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Reconstructing Proto-Sahaptian Sounds

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Reconstructing Proto-Sahaptian Sounds Reconstructing Proto-Sahaptian Sounds Noel Rude Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Sahaptin and the mutually unintelligible Nez Perce comprise the Sahaptian language family. This paper attempts to reconstruct the sound system of the parent language of that family. There is little dialect variation in the available data for Nez Perce, whereas Sahaptin divides into three definable dialect clusters: Columbia River (Umatilla, Tenino, Celilo, etc.); Northwest (Klickitat, Upper Cowlitz, Yakima, etc.); Northeast (Priest Rapids, Walla Walla, Palouse, etc.). Various features distinguish the dialects, e.g., long vowels derived from certain VCV sequences are more common in the Northern dialects and in Nez Perce, the Northeast dialects and Nez Perce are more likely to preserve the glottal stop, and the palatalization of *k is most extensive in the Columbia River dialects. The reconstructions proposed here are, as always, more or less tentative. Unless otherwise indicated the examples labeled Sahaptin (S) are from Umatilla.1 Figure 1. The Sahaptian language family Proto-Sahaptian Nez Perce Sahaptin Columbia River Northern Northwest Northeast 1 For the connection between Sahaptin and Nez Perce, see Aoki (1962), Rigsby (1965), Rigsby and Silverstein (1969), and Rude (1996, 2006). For the relationship with Plateau Penutian, see Aoki (1963), Rude (1987), and Pharis (2006). For a possible relationship within the broader Penutian macro-family, see DeLancey & Golla (1979) and Mithun (1999), also Rude (2000) for a possible connection with Uto-Aztecan. For Sahaptin grammars, see Jacobs (1931), Millstein (ca. 1990a), Rigsby and Rude (1996), Rude (2009), and for published NW Sahaptin texts, see Jacobs (1929, 1934, 1937). Beavert and Hargus (2010) provide a dictionary of Yakima Sahaptin, Millstein (ca. 1990b) an unpublished dictionary of Warm Springs Sahaptin, and Aoki (1994) a dictionary of Nez Perce. I wish to thank Inez Spino Reves, a Umatilla speaker, for the Columbia River (CR) examples, and Elizabeth Wocatsie Jones, a Walla Walla speaker, for the Northeast (NE) examples. Thanks also are due to Sharon Hargus for reading and commenting on this paper. Abbreviations are as follows: CR: Columbia River Sahaptin, K: Klikitat, N: Northern Sahaptin, NE: Northeast Sahaptin, NP: Nez Perce, NW: Northwest Sahaptin, PS: Proto-Sahaptian, S: Sahaptin, WS: Warm Springs, Y: Yakima. 292 1 Vowels 1.1 Basic vowel inventory Proto-Sahaptian *i and *u survive intact in both Nez Perce and Sahaptin. Stressed vowels are length- Table 1. Proto-Sahaptian vowels ened in Nez Perce (though with some phonological caveats). Because of the Front Central Back complexity of Nez Perce phonology High i i u Nez Perce examples will be provided Mid o in underlying form between slashes. Low æ α (1) NP k•i /k•/ ‘this’; S Č•; PS *k• (2) NP kõut /kut/ ‘going, doing’; S kõt; PS *kõt Nez Perce contrasts two low vowels, /æ/ and /α/, represented orthographically as /e/ and /a/. (3) NP tÃhay /tahay/ ‘hardened snow’ (4) NP tƒhey /tehey/ ‘fur’ Sahaptin blurs the /æ/ - /α/ contrast with one low vowel, /a/. Evidence for the contrast in Proto-Sahaptian is supplied by palatalization in Sahaptin (see §3.1). (5) S pČà ‘mother’; NP p•ke /pke/; PS *pkƒ (6) S skÃwn ‘fear’; NP cikÃawn /ckÃwn/; PS *skÃwn Nez Perce contrasts /u/ and /o/. There may be no test, however, that could prove that this distinction obtained (or didn’t obtain) in Proto-Sahaptian. The reconstructions given in this paper assume that it did. (7) NP påhos, pohås- /pohos/ ‘mountain mahogany, Cercocarpus ledifolius’; S põuí ‘juniper, Juniperus occidentalis’; NE puŞõí; PS *pohåí (8) NP põhs , puhõs- /puhs/ ‘inner side of hide’; S põuí; NE puŞõí; PS *puhõí PS *i is assumed to have been epenthetic (see §1.4). 293 1.2 Long vowels 1.2.1 Lengthening under stress Stressed vowels are lengthened in Nez Perce. (9) NP nõusnu, nusnõu- /nusnu/ ‘nose’; S nõínu; PS *nõínu (10) NP tÃa¤am, ta¤Ãam- /ta¤am/ ‘egg’; S tamÃm; PS *ta¤Ãm Lengthening does not occur in the environment /VŞV/ or /VhV/ (V = vowel). (11) NP sõŞum, suŞõm- /suŞum/ ‘master, pet’ (12) NP tåhon, tohån- /tohon/ ‘leggings’ High vowels (/i/ and /u/) do not lengthen before a morpheme boundary plus /y/ (or [y]). (13) NP kõy /ku-y/ ‘go!’ or ‘do!’; cf. kõuse /ku-sen-s/ ‘I am going’ (14) NP hiŞn•ye /hi-Şni-e/ ‘he gave’; cf. Şin•ise /Şni-sen-s/ ‘I am giving’ 1.2.2 Compensatory lengthening An unstressed vowel lengthens in Nez Perce when a deleted /h/ follows after a morpheme boundary. (15) NP hiinõŞ /hi-hn-õŞ/ ‘he will say’ (16) NP peepõŞ /pe-hp-õŞ/ ‘we shall eat’ 1.2.3 Loss of medial consonant Proto-Sahaptian *ewe becomes /uu/ in NP and sporadically so in Sahaptin (least common in CR and most commonly in NE). In Nez Perce *awa becomes /oo/. (17) NP kõus ‘water’; NE & CR Čõuí; K ČÃwaí; PS *kƒweí (18) NP miyåoûat ‘chief’; NE & CR miyõuû; NW miyÃwaû; PS *miyÃwaû(ato) Proto-Sahaptian *ene/*ele and *ana/*ala variously mutate to /aa/ in the Sahaptin dialects. 294 (19) NW aal• ‘dangerous being’; CR alal•; PS * alal• (20) NE -twaa; CR -twana ‘together with’; PS *-twenen The sequence *eye or *aya variously simplifies to /aa/ in the Sahaptin dialects, and regularly to [ee] or [aa] in Nez Perce when unstressed. (21) S ČČÃa ‘serviceberry’; Y ČČÃya; NP kikƒeye /kkeye/; PS *kkƒye (22) CR Óaamà ‘golden eagle’; WS & N ÓayamÃ; PS *Óayamà (23) NP weecƒeye /weyece-e/ ‘I danced’; weyƒeces /weyece-s/ ‘I have danced’ A medial glottal stop variously deletes in Sahaptin depending on position and dialect. (24) CR nÃamn ‘wear out, fade away’; NE naŞÃmn; NP /laŞÃmn/; PS *naŞÃmn (25) CR kõuí ‘thusly’; NE kuŞõí; NP kuŞõs /kuŞõs/; PS *kuŞõí (26) S yÃamaí ‘mule deer doe’; NP yeރmes /yeŞemes/ ‘black-tailed doe’; PS *yeރmeí A medial /h/ regularly deletes in Nez Perce when both vowels are unstressed. (27) NP ŞeexnõŞ /Şe-hekn-õŞ/ ‘I will see it’; Şehƒkin /Şe-hekn-s/ ‘I have seen it’ (28) NP hitoos•ca /hi-tohosn-sen-s/ ‘the fire is dying down’; hitohåsin /hi-tohosn-s/ ‘the fire has died down’ Proto-Sahaptian *VhV typically shortens to V (V = vowel) in Sahaptin (see §3.7). (29) S pÃp ‘man’s daughter’; NP pÃhap /pahap/; PS *pÃhap (30) S p•napam ‘four times’; NP pilepƒhem /pilepehem/; PS *p•nepehem In the NW dialects Proto-Sahaptian *eRe (R = resonant or glottal) variously becomes /ii/. 295 (31) NW t•in ‘person’; CR tanÃn; PS *tenƒn (32) Y Č•ií ‘water’; K ČÃwaí; PS *kƒweí (33) NW Ó•imi ‘up, above, high, up high’; CR ÓÃami; NE also ÓayÃm; PS *Óeyƒmi (34) Y wÃsiis ‘canoe’; CR wÃsas; PS *wƒseŞes (< *wƒse ‘ride’ + purpose nominalizer *-Şes) Table 2. Ablaut in Sahaptin Zero Long Vowel aa-ablaut √wÃtn ‘vanish’ Ãawat ‘vanished’ ·™ûn ‘remember’ ·Ãaû ‘remembered’ sćÃt ‘night’ sÃaćat ‘very dark’ ii-ablaut Õp™t ‘bead’ Õp•it ‘ball’ µ • ‘day’ µ•i i ‘all day’ ·™ûn ‘remember’ ·•iû ‘sober’ uu-ablaut 𙵠‘that many/much’ kõuµn ‘be full, satiated’ ™ln ‘be soft’ Õõul ‘pounded fine’ m™µ ‘how many/much?’ mõuµ ‘a little, a few’ 1.2.4 Ablaut A long vowel might be inserted between consonants (or in substitution for *i) as a derivational process. In Sahaptin the long vowel is /aa/, /ii/, or /uu/, as in Table 2. The process is fairly productive, the rarest being the uu-ablaut and probably the most frequent the aa-ablaut. The uu-ablaut seems to occur only next to a labiovelar or /m/. Often the zero form is a verb and the ablaut form has an adverbial or adjectival force. There are instances, however, where verbs are derived by ablaut (such as kúułn ‘be full, satiated’). The oblique forms of the independent pronouns variously fit these ablaut patterns—see Table 4 for examples with the distal demonstrative (the absolute singular is a suppletive à ‘that’). An earlier *úk has been reanalyzed as /™đ/ in order to derive the first example below (see §3.4). The second example provides an instance where /á/ has been reconceived as /í/. (35) S ČmÃađ ‘very black’ (Čm™đ < Čmõk ‘black’); cf. NP s•mux /smuk/ ‘charcoal’ 296 (36) S íÃat√m ‘all summer’ (í™t√m < íÃt√m ‘summer’) Table 3. Ablaut in Nez Perce Zero Long Vowel aa-ablaut /ć´kn/ ‘be split, cut’ (Aoki 1994:58); cf. hićÃaûca /hi-ćÃaûn-sen-s/ ‘it is splitting’ S ∆™ûn ‘be cut, cracked, split’ (Aoki 1994:61) /Õppn/ ‘be round’ (Aoki 1994:266) ÕapÃap ‘in a round manner’ (Aoki 1994:265) tÃyam /t´yam/ ‘summer’ (Aoki 1994:697) tÃayamima /tÃayamima/ ‘from in the summer’ (Aoki 1994:697) ïÃtniŸ /ï´tniŞns/ ‘torn’ (Aoki 1994:809) ïÃat /ïÃat/ ‘torn’ (Aoki 1994:810) /waqlp/ ‘put the arms around’ (Aoki /waqlÃaptan/ ‘hold in arms’ (Aoki 1994:343) 1994:384) wÃ…at /w…at/ ‘far’ (Aoki 1994:839); cf. /wÃa…atn/ ‘go on guardian spirit quest’ (Aoki S w•yat 1994:839) /ûl´p/ ‘open’ (Aoki 1994:914) ; cf. S ûl™p ûalÃap /ûlÃap/ ‘slowly opened’ (Aoki ‘open’ (vi.) 1994:914) ee-ablaut /Şnp/ ‘get, take, hold’ (Aoki 1994:1045); cf. S /Şnƒepten/ ‘hold, keep, dominate’ (Aoki n™p (bound) 1994:1032) ii-ablaut /tlqn/ ‘stop’ (Aoki 1994:673) (Aoki 1994:673) tal•iû /tl•iq/ ‘still, quiet’ (Aoki 1994:677) /tp•pi/ ‘foam, be sudsy’ (Aoki 1994:753) t•ipip /t•ipip/ ‘foam’ (Aoki 1994:753) oo-ablaut /éµ/ bound in /nkÃéµk/ ‘remove’ (Aoki ßåoµ /ßåoµ/ ‘slippingly’ (Aoki 1994:611) 1994:611) uu-ablaut /p´çn/ ‘go separate ways’ (Aoki 1994:560) põuû /põuq/ ‘scatteringly’ (Aoki 1994:560) qõû /ç´q/ ‘loose dirt’ (Aoki 1994:598) qõuû /qõuq/ ‘powdery’ (Aoki 1994:598) /ç´qn/ ‘raise dust, powdery snow’ (Aoki /qõuûn/ ‘be gray (of cloud)’ (Aoki 1994:598) 1994:598) The process is rarer in Nez Perce and harder to detect because vowels are lengthened under stress in that language.
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