The Prehistory of the Red River Valley

A fragmentary mammoth tusk, about thirty inches long, found in Grant County

The PREHISTORY of the RED RIVER VALLEY

ELDEN JOHNSON

THE HISTORY of man in the Red River archaeology of the valley comes from the Valley precedes the arrival of homesteaders, work of Theodore H. Lewis who surveyed modern agriculture, towns, and cities by many burial mound groups for the Minne some ten thousand years. American Indians sota Historical Society in the late nineteenth have lived in and adjacent to the valley for century. More comes from the work of Pro all of this immense period, leaving behind fessors Albert E. Jenks and Lloyd A. Wilford an archaelogical record which documents of the University of Minnesota who have ex theff cultural adaptations and changes cavated sites in the area.^ Most recently, a through time. Because archaeological re search is recent and the hundreds of habita ' The results of Lewis' work in the Red River tion sites and burial places have been only Valley may be found in Newton H. Winchell, ed.. The Aborigines of Minnesota, 300-322, 358-363 sampled scientifically, the record is still (St. Paul, 1911). See also Theodore H. Lewis, sketchy and incomplete. The main trends "Mounds on the Red River of the North," in Amer of these prehistoric cultures can be seen, ican Antiquarian, 8:369-371 (November, 1886). Material on the region is included in numerous however, and are outlined in this brief paper. writings by both Jenks and Mr. Wifiord. See, for Much of our knowledge of the prehistoric example, Albert Ernest Jenks, "Recent Discoveries in Minnesota Prehistory," in Minnesota History, 16:5-14 (March, 1935); Lloyd A. Wifiord, "Min MR. JOHNSON is associatc professor of anthro nesota .'Vrchaeology: Current Explorations and pology in the University of Minnesota. He has Concepts," in Minnesota Academy of Science, Pro ceedings, 10:21, 25 (1942). A recent summary ap supervised numerous archaeological investiga pears in Waldo R. Wedel, Prehistoric Man on the tions in his role of state archaeologist. Great Plains, 210-239 (Norman, Oklahoma, 1961).

December 1962 157 three-year program of survey and excavation as the McCauleyville, Blanchard, and Glad has been carried out by the University of stone beaches, formed during the final stages Minnesota under a grant from the National of the lake's existence, when the waters Science Foundation. This work was con drained to the east and north.* ducted from 1959 through 1962 by archaeol At its maximum the lake extended over ogists from the university's department of much of south-central Canada so that the anthropology under the direction of the au southern tongue lying within the United thor. It was possible only with the help of States portion of the Red River Valley is many interested valley residents, and our only a small part of the total. By arbitrarily findings were enhanced by the co-operation restricting this discussion to the region south of the North Dakota Historical Society, of the international border we exclude many which permitted us to excavate in North Da important archaeological complexes de kota.^ scribed by Canadian scholars.^ The Red River Valley is a product of glacial and postglacial action. During the EVIDENCE for the earliest inhabitants of latter phases of the most recent ice age, the the region is obscure. The find which may valley was overlaid by a section of the huge continental ice sheet. As the last glacial sheet °For a report on the prehminary survey of sites melted and its margins withdrew to the in the valley, conducted in 1959, see Elden John son and G. E. Evans, "An Archeological Survey of northeast, the melt water, seeking its normal the Glacial Lake Agassiz Basin," a paper on file in northern drainage channels, met the edge the office of the department of anthropology. Uni of the ice, which blocked its flow. The water versity of Mirmesota, Minneapolis. ^The most complete discussion of Glacial Lake then ponded against the edge of the glacial Agassiz and the formation of its beaches is in sheet, forming a huge lake whose depth was Warren Upham, The Glacial Lake Agassiz {United accentuated by the weight of adjacent ice States Department of the Interior, Geological Sur vey, Monographs Vol. 25 — Washington, 1896). depressing the crust of the earth. It estab For more recent investigations see Frank Leverett lished an outlet at Lake Traverse and flowed and Frederick W. Sardeson, Quaternary Geology of south through Glacial River Warren, or the Minnesota and Parts of Adjacent States, 119-140 (United States Department of the Interior, Geo valley of the present Minnesota River. This logical Survey, Professional Papers No. 161 •— body of water, known as Glacial Lake Agas Washington, l932); John A. Elson, "Lake Agassiz siz, existed until about 4000 B.C. when the and the Mankato-Valders Problem," in Science, 126:999-1003 (November 15, 1957). glacier had finally receded far enough to * Modern studies reveal the lake's story to be a allow passage for the normal northerly drain complex one. Geologists have tentatively recon age.^ structed it as follows: After the formation of the Tintah beach an eastern outlet was opened, only Gravel and sand beaches formed during to be closed again by a relatively short-lived gla the existence of Glacial Lake Agassiz mark cial advance during the Campbell beach period, when the lake once more drained to the south. stages in its history. The lake was not static, Following this another eastern outlet was formed for as the ice front slowly receded, easterly through which the lake drained completely. Its bed outlets through Lake of the Woods and the remained dry for an indeterminate period, when a new advance of the ice sheet produced more melt border lake chain were formed, reducing the water and formed so-called Lake Agassiz II, some expanse of melt water and creating new where around 6000 B.C. This second lake drained beaches which mark the progressively small to the south until the final retreat of the ice sheet opened outlets to the east and eventually to the er lake areas. These beaches are known by north. It was during this last period that the lower the names of nearby towns. The Herman is beach lines were formed. Leverett and Sardeson, the highest and marks the lake's greatest ex Quaternary Geology of Minnesota, 137, 139; Elson, in Science, 1003. tent. The Norcross, Tintah, and Campbell ^ An excellent discussion of the prehistoric ar beaches represent successive levels reached chaeology of this more northern region is Richard while the waters of the lake poured out to S. MacNeish, An Introduction to the Archaeology of the south. Well within these are such others Southeast Manitoba {National Museum of Canada, Bulletins No. 157 — Ottawa, 1958).

158 MINNESOTA History below the surface would tend to support Ice Sheet those who argue for an earlier age. Native burial pits in cemeteries or burial mounds are seldom found to be deeply intruded into the earth. •* Two artifacts were discovered with the bones, one an antler object, perforated at the base, and the other a shell pendant, interest ing in that it is a marine or saltwater shell, probably from the Gulf of Mexico and per haps indicative of trade with peoples to the

RED River Valley, showing southern arm of Lalce Agassiz at highest, or Herman, stage (shaded) and Campbell stage (hatched line).

APPROXIMATE area covered hy Lake Agassiz. The position of the ice sheet is conjectured. have the greatest antiquity, and which some have claimed indicates the presence of man in the terminal Pleistocene, is the fa mous Minnesota Man. This skeleton was accidentally discovered in the process of highway construction near Pelican Rapids in 1931, but it was removed and the cover ing earth disturbed before archaeologists had examined the site. Thus questions have always remained as to the importance of the find. Those who claim a Pleistocene age for the skeleton point out that it lay beneath a varved clay lake sediment deposited in the now extinct Glacial Lake Pelican; that it was deeply buried beneath these sediments; and that if it had been a later intruded burial, the varved clay would have shown the dis turbance made by excavation of a burial pit. Because of the conditions surrounding its discovery, however, there is no conclusive evidence that the skeleton was not a much later intruded burial, accidentally associated with a glacial lake sediment. It should be noted that the extreme depth of the skeleton

"For a discussion of this find see Albert Ernest Jenks, Pleistocene Man in Minnesota: A Fossil Homo Sapiens (Minneapolis, 1936).

December 1962 159 south.^ Neither artifact is diagnostic — that on the road in front of his grain elevator. is, both are generalized and cannot be com Recognizing the possible importance of this pared typologically for purposes of age de finely made point, Jensen went to the gravel termination. Shell pendants are common pit on the south edge of the town in 1933. toward the close of the prepottery Archaic Wilham H. Jensen of Browns Valley noticed stage, and they also occur in later horizons. a projective point in a load of gravel spread Attempts at radiocarbon dating of the a human burial and associated with it were find have been inconclusive. An early at other points and knives of the same fine tempt to extract organic carbon from the workmanship. Fortunately Jensen realized antler artifact failed because the artifact is the importance of documenting this find highly mineralized and did not produce the and photographed the burial in place before required carbon.^ A later processing of bone it was completely removed. He also notified from the actual skeleton proved equally Professor Jenks and allowed the University frustrating for two reasons: The skeleton of Minnesota to study both the points and had been carefuUy cleaned and then treated the skeleton.^ with a coating of shellac in the laboratory. The Browns VaUey site is important, for Shellac is an organic substance and bone is the burial pit was intruded into a gravel bar highly porous. As the modern shellac pene laid down during the Tintah beach stage trated the bone, it contaminated the older of Lake Agassiz. Because the pit fill ap carbon present. Professor WaUace Arm peared to contain little humus and because strong of the University of Minnesota care the earth over the pit seemed to have been fully prepared the carbon sample from the undisturbed, it is felt that the burial was bone submitted, after treating the bone to intruded into the gravel after the outlet remove the shellac. Much of the contami channel which drained the lake during its nating shellac must have been removed, but Tintah stage had ceased to be active but it is impossible to say how much remained before there had been much soil accumula to alter the subsequent date. The second tion on the gravel bar. As we have no way reason for lack of acceptance of the radio of determining the rate of soil accumulation carbon date is that the residue carbon tested on such a surface, we do not know the fell below the minimum amount required elapsed time involved, and because there by the radiocarbon laboratory for accuracy. has been no radiocarbon age determination The date produced falls within the time for these remains, we cannot date the site period allotted to the Archaic stage, which exactly. extended from 5000 B.C. (perhaps earlier) While there are no exact typological until nearly 1000 B.C. Together with the equivalents for the Browns Valley points slim typological evidence from the shell and knives, they are hke others which have pendant, this may indicate that Minnesota been found on the Plains and grouped into a Man is Archaic and not as early as many had broad category called parallel flaked points. hoped. These are the most recent in a sequence of Other archaeological evidence for the projectile points associated with a big-game- earhest inhabitants of the Lake Agassiz re hunting Paleo-Indian culture which was gion is slight and with one exception consists found over the eastern half of the United of various types of spear points found on the surface of the ground. The exception is 'Jenks, Pleistocene Man in Minnesota, 164-166. a site in Browns Valley found accidentally " Lloyd A. Wilford, "A Revised Classification of the Prehistoric Cultures of Minnesota," in Ameri when crews were removing gravel from a can Antiquity, 21:130 (October, 1955). pit on the south edge of the town in 1933. "Albert Ernest Jenks, Minnesota's Browns Val William H. Jensen of Browns Valley noticed ley Man and Associated Burial Artifacts, 6-11 (American Anthropological Association, Memoirs a projectile point in a load of gravel spread No. 49 — Menasha, Wisconsin, 1937).

160 MINNESOTA Htstory BROWNS Valley point (top) and two Folsom fluted points.

States between 12000 and 2000 B.C. (per In studying the points in private collec haps beginning much earher). The Browns tions, others of Paleo-Indian origin have Valley burial probably dates from about been noted, and in some cases the collector 6000 B.C., but another site with datable ma has had accurate knowledge of the location terials is needed before the age can be stated of his find — at least the township, and oc with any certainty.'^'^ casionally the exact section and even quarter section. It is not necessary to list all these OTHER Paleo-Indian sffes in the Lake finds and their possible significance, but Agassiz basin have not yet been discovered, one important earlier type should be noted. although characteristic projectile points ap This is the kind known technically as Fol pear in some of the region's private collec som fluted and documented in actual sites tions. Early sites rarely can be located by elsewhere on the Plains. Folsom points have noting surface conditions. Generally they been dated between 8000 and 6000 B.C. are deeply buried, and it is only through Several private Northwest collections con accidents, such as those which resulted in tain examples. Their distribution is interest the Minnesota Man and Browns Valley finds, ing, for although they occur with greatest that we actually see such a site in place. frequency in North Dakota along the James Unfortunately also, these sites are not al River and on the upper Sheyenne, they have ways reported, which means that their sci also been found in the Sheyenne delta of entific value is lost. Lake Agassiz. This sandy, dunelike area east of Lisbon, North Dakota, was formed "See Jenks, Browns Valley Man, 33-46; Lloyd as the Sheyenne discharged sediment-laden A. Wilford, "The First Minnesotans," in Lawrence waters into Lake Agassiz, building up a M. Brings, ed., Minnesota Heritage: A Panoramic large delta. Folsom points have been found Narrative of the Historical Development of the in the upper delta area, which means that North Star State, 45 (St. Paul, 1960).

December 1962 161 A four-incli copper spear point in the museum of the Grant County Historical Society at Elbow Lake

bison were hunted in this region after the the CampbeU beach near Fertfle, consisted maximum or Herman lake stage, but prob of a flexed primary burial in a circular pit ably while the diminishing Lake Agassiz II excavated into the gravel beach. With the was in existence. Although Folsom fluted skeleton were found two large tanged cop points have also been found on the surface per spear points. in southern and central Minnesota, none Though there is a tendency for accidental have been noted in the areas along the east finds of copper to occur in the vicinity of ern shore of Lake Agassiz.^^ the Campbell beaches, this probably does Early cultural developments reflected in not mean that the Archaic complex is associ archaeological sites distributed along the ated with the Campbell stage of the lake. eastern margins of Lake Agassiz seem to be Instead it probably indicates that a natural associated with a second prepottery cultural gravel ridge was a preferred burial zone. stage called the Eastern Archaic. This is This fact, combined with the numerous mod characterized by the presence of ground and ern gravel excavations along the Campbell, polished as well as chipped stone work and would account for the frequency of finds. by local adaptations to specific environmen Carefully documented private collections tal situations. The projectile points, unlike contain similar copper points and other arti the Paleo-Indian points, tend to be vari facts from areas well within the Red River able in form and are usually stemmed and Valley proper. One collection from Crooks notched.^- ton includes several copper artifacts found The earliest phases of this stage are vague, in a cultivated field west of the town, and but several habitation or camp sites have fairly close to the present Red River. This been located and some have been excavated. would indicate that the copper is post-Lake As with the earlier Paleo-Indian culture, Agassiz, and if the radiocarbon dates for burial sites are difficult to locate from similar copper sites in Wisconsin are accu the surface. Our archaeological survey of rate, Lake Agassiz had ceased to exist, at the Lake Agassiz basin in the summer of least in this southern area, sometime before 1959 revealed many instances of gravel op the period of 5000 to 3000 B.C." erations, particularly along the Campbell An Archaic site of importance, not yet beaches, where pit burials had been found fully studied, was found a few miles south and removed, but unfortunately documen of Roseau on the banks of the Roseau River. tation of these sites at the time of their discovery did not take place, and our in ^^ See George A. Flaskerd, "Some Folsom and formation consists of after-the-fact reports, Yuma Type Points from Minnesota," in Minnesota sometimes filtered through rather hazy Archaeologist, 11:32 (April, 1945). ^^ See Wifiord, in Minnesota Heritage, 46. memories. " For a discussion of the Archaic copper culture One interesting aspect of this region's of the Upper Great Lakes area, see George I. Quimby, Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes Archaic culture is the frequent occurrence (Chicago, 1960). of large copper spear points made of rela " See Warren L. Wittry and Robert E. Ritzen tively pure native metal. ^-^ For example, thaler, "The Old Copper Complex: An Archaic Manifestation in Wisconsin," in American Antiq an old copper grave investigated in 1960 on uity, 21:244-254 (January, 1956).

162 MINNESOTA History Excavations begun in August, 1960, revealed have been excavated and they show con that though apparently lacking copper, it siderable variation in burial mode through is characterized by a series of concave-based time. Air. Wilford defined an archaeological projectile points. It seems to have been a complex called the Arvilla on the basis of camping area for hunters, as considerable excavations in the 1930s, and in our recent broken and charred animal bone is found work additional Arvilla burials were en- throughout the site. countered.i^ Although the ArviUa complex The Archaic stage is of particular impor is in the process of revision — for it is too tance, for it is very poorly defined in Minne inclusive and contains complexes irorq' dif sota, and the Agassiz basin offers a good ferent time horizons — the Haarstad burial opportunity to understand it in greater de mound near New Folden excavated in 1961, tail. The region is important also, for it would seem to fall within this category. seems probable that the postglacial valley Like most Arvilla mounds, this one is itseff has always been praffie. In addition, barely discernible. It is long, low, and hnear large areas east of the lake margins which instead of the usual cffcular, hemispherical are now wooded may have been prairie for form. Built directly on one of the Campbell much of the time period in which the Ar strand-line beaches, and in a field cultivated chaic culture developed. Understanding the for many years, the mound itself was visible relationship of these cultures to such ecologi only to one expecting to find it. The fill cal factors is one of the major goals in the rose only about six inches above the surface study of the region's archaeology. of the beach, and its 250-foot length made it appear to be a natural feature. WOODLAND culture, which followed the Excavation of this long mound revealed Archaic in this area, differs in that both the two burial pits below the mound fill and making of pottery and the burial of the dead excavated deeply into the underlying Camp in artificial earth mounds were added to bell gravel. One pit, whose base was nine the inventory of culture. Careful survey feet below the surface, had been previously indicates few locations within the present disturbed by amateur excavations and con valley where peoples of the Woodland cul tained no burial or mortuary offerings. ture maintained permanent abodes, though The second, slightly smaller pit contained many thin, scattered camp sites exist. The the skull and larger bones of the extremities larger Woodland habitation sites are found of a single human, and associated with the along the margins of the valley — in the burial were a number of personal belong moraine and lake country to the east, and ings. Bone needles, a bone awl, a necklace in the small river valleys to the west. Burial of perforated eagle talons, another of shells mounds are numerous, however, and the from tiny snails, a piece of red ocher, a lump majority are situated on the surface of the of green clay, and a single clam shell pend raised gravel beaches which were laid down ant were clustered near the skull, as if they much earlier. had been in a bag or container placed with Though no burial mound radiocarbon the burial. dates have yet been obtained from the re The mound fill of this and other ArviUa gion, it seems probable that this method sites contains no cultural evidence. That of interment spans a two-thousand year pe is, there are no pottery sherds, projectile riod ending sometime in the very early his points, stone fragments or other debris. Oc toric era, with the last of the Sioux mound casionally an Arvilla mound will contain one burials. Many of the Red River mounds or several burials in the upper fill, but with out exception these are intrusive burials '"'For a discussion of the Arvilla complex, see placed in the already existing mounds by Wifiord, in American Antiquity, 137; in Minne sota Heritage, 59-61. a later people.

December 1962 163 noa'g'-fiA-

AN Arvilla complex burial excavated in Marsfmll County. Scale is shown by one-inch stripes on stake.

Si^lfj^^S.^J'ife.^S'lfcJ.^ ^ t The original mound of this type excavated have located the mound. Its surface con by Mr. Wilford near Arvilla, North Dakota, tours had disappeared. showed some of the characteristics de Excavation showed a single intrusive scribed in the Haarstad site. It was also a secondary burial in the mound fill at one linear mound built on a gravel beach and extreme edge. This grave contained no arti burials were in large subsurface pits. The facts. The original burials were again in burial method differed, however, in that the pits excavated into the tough clay subsoil. skeletons were found in a sitting position The central mound pit was oval shaped and with legs drawn up and knees under the contained a mass secondary burial consist chin. One burial was particularly interest ing of skulls and larger extremity bones of ing, for it had two large crescent-shaped sixteen individuals. The base of the pit had sheet copper ornaments over the chest. The been covered with a layer of red ocher as ArviUa burial pits were very deep and pen had several of the skulls. No grave goods etrated through the gravel to a pure white were found. Surrounding this pit was a sand subsoil. In excavating, the pit outhnes series of smaller ones spaced at an equal were not visible at the top of the subsoil, distance from the center. Each of the small and it was only after several levels of the pits, with one exception, contained a single white sand had been removed that the secondary burial. The exception proved to burials were exposed.^® be the primary burial of an adult badger. All were without grave goods, though a AN EXAMPLE of the most recent form tubular copper bead was found in the upper of burial mound in the valley was excavated fill of one pit. Several of the smaller pits at Crookston in 1960. This circular mound had rock cairns above them, and the large on the banks of the Red Lake River had central pit had the charred wood and char been surveyed by Lewis in 1880. His map coal remains of a fire that had been built of the mound shows it as circular and nearly ever the top after the burials had been seven feet high and approximately 120 feet placed and the pit filled in. in diameter at that time.^^ When the mound was excavated in 1960 it had been cultivated " See Mr. Wilford's field notes, on file in the continuously since Lewis' time and had we office of the department of anthropology. University of Minnesota. not had the original survey, we could not "Winchell, Abcrrigines, 361.

164 MINNESOTA History The traits found in this burial mound, burned to provide suitable garden plots. consisting of primary burials in shallow pits, Having a hoe technology, they could not no grave goods, use of red ocher, primary cope with prairie grasslands, and it was not burial of an animal, rock cairns, and fires until white settlers arrived with plows and built over the site, conform to the typical draft animals that the rich Lake Agassiz Kathio focus burials found quite commonly lake bed began to reach its full economic in central Minnesota. These burials are at potential. tributed to the late prehistoric Sioux whose Other habitation and camp sites in the descendants practiced a primary exposed valley during the Woodland stage tend to tree or scaffold burial in histoiic times.i** be quite small and scattered. A small Black Other mound groups of the late prehis duck focus site on the Snake River west of toric period are seen at the southern end of Warren is typical in that it provided a thin the valley, and are concentrated along the deposit of camp litter including broken pot high bluffs overlooking Traverse and Big tery, flint and chert implements, and a quan Stone lakes. Some of these mounds are as tity of bison bone.-" This was probably a sociated with the Cambria focus, which is hunting camp where people stayed tem characterized by large permanent villages, porarily while on the prairies in search of maize farming, globular, smooth-surfaced bison. Slain animals were apparently butch pottery, and burials which are primary and ered here and the meat then taken back extended on the mound floor. The Cambria to a larger village found farther east in the mounds are circular and conical, and some spruce and lake country. are flat topped. ^^ Peoples of the Cambria Valley mounds normally show good pres focus account for the only sizeable habita ervation of bone, probably due to the quan tion sites on the valley itself during the late tities of limestone in the soil. Those in parts prehistoric period. Our recent surveys dis of Minnesota where the soils are acid are closed that they occupied the Strader site often completely devoid of skeletal material. near Wheaton and the viUage site near Fort Many mounds in the valley and elsewhere Abercrombie, North Dakota. These farming in the state are badly disturbed by rodent peoples moved north from the Minnesota burrows, although next to man, the most River and Big Stone Lake and settled along serious violator of mounds is the badger. the Red River and some tributaries where The soft mound fill — and in western pit timbered bottom lands could be cut and burial moimds, the deep pits themselves — are apparently ideal badger homes. The hu man skeletal material is frequently chewed, '"For a description of the Kathio focus see Wil ford, in American Antiquity, 135; in Minnesota broken, and scattered by these powerful ani Heritage, 61. mals. Excavations of mounds by casual col " For a more complete description of the Cam lectors or by people who are just curious is bria focus see Wilford, in American Antiquity, 138; in Minnesota Heritage, 56. Cambria burial practices perhaps the major destructive force. Though are described in Elden Johnson, "Cambria Burial generaUy well meaning, these people un Mounds in Big Stone County," in Minnesota Ar fortunately destroy scientific evidence, for a chaeologist, 23:53-81 (July, 1961). ^°For characteristics of the Blackduck focus ses badly disturbed mound asks more questions Wilford, in American Antiquity, 136; in Minnesota than it answers. Heritage, 61. The story outlined here is only the barest THE DRAWINGS on pages 157 and 162 are by sketch of the rich prehistory of the Red Jeremy G. Welsh. The photograph on page 161 River Valley. As archaeological work con was taken by Eugene D. Becker, and the one oppo site is from the files of the department of anthro tinues, greater detail will appear and the pology. University of Minnesota. The maps ar; significance of this area bordering both based on Upham Lake Agassiz, plate ix; and prairie and timber, plains and lake country, Leverett and Sardeson, Quaternary Geology of Minnesota, page 121. will become more apparent.

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