of 3% per year was used. The cost estimate is expressed as the annualized cost divided by the estimate of annual gallons conserved.

Rebate programs partially offset costs to promote conservation adoption. The RRVWS EIS estimated rebate program costs at $0.50 to $0.66 per 1,000 U.S. gallons for most low-flow fixtures and appliances. Costs may increase to $1.28 to $1.47 per 1,000 U.S. gallons for additional rebates to low-income households. Reclamation's pilot xeriscaping programs in Fargo resulted in program costs of $10.84 to $16.83 per 1,000 U.S. gallons.

Rebate and incentive programs are one approach to implement conservation programs. Changes in the plumbing code can also be used to develop a set of mandated conservation measures that are applied to new construction or remodeling of existing sites. A “retrofit on

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Table 48. Estimated Cost of Select Water Conservation Approaches

Approach Cost [US $] Lifespan Annualized Cost Estimate Rebate [years] [$ US/1,000 US Program Cost gal] [$ US/1,000 US gal] Showerhead $10 to 35 5 to 10 $2.62 $0.50 to $0.66 rebate (2.5 U.S. gpm) program Faucet Aerator $3 5 $0.49 $1.28 to $1.47 for low- (2.2 U.S. gpm) income household Toilet $65 to $250 20 to 30 $2.02 replacement program (1.6 U.S. gpf) Hardware; $100 to $200 Installation Kitchen Faucet $3 5 $2.60 Aerator (2.2 U.S. gpm) Clotheswasher $600 to $1,000 15 to 20 $14.47 No Data Hardware; $100 Installation Graywater Systems $100 to $2,000 10 to 20 $4.65 No Data Hardware; $200 to $500 Installation Xeriscaping Rebate No Data $10.84 to $16.83 Program Source: AWWA, 2006. RRVWS EIS, 2007.

Conservation programs provide secondary benefits when the entire community water needs are considered. Reducing water use through conservation can also reduce pressures on other beneficial water uses, such as achieving environmental, agricultural, and other goals. In communities using groundwater, aquifer drawdowns can be reduced. The reduced water cost to the end consumer in water bills is also a benefit (AWWA, 2006).

Reduced water needs can result in reduced energy consumption for pumps and water treatment plant operations. Costs of chemicals or treatments used in water production may also be reduced along with associated production waste products, such as sludge, that requires disposal (AWWA, 2006). Conservation programs can also delay or reduce the need to expand existing water treatment or wastewater treatment facilities. By extending the life of existing facilities the need to borrow capital is delayed. When expanded treatment facilities are needed, the size of these facilities might be reduced with conservation. Both can result in less expensive future investments. The cities of Grand Forks and Winnipeg have used conservation and drought

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A water conservation plan might affect the financial sustainability of a water utility and generate revisions to drought contingency plans. Water utilities generate income from sales of water to end user customers on the basis of water use. If conservation causes billing rates to increase to cover fixed operating costs, the public may perceive this as “use less, pay more” which may create a disincentive for future conservation. Existing drought contingency plans may also need evaluation and rewriting. A drought contingency plan is different from a water conservation plan. The former emphasizes emergency actions that occur when certain drought conditions occur, while the later is a long-term strategy for conserving water. While on-going and long- term conservation has a beneficial impact on drought contingency plans, the effectiveness of planned emergency measures may need to be reevaluated.

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Sales, services, health care and social services made up the majority of businesses in the representative communities. Overall, health care and social services had the highest growth rates followed by service-related businesses. The number of sales-related businesses were mostly unchanged. The overall growth of businesses follows population growth patterns. Communities with declining population generally have declining number of businesses. However, it was not uncommon to have increases in health care and social service businesses even when population decreased.

Water use during winter months range from 62 U.S. gcd (232 lcd) in Manitoba to approximately 130 to 150 U.S. gcd (491 to 574 lcd) in the Minnesota-North Dakota metropolitan areas. Some rural communities have higher reported water use. In some communities (for example Manitoba), summer water use is not significantly different from winter use. Other communities have distinctive summer use indicative of irrigation activities. Maximum peak summer month uses, both in the last ten years and projected for past droughts, range from approximately 80 to 260 U.S. gcd (310 to 976 lcd).

Potential water savings were evaluated for several conservation approaches. If full participation in a water conservation program is considered, residential outdoor conservation has the greatest potential. On average, the use of drought resistant landscape vegetation and efficient irrigation could result in a 20 U.S. gcd (76 lcd) savings in summer use. Business water conservation could result in an average of 11 U.S. gcd (42 lcd) savings. Residential indoor conservation from adopting low-flow fixtures, appliances and leak and energy loss prevention could result in a 9 U.S. gcd (34 lcd) savings. Finally, in communities having more than a 9% unmetered or unaccounted loss, a 5 U.S. gcd (19 lcd) savings could be provided assuming these are real losses.

When partial participation in a water conservation program is assumed, residential outdoor potential savings is significantly less. The higher cost and presumed limited implementation of drought resistant landscaping could result in a 2 U.S. gcd (8 lcd) savings. Residential indoor conservation under partial participation is assumed to be similar to full participation, with an estimated 8 U.S. gcd (30 lcd) savings. Some aspects of low-flow fixtures and appliances are already mandated in the U.S. for adoption in new or remodeled spaces. Business water savings were estimated at an average of 7 U.S. gcd (26 lcd). Full participation in unaccounted and unmetered loss reduction was still assumed.

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The following recommendations are suggested to promote and enhance regional water conservation in the Red River basin:

1. Education, awareness, incentives and regulations for water conservation are essential and should be considered for basin communities.

7. A Pilot study for outdoor water conservation should be considered in the Red River Basin, based on Fargo’s experience, to determine any value and benefit based on existing summer water use.

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9. Further conservation can be achieved through proper valuation of the real cost of water supply and appropriate “Water Pricing” policies, with consideration of economic impacts to customers.

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American Water Works Association, "Water Conservation Programs - A Planning Manual", 2006

American Water Works Association, "Residential End Uses of Water", November 1999.

Brandes, Oliver and David Brooks, "The Soft Path for Water in a Nutshell", Friends of the Earth Canada and POLIS Project: Ottawa, ON, August 2007. Available on-line at: http://www.poliswaterproject.org/softpath

City of Fargo, "FX Project: Fargo Xeriscape Project", Fargo, ND: 2006.

City of Grand Forks, "Monthly water use information from 1973 to 2009", received via email from Hazel Sletten, Superintendent of Water Utilities, on September 11, 2009.

City of Grand Forks, “Drought Management and Demand Reduction Plan”, July 2007.

City of Winnipeg. "Water Conservation". Available on-line at http://www.winnipeg.ca/waterandwaste/water/waterfront/Navbar.html. Accessed July 2007.

Colorado State University, "Public Attitudes about Water Use in the West", Available on-line at: http://westernwatersurvey.colostate.edu/

Environment Canada, "Canadian Daily Climate Data CDCD V. 1.02", 2007.

Environment Canada, "Municipal Water Use 2004 Statistics", Ottawa, 2007.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), “Irrigation and Drainage Paper Number 56: Crop Evapotranspiration”, Revised February 2006.

HDR Engineering Inc, “Banner Bank Building, The Christensen Corporation: Boise, Idaho”, 2007.

International Institute for Sustainable Development. "Manitoba Water Soft Paths". Available on-line at http://www.iisd.org/natres/water/soft_paths.asp. Accessed July 2007.

International Institute for Sustainable Development. "Geographical Analysis of Cumulative Threats to Prairie Water Resources: Mapping water availability, water quality, and water use stresses". 2005.

Manitoba Water Stewardship. Water Use Licensing. Personal Communication with Rob Matthews, July 2007.

Minnesota Climatology Working Group, "Historic Climate Data Retrieval", Available on-line at: http://climate.umn.edu/doc/historical.htm

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Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Waters. "Water Appropriations Permit Program Database". Available on-line at http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/waters/watermgmt_section/appropriations/wateruse.html

Moore Engineering, "Taming the Lower Sheyenne River", presentation at the Minnesota Water Resources Conference, 2008.

National Climatic Data Center, "Cooperative Summary of the Day for Central United States", 2001. National Research Council of Canada, National Plumbing Code of Canada, 2005.

North Dakota State Water Commission, Water Permit GIS Database, Personal Communication with Bob White, 2008.

Pembina Valley Water Cooperative, "PVWC Monthly Water Consumption for Red River Regional, Morris Regional, and Stephfield Water Treatment Plants", received via email from Gorden Martell, September 25, 2009.

Province of British Columbia, "Tightening the Tap on Household Water Use in B.C." in Environmental Statistics, April 2009.

Red River Basin Commission, “Red River Basin Immediate Drought Response Process”, Moorhead, MN, 2009.

Selkirk Water, "Water Treatment Plant Monthly Reports for 2002 to 2009", received via email from Abul Kashem, Manitoba Water Stewardship, on September 2, 2009.

South Dakota Water Rights Program. "Water Permits for Roberts and Marshall Counties". Personal Communication with Eric Gronlund. July 25, 2007.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Water Control Manual: Baldhill Dam and Lake Ashtabula”, March 2007.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Water Control Manual: Orwell Reservoir”, August 2001.

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, "Assessment of Commercial Needs, Future Business and Industrial Activity in the Red River Valley: Final Report", Bismarck, ND, 2004.

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, "Water Conservation Potential Assessment: Final Report", Bismarck, ND, 2004.

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, “Final Environmental Impact Statement: Red River Valley Water Supply Project”, December 2007.

U.S. Census Bureau, "Census 2000", Available on-line at: http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html

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U.S. Census Bureau, "North American Industry Classification System", Washington, D.C., 2007. Available on-line at http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/sssd/naics/naicsrch?chart=2007

U.S. Census Bureau, "Population Estimates for Places July 1, 1990 to July 1, 1999", Washington, D.C., 2000.

U.S. Census Bureau, "Statistics of U.S. Businesses", Available on-line at: http://www.census.gov/econ/susb/index.html

U.S. Census Bureau, “Selected Historical Decennial Census Population and Housing Counts”, Available on-line at http://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/hiscendata.html.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, "Irrigation, Water Conservation, and Farm Size in the Western United States", June 2004. Available on-line at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/WesternIrrigation/summaryofresults.htm

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, Building Technology Division, “Residential water conservation projects: summary report”, Washington, D.C., 1984

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Water Conservation Plan Guidelines", August 6, 1998.

U.S. Green Building Council, "An Introduction to LEED", Available on-line at: http://www.usgbc.org/

Vickers, Amy, "Handbook of Water Use and Conservation", WaterPlow Press: Amherst, MA, 2002.

Wolff, Gary and Peter Gleick. “The Soft Path for Water” in The World’s Water 2002-2003. Pacific Institute, 2002.

For additional bibliographic resources on regional drought planning and natural resources issues in the Red River Basin, the reader is referred to “Bibliographic Listing of Reports and Abstracts Related to the Red River of the North” (available on-line at http://nd.water.usgs.gov/pubs/key/redriver.html) and “Bibliographic Listing of Reports and Abstracts Related to Drought” (available on-line at http://nd.water.usgs.gov/pubs/key/drought.html)

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Breckenridge, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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East Grand Forks, Full Conservation Program Participation

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East Grand Forks, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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Moorhead, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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Fargo, Full Conservation Program Participation

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Fargo, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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Grand Forks, Full Conservation Program Participation

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Grand Forks, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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Valley City, Full Conservation Program Participation

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Valley City, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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West Fargo, Full Conservation Program Participation

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West Fargo, Partial Conservation Program Participation

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