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2020-07-03 Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
Guida, Rochelle
Guida, R. (2020). Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112265 doctoral thesis
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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY
Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum:
An Exploratory Case Study of Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
by
Rochelle Guida
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
CALGARY, ALBERTA
JULY, 2020
© Rochelle Guida 2020 i
Abstract
Following a qualitative social constructivist research paradigm, this exploratory case examined how
Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers approached French cultures with beginner level French as a second language (FSL) students of the high school Grade 9 Core French (CF) program. Ontario
FSL educators often teach CF and students typically pursue CF in lieu of other FSL programs
(Canadian Parents for French, 2017; Masson, 2018). Grade 9 is the final FSL course required for high school graduation (Masson, 2018; OME, 2014). CF students lack confidence speaking and interacting in French (Rehner, 2014) despite many years of language exposure (Masson, 2018) and often abandon FSL studies after Grade 9 (LANG, 2014). This inquiry investigated the cultural practices of ten
Ontario CF Grade 9 non-native French-speaking educators from autumn 2018 to January 2019. The teachers participated in an online questionnaire, two semi-structured interviews, an online focus group, and shared cultural resources. Based on a theoretical framework that I developed, thematic analysis revealed that the teachers who recently travelled to French-speaking communities, and who maintained their French linguistic and cultural proficiencies, reflected more of the social constructivist orientation to pedagogy (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Participants also modelled some elements of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) to help students retain and reuse cultural content with growing confidence in oral communication. The teachers introduced French cultures using cuisine, music, travel, and ICT resources through CEFR-inspired practices (Council of Europe, 2001) in day-to-day practices. The participants were ambitious cultural learners and pedagogues, which supported the positive characteristics of Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers. Participants also experienced various challenges, such as ICT access issues, lack of teacher-training, and lack of student interaction with native French speakers. Therefore, the findings raised important funding and teacher-training considerations for cultural learning and interaction in Grade 9 CF.
Keywords: French as a second language (FSL), Core French program (CF), non-native French-
speaking teacher, culture, teacher change
ii
Preface
This thesis is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, R. Guida. The methods reported in
Chapter 4 were covered by Ethics Certificate number REB18-1576_RENI issued by the University of
Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board for the project “Investigating the Ontario FSL
Secondary Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers’ Cultural
Practices” on October 23, 2018 and updated on October 23, 2019.
iii
Acknowledgements
“Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you”
(Holy Bible, New International Version, 1973/1978/1984/2011, Matthew 7:7).
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to everyone who inspired and supported me throughout my journey as a doctoral student, to finally, publishing my “baby.” Thank you to my family and friends who maintained our relationships and edited the dissertation despite my social absence. I thank you, my husband, mio Davide per seguirmi su questa strada, essendo sempre il mio Virgilo.
Thank you for being my study partner, and, most importantly, my best friend.
I am grateful for my thesis supervisor, Dr. Sylvie Roy for her trust in my abilities, her unique expertise, and for her genuine happiness for my success. Despite being an online learner, I never felt alone under her guidance. She was a text, an email, or a phone call away. Sylvie, ta compassion, ton intelligence, ta curiosité, et surtout, ta joie de vivre, m’inspirent dans ma vie professionnelle et personnelle. Tout simplement, tu m’enseignes comment vivre étant chercheuse, étudiante, et femme.
I also thank Dr. Kim Lenters and Dr. Aubrey Hanson who were part of my thesis committee.
Dr. Lenters, it was my honor being your student and I thank you for opening my eyes to the vast world of literacies. I now see infinite possibilities for literature and literacy thanks to your passion. Dr. Hanson, while I never was your student, I was grateful for your genuine approachability, enthusiasm, and thorough instruction in receiving the multiple iterations of this thesis.
My dissertation could not have been realized without the marketing support from FSL stakeholders including Ms. Faten Hanna, Mr. Denis Cousineau, and Dr. Masson. I am also grateful for the recruitment assistance from various FSL teacher associations including ACLA, ACPI and CASLT. I am also indebted to the Academic Skills Learning Centre of my university. Finally, I thank my editor,
Ms. Melissa Trowsdale, who professionally edited my dissertation with genuine integrity and care.
iv
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the ten teacher-participants of this study. Your knowledge, ongoing learning, creativity, and genuine love for your students inspire me to improve my own practice as an
Ontario non-native French-speaking educator. May you always remember your strengths, and may you always be valued as professionals as Core French teachers, but most importantly, as pedagogues.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract i
Preface ii
Acknowledgements iii
Dedication iv
Table of Contents v
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Research Context 1
High School Core French 1
Significant Cultural Presence of the Revised Curriculum 2
Research Problems 4
A Negative Core French History 4
A Lack of Curriculum Guidance for FSL Teachers 5
Observed Student Challenges with Core French 6
Research Questions 7
Research Approach 8
Positioning of the Researcher 9
Researcher Assumptions 11
Significance of the Study 12
Overview of the Dissertation 13
Chapter 2: Literature Review 14
Culture as a Concept 14
An Intercultural Approach to Culture 16
A Transcultural Approach to Culture 17
A Pluricultural Approach to Culture 19
vi
Cultural Suggestions and Tensions 21
Which French Cultures to Approach? 22
Where to Approach French Cultures? 22
When to Approach French Cultures? 23
How to Approach French Cultures? 24
Cultural Iceberg Model 25
Authentic Culture 26
Pluricultural Competence and the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages 30
Information and Communications Technology and Culture 33
Curriculum as a Concept 37
Curriculum Orientations 37
The Linear Curriculum 39
The Lived Curriculum 39
The Curriculum “In Between Zone” 40
Provincial Initiatives, Observations and Challenges 40
The Native-Non-Native Dichotomy 44
The Native French-Speaking Teacher 45
The Non-Native French-Speaking Teacher 47
The Ideal French as a Second Language Teacher 49
Chapter Summary 50
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework 52
The Salade Niçoise Classroom 52
A Rationale for the Salad 53
The Salad Components 56
vii
The Teacher-Chef and the Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework 56
The Eggs and the Neurolinguistic Approach 60
The Cultural Green Beans 68
The ICT Potatoes 69
The Consumer Student 70
The Seasoning of Parents and School Administration 70
Chapter Summary 71
Chapter 4: Methodology 73
Qualitative Social Constructivist Research Paradigm 73
Case Study Methodology 76
Research Sample 78
Ontario Grade 9 Core French Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers 78
Recruitment 79
Data Collection Methods 80
Online Questionnaire 80
Interviews 84
Focus Group 85
Cultural Resources 87
Data Analysis 87
Interviews and Focus Group 88
Cultural Resources 90
Ethical Considerations 92
Justice, Respect, and Well-Being 92
Confidentiality 94
Trustworthiness 95
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Conflict of Interest 95
Cohesion 96
Chapter Summary 97
Chapter 5: Findings 98
Review of the Research Purpose and Questions 99
Data for the First Research Question 103
Theme 1: Dynamic Definitions of Culture 105
Perceptions of Transculture and Pluriculture 105
Authentic Culture 107
Theme 2: Challenges as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers 109
Lack of Confidence 109
Additional Preparation Time 111
Theme 3: Affordances as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers 112
Growth in Confidence 112
Learning through Students 113
Support from Native Speakers 114
Support from Non-Native French-Speaking Colleagues 114
Teacher Agency 115
Letting Go of Perfection 116
Theme 4: Pedagogical Techniques and Factors 117
Influence of Travel 117
From Standard to Multiple Frenches 120
Importance of Information and Communications Technology 122
Music 124
Food 124
ix
Diplôme d’Études en Langue Française and the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages 125
Vocabulary Simplification Strategies 127
Student-Centered Exploratory Learning and Assessment 129
Influence of School Administration and Colleagues 132
Theme 5: Students’ Reactions to Cultural Approaches 134
Lack of Cultural Interest 134
Beginner Language and Cultural Proficiencies 136
Improved Student Engagement and Proficiencies 137
Summary of the Results for the First Research Question 138
Data for the Second Research Question 139
Observations of the Intercultural Understanding Sub-Strand 139
Despondence 142
Speaking Focus 143
Summary of the Results for the Second Research Question 144
Findings from the Focus Group 144
Resource Analysis 149
Chapter Summary 153
Chapter 6: Discussion 155
Research Paradigm and Methodology Rationale 155
Interpreting the Findings for the First Research Question 160
Finding 1: Importance for Dynamic Culture through a Predominantly Lived Curriculum 160
Finding 2: Limited Deep Culture 162
Finding 3: Cultural Challenges as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers 165
Finding 4: Increased Cultural Affordances as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers 167
x
Application of the Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework 167
Non-Native French-Speaking Teacher Agency 170
Increased Student Responsibility 173
Finding 5: CEFR Reliance 174
Finding 6: Superficial Use of Information and Communications Technology 175
Finding 7: Travel as a Predominant Theme 177
Finding 8: Initial Modelling of the Neurolinguistic Approach 178
Interpreting the Findings for the Second Research Question 181
Finding 1: Initial Curriculum Despondence 181
Finding 2: Growth in Curriculum Appreciation and Integration 183
Chapter Summary 185
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations 187
Conclusions 187
Limitations 189
Delimitations 190
Recommendations 192
Recommendation 1: Respect the Pedagogue 192
Recommendation 2: Improve Teacher-Training and Support 194
Recommendation 3: Consider Following the Neurolinguistic Approach 195
Recommendation 4: Consider Beginning with Travel 196
Benefits of the Study 196
Future Directions 197
Final Remarks 199
References 200
xi
Appendices
Appendix A: An Overview of the Intercultural Expectations 230
Appendix B: Research Timeline 231
Appendix C: Recruitment Email for FSL Stakeholders 232
Appendix D: Recruitment Flyer 233
Appendix E: Online Questionnaire 235
Appendix F: Letter of Initial Contact Post Questionnaire 241
Appendix G: Letter of Informed Consent 243
Appendix H: First Interview Questions 248
Appendix I: Second Interview Questions 252
Appendix J: Focus Group Preparatory Document 255
Appendix K: Focus Group Questions 256
Appendix L: Referral List for Teacher-Participants 261
Appendix M: Cultural Resources – Camille 263
Appendix N: Cultural Resources – Claire 269
Appendix O: Cultural Resources – Yvonne 281
Appendix P: Cultural Resources – Rachel 283
Appendix Q: Copyright Permission – Council of Europe 285
Appendix R: Copyright Permission – Pearson Education 286
xii
List of Tables
Table 1 An Overview of Pluricultural References from the Council of Europe 31
Table 2 A Summary of FSL Resources from the Ontario Ministry of Education 42
Table 3 A Summary of the Salade Niçoise Conceptual Framework 55
Table 4 Google Form Summary 82
Table 5 A Summary of the Main Theories for Data Analysis 91
Table 6 Participant Profiles 100
Table 7 A Summary of Cultural Approaches from the Interviews 104
Table 8 A Summary of Participant Travel Experiences 118
Table 9 References to the French Curriculum – Interviews 140
Table 10 Teacher Resources and Techniques – Focus Group 145
Table 11 A Summary of the Findings 157
Table 12 A Summary of Expectations, Findings, and Unexpected Findings 188
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1 A Summary of Cultural Definitions 20
Figure 2 Unpacking Pluricultural Competence 32
Figure 3 My Salade Niçoise 53
Figure 4 Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework 57
Figure 5 Five Principles of the Neurolinguistic Approach 62
Figure 6 Referenced Online Tools 123
Figure 7 A Summary of Vocabulary Strategies 128
Figure 8 A Summary of Student-Centered Activities 129
Figure 9 Participant Requests 133
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Research Context
This study investigated ten Ontario non-native1 French-speaking teachers as they taught a high school2 semester of a beginner level French class, named Grade 9 Core French (CF), using a revised
French as a second language3 (FSL) curriculum (Ontario Ministry of Education [OME], 2014). The research study explored how these educators approached4 French cultural content with CF students who had a basic command in the language.
High School Core French
The Core French (CF) classroom is part of the Ontario FSL program. Students can pursue either Core French, Extended French, or French Immersion in the FSL context. If students do not select
Extended French or French Immersion, they must take CF in English-language elementary and secondary schools (OME, 2014). CF is the most basic FSL class because students acquire “600 hours of French instruction,” whereas the most advanced FSL program, French Immersion, requires “a minimum of 3800 hours” prior to graduation from elementary school (OME, 2013b, p. 16). The CF program teaches French as a “subject”; however, the other FSL programs maintain French as “the language of instruction” and also teach content external to the language, such as Canadian history or science (p. 15).
In secondary school, FSL students require one 110-hour-credit in French to obtain their diploma (OME, 2014, p. 16). This credit is available in Grade 9, and CF is the most popular FSL
1 I define non-native speaker, using Clouet’s (2006) conception, who defines it as an individual who learns the language of the native speaker but who lives in another geographical region where the desired language is not the official tongue. I rationalize my choice for this author’s definition due to its simplicity for the readers and the participants.
2 The terms high school and secondary school are used interchangeably in this dissertation.
3 The term second language means when students are “learning another language” (OME, 2014, p. 6). Additional language is a synonym for second language. Both are used interchangeably in this study.
4 The word approach was used throughout the study to respect my researcher stance that culture is multifaceted. Synonyms included “perceived,” “addressed,” “worked with,” “introduced,” and “experienced.”
2 program choice (Canadian Parents for French, 2017; Viswanathan, 2016). Grade 9 CF students can complete their final French class in one of three streams: open, applied, or academic. The open CF class is “an introductory course for students who have little or no knowledge of French” (OME, 2014, p.
88). The applied program is designed for students with pre-existing CF elementary school experience who interact in “structured situations” at the high school level (p. 73). Finally, CF students can also pursue the academic stream, which aims to have students “communicate and interact in French with increasing independence, with a focus on familiar topics related to their daily lives” (p. 58).
Unfortunately, despite the publication of two revised curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014), few high school students continue with French beyond Grade 9 (Canadian Parents for French, 2017, 2019).
Significant Cultural Presence of the Revised Curriculum
The OME revised the current FSL elementary curriculum in 2013 and the high school program in 2014. However, I exclusively investigated the secondary school FSL curriculum. The revised editions were designed in accordance with the prescribed revision cycle for all of the province’s disciplines
(OME, 2017a). Prior to these revisions, the CF programs remained the same since 1998 for elementary school, 1999 for the first two years of high school, and 2000 for Grades 11 and 12 (OME). The 1999
Grade 9 CF curriculum comprised three strands titled Oral Communication, Reading, and Writing (p. 6), which contained specific grammar concepts, such as the past tense of irregular verbs. The revised
Ontario FSL curricula, for both elementary and secondary school, now separate oral communication into two distinct strands: Listening and Speaking, along with Reading and Writing (OME, 2013b, 2014).
Focused grammar requirements are no longer present in the revised FSL programs, which reflects a paradigmatic shift in Ontario curriculum design. Furthermore, French culture has an increased presence in the revised curricula culture as culture is now part of the overall FSL programming goals, and has a designated Intercultural Understanding sub-section in all four curriculum strands: Listening, Speaking,
Reading, and Writing (OME, 2014, p. 59; see Appendix A). According to the sub-strand, students gain both “intercultural awareness [and] intercultural competence” (p. 10) as they complete their FSL
3 program. In fact, the OME (2014) prioritizes interculture as one of the “essential elements” of the revised FSL programs (p. 10). The glossary does not include the definition of interculture; however, it defines culture as the “customary beliefs, values, social forms, and material traits of an ethnic, religious, or social group. It includes the arts, literature, lifestyles, and tradition” (p. 380). Ontario FSL students should “learn … understand … appreciate … respect [and] apply that knowledge for the purposes of interaction” (pp. 6-10). In this dissertation, I refer to the Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub- strand when discussing culture in the curriculum document (OME, 2014).
When implementing both the elementary and secondary school FSL curricula (OME 2013b,
2014), the province’s FSL teachers need to be models and disseminators of French language and
“cultures [because] FSL teachers are the students’ first contact with the French language” (OME, 2014, p. 13). Ontario FSL educators need to speak in French as often as possible to their students (OME,
2013b, 2014) and should expose their learners “to the many social and geographical varieties of French
… of different ages and geographic origins and from various sociocultural groups” (OME, 2014, p. 13).
Additionally, these educators are expected to simplify the cultural input to the learners’ ability level in
“developmentally appropriate contexts” (p. 9) that are authentic. The term authentic commonly occurs in front of the word culture and is referenced almost five times more than in the former Grade 9 and 10
FSL curriculum (OME, 1999). According to the revised secondary school FSL curriculum (OME, 2014), authenticity is realized when students use French in meaningful and real-life contexts through an action-oriented approach,5 such as when students incorporate their second language (SL) knowledge and grammar as “a tool” in interactions with others (p. 379). For example, Grade 9 applied level CF teachers can prepare listening content such as “seasonal and/or holiday traditions in various French- speaking communities in Africa and Asia and relate them to their [students’ experiences]” (p. 76). The
5 The term action-oriented approach is defined as a guiding framework that “goes beyond the communicative approach by adding a real purpose to learning a second language, and enables learners to see real and immediate benefits to their language learning” (CASLT/ACPLS, 2019, p. 22).
4 revised curriculum documents also include teacher prompts.6 An example strategy asks students to compare their personal traditions with the cultural customs of French-speaking individuals (p. 76). The curriculum prioritization for meaningful, everyday life, experiences reflects part of the main goals of the revised curricula, and, accordingly, the province’s FSL teachers must adapt to curriculum revisions in daily practice (OME, 2013b, 2014).
Research Problems
A Negative Core French History
Canadian, beginner level CF programs have experienced several challenges throughout their history. Most commonly, FSL stakeholders have perceived CF as an inferior program to more advanced levels (Arnott et al., 2019; Cooke, 2013; Daiski & Richards, 2007; Dorey, 1996; Drake, 1993; Canada,
Parliament, House of Commons, Standing Committee on Official Languages [LANG], 2014). Canadian
CF students have lacked confidence to speak in French (Canadian Parents for French, 2019; LANG,
2014), and Ontario CF students have also experienced this feeling even with a revised curriculum already in practice since 2014 (Rehner, 2014). Consequently, CF learners were often disengaged with curricula, which led to “attrition rates as high as 95%” of high school CF classes (Canadian Parents for
French, n.d., p. 2). Accordingly, Arnott and Lapkin observed that retaining students in CF “is not a simple task” in FSL education (Canadian Parents for French, 2019, p. 9).
Furthermore, Canadian CF teachers received limited funding for materials, and these educators often experienced practitioner burnout (Cooke, 2013; LANG, 2014; Lapkin et al., 2006; Mollica et al.,
2005). For example, Mueller observed that many CF educators “create their own resources or use resources created for francophones [which is] unacceptable” for CF students (LANG, 2018, p. 27).
Researchers witnessed more challenges among Canadian non-native French-speaking teachers as curriculum users. Commonly, non-native French-speaking educators have experienced
6 The term teacher prompt is included in the province’s FSL curriculum and is a suggested pedagogical strategy that provides teachers with sample statements or questions to introduce a given topic to students (OME, 2014).
5
“very significant or significant difficulties/challenges” in approaching French culture, in comparison to francophones (Viswanathan, 2016, p. 97). Furthermore, the community at large has perceived
Canadian non-native French-speaking FSL teachers as inferior to their native French-speaking colleagues (Cooke, 2013; Wernicke, 2017). Byrd Clark (2008) observed that non-native French- speaking FSL educators do not feel as proficient as native French-speakers. Subsequently, poor programming structure, insufficient funding, and perceived inadequacy among CF students and educators have led to teacher attrition in various FSL programs (Lapkin & Barkaoui, 2008; Lapkin et al.,
2009; Richards, 2002).
A Lack of Curriculum Guidance for FSL Teachers
Learning about and interacting with culture is extremely important in education (Byrnes, 2002;
Kramsch 1993, 1997, 1998; Lange & Paige, 2003; Risager, 2007) and in the Canadian FSL context
(Council of Ministers of Education Canada, 2015). Quite often, the SL classroom is the only place where students gain an introduction to the target culture (Falardeau & Simard, 2011), yet language teachers battle with the public perception that “culture is reserved for the professors of literature”
(Kramsch, 2013, p. 58). Researchers have also attested that culture is difficult to approach in the language classroom, and teachers often deprioritize it in exchange for a reading or writing focus
(Falardeau & Simard, 2011; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013; Loveday, 1982). Even with the presence of teacher prompts and instructional tips7 throughout the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014), the assistance does not sufficiently provide thorough examples of how to approach culture and to specifically meet the overall intercultural expectations of the program (see
Appendix A). Furthermore, few research studies have explored the Intercultural Understanding section of the curriculum document (Viswanathan, 2016). The lack of research does not support researcher observations that the province’s FSL educators need to be “experts in the many cultures that contribute
7 The term instructional tips refers to strategies presented in the province’s FSL curriculum. They provide French teachers with suggested pedagogical strategies in order to approach the mandatory objectives. Often, these tips recommend the verb tense or the vocabulary to include in the given example (OME, 2014).
6 to the Francophonie” (De Luca et al., 2017, p. 5), which prompts the need for additional research studies in this area.
My own research pursuits (Gour, 2015), as well as the findings of fellow researchers (Arnott et al., 2019; Arnott et al., 2017; Arnott et al., 2015; Cooke, 2013), have identified a lack of sufficient teacher training to follow the FSL curriculum paradigm shift (OME, 2013b, 2014). Ontario FSL educators have explored concepts of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR)8 (Council of Europe, 2001; see also Arnott et al., 2019; Piccardo et al., 2019); however, there are limited examples for applying CEFR concepts in the Ontario FSL teaching context.
Additionally, findings from my master’s dissertation (Gour, 2015) and from researchers (Lapkin et al., 2006; Lapkin et al., 2009; Mollica et al., 2005; Richards, 2002) have identified access issues to information and communications technology (ICT)9 for FSL teachers. Therefore, Ontario FSL teachers have found culture difficult to approach due to the vague curricula structure, unsatisfactory training, and insufficient ICT access.
Observed Student Challenges with Core French
As a current Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking educator, I teach students with beginner level knowledge of French, who demonstrate various challenges with French. Their abilities range from asking for permission to use the washroom, to briefly introducing themselves using the present tense. In my argument, my students’ capacities are incompatible with many of the expectations and goals in the FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). For example, in the Grade 9 open-level CF program, there is a teacher prompt which suggests that students discuss the meaning of Canadian identity when
8 The term the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, or CEFR, is a reference document for additional languages. It provides second language stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and students, with a suggested action- oriented philosophy for learning a second language. The CEFR also distinguishes language levels using Can Do statements appropriate for each level (Council of Europe, 2001). The framework is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2 of this dissertation.
9 The term information and communications technology is defined in the FSL curriculum document as “multimedia resources, databases, websites, digital cameras, and word-processing programs [to] help students to collect, organize, and sort the data they gather and to write, edit, and present reports on their findings. ICT can also be used to connect students to other schools, at home and abroad, and to bring the global community into the local classroom” (OME, 2014, p. 51).
7 listening to French audio. Irrespective of academic, applied, or the open Grade 9 CF class, I maintain that the curriculum expectations and suggestions are challenging for students who are still learning foundational language and cultural concepts. These students struggle to know and convey their own cultures, as growing adolescents. Additionally, they are simultaneously asked to learn about, and interact with, French-speaking communities. Therefore, my concerns encouraged the development of this inquiry and prompted my questions about how the province’s Grade 9 CF students can adequately understand and communicate in French.
Research Questions
Cultural learning remains one of the main priorities in Canadian FSL programs (Mueller, 1985).
The province’s CF teachers are under the obligation to prepare current, language and age-appropriate, cultural resources to adhere to the revised curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014). Also, the Council of Ministers of Education Canada and Human Resources and Skills Development Canada10 (2013) identified that
Canadian FSL teachers should have,
subject-specific and curricular knowledge [as well as] a good command of two language
registers: the formal academic language of schooling and informal language that allows for
effective communication and personal connections with students, parents, and colleagues [and
have] a mastery of the four language modalities: speaking, reading, writing, and listening. (p. 2)
Thus, FSL teachers are expected to be fluent in all components of the language in order to interact with a variety of FSL stakeholders both in the classroom context and in everyday social interactions.
Despite the national standard from the Council of Ministers of Education Canada and Human
Resources and Skills Development Canada (2013), to my current knowledge, no studies have explored how the cultural identity of Ontario CF Grade 9 non-native French-speaking teachers influences the implementation of the secondary school FSL curriculum (OME, 2014) and the Intercultural
10 The Department of Human Resources and Skills Development Canada was rebranded later in 2013 as the Department of Employment and Social Development Canada under the Department of Employment and Social Development Act (2005, c. 34, s. 3; 2013, c. 40, s. 208).
8
Understanding sub-strand. Even within a recent research review of Canadian FSL studies from 2000 to
2017, only one study discussed interculture out of 181 evaluated articles (Arnott et al., 2019); however, this study was not conducted in the CF context (Kristmanson & Dicks, 2014).
Additionally, approaching French cultural content through an action-oriented approach11 can be complex and unique to each classroom (French et al., 2017; Furstenberg, 2010; Loewen, 2015). My fellow Ontario non-native French-speaking CF teacher colleagues and I would greatly benefit from receiving practical strategies in order to better assist our beginner level students in deepening their cultural interactions with French-speaking communities. Consequently, emergent research needs to present detailed, pedagogical strategies for introducing French cultures to beginner level learners.
Therefore, through an exploratory case study, the following research questions guided my inquiry:
1. How do non-native French-speaking teachers in Ontario approach French cultures in the Grade
9 Core French curriculum (OME, 2014)?
2. How do these teachers specifically implement the added Intercultural Understanding sub-
strand of the curriculum in authentic ways?
My first research question investigated how these educators generally considered French cultures within the program. My second research question reviewed the Intercultural Understanding sub-section of the curriculum document (OME, 2014) because it is part of the mandatory programming objectives for Grade 9 CF teachers.
Research Approach
Through a social constructivist paradigm (Lincoln & Guba, 2013), I sought to understand my research “world” (Creswell, 2013, p. 24) of ten Ontario CF Grade 9 non-native French-speaking teachers. I conducted an exploratory case study due to its “intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single, bounded unit” (Merriam, 2009, p. 203). In my context, case study methodology enabled me to
11 The term action-oriented approach is a suggested framework for additional language learning in which the target “language is seen as a tool for performing communicative tasks or activities in a social context” (OME, 2014, p. 379).
9 better comprehend the vast topic of culture through a localized Grade 9 CF setting. The nested pedagogical orientations model (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) were the two main theories in support of my research questions and were rooted in the conceptual framework (see Chapter 3).
The study commenced in fall 2018 and concluded in January 2019 to represent a complete high school semester (see Appendix B and Chapter 4). Four data collection methods formed the inquiry: (a) an online questionnaire, (b) two interviews per participant to begin and conclude the semester, (c) an online focus group, and (d) cultural resources. All data captured detailed profiles of the ten non-native French-speaking teachers and their cultural approaches. I coded and triangulated the data to compare participants (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016; Yin, 2014) and to explore common themes from the responses (Creswell, 2015).
Positioning of the Researcher
My background as a former Ontario CF high school student, teacher-candidate, and current practitioner-researcher, guided the design of my study. I am a doctoral student and a non-native
French-speaking teacher in a Catholic high school of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). My father is from a Québécois background; however, I grew up in an Italian-Canadian household. Despite annual visits to my French-speaking grandparents, I never felt tied to Québécois cultures because of my lack of exposure to colloquial vocabulary, cuisine, and other cultural traditions. As a child, I always dreamed of being a French teacher; however, my FSL class experiences were limited to Parisian and Québécois
French. This limitation was problematic because I was not introduced to other francophone12 communities such as Algeria, Congo and French Polynesia, which are also regions to consider in the revised curriculum (OME, 2014).
12 I defined the term francophone speaker from the perspective of Forgues and Landry (2006) who recognized the francophone individual as multifaceted, but that there is a standard form of French as understood by the entire francophone community (LeBlanc et al., 1990).
10
As a university student, I pursued part-time work in a French-speaking daycare to better immerse myself in the language. I obtained my Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Education degrees in
French and Italian. These degrees exposed me to classical literature and SL teaching practices; however, my education predominantly focused on Eurocentric francophone material. Upon completion of my degrees in 2012, I became a licensed educator and held several contract positions in both the elementary and secondary school contexts. Having learned French language and cultures from the former grammar-based curricula (OME, 1998, 1999, 2000), these documents became the foundation of my teaching practice. Therefore, at the onset of my career, I did not feel adequately equipped to fully integrate francophone cultures in my FSL classrooms.
At the master’s level, I conducted an exploratory case study (Gour, 2015), which reviewed the revised elementary FSL curriculum (OME, 2013b). It investigated how four of the province’s CF elementary school non-native French-speaking teachers perceived and initially implemented the revised program. Overall, the participants appreciated the increased focus on oral communication and the removal of explicit grammar requirements. However, the teachers requested additional training and resources to help them better approach the revised changes.
In my current position as a high school French teacher, I strive to improve my own practice using the revised FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). As outlined in this chapter, my students are beginner level French students, and I argue that teacher support for delivery of the revised curriculum is inadequate. When the revised curriculum first came out in 2014, I joyfully opened the document to see the significant modifications. I stumbled across the North African expression “kif-kif”13 in the reading section for the applied level Grade 9 CF class (p. 83). The term is part of suggested vocabulary for teachers to introduce to students since they are required to “identify words and expressions unique to
13 The word kif-kif means “like” or “comme” in standard French. It is incorporated in the FSL curriculum as a suggested vocabulary expression to teach Grade 9 Core French students when following the objective that FSL learners should, “identify, in a variety of French texts, examples of sociolinguistic conventions associated with a variety of social situations in diverse French-speaking communities” (OME, 2014, p. 83) in their reading.
11 certain regions” (p. 83). I then initiated my research of the word using the Internet. I only came away with an idea that speakers can use kif-kif when comparing butter to margarine because they are almost the same. Unfortunately, even in present time, I have never traveled to North Africa and I do not know of any close contact who is either a native speaker to the region, or who has experienced these communities. My only “friend” is Google to help me understand the cultural vocabulary.
To add to my dilemma as an FSL educator, in my experience, applied level CF students focus more on completing their final compulsory FSL class, rather than extending their learning about, and interactions with, French cultures in the way that students would do for other FSL programs. I experience ongoing anxiety about fulfilling the cultural suggestions found in the curriculum, such as kif- kif, with an audience of potentially disinterested learners. Additionally, my identity as a non-native
French-speaker adds to the complexity of selecting, obtaining, understanding, and interacting with the cultural content when I have never been exposed to these French-speaking communities and I am still acquiring fluency in standard French. Consequently, personal inexperience as a practitioner and ongoing self-edification in French language and cultures have ignited my desire to learn from colleagues in the province in order to better support students in the CF classroom.
Researcher Assumptions
As an Ontario high school non-native CF teacher, I acknowledge my inherent researcher bias and assumptions. Firstly, I came to the study perceiving culture as being complex, which may not be a predominant area of focus or concern for other Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers. Secondly, due to my lack of confidence with thoroughly understanding French language and cultures, I believed that non-native French-speaking teachers encounter greater challenges in approaching French cultural content than francophone educators. However, I now recognize that not all non-native French-speaking teachers experience linguistic and cultural insecurities. Thirdly, I assumed that French cultures can be introduced to Grade 9 CF students with creative resources and activities to
12 explore various communities of la francophonie,14 yet still at an appropriate age and language-level for these learners. Furthermore, I felt that ICT resources are imperative for interaction with French cultures and for corresponding with the beginner language level of Grade 9 CF students. Finally, I came to the study with the belief that non-native French-speaking teachers should actively collaborate with other
FSL educators to extend cultural competence.
Significance of the Study
Firstly, I conducted this inquiry to improve my own practitioner practice, which is a common researcher rationale (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). I aspired to learn from fellow Ontario CF non-native
French-speaking colleagues and become more confident with French cultures. Further, I initiated the study to contribute to research regarding the dynamic nature of culture (Furstenberg, 2010; Glover &
Friedman, 2014; Loveday, 1982) because culture is often ignored (Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013; Loveday,
1982; Turnbull, 1999, 2000) and “limited” (Glover & Friedman, 2014, p. 81) in the SL classroom.
Secondly, the study was also designed to provide Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teachers with concrete cultural strategies. J. Webb (2012) argued that more “field-based [pedagogical] studies…will continue to help educators build their repertoire of [cultural] strategies and motivate them to find ways to make French real” (p. 73). As desired by researchers (Arnott et al., 2019; Duncan,
2016), I wanted to discover initial motivational strategies to increase student enrollment in French post-
Grade 9. Thirdly, I exclusively focused on the Grade 9 CF classroom because it is the final mandatory
FSL course for Ontario students (LANG, 2014) and the most enrolled FSL class (Canadian Parents for
French, 2017; Viswanathan, 2016). However, Arnott et al. (2019) observed that the CF program is under-researched as compared to other more advanced FSL classes. Accordingly, new research studies are essential to comprehend cultural complexities in the SL classroom. Therefore, the findings of my inquiry can extend to the greater FSL community, including consultants, principals and parents,
14 The term la francophonie is defined as “the geographical areas where people use French in their daily lives and communications for all of the time or part of the time” (OME, 2014, p. 381). I interchangeably use the term French-speaking communities with la francophonie.
13 who, by reviewing the findings, may recognize the value of French cultures for teaching global citizenship with beginner level French students.
Overview of the Dissertation
This chapter presented an overall summary of the study. Firstly, I presented the uniqueness of the revised FSL curriculum (OME, 2014) as it is situated in the province’s high school context of Grade
9 CF. Secondly, I outlined the research problems, which were the negative perceptions of the CF program, along with challenges for non-native French-speaking teachers in approaching French cultural content with beginner level FSL students. Thirdly, I introduced my research questions regarding how ten Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers approached cultures, and how they applied the
Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the curriculum in practice (OME, 2014). Finally, I explained how an exploratory case study, through a social constructivist research paradigm, localized the inquiry for more detailed understandings about French cultures in the Ontario Grade 9 CF context.
The subsequent chapters provide additional detail to the study. Chapter 2 summarizes current literature on the research problem. Chapter 3 presents the conceptual framework. Chapter 4 justifies the research paradigm and describes the methodology. Chapter 5 lists important findings. Chapter 6 interprets the findings using the conceptual framework and literature review of this study. Chapter 7 concludes the dissertation and presents various implications and recommendations for future research.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
In Chapter 1, I problematized the lack of FSL curriculum guidance for teachers and identified student challenges as beginner level CF learners. Further, I presented my initiatives and insecurities as a non-native Grade 9 CF educator in approaching cultural content. My research questions for this dissertation investigated Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers as they approached
French cultural in a general sense, as well as the specific Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub- strand (OME, 2014) over the course of one semester of high school.
Due to the plethora of information, I have separated my literature review and conceptual framework into two distinct chapters. This chapter presents an overview of research trends, pedagogical practices, and provincial initiatives, which have influenced the structure of my dissertation.
I characterize the three main concepts of my research questions: culture, curriculum, and the non- native French-speaking teacher. Firstly, I explore the meaning and complexities of culture and maintain approaching French cultures using a pluricultural perspective (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018).
Next, I investigate curriculum and its characteristics, with my preferred researcher stance of a balanced curriculum perspective. This chapter also outlines available cultural supports for Ontario FSL teachers and shows that additional initiatives are necessary to better achieve cultural exploration among educators. Finally, I introduce the concept of a cultural pedagogue as the ideal Ontario Grade 9 CF teacher, irrespective of the educator’s language background.
Culture as a Concept
Culture was the curriculum focus of this research study. I explored culture as a term, beginning with culture, interculture, transculture (Modern Language Association of America [MLA], 2007), and, finally, pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). Pluricultural competence became the preferred definition for culture for this research study. The literature also considered culture from two perspectives: static (Bayart, 2002; Elsen & St. John, 2007) and dynamic (Bhabha, 2011; Elsen
& St. John, 2007; Hall, 1959; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013; Loveday, 1982; Parekh, 2006; Witte, 2014).
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I began with the static perspective of culture (Bayart, 2002; Elsen & St. John, 2007).
Historically, culture was typically interpreted as linear, academic, and a studied concept in the SL classroom. Culture dominated “the literacy or humanities component of language study” (Kramsch,
2013, p. 64) and focused on the “‘big C’ culture … of the cultivated middle-class” (p. 65), otherwise known as “high culture” (Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013, p. 10). This type of culture has included aspects such as art, literature, and the study of the classics to cultivate the spirit (Falardeau & Simard, 2011).
However, Hirsch et al. (1987) challenged this perspective in recognizing the “duty” (p. 26) for language teachers to present all cultures as to not disregard legitimate communities. The literature identified a necessity for teachers to shift from the static perspective of culture toward something more fluid.
There has been a growing preference to perceive culture as dynamic (Bhabha, 2011; Elsen &
St. John, 2007; Hall, 1959; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013; Loveday, 1982; Parekh, 2006; Witte, 2014), which added to my researcher positioning for this study. Additionally, this perspective directly aligned with my open-ended research questions. Holliday (1999) prioritized everyday culture, which was labelled as “little c” or “small culture” (p. 240). Kramsch (2013) understood Holliday’s definition of “little c” culture as “the native speakers’ ways of behaving, eating, talking, dwelling, their customs, their beliefs and values [and] sociolinguistic appropriateness” (p. 66). Also, Mueller (1985) argued that everyday culture should be the predominant focus for culture in the classroom because it is more accessible to students. Similarly, Holliday (1999) viewed culture through a “small culture paradigm
[because] it leaves the picture open, finding ‘softer’ ‘cultures’ in all types of social grouping” (p. 240).
Furthermore, Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) valued the uniqueness in learning about geographical regions of the studied culture. Holliday argued that culture is much more than “ethnic, national, or international qualities” (p. 240). For example, Cohen and Kassan (2018) recognized challenges of immigrant adults to Canada, in particular, “the emerging adulthood developmental stage, including instability and being in-between” cultures (p. 134).
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In this move toward the perception of culture as dynamic, Witte (2014) then stressed that educators should steer away from the exclusive study of cultural “artifacts” (p. 9). Ebling (1973) recognized that FSL students overly fantasized about “Louis XIV, Jeanne d'Arc, Napoleon, Watteau,
Chartres, Versailles, wine, perfume, and cheek kissing” (p. 929) as the main representations of French culture, which are unrepresentative of today’s Frenches. Falardeau and Simard (2011) proposed that
French culture could be realized through more of a meaning-making and transformative process where students make connections between their personal and target cultures. Therefore, culture is dynamically rooted and much of the content is invisible to an onlooker’s eye.
An Intercultural Approach to Culture
Having investigated Ontario’s FSL high school curriculum (OME, 2014), I reviewed the document’s explanation of the word interculture. As discussed in Chapter 1, the Intercultural
Understanding sub-strand contains the cultural requirements of the curriculum document. The term is not formally defined in the curriculum’s glossary; however, interculture is expressed as follows:
Two essential elements of the FSL curriculum are intercultural awareness and intercultural
competence. Educators encourage students to develop their intercultural awareness by
exploring diverse cultures and expanding their ability to differentiate between personal, cultural,
and universal behaviours, traditions, and beliefs. In addition, educators encourage students to
develop the attitudes, knowledge, and skills, including their French-language skills, needed to
interact with people in French-speaking cultures effectively and respectfully. (p. 10)
This description foregrounded the importance of Ontario FSL students, including CF learners, expanding their understanding and meaningful interaction with French-speaking communities. In order to clarify this definition, I examined contributions in research regarding the intercultural perspective.
Some researchers perceived culture as interculture (Baldwin et al., 2014; Byram, 1997; Freire
& Macedo, 1987; Hall, 1959). Elsen and St. John (2007) also stressed the importance of inter- in culture, which is the process of “interrelating or cross-comparing them” to one’s cultural origin (p. 23).
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An intercultural perspective also supported critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire,
1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013) for this inquiry. Teachers who followed a critical pedagogy practice worked towards “rectifying social inequalities that are the result of the highly institutionalized educational system” because it is the understanding that the world is imperfect and requires radical change (Keneman, 2013, p. 24). Freire, an empirical researcher of critical pedagogy stated that students are not “objects of education” and subsequently, argued that teachers need to respect and consider student needs during the planning process (Aliakbari & Faraji, 2011, p. 77). An intercultural perspective would extend more than the “beads and feathers” (St. Denis, 2010, p. 314) of superficial cultural content when dealing with cultural “tensions” (Freire & Macedo, 1987, p. 49) of communities.
In effect, profound cultural teaching should be present in the SL classroom for thorough understanding and interaction. Researchers have indicated that it is through living everyday life that individuals can develop their awareness, trust, and appreciation for various dynamic cultural communities (Falardeau & Simard, 2011; Global Affairs Canada, 2014). Thus, intercultural education is not intracultural education, which is limited to sharing one’s lived experiences with another. Interculture is thinking about the diversity of cultures.
A Transcultural Approach to Culture
Conceptualizing culture then evolved into a transcultural lens. The Modern Language
Association of America (MLA, 2007), defined transculture as “critical language awareness … interpretation and translation, historical and political consciousness, social sensibility, and aesthetic perception” for global citizenship (pp. 2-3). Witte (2014) stated that a transcultural perspective wants to overcome and annihilate all cultural boundaries” (p. 231). Guilherme and Dietz (2015) recognized that the transcultural perspective is much more “neutral…to avoid the baggage carried by ‘the multicultural’ and ‘the intercultural’ not only by shying away from the ‘ism’ suffix but also by rising up into a level
18 above as suggested by the prefix ‘trans’” (p. 8). Totté (2015) argued that a transcultural approach, while not as popular as the intercultural approach, is growing in popularity.
Bhabha (2011) problematized the level of understanding, acceptance, and interaction with different cultures. For example, Bhabha referenced video installations from of two hair salons to juxtapose “scenes of everyday Palestinian life shot in similar locations in Ramallah and New York” (p.
15). The images were carefully placed “virtually at the same angle, that is difficult to tell apart the different locations” (p. 16). Bhabha observed that an onlooker “stands in a space of thirdness, uncertainly in between the screens- through a diasporic narrative of ‘going back and forth…passing through places…borders…and exchanges’” (p. 17). The researcher recognized the difficulty of understanding culture due to the “thickness” (p. 9) of its truths, which may be unfamiliar to a “witness”
(p. 17). Bhabha argued that it is difficult for society to understand and interact with the experiences found in the salons without knowing the exact location and insider story. Consequently, in
Chattopadhyay’s (2017) summary, Bhabha felt that individuals should shift from solely thinking about nationalistic culture and learn from humanity for a more worldly cultural awareness.
Additionally, Witte (2014) perceived transculture with the argument that language learners should not go “above existing cultures … essentializing constructs such as racism and ethnocentrism”
(p. 4). Furthermore, he added to the concept of the third space as, “somewhere between the constructs of the first language, otherwise known as the L1 and the SL or commonly known as the L2 and their respective cultures” (p. 11) to deepen the understanding across spaces. Witte established that the third space of culture in a transcultural perspective is a metaphorical playground for language learners to learn about and interact with cultures because acquisition, acceptance, and interaction are consistently moving targets. Consequently, the third space (Bhabha, 2001; Witte, 2014) directly supports the ‘trans’ in transculture, due to its inherent movement of cultural understanding, interaction, and integration.
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A Pluricultural Approach to Culture
As previously discussed, I have referenced the term interculture when discussing the
Intercultural Understanding sub-strand (OME, 2014) because the participants in this research study had to follow the expectations from this curriculum section. This chapter also presented advantages of the transcultural approach to culture (MLA, 2007), in particular, the third space (Bhabha, 2001; Witte,
2014). However, based on my professional experience as a French teacher and an emerging scholar, I perceived culture through a pluricultural perspective (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) for this inquiry, as it abandons “perfect bilingualism” (Piccardo, n.d., p. 9) and places additional student responsibility to learn and interact with French cultures. The CEFR and its ensuing publications
(Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) were my direct inspirations and references for pluricultural competence because the Ontario FSL curriculum is directly inspired by the CEFR (OME, 2014, p. 9).
Throughout this dissertation, the CEFR has also been referenced as the Framework (Council of
Europe, 2001) and has been extended with a recent publication of the CEFR Companion Volume, or the CEFRCV (Council of Europe, 2018), which is referenced in greater detail in this chapter. Based on my preference, Figure 1 organizes the progression of terms from culture, interculture, transculture
(MLA, 2007), and pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). However, this model visualizes my preference for pluricultural competence, pointing upward to represent the future of cultural education.
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Figure 1
A Summary of Cultural Definitions
Pluricultural Transculture Competence (MLA, 2007) (Council of Interculture Europe, 2001, (OME, 2014) 2016, 2018) Culture
According to Castellotti and Moore (2011), the Council of Europe explored pluriculturalism in the 1990s from reports including Competence plurilingue et pluriculturelle (1997) and based on recommendations such as a symposium titled Symposium de Rüschlikon (1991) in Switzerland.
The Framework defines pluricultural competence as the “ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 168) and becomes a social actor through this pluricultural perspective (Kern &
Liddicoat, 2008). The CEFR suggests that language students should prioritize deeper levels of culture, such as the “living conditions,” the “interpersonal relations,” and the cultural sensitivities (p. 102). There should be less focus on stereotypical aspects of culture such as the “picturesque…archaic, folkloristic…. Dutch clogs and windmills” (p. 148) because these examples do not represent daily experiences of the target community. In fact, Lemaire (2012) recognized that pluriculturalism celebrates the notion that individuals come with many cultures, which are consciously active when interacting with others (p. 207).
In my conception, many elements of pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) are already present in the Ontario FSL curriculum. For example, the curriculum establishes that learning about French language and cultures requires “ongoing practice, personal reflection, an effort to respond
21 to feedback, and commitment” (OME, 2014, p. 11). Comparatively, the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) states that pluricultural competence is an ongoing learning process. According to the CEFR, the learner
“does not cease to be competent in his or her mother tongue and the associated culture [and does not] simply acquire two distinct, unrelated ways of acting and communicating” (p. 43). Additionally, the
Framework identifies a natural “imbalance” of learning cultural content due to the uniqueness of each language learner (p. 133). For example, the CEFR recognizes the reality that work, “family history, travel experience, reading and hobbies” impact the level of pluricultural competence which the language learner obtains (p. 133).
The Council of Europe (2001) promotes the learning of a variety of languages and cultures and stresses that SL students are responsible for initiating and maintaining their development. As Galante
(2018) identified, “plurilingual instruction has a positive effect on students’ plurilingual and pluricultural competence over time” (Finding 2). Despite the fact that pluricultural competence (MLA, 2007) is not referenced in the province’s FSL curriculum (OME, 2014), the characteristics of pluriculture better support Ontario CF students, who may come from multiethnic and multilingual backgrounds, and stimulate ongoing language and cultural learning. However, pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001,
2016, 2018) was not fully observed in the study (see Chapter 5).
Cultural Suggestions and Tensions
Culture is often one of the main reasons that SL students enrol in another language (Mueller,
1985). Participant-students in a research study of the Toronto District School Board preferred “to focus more on French culture and less on grammar and verb conjugations” in their FSL classes (Sinay et al.,
2018, p. 60). Unfortunately, approaching cultures in the classroom has caused tensions between the individual and collective society (Forquin, 1989). For example, as an Ontario non-native French- speaking teacher, I have experienced challenges in knowing the appropriate individual (i.e., the who), the content (i.e., the what), the context (i.e., the where), the timing in the unit (i.e., the when), the reasoning (i.e., the why), and the best practices (i.e., the how) in approaching culture in the Grade 9 CF
22 classroom through a pluricultural perspective (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). Due to the variety of cultural considerations and tensions, I now present various examples observed through research.
Which French Cultures to Approach?
Several researchers addressed the which of culture with a plethora of strategies. For example, in a national study, LeBlanc et al. (1990, p. 66) presented cultural strategies for Canadian CF teachers.
According to the researchers, cultural content:
• should begin with local French-speaking communities, Québec, francophone Canada, and
North America to France and other francophone countries;
• should be integrated within a communicative approach to second language learning;
• should maintain a pluralistic vision;
• should be factual, interpretive, contextual and not generalized;
• should be relevant to the time period of the FSL students in lieu of folklore content;
• should be engaging, and motivating to the adolescent learner;
• should be integral to, or part of the FSL program, not merely an add-on.
The what of culture has also been challenging due to the difficulty in arriving at one concrete cultural definition (Falardeau & Simard, 2011; Freire & Macedo, 1987; LeBlanc et al.,1990; Zarate,
1986). Additionally, society has consistently reinterpreted the what of culture; arguably, the meaning of the word authentic continually evolves (Elsen & St. John, 2007; Keogh, 2016; Witte, 2014). Mueller
(1985) suggested that FSL teachers select aspects of French culture which are similar to the students’ cultures; however, Mueller also recognized teacher anxiety about the time constraints to effectively
“undertake a systematic study of culture” (p. 3). As a result, Mueller observed that French teachers consciously ignored cultural content in their classrooms in exchange for other language concepts.
Where to Approach French Cultures?
Researchers identified initial solutions in addressing the where of culture. De Méo (1982) cautioned teachers to exclusively focus on a single cultural “truth” (p. 505). Researchers also reminded
23 educators not to consider culture as a contained “sociocultural vacuum” (Loveday, 1982, p. 47), or in a narrowed manner (Sconduto, 2008) because students could become culturally blind to a variety of communities where the target language (TL), or otherwise known as the desired language, is spoken
(Mason, 1993). Further, researchers encouraged the design of FSL classrooms that are vibrant and contain physically accessible and current classroom décor, such as posters and calendars that highlight francophone holidays, postcards, photos, cartoons, stamp collections, and other cultural artefacts
(LeBlanc et al., 1990). Researchers maintained that culture should be approached as abundantly as possible in the SL classroom; however, they acknowledged there have been challenges in arriving at this objective. For instance, Izquierdo (2014) argued that there should be a reduced reliance on prescribed manuals and textbooks, which contain static information, in lieu of present-day content. In practice, however, teachers mostly presented cultural material using the students’ textbook (Liddicoat &
Scarino, 2013; Pinto, 2007).
Ontario’s standardized achievement chart, which is a general rubric for student evaluation, references the word culture in the Knowledge and Understanding section (OME, 2014). Considering this observation, Ontario FSL teachers may risk to exclusively approach cultural content through a more factual manner, with limited opportunities for interaction. Therefore, students may not be exposed to culture in the other assessment categories on the achievement chart, such as the Thinking,
Application, and Communication sections, where students “adapt … analyze … investigate … research
[and] respond” (EduGains, n.d.).
When to Approach French Cultures?
Researchers presented initial cultural strategies for teachers. For example, a Canadian empirical CF study suggested an order of cultural themes, beginning with young francophones of the world, and progressing to the world of the workforce by the end of the final year of high school (LeBlanc et al., 1990). Other researchers observed FSL student preference to learn about cultures in advanced level FSL classes (Drewelow, 2012; Sercu, 2002). Duncan (2016) stressed that FSL teachers prioritize
24 and actively integrate French cultures in their lesson planning to increase student motivation.
Unfortunately, Rehner (2017) identified oral proficiency challenges for Ontario Grade 9 CF students, which, in my argument, can impact how profoundly these learners can explore French cultures.
How to Approach French Cultures?
The how of culture is infinite, yet Michelson (2018) indicated that it remains challenging to clearly manage for teachers. For example, researchers observed that language teachers often compartmentalize cultures into designated units, which remain untouched year-to-year (Furstenberg,
2010; Reeser, 2003; Tang, 2006; Witte, 2014). This melting pot approach in classifying and organizing culture can exclude or misrepresent communities that also speak the TL. Compartmentalizing cultures can also create generalizations about cultures, with the common example that French is primarily connected with “Paris or the Eiffel Tower” (Drewelow, 2011, p. 758). Therefore, the literature indicated that categorizing culture challenges the maintenance of authenticity.
Local to the Canadian context, Hodgetts and the National History Project (1968) observed FSL teachers glossing through Québécois culture in exchange for other French cultural communities.
Additionally, Keating Marshall and Bokhorst‐Heng (2018) identified that native New Brunswick French- speaking teachers did not introduce their students to profound conversations on “local, regional, or even national historical debates on Francophones’ cultural and linguistic rights” in English-speaking schools (p. 306). As a result, many FSL students were disinterested in French cultures because the activities were not “stimulating and valuable” experiences (Mueller, 1985, iii), but, rather, were masked into “monotonous grammatical exercises” (p. 36). Therefore, this example demonstrated that the how of culture can impact student engagement with the content.
Despite its importance, researchers agreed approaching culture may be challenging to understand for SL students (Izquierdo, 2014; Mueller, 1985). Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) claimed oversimplifying cultural content may consequently “edit out or modify … culturally contexted meaning”
(Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013, p. 94). Mueller (1985) celebrated teachers introducing culture in the “target
25 language” (p. 41), but this approach can be problematic for Ontario CF Grade 9 students with a beginner level of French. Assessing student comprehension of cultural content is another ambiguous objective in the SL classroom. For example, LeBlanc et al. (1990) suggested that cultural assessment should be based on cultural facts through projects, true and false questions, and the identification of cultural items. Damen (1987) affirmed that students are their own evaluators regarding their comprehension and interaction with the cultural communities. Damen also reassured teachers by stating that “cultural patterns are not shared by all members of a cultural group in exactly the same way” (p. 43). This argument reduces the practitioner burden to be the cultural expert because it is almost impossible to have a constant understanding of every francophone culture. Unfortunately, fifteen years after Damen’s findings, Byram et al. (2002) determined that language students still struggled with comprehending cultural content.
Cultural Iceberg Model
The cultural iceberg model (Engel, 2011; Hall, 1959, 1977; Multicultural Council of
Saskatchewan, 2017; Weaver, 1986) is a metaphorical concept which has assisted stakeholders such as teachers and SL students in understanding the which, where, when, and how of culture. The teachers of this inquiry frequently identified the iceberg as a starting point to identify rich, cultural content to include in their Grade 9 CF classrooms.
Hall (1959) spearheaded an initial definition of dynamic culture using the illustration of the
“periodic table” because culture contains multiple elements, such as knowing about gender “roles” that are established in a community (p. 222) that are visible and invisible. The Multicultural Council of
Saskatchewan (2017) summarized Hall’s iceberg model (1959) into five categories and only 10 % of the cultural content such as food, clothing, music, and popular culture are part of the iceberg’s external surface. Hall (1977) also suggested that individuals can increase their cultural understanding of these complex subconscious beliefs and values through active participation in the cultural community.
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Engel (2011) expanded on the iceberg metaphor and stated that the visible portion of the iceberg is external culture. This explanation identified that external cultural elements can be seen by
“outsiders, such as language, customs, and traditions. External culture is also conscious, explicitly learned, and can be readily changed” (p. 33). Engel then conceived that the culture below the surface is internal culture, and it is “deeply engrained and largely hidden from those who are not part of the cultural group [and is] unconscious, implicitly learned, subjective, and difficult to change. Examples of internal, or deep, culture include values, assumptions, and thought patterns” (pp. 33-34).
Weaver (1986) also added greater detail to Hall’s (1959; 1977) iceberg to see through each cultural layer. For the purposes of this inquiry, Weaver’s contribution to the iceberg was the preferred reference to the iceberg model because he provided a greater number of examples that demonstrated both visible and invisible cultural characteristics. Weaver observed that more physical aspects of culture, such as athletic activities, books, and clothing, are easily identifiable and comprehensible to others who do not derive from the target culture. Weaver added additional examples to the deepest layer of the iceberg, including collaboration, leadership skills, and the constitution of friendship, which vary amongst cultures. The original conception of the iceberg and its revisions justify the importance for
SL teachers to focus more on the hidden layer with students. In my argument as a teacher, the iceberg’s simplistic design may increase teacher buy-in or willingness to approach cultures dynamically, and it can become a poster to display in classrooms for student access.
Authentic Culture
Recognizing the richness of French cultures represented in the area below the water’s surface of the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986), I now discuss the meaning of authentic cultural content. I assert that much of authentic culture is found in the deeper layer of the iceberg. Authentic, or real-life, tasks are important considerations for culture in the SL classroom. The Ontario FSL curriculum defines an authentic task as when students incorporate French in “real-world situations (e.g., exchanging emails with a friend, making a purchase in a store, reading the menu from a restaurant, listening to a podcast
27 on a subject of interest) to enhance one’s understanding and/or one’s ability to communicate” (OME,
2014, p. 379).
As introduced in this chapter, the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) was one of the principal sources considered for cultural approaches in the Grade 9 CF classroom because it supports authentic language learning. It is an influential framework that serves as “a comprehensive, transparent, and coherent tool to … define levels of language competence in terms of practical real-world proficiency … encourage educational reform, and … facilitate coherence between curricula, teaching practices, and assessment” (Piccardo et al., 2019, p. 104). Piccardo et al. argued that the CEFR,
is…one of the most significant recent developments in second language education…of seeing
curriculum as a dynamic process (Graves, 2008), employing backward design (i.e., working
backwards from learner needs identified as can-do descriptors (Richards, 2013) and
encouraging ongoing adjustment during implementation. (p. 104)
Accordingly, the researchers recognized the significance of the Framework for overall SL planning.
Piccardo (2020) also found that the Framework was inspired by four main “outcomes of earlier Council of Europe projects” (p. 1), which included: (a) determining the needs of the language learner (Richterich
& Chancerel, 1980), (b) establishing the appropriate “Threshold Level” of the TL required for daily living
(van Ek, 1975), (c) characterizing the autonomous learner (Holec, 1981), and (d) experimenting with constructive can do descriptors that correspond with the appropriate language level of the learner
(Oscarson, 1979, 1984). Similarly, Piccardo (2020) reinforced that the CEFR is “language neutral,” meaning that its content is designed to consider a variety of language classrooms, so it is not exclusive to European countries (p. 1). Furthermore, Piccardo argued that the Framework should be part of a resource collection and not a mandatory language teaching method that teachers are obliged to
“[hammer] like a nail” (p. 5).
The CEFR thoroughly realizes the meaning of authenticity in the TL, such as, “face to face with native speaker(s); overhearing conversation; listening to radio, recordings…watching and listening to
28
TV, video…reading unmodified, ungraded, authentic written texts…newspapers, magazines, stories, novels, public signs and notices…” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 143). The Framework also appropriates the authentic content in conjunction with its language levels. The CEFR classifies beginner, intermediate, and advanced language learners with its designated language levels ranging from the beginning A1 to C2. According to the CEFR, students at the A1 level,
can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and
answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and
things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help. (p. 24)
Additionally, learners of the A2 level,
can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate
relevance (e.g., very basic personal and family information shopping, local geography,
employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects
of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need. (p. 24)
Piccardo (2020) cautioned teachers to not consider the language descriptors in “fixed ranges neatly separated by lines, but … more like colors in the rainbow” that blend together (p. 2). From personal practitioner experience, I demonstrate that the curriculum’s (OME, 2014) expectations of the
Grade 9 CF program directly align with the A1-A2 levels of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). For example, the academic class of the Grade 9 CF program has the following overall objective:
This course provides opportunities for students to communicate and interact in French with
increasing independence, with a focus on familiar topics related to their daily lives. Students will
develop their skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing by using language learning
strategies introduced in the elementary Core French program, and will apply creative and
29
critical thinking skills in various ways. They will also enhance their understanding and
appreciation of diverse French speaking communities, and will develop skills necessary for
lifelong language learning. (OME, 2014, p. 58)
Additionally, Rehner’s (2017) research identified that the majority of the Ontario secondary school teachers in the investigation felt that the A1 and A2 CEFR language levels “corresponded to the overall proficiency of a target FSL class” (p. 4). Similarly, RK Publishing (2015), which produced one of the
Ministry of Education approved textbooks for Grade 9 CF, stated that “Grade 9 Academic students will reach Level A2 with regard to the CEFR by the end of the course” (vi). Researchers also argued that
CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) descriptors can assist teachers in establishing goals and designing activities (Piccardo, 2014, 2020; Piccardo & North, 2019). Furthermore, researchers suggested using the language levels of the Framework (Council of Europe, 2001) can assist educators and students to monitor their progress with language proficiency (Frost & O’Donnell, 2015).
Despite being published in Europe, the Framework (Council of Europe, 2001) has been popularized as the standard FSL resource for Canadian French teachers (Council of Ministers of
Education Canada, 2010; Vandergrift, 2006). While the revised curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014) do not mention the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) in their publications, it informs Ontario FSL teaching practices (Piccardo et al., 2019; Rehner, 2017). For example, the province’s FSL students should work towards interacting as “social actors” (OME, 2013b, p. 9) for “global citizenship” (OME, 2014, p. 10), which is like the CEFR’s “social agent” representation of a SL student (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 14).
The curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014) also state the importance of “action-oriented approaches to teaching French [which puts] meaningful and authentic communication at the centre of all learning activities” (OME, 2014, p. 9). This statement reflects how the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) is naturally embedded in the province’s FSL curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014). Additionally, Rehner’s (2017) study on the CEFR in the Ontario FSL context found that there is a,
30
sweeping reorientation of how language is being presented in their classrooms, right from the
instructional planning stage, through the teaching practices used, down to how language is
assessed and evaluated [which is] very much in line with the principles and spirit of the CEFR.
(p. 23)
Rehner identified that her Ontario FSL teacher-participants balanced their authentic language practices on “linguistic, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic competences” (p. 23) due to their knowledge and use of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). However, the Framework is not part of the “official assessment and grading system” (Piccardo et al., 2019, p. 121) of the province’s FSL curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014).
Regardless, the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) was included in this literature review because my participants frequently referenced this Framework.
Pluricultural Competence and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
As mentioned, this study approached culture with a pluricultural perspective (Council of Europe,
2001, 2016, 2018), which also helped me address the how of culture. The Council of Europe added to the discussion of the term pluricultural competence. In 2016, the Council itemized a list of twenty competences for effective cultural interaction. In 2018, the Council of Europe added to their definition of pluriculture: “Seeing learners as plurilingual, pluricultural beings means allowing them to use all their linguistic resources when necessary, encouraging them to see similarities and regularities as well as differences between languages and cultures [which is] an uneven and changing competence” (p. 28).
This is a significant shift from words such as multiculturalism or multilingualism, which the CEFR established that they imply more of a mere “coexistence” (p. 26) rather than a more active and socially responsible term of pluriculturalism. Subsequently, in 2018, the Council of Europe added to the CEFR
(2001) with revised and additional descriptors that elaborate the meaning and application of pluricultural competence (see Table 1 & Figure 2).
31
Table 1
An Overview of Pluricultural References from the Council of Europe
Twenty Cultural Competencies a (Council of Europe, 2016) Values Attitudes -human dignity and human rights -openness to other cultures -cultural diversity -respect -democracy, justice, fairness, equality, rule of -civic mindedness law -responsibility -self-efficacy -tolerance Skills Knowledge & Critical Understanding -autonomous learner -self -critical thinker -language & communication -empathy -the world (politics, law, human rights, culture, -linguistic, communicative and plurilingual religions, history, media, economies, environment) skills -co-operation & conflict resolution Pluricultural Competences b (Council of Europe, 2018) A1 User A2 User “Can facilitate an intercultural exchange by “Can contribute to an intercultural exchange, using showing welcome and interest with simple simple words to ask people to explain things and to words and non-verbal signals, by inviting get clarification of what they say, whilst exploiting others to speak and by indicating whether his/her limited repertoire to express agreement, to he/she understands when addressed directly.” invite, to thank etc.” (p. 123) (p. 123) “Can recognise and apply basic cultural conventions “Can recognise differing ways of numbering, associated with everyday social exchanges (for measuring distance, telling the time, etc. even example different greetings rituals). though he/she may have difficulty applying Can act appropriately in everyday greetings, this in even simple everyday transactions of a farewells, and expressions of thanks and apology, concrete type.” (p. 159) although he/she has difficulty coping with any departure from the routine. Can recognise that his/her behaviour in an everyday transaction may convey a message different to the one he/she intends, and can try to explain this simply. Can recognise when difficulties occur in interaction with members of other cultures, even though he/she may well not be sure how to behave in the situation.” (p. 159)
“Can contribute to an intercultural exchange, using simple words to ask people to explain things and to get clarification of what they say, whilst exploiting his/her limited repertoire to express agreement, to invite, to thank etc.” (p. 217)
32 a Adapted from Competences for democratic culture: Living together as equals in culturally diverse democratic societies, by Council of Europe, 2016, p. 11 (https://rm.coe.int/16806ccc07). Reprinted with permission. b Reprinted from Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment companion volume with new descriptors, by Council of Europe, 2018
(https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989). Reprinted with permission.
Figure 2
Unpacking Pluricultural Competence
Building on pluricultural repertoire
Plurilingual and Plurilingual Pluricultural comprehension Competence
Building on plurilingual repertoire
Note. Adapted from Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching,
Assessment Companion Volume with New Descriptors, by Council of Europe, 2018, p. 157.
(https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989). Reprinted with permission.
The changes illustrated in Table 1 and Figure 2 provide substantive material to address the how of culture for this inquiry. Accordingly, much of the content of Table 1 and Figure 2 is rooted in the
FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). For example, Ontario FSL high school students are encouraged to be
“autonomous learners who are able to set individual goals, monitor their own progress, determine next steps, and reflect on their thinking and learning” (p. 28). Also, the curriculum incorporates critical thinking skills in the following illustration:
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Students use critical-thinking skills in FSL when they assess, analyse, and/or evaluate the
impact of something and when they form an opinion and support that opinion with a rationale.
In order to think critically, students need to ask themselves effective questions in order to:
interpret information; detect bias in their sources; determine why a source might express a
particular bias; examine the opinions, perspectives, and values of various groups and
individuals; look for implied meaning; and use the information gathered to form a personal
opinion or stance, or a personal plan of action with regard to making a difference. (pp. 48-49)
The CEFR documents (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) and the revised elementary and high school curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014) stress that language acquisition occurs socially and tangibly, and not in “isolation” (CASLT/ACPLS, 2019, p. 22). Therefore, both the CEFR resources (Council of
Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) and the curriculum (OME, 2014) illustrate that beginner level, A1 or A2 students have roles in the pluricultural sphere.
Information and Communications Technology and Culture
Information and communications technology (ICT) resources are highly popular among teachers for action-based authentic cultural approaches. In literature, Hodgetts and the National History
Project (1968) and Purushotma and Jenkins (2009) stressed the importance of real learning outside of the classroom to avoid “depersonalized” textbooks as the main resource for authentic experiences
(Purushotma & Jenkins, 2009, p. 39). For instance, Ducate and Lomicka (2008) found blogging to be effective for French and German students to “get a taste of everyday … culture, such as public transportation or striking” (p. 15). Furstenberg (2010) argued for online cultural exchange opportunities so that SL students have a space “to fully articulate their thoughts and ideas” to a larger online community of interested interlocutors (p. 331). Accordingly, the researcher recognized that the Internet,
“has brought the outside world right into our students’ homes and into our classrooms, providing students with direct and equal access to the complex, rich, and multifaceted world of the target culture”
(p. 329). Smith (2017) identified that her FSL teacher-participants used ICT to explore global French
34 cultures, with one educator who stated that the Internet instantaneously grants FSL teachers with access to cultures, “shrinking the world down” (pp. 100-101). Overall, ICT resources have equipped SL students with virtual spaces to learn about and interact with cultures.
ICT resources also assist students in experiencing, playing with, and recreating cultures. For example, researchers indicated virtual worlds offer enhanced cultural exploration in the TL (Levy, 2009) because the students can interact or create their own cultural “avatars” (Dema & Kramer Moeller, 2012, p. 84). In addition, ICT resources have allowed marginalized groups to share their cultural stories or redesign traditional Caucasian-predominant characters found in fairy tales in the effort to “silence, erase, consume, or ventriloquize them within children’s and young adult literature, media, and popular discourse” through the process of re-storying (E. Thomas & Stornaiuolo, 2016, p. 314).
ICT has an official sub-section in the Some Considerations for Program Planning in French as a Second Language section of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014):
The integration of ICT into the FSL programs represents a natural extension of the learning
expectations. Current technologies are useful as both research and reference tools.…through
ICT, teachers and students can also access authentic texts – including broadcasts, music,
blogs, newspapers, magazines, dialogues, and advertisements – by French-speaking people
from a variety of cultures in Canada and around the world…
Whenever appropriate, students should be encouraged to use ICT to support and
communicate their learning. For example, students working individually or in groups can use
computer technology and/or websites to gain access to authentic French-language
materials.…they can also use portable storage devices to store information, as well as CD-
ROM and DVD technologies and digital cameras and projectors to organize and present the
results of their research and creative endeavours to their classmates and others. (p. 52)
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According to the Ministry of Education, ICT helps FSL teachers achieve and live the various programming expectations so that French language students can learn, interact, and present French cultures in authentic ways.
Research in the Ontario FSL teaching context demonstrated that teachers and students positively benefitted from ICT resources. For example, Pellerin (2014) recognized the benefits of using student cell phones in beginner level French immersion classes in primary school. Pellerin witnessed students who digitally documented their learning using “audio/video recordings” (p. 20) and subsequently developed “a sense of purpose” (p. 22) to learn French. Prasad (2014) conducted a
Toronto-based case study at a French language private school to analyze digital portraits created by 26 elementary and high school students. The students in this investigation incorporated colourful drawings to better support their unique identities. Jurkowski (2017) later explored how Ontario Grade 8 CF students in a rural elementary school shared their identities using “digital learning space portfolio[s]” (ii).
Her research contributed to discussions of assessment, student metacognition, and the role of the FSL teacher who was required to ensure the success of the e-portfolio.
Researchers observed the benefits and difficulties of Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers incorporating ICT tools in their classrooms. For example, De Luca et al. (2017) led a Teacher
Learning and Leadership Project for a school district close to the Greater Toronto Area. The researchers surveyed over 100 elementary and secondary school FSL teachers regarding their cultural practices and found that fewer than half of the teachers in the study were highly comfortable with the
Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of their curriculum (OME, 2014). Additionally, the teacher- participants were unfamiliar with “Francophone culture from Africa, Asia, or smaller francophone regions” and sought “[c]omprehensive, teacher friendly teaching units [and] ready-made activities” (p.
4). Accordingly, one teacher was frustrated with the vastness of the Internet for cultural activities.
Therefore, this research demonstrated that ICT resources have the potential to improve teacher access
36 to dynamic cultural content; however, it also showed they can be overwhelming for educators if left un- curated.
As a result, De Luca el at. (2017) created an online cultural guide of la francophonie, based on the CEFR language levels (Council of Europe, 2001). The guide provided teachers with direct hyperlinks to various websites that offer listening activities and cultural lessons from French-speaking communities. The researchers stressed the importance of interculturality in Ontario FSL education:
Interculturality in FSL learning reminds teachers and learners that there is no linguistic
hegemony in learning the French language. The opportunity to teach and learn about the
various accents and dialects disrupts the idea that there is one way to speak French ….
Interculturality also awards the opportunity to fight white privilege through the exploration of
numerous non-white cultures that speak French, and the historic reasons why and how French
came to be the official and/or administrative language of … countries. (p. 6)
Their contributions reminded Ontario FSL teachers to be open to all French-speaking communities and provide their students with authentic, recent, frequent, and relevant cultural resources. The thorough research also provided a starting point for cultural research, in particular, for Ontario non-native French- speaking FSL teachers.
Without ICT, Salvatori (2007) argued, authentic cultural opportunities may not be as prevalent in Ontario FSL classrooms. Others explained that educators can expand these opportunities when they allow students greater cultural research using ICT because learners are “more engaged with authentic cultural content they can access and explore freely” (Dema & Kramer Moeller, 2012, p. 82).
Furstenberg (2010) cautioned limited application of ICT resources into the SL classroom because teachers may risk hiding core problems, such as deciding what and whose culture to teach, as well as how to render it accessible to students. These references reinforced the meaningful possibilities of ICT for student expression when interacting in French, and conversely, the recognition for adequate teacher-training as ICT users.
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Curriculum as a Concept
Curriculum Orientations
Culture and curriculum were the key topics in FSL education that framed this inquiry. Having characterized culture’s various definitions, features, and tensions, the next section of this dissertation explores how the term curriculum can be similarly interpreted. Since the research study was also based on teachers’ reactions to a revised curriculum document (OME, 2014), I now explore various meanings of the word curriculum. To better comprehend the fullness of curriculum, I present two distinct perspectives and I establish my preferred conception. I then outline various initiatives and tensions which were considered for this inquiry.
Bobbitt (1918) was one of the empirical researchers who established the complexities of curriculum for teachers. While Tyler (1949) stated that the curriculum is a necessary “instrument of education” (p. 1), Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) noted that it is often “elusive, fragmentary, and confusing” (p. 1) for curriculum stakeholders, such as educators. To many, Eisner (1994) explained, the word curriculum means a mandatory document of formally stated learning objectives that should be fulfilled by the teacher, which is labeled as explicit curriculum. Throughout this inquiry, I reference the explicit curriculum, which is the Ontario FSL secondary curriculum document (OME, 2014).
Researchers identified ongoing curriculum complexities, which added to the argument that teachers require the curriculum “inside story” (Ben-Peretz, 1990, p. 112). As an Ontario FSL teacher, I experience my curriculum document as implicit, which Eisner (1994) defined as unintended concepts that are taught to students from explicit curriculum. Within the complexities of implicit curriculum, hidden curriculum “refers to the way in which cultural values and attitudes (such as obedience to authority, punctuality…are transmitted” to students (Scott, 2014). For example, Chapelle (2009) did not observe many references to Canadian francophone communities in FSL textbooks used in American classrooms. Her research demonstrated that the “language books teach more than language” (p.141), and that Canadian francophonie is undervalued and “may constitute a hidden curriculum about where
38
French is (and is not) spoken, and even about who ‘owns’ French” (p. 149). In my professional context,
I hope that students come to realize similarities of North African communities to their own origins and experiences when I introduce terms such as kif-kif and that French identity is not singular and solely stereotyped to wine, bicycles, and baguettes as culinary preferences of francophones.
The null curriculum (Eisner, 1994) is the absent content that becomes present to students. For example, educators who omit complex discussions about cultural inequalities with their students indirectly teach students not to think critically about cultures. In this illustration, FSL students may complete the course thinking that cultural learning is not important. Therefore, it is imperative that
French teachers have positive attitudes towards francophone communities so that the fullness of culture and curriculum is integrated in FSL classrooms.
With the multitude of definitions of curriculum, Seitz (2017) observed teacher unfamiliarity towards new programming changes with the turning “wheels on [an] automobile” (p. 73) that are constantly spinning at a fast pace. As a French teacher, I can attest to the spinning “wheels” (p. 73), which, in my experience, include school interruptions such as assemblies, tournaments, and the consistent juggling act to address the curriculum expectations by the end of the semester.
Researchers considered how teachers implement curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) classified teachers into six curriculum styles. They noticed that some teachers act as curriculum managers who consider the needs of all school employees in their course planning. Ornstein and
Hunkins also perceived teachers as reformative individuals, meaning that some educators challenge or extend the curriculum expectations of their document to promote social justice. Both examples demonstrate the uniqueness of each teacher as a curriculum user; however, this flexibility may be problematic if not supported by school administration, parents, or students. Given the lack of clarity and consensus with respect to the word curriculum, I summarize two main perceptions: linear curriculum and lived curriculum.
39
The Linear Curriculum
I begin by summarizing a traditional stance to curriculum. Traditionalists view programming through a more positivistic (Bobbitt, 1918; Charters, 1971), rationalistic, behaviouristic (Beauchamp,
1975), formal (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 1995-2020), official (Pollard & Triggs, 1997) and intentional (Seitz, 2017) lens. The reason for this approach is because curriculum is tested (Klein,
1986), “measured” (Klein, 1986, p. 32) or assessed (Moss, 1999). Irrespective of the definition, traditionalist teachers perceive curriculum in a linear, one-dimensional, or “black box” approach that remains untouched from year-to-year (Aoki, 2005a, p. 188). For example, teachers with this curriculum perspective prefer to reuse lesson plans for the same course.
I do not view the Ontario FSL high school curriculum (OME, 2014) predominantly through this lens due to its restrictive nature and insufficient consideration of the student, environment, and teacher.
However, I also recognize and respect that other readers of the province’s FSL curriculum, such as fellow non-native French-speaking colleagues, curriculum designers, or school boards, may perceive the curriculum objectives through this linear or traditionalistic perspective.
The Lived Curriculum
Non-traditionalists have opposing arguments about curriculum enactment, maintaining a lived perspective (Aoki, 1999). The lived curriculum perspective is defined as “inspirited” (Aoki, 1991, p. 18),
“[s]ituational” (Aoki, 1983, p. 9), approached (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009), observed (Pollard & Triggs,
1997) and vocational (Marsh, 1997). When addressing a curriculum document, “[it] becomes filtered, rendered, and owned by the teacher, for the students, and within a local context” (Misco, 2010, p. 185).
Non-traditionalist teachers approach curriculum content through a multifaceted perspective (Aoki,
2005a; Roach et al. 2008; N. L. Webb, 2002) in that they view curriculum to be alive and holistic
(Goodlad, 1984; Rugg & Shumaker, 1928). The expectations of a curriculum document do not dominate the overall teaching practice because the educator recognizes and celebrates the
“unpredictable” nature of education (Aoki, 1999, p. 181). For example, when creating a lesson through
40 a lived curriculum stance, student needs and preferences directly impact the design of the activity.
Therefore, this orientation values educator knowledge because this individual is the main determinant of what and how to teach (Cho, 1998; Misco, 2010).
The Curriculum “In Between Zone”
Tyler (1949) and Aoki (1984, 1999, 2005a) argued for a “dialectical relationship” (Aoki, 1984, p.
114) within an appropriate “swelling in the zone of between” (Aoki, 2005b, p. 161). I approached this inquiry with a combination of the two curriculum perceptions: linear and lived (Aoki, 1999), and with greater emphasis on the latter perspective. I perceive my curriculum (OME, 2014) to be vaguely written, which, in my argument, allows for greater practitioner flexibility through a predominantly lived curriculum perspective (Aoki, 1999). Culture is also not static, nor can it be checked off on a curriculum document due to its multiple interpretations.
However, Ontario FSL teachers are required to follow the curriculum content to adhere to their professional responsibilities. I designed the second research question of this dissertation to respect the
Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub-strand (OME, 2014) and to speak more to the linear curriculum orientation (Aoki, 2005a). For instance, even though expressions such as kif-kif are not required in the Grade 9 CF curriculum, these examples became part of my metaphorical “check-list” when looking for cultural resources. Consequently, these non-compulsory strategies became mandatory in my personal conception as an ambitious Grade 9 CF teacher. For these reasons, I maintained this balanced curriculum perspective when exploring how the teacher-participants in this study approached cultural content.
Provincial Initiatives, Observations and Challenges
As researchers have explored the complexities of curriculum, I now present localized examples of how the OME has assisted its Grade 9 CF teachers with the revised curriculum (2014). The curriculum is the only mandatory document for Ontario FSL teachers to fulfill the French language expectations. However, the provincial government also funded or created non-mandatory FSL
41 curriculum resources. In Table 2, I present recent contributions that are chronologically organized, commencing with the most recent publication before the focus group of this inquiry (January 2019), to no earlier than 2014, because the curriculum document of this study was not published until 2014.
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Table 2
A Summary of FSL Resources from the Ontario Ministry of Education
Resource Benefit IDÉLLO (https://www.idello.org) • authentic, level- and age-appropriate, online resources such as documentaries, games, and articles to implement the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand (OME, 2014) Harmonisation de travaux d’élèves en français langue seconde : • a guide for Ontario FSL teachers to better understand how the language Production écrite : Guide du projet (OME, 2017b) levels of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) can be applied to the Ontario FSL context with example writing activities The CEFR in Ontario: Transforming Classroom Practice (Rehner, 2017) • a thorough research report which presented data regarding student proficiency in French during the year of 2016-2017 after their teachers were exposed to CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) training Welcoming English Language Learners into French as a Second • recognition for English language learners (ELLs) in FSL programs Language Programs: A Companion Resource to A Framework for FSL, K–12 (OME, 2016) Including Students with Special Education Needs in French as a Second • recognition for students with special needs in FSL programs Language Programs: A Guide for Ontario Schools: A Companion Resource to A Framework for FSL, K–12 (OME, 2015) A Guide to Reflective Practice for Core French Teachers: The Action- • online learning modules to support teachers with the action-oriented Oriented Approach a (Curriculum Services Canada, n.d.) approach Supporting Students in FSL: Viewer’s Guide b (Curriculum Services Canada, 2015) On parle! (Silva & Sterling, 2016) • current textbooks approved for use by the Ministry of Education for Grade 9 Points de connexion (Arnett & Mady, 2015) CF Tu parles! 1 (Hendry et al., 2015) a b These resources were also funded by the federal government.
43
From personal use of the resources found in Table 2, I argue that the OME increased its priority for French cultures in FSL education. The publications help to legitimize FSL programs as important subjects for students. Further, the resources provide specific teaching strategies, such as students showing family photos to classmates when describing family members (Curriculum Services Canada, n.d.). However, from personal practitioner experience, the resources are only initial supports for the
Intercultural Understanding sub-strand (OME, 2014).
Additional provincially funded resources became available upon the conclusion of this inquiry, such as the Grammar in action document (OME, 2019) which assists teachers in approaching grammatical concepts including verb tenses in authentic contexts. This resource adds to the
Harmonisation des travaux d’élèves en français langue seconde document for written communication
(OME, 2017b). These documents support Ontario FSL teachers with their understanding and authentic integration of the various CEFR language levels (Council of Europe, 2001). Therefore, the provincial government has made considerable efforts in the last six years to support Ontario FSL teachers in understanding their curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014), the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), and terms including authentic and action-oriented tasks.
Researchers also identified a greater number of positive experiences of Ontario FSL teachers implementing the revised curricula (OME, 2013b, 2014). For example, more school administrators have recognized the importance of FSL teachers for the school community (Arnott, 2017; Milley & Arnott,
2016). A greater number of Ontario FSL educators have understood and implemented action-oriented activities rooted in the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001; see also Council of Ministers of Education
Canada, 2015; Duncan, 2016; Faez, Majhanovich, et al., 2011; Faez, Taylor, et al., 2011; Masson,
2018; Piccardo, 2013; Viswanathan, 2016). However, the province’s FSL secondary school teachers have also experienced challenges with their students’ French-language learning. For example, Rehner
(2014) observed that Ontario high school CF students continuously struggle in speaking French. In my conception, the students’ struggle with oral communication could be a reason for their limited
44 interaction with francophone cultures. In Masson’s research (2018), the participants’ students were engaged with French Caribbean music due to the students’ personal ties to Jamaica; however, there were no critical discussions such as “colonization” of these regions (p. 137). Principals have recognized the value of CF; however, they have seldom offered a strong French presence in their schools. For example, French has commonly been presented to the school community through efforts including superficial references during “school assemblies [and] on bulletin boards” (Milley & Arnott, 2016, p. 17); however, these strategies have not changed for “more than two decades” (p. 17). These recent studies in the province demonstrated that “French is sometimes the forgotten cousin” in the province’s educational system (p. 12). Consequently, some Ontario FSL students struggle to fully interact in
French, which limits their profound connection with deep, below the iceberg, cultural content (Weaver,
1986).
The Native-Non-Native Dichotomy
Educators are responsible for the teaching in their classrooms. The language identity of the
FSL teacher was another critical component of my research question. Roy (2015) stressed the importance of educators to discuss language ideologies, especially the native-non-native dichotomy, because these beliefs directly impact how teachers fulfill education programs. Paikeday (1985) established that this discussion is a “delicate matter” (viii). With such varying definitions, characteristics, and challenges of culture and curriculum in the FSL classroom, the question remains as to which type of teacher is required, and when to begin interacting with beginner level CF students. Due to my personal insecurities, I was concerned with the preparedness of non-native French-speaking educators, which concern has been similarly questioned in Ontario FSL research (R. A. Thomas, 2017). Therefore, this section summarizes the two teacher-types and how they are perceived as both cultural and linguistic experts.
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The Native French-Speaking Teacher
Davies (2003) and Walkinshaw and Oanh (2014) characterized the native speaker as an individual who acquired the language from infancy and who fluently interacts. Historically, the native speaker teacher was idealized because purist ideologies stated that languages should not be contaminated by others in the classroom (Cook, 2016; Douglas Fir Group, 2016). Researchers have also identified the powerful influence of languages, such as English, that are labeled as lingua franca
(Kachru, 1986; Ricento, 2015). These languages were not only the dominant languages of a given community; however, they extended their popularity outside of “national boundaries” (Kramsch, 2013, p. 70). When society has preferred the lingua franca over their own national language, other communities have become marginalized or endangered because they were no longer important for communication in a globalized world (Kachru, 1986; Ricento, 2015).
Even though English is the global lingua franca, rather than French (Ricento, 2015), the
Parisian accent remains influential among French-speaking cultures (Armstrong & Jamin, 2002; Miller et al., 2011; C. M. Stewart, 2012; J. Webb, 2012). The French Academy of France established “one form of spelling and pronunciation as the norm…to eliminate all other dialects, spellings, and pronunciations [for] a single standard language” (Hirsch et al., 1987, p. 77). Consequently, the
Academy’s decision standardized what “is not in French” (Loveday, 1982, p. 4). In the Canadian French context, while Wernicke-Heinrichs (2013) identified francophone pride for the country’s French varieties that shape “the soul of the nation… distinct from France” (pp. 42-43), proper French has continued to be idealized and viewed “as a monocentric language [of] ‘le bon usage’…specifically…European
French” (p. 43). Therefore, based on the research, I perceive French from France, or even European
French, as French’s form of a lingua franca. I argue that non-native French-speaking teachers who are unfamiliar with these French varieties may feel marginalized as compared to a native French-speaking teacher who came from a European French background.
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Society has also preferred the native French-speaking teacher. For example, school administration have recognized francophone teachers’ “authentic relationship to the target language and culture” and have expressed the belief that these educators are more familiar with “everyday culture” (Kramsch, 2013, p. 58). Clouet (2006) and Dewaele (2004) explained that non-native French- speaking FSL teachers are predominantly exposed to formal speech and may encounter difficulty in speaking or knowing about a local vernacular. Additionally, Lightbown and Spada (2013) and
Newcombe (2007) identified learner anxiety amongst adult SL learners, which means that non-native language-speaking teachers may encounter greater hurdles along their own language and cultural education. J. Webb (2012) observed New Brunswick FSL teachers used “proper French” and avoided
“New Brunswick slang” with their students (p. 45). Furthermore, Wernicke (2016) found that Canadian
FSL teachers considered Canadian Frenches as “less authentic” (p. 1), and these educators maintained a “monocentric view of French, with varieties in France” (p. 4). Therefore, purist ideologies have also transcended into the Canadian FSL teaching context.
Viswanathan (2016) explored how the values of 47 Ontario CF high school teachers impacted their pedagogical practices. Her non-native French-speaking teacher-participants indicated “significant or significant difficulties/challenges” (p. 97) for culture because they did not belong to French-speaking communities. Accordingly, Viswanathan contributed to discussions regarding the native speaker ideology and added to Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy model15 when she identified the potential misalignment of the Ontario CF teacher’s beliefs and identities with the actual teaching practice. Even though Viswanathan’s participants recognized the importance of a variety of teaching methods and oral communication for CF students, the teachers still taught using grammar-abundant practices, with
English as the dominant language of instruction, and they used formally approved textbooks because this was a method with which they felt proficient. Her research study has extended discussions about
15 The term self-efficacy model was created by Bandura (1986) and explains how teachers view themselves in terms of their effectiveness in the classroom as sound pedagogues.
47 the lack of French language, cultural knowledge, resources, and training for Ontario CF non-native
French-speaking teachers. Her study also illustrated cultural disengagement because it received “the least attention from participants” (p. 104).
Consequently, the research in this section demonstrates the political strength of France and the presence of the Parisian accent in Canadian FSL programs. Further, Ontario FSL non-native French- speaking teachers who are not from these communities may encounter greater challenges than native speaking-peers. Therefore, the native speaker teacher has maintained an advantageous position in society as being the legitimate SL educators.
The Non-Native French-Speaking Teacher
I now present an opposing standpoint to discussions of who is the ideal SL teacher—the non- native language-speaking teacher. Researchers questioned the debate about the effectiveness of the native and non-native language-speaking teacher (Dewaele, 2018; Newcombe, 2007). Even at the provincial level, the Ontario College of Teachers (2016) annual reports have not classified FSL teachers by their nativeness, which may suggest that this distinction is not a priority for hiring purposes.
R. A. Thomas (2017) observed that despite the “scrutinized, criticized, problematized” Ontario non- native French-speaking teacher, this individual has also been “to some degree legitimized” (p. 44). For example, some researchers indicated that since the non-native language-speaking teacher is also a learner of the TL (Medgyes, 1996), this educator is better able to simplify difficult language content to students (McNeill, 2005), and is likely to be more patient than the native-speaking teacher (Newcombe,
2007). Newcombe also observed that non-native language-speaking teachers who share the same first language with students can better engage in the code-switching process, which is defined as the space where the first language and the TL co-dwell to produce one message.
Research discussions also omitted the importance of the SL teacher’s linguistic identity. For example, researchers prioritized pedagogy, notably, the teacher’s individual teaching style (Kipp-
Ferguson, 2013; Roy, 2012), and teacher confidence (R. A. Thomas, 2017, p. 46) as key factors for
48 student success. Wernicke (2017) observed Canadian non-native French-speaking teachers creating
“alternative” identities and almost disengaging themselves from the nativeness debate when they travelled to France for a professional development initiative with fellow native speaker colleagues (p.
220). Wernicke has contributed to Canadian research in FSL education as she argued for rupturing the pre-existing Parisian French ideology accorded to or felt by Canadian FSL teachers.
Later, Masson (2018) conducted a longitudinal case study from “2011 [to] 2015…to explore teacher growth and agency [of] two Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teachers” (p. 150). Her participants were “self-directed” learners and highly educated professionals with master’s degrees (p.
150). Her research revealed that the effectiveness of the province’s various CF programs is contingent upon ongoing learning from the non-native French-speaking teacher. Moreover, Masson recognized the benefits of teacher collaboration including FSL teacher empowerment, collegial support, increased creativity for the FSL classroom, and growing confidence as non-native French-speaking teachers.
Researchers identified a shift of responsibility for teaching and learning in the classroom. For example, Byram et al. (2002) noted that it is almost impossible, even for native-speaking teachers, to be knowledgeable about cultural complexities. Accordingly, students’ responsibilities for their learning in the additional language have increased (Byram et al., 2002; Cummins et al., 2007; National Research
Council, 2005; Tyler, 1949). Sefton-Green (2006) observed that youth are using ICT such as the
Internet to “offer young people a new "agency" and new power within the contemporary media environment” (p. 293). Therefore, the SL teacher has become more of “a guide, a counsellor and a coach” (Van den Branden, 2009, p. 401).
Within the revised Ontario FSL high school curriculum (OME, 2014), it is the student’s responsibility for learning French, which is illustrated in the metacognition sub-strand of the Listening,
Speaking, Reading, and Writing sections of the program. For example, when listening to French, students are asked to,
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(a) describe strategies they found helpful before, during, and after listening; (b) identify their
areas of greater and lesser strength as listeners, and plan steps they can take to improve their
listening skills (e.g., identify practices that helped them to understand and allowed them to
interact more effectively during a discussion; determine next steps after assessing the
effectiveness of the listening strategies they use most often). (p. 60)
It has become the student’s responsibility to explore, acquire, and interact with cultures. This shift means that the SL teacher’s main role has evolved to become a facilitator rather than a cultural expert
(Byram et al., 2002). These research arguments may reduce the potential pressure for non-native language-speaking teachers to compare themselves with native speakers.
The Ideal French as a Second Language Teacher
As I have presented literature with respect to the advantages and disadvantages of native and non-native French-speaking teachers, I now establish my researcher position characterizing the ideal
FSL teacher. Paikeday (1985) argued that the native speaker is in fact “dead” (p. 1). This statement shaped the study while I explored how ten Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers facilitated cultural learning and interaction in their classrooms. However, Paikeday’s argument also stressed the duty of all SL teachers, irrespective of their nativeness, to become cultural pedagogues. In my research context, it would be beneficial to include many French cultures in the classroom because culture is dynamically rooted (Byram et al., 2002). Therefore, in my perspective, the ideal FSL teacher is a cultural pedagogue who facilitates cultural learning below the iceberg (Weaver, 1986), irrespective of the educator’s mother tongue.
Changing the label of second language is one of the first steps for language teachers in becoming cultural pedagogues. For example, Dewaele (2018) reconsidered the value of L2, which means second language, to more of a “value-neutral…LX” (p. 3). According to Dewaele, it is more important to focus on the language rather than the order to language learning. LX supports ongoing language learning of multiple idioms in no specific order or depth. Dewaele recognized that language
50 learning is always a process that is impossible to categorize or sequence. As discussed in Chapter 1, the term SL was maintained throughout the study because LX is not found in the FSL curriculum (OME,
2014). However, I strongly value Dewaele’s contribution of LX because I suggest that his label better reflects the hybridity of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), which is indirectly referenced within the
Ontario FSL curriculum (OME, 2014).
Extending Dewaele’s (2018) preference for the “LX” speaker (p. 3), I argue for a cultural “CX” as an important step in becoming a cultural pedagogue. I define CX as a value neutral frame of reference for the development of cultural competency that is consistently evolving. I build from Bilash’s
(2009) distinction of C1, as the individual’s origin culture, and C2, as the target culture. I recognize the rich, cultural origins of each educator and student that inform the learning of the target culture. My thought process is also similar to the “plurilingual perspective … to move away from native speaker bias” (R. A. Thomas, 2017, p. 46). I demonstrate that there is always room for FSL teachers and their students to learn about and interact with French cultures, irrespective of the educators’ language background. Therefore, my cultural CX enabled me to establish my research values and how I perceived my participants as effective cultural pedagogues.
Chapter Summary
This chapter highlighted important considerations that framed the context and purpose of the inquiry. The literature review maintained research findings that culture should be approached using the pluricultural competence framework (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) that better addresses the complex how of authentic culture beneath the iceberg’s surface (Weaver, 1986). Further, the literature endorsed multifaceted curriculum approaches (Aoki, 1999) when teachers approach French cultures.
Also, native-non-native dichotomy research identified that it is more important for FSL teachers to be cultural pedagogues, irrespective of their linguistic identities. Subsequently, I presented my CX perspective to reflect the transformative and ongoing learning process of Ontario non-native French- speaking teachers while they explore a variety of French-speaking communities. The research in this
51 chapter did not fully investigate how Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers explored French cultures. Therefore, I rationalized this inquiry as it provided greater insight into the complexities of the research questions.
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Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework
Chapter 2 summarized the literature regarding culture, curriculum, and the native and non- native teacher debate. The chapter also identified my ontological researcher position, which is the
‘what’ of knowledge (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016), my epistemological stance of what I know, and my axiological position of my research values. Chapter 2 demonstrated that Ontario Grade 9 CF non- native French-speaking teachers should profoundly approach curriculum and culture. Regardless of the language identity of FSL teachers, the literature presented a greater importance for teacher agency through ongoing cultural training. However, the research discussed in Chapter 2 did not provide thorough examples of the “bounded unit” (Merriam, 2009, p. 203) of the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom as taught by non-native French-speaking educators.
In this chapter, I amalgamate important theories that have supported my research questions and stimulated the design of the conceptual framework of a metaphorical salade niçoise. This salad represents a healthy Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom as taught by “the chef,” who is the non-native
French-speaking teacher. First, I defend the purpose of the framework. Next, I present each component of the salad. I elaborate on two theories, which are the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins,
2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012). For each ingredient, I also rationalize its importance to the inquiry and conclude the chapter.
The Salade Niçoise Classroom
Based on the literature and my researcher position on curriculum, culture, and the non-native
French-speaking teacher, I prepared a conceptual framework as a salade niçoise (see Figure 3). The conceptual framework helped simplify and amalgamate important theories related to this inquiry into a metaphorically digestible salad, which the Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking educator prepares, and the Grade 9 CF student consumes. Furthermore, the salad supported the research questions, which explored how Ontario CF Grade 9 non-native French-speaking teachers perceived, interpreted, and approached French cultures and the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand (OME,
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2014). The conceptual framework helped expand on a variety of theoretical concepts and render them as applicable to the Ontario CF teaching context. Specifically, the nested pedagogical orientations model (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and the neurolinguistic approach neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) were the two main theories that supported this inquiry and have been elaborated in greater detail in this chapter.
Figure 3
My Salade Niçoise
Note. Image from Microsoft Office Professional Plus 2016.
In the construction of my conceptual framework, I recognized my researcher bias in that each ingredient, the chef, the seasonings, and the salad consumer reflected my ontological, axiological, and epistemological stances (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). However, I have also demonstrated how the content of my conceptual framework is transferable to other teaching contexts.
A Rationale for the Salad
A salad is a healthy food choice, which supports my preference for a positive classroom environment when students learn and interact with different French-speaking communities. The salade niçoise is very French and is rooted in Southern France. Despite the French reference, salade niçoise is unfamiliar to many of my Grade 9 CF students. Therefore, the niçoise becomes a culturally foreign target, and Ontario Grade 9 CF teachers are expected to work toward bridging the gap between the known and unknown of French-speaking cultures with their students.
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In this ideal classroom, cultures are fully explored, shared, recreated, and consistently refreshed to celebrate culturally relevant content (LeBlanc et al. 1990) because consuming a withered salad is generally an unpleasant experience. Each ingredient represents the unique characteristics of each teacher and classroom, inspiriting the lived curriculum approach (Aoki, 1999) and the dynamic nature of cultures (Furstenberg, 2010; Loveday, 1982). No salad can be prepared in the exact manner by each chef; however, the teacher needs to include all ingredients in order to successfully prepare a true salade niçoise.
As I exclusively investigated teachers, I focused on the salad maker, which reflects the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). The conceptual framework also prioritized the salade niçoise eggs, which support the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain,
2012). I did not disregard other salad components, such as the consumer-student and parental and administrative seasoning, that impact the preparation and taste of the salad. However, since this inquiry focused on teachers and their observations of student learning and interaction, the chef, eggs, potatoes, and green beans are thoroughly discussed in this dissertation. Table 3 lists the theories which inspired the creation of the framework and are organized in the order of importance.
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Table 3
A Summary of the Salade Niçoise Conceptual Framework
Ingredient or Individual Concept(s) Researcher(s) Salad maker (Teacher) Nested pedagogical orientations Cummins (2001, 2009); Cummins et al. (2007) Eggs Neurolinguistic approach Netten & Germain (2012) Green beans Pluricultural approach to culture Council of Europe (2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach Council of Europe (2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model Weaver (1986) Critical pedagogy Aoki (2005b); Bartolomé, (1994); Freire (1968/1970, 2000); Keneman, (2013); Salazar (2013) LX to CX a Bilash (2009); Dewaele (2018) Potatoes Information and communications technology OME (2014) Salad consumer (Student) Learning skills from the Growing Success policy OME (2010b) document Salt Administration (e.g., principals, department heads) Transforming FSL resources (https://transformingfsl.ca/en/resources) Pepper Parental support Board-level parent guides, e.g., French as a Second Language: Supporting Students in French as a Second Language: Parent/Guardian’s Guide (Algonquin & Lakeshore Catholic District School Board, n.d.; OME, 2013a, 2014) a The CX is my personal conception of how language learners can identify their cultural repertoire, which is value-neutral and directly inspired from Bilash (2009) and Dewaele (2018).
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The Salad Components
The Teacher-Chef and the Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework
The two research questions of this inquiry investigated the non-native French-speaking teacher who is an FSL curriculum user (OME, 2014). The chef, or teacher, of this metaphorical salad is the most important stakeholder, just as researchers have argued regarding the responsibility of the educator to enact curriculum expectations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007; Ricento &
Hornberger, 1996; Viswanathan, 2016). Metaphorically, how the teacher selects, prepares, and mixes the salad’s ingredients affects the classroom’s taste. Teachers who maintain a positive perspective regarding changes to practice (Cummins et al., 2007), and who are flexible educators (Donohoo &
Velasco, 2016; Hannay et al., 2010, Molinaro & Drake, 1998; OME, 2010a; Viswanathan, 2016), have greater possibilities of witnessing student success. Furthermore, FSL teachers need to be conscious of their French cultural competency (Francis & Jean-François, 2010; Viswanathan, 2016). However,
Viswanathan (2016) recognized the ongoing “chaos” of the Ontario CF classroom (p. 10), which challenges teachers in their approach to cultures.
Due to the lack of a one-way approach to work with cultural content in the SL classroom, the nested pedagogical orientations framework (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) was the most appropriate model to reflect the chef. The model became this inquiry’s main pedagogical tool to conceptualize how participants perceived and approached French cultures. This framework (Cummins,
2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) illustrated how teachers approach their pedagogy through a
“continuum [of orientations] that merge into one another” (Cummins, 2009, p. 218). For the purposes of this inquiry, the pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) helped to explain the dynamic nature of both lived curriculum (Aoki, 1999) and culture (Furstenberg, 2010;
Loveday, 1982) because teachers’ approaches to culture and curriculum are often varied. Additionally, I selected this model (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) because it supported teachers
57 interacting and building knowledge through my preferred social constructivist research stance (Kroll &
LaBosky, 1996; Pitri, 2006). The framework is illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework
Social Transformative Constructivist Orientation Orientation
Transmission Orientation
Curriculum Orientation and Implementation
Note. Adapted from Cummins, Jim; Brown, Kristin; Sayers, Dennis, Literacy, technology, and diversity:
Teaching for success in changing times, 1st, ©2007. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education,
Inc., New York, New York.
As seen in Figure 4, Cummins (2001, 2009) and Cummins et al. (2007) classified the framework into three distinct, yet interconnected, orientations. Charles (2012) argued that the model
“offers a non-dichotomized view of reality – a phenomenon which is facilitated by the wide range of possibilities offered by its three broad categories” (p. 59). Drawing on personal practitioner experience, the variety of orientations better supported the requirement for Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French- speaking teachers to approach pedagogy in conjunction with the needs of their students. As an FSL educator, I believed the nested pedagogical orientations framework was flexible enough to support the natural “chaos” (Viswanathan, 2016, p, 10) of the province’s CF classrooms, such as student absenteeism due to field trips for other classes or athletic tournaments, which students have often prioritized over learning French.
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In the transmission orientation, educators approached pedagogy with “the narrowest focus” by teaching content and skills “directly to students” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 44) with “reading [and] phonics … prioritized over the pursuit of meaning” (p. 38). Cummins (2011) noted revision activities as an example of this orientation. I connected this orientation with the linear curriculum in that it was visualized with a closed “black box” approach to instruction (Aoki, 2005a, p. 188). Keeping in mind the
Ontario CF classroom “chaos” (Viswanathan, 2016, p. 10), teachers could model this orientation when introducing French cultures through brief opportunities. In my conception, example activities that could demonstrate this orientation include memorizing vocabulary, practicing tongue twisters, pronouncing cultural expressions such as kif-kif, completing word searches, presenting videos about francophone communities, and filling in missing words from lyrics. For these types of activities, educators may feel that their students are not obligated to extend the learning, but rather, focus more on traditional practices.
The metaphorical middle ground of the framework (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al.,
2007) was the social constructivist orientation, where the educator taught using “higher-order thinking abilities based on teachers and students co-constructing knowledge and understanding” of an inquiry process (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 44). This orientation required “analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of alternatives” in ongoing discussion in the classroom (p. 38). As an FSL educator, I envisioned teachers modelling this orientation by preparing comprehension questions after listening to a French song such as Stromae’s Formidable with students (Darby, 2018). Students could make greater connections with text, and teachers could remind students of reading strategies such as cognates from English to French so that they could better understand words such as “mamie” in Formidable, which means granny. The majority of comprehension questions would not focus on the who, what, where, or when, but more on the why and how. For example, FSL teachers could ask students to discuss breakups from characters in their favourite shows and compare them with Stromae’s experience in Formidable.
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Finally, educators with a transformative approach to curriculum assisted students in gaining
“insight into how knowledge intersects with power [for] critical literacy” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 45) to better understand the “content of the curriculum and the social goals of education” (p. 38). In 2011,
Cummins provided the following clarification surrounding the third orientation:
Transformative pedagogy uses collaborative critical inquiry to enable students to analyze and
understand the social realities of their own lives and of their communities. Students discuss,
and frequently act on, ways in which these realities might be transformed through various forms
of social action. Students are focused on generating knowledge rather than simply learning
curriculum content. They use technology creatively to shape and communicate their intellectual
work by means of iMovies, e-Books, electronic newsletters, webpages, and so forth. The
pedagogical goal is to promote critical literacy among students with a focus on social realities
relevant to issues of equity and social justice. (p. 7)
Cummins (2001, 2009) and Cummins et al. (2007) proposed that teachers follow more of a transformative approach to practice than the other orientations due to its thorough extension of learning for “a democratic society” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 39). The transformative orientation connected with how I perceived the ideal chef of the salade niçoise because culture was understood, “transformed”
(Cummins, 2011, p. 7), and profoundly discussed below the iceberg’s surface (Weaver, 1986). Further, in my argument, teachers who predominantly model this orientation inherently demonstrate the importance of the lived curriculum, whereby the educators not only consider the content, but the entirety of the classroom’s experiences (Aoki, 1999). Also, this orientation could enable educators to better support the principle of critical pedagogy because of the increased consideration of power relations in education (Freire, 1968/1970).
Considering my classroom, a transformative approach could be realized when students listen to a French song, analyze the lyrics, and then conduct research on the music artist’s biography to determine how their identity shaped the song’s meaning. Using the example of Formidable (Darby,
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2018), teachers could ask students to conduct research on how the singer’s home country expresses love and brainstorm hidden messages within the song. Despite my preference for the transformative orientation to pedagogy for culture, I respected the totality of the three orientations (Cummins, 2001,
2009; Cummins et al., 2007) since they could all be appropriate in the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom.
Therefore, the nested pedagogical orientations directly influenced my analysis of the data from this inquiry and supported my participants’ reasoning for their cultural approaches.
The Eggs and the Neurolinguistic Approach
The most important ingredient of the salad is the egg because it is one of the distinguishable features of the salade niçoise. Byrd et al. (2011) problematized approaching cultures for both SL educators and students. I suggest that approaching cultures can be achieved following the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012), which represents the eggs of my conceptual framework. Rastelli (2018) observed an increased researcher focus on neurolinguistics and the second language classroom. These research contributions brought me to my understanding and integration of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012).
The neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) is part of the overall branch of neuroscience research. Historically, researchers, such as Broca (1865), explored the brain’s impact on communication and argued that humans speak from the left side of the brain. According to Denes
(2011), in 1874, Karl Wernicke developed a “neurological language processing [model] based on the…functional and anatomical organization of the cerebral cortex” (p. 24). Neuroscience research then extended exploration on SL acquisition and bilingualism (Paradis, 1994, 2004, 2009; Ullman, 2004,
2005). Specifically, Paradis (1994) recognized that language learning is broken down into two competencies: implicit and explicit, and memory is similarly divided into procedural and declarative.
Paradis prioritized implicit competence for bilingualism as realized through procedural memory.
Germain (2018) clarified these terms and stated that implicit competence is an “unconscious skill” (p. 4) and procedural memory “is the memory involved with skills, such as the ability to swim, to drive a car, to
61 speak, to communicate or interact with language” (p. 4). Further, he explained that explicit competence is learned, rather than acquired, through declarative memory, which “is like a product made up of facts
(vocabulary and verb conjugations) or rules (like grammar rules)” (p. 8).
Netten and Germain (2012) then incorporated strategies from neuroscience (e.g. Paradis,
1994, 2004, 2009) to better explain why motivation is achieved through authentic activities in the SL classroom and to determine the optimal conditions for spontaneous communication and interaction in the SL classroom (Germain, 2017, p. 5). Netten and Germain sought an approach to better assist disengaged FSL students and aspired to increase student cognitive development (Ricordel & Truong,
2019). In fact, Vygotsky (1985) was a direct inspiration for Netten and Germain because Vygotsky stated that school subjects contribute to the cognitive development of students. The approach can reduce language learners’ reliance on direct translation from their first language to the TL, such as
Google Translate (https://translate.google.ca), which supports Netten and Germain’s (2012) preference for spontaneous communication in the TL (K. Mueller, personal communication, June 26, 2020).
Netten and Germain (2012) created an approach to put the principles of neurolinguistics into practice. The Intensive French Program was inspired by Intensive English in the Eastern provinces of
Canada and was created for use in Canadian FSL classrooms; however, the framework has extended to various learning contexts, such as adult learning in China, Japan, Taiwan, and Iran (Germain et al.,
2018). According to the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012), oral fluency development is the most important focus and the foundation for the SL classroom. Oral communication is incorporated throughout other language learning components including reading and writing to represent the natural order of learning one’s first language (Germain, 2017). For example, an infant does not first learn to write, but to listen, and then speak (Comeau, 2017). Further, to model the acquisition of the first language, the TL needs to be the predominant language used in the classroom at a normal, real-life, pace for both the teacher and student (K. Mueller, personal communication, June 26, 2020).
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The five principles of the neurolinguistic approach are: (1) “[a]cquisition of an internal grammar”
(Netten & Germain, 2012, p. 94), (2) “[u]se of a literacy-based pedagogy” (p. 97), (3) “[u]se of a project- based pedagogy” (p. 100), (4) “[u]se of authentic communicative activities” (p. 100), and (5) “[u]se of interactive teaching strategies” (p. 102). I consider oral fluency as growing like a tree, and I perceive the five principles as equal components. Figure 5 visualizes the five principles, which image was inspired by Ricordel and Truong (2019, p. 336).
Figure 5
Five Principles of the Neurolinguistic Approach
Note. The tree portion of the image is from Microsoft Office Professional Plus 2016.
To support all principles of the neurolinguistic approach, Netten and Germain (2012) created a literacy cycle, loop, or buckle, which translates as “boucler la boucle” in French. The cycle begins with oral, reading, writing, reading, and returns to oral communication (Germain, 2017, p. 37). The oral phase begins with teacher modelling, identifying patterns, and student oral practice and output.
Students then begin reading in the TL, but there are pre-reading, reading, and post-reading stages.
Next, learners engage with a pre-writing stage, then writing, and discussion of their writing in the post-
63 writing stage. The post-writing phase allows students to re-use the oral language they have developed throughout the loop by sharing and discussing their writing with their peers.
Principle 1: Development of Internal Grammar. Particularly, this first principle guides the remaining four principles of the neurolinguistic approach and becomes the goal of the approach (Netten
& Germain, 2012). Netten and Germain stressed that language learning is composed of “TWO grammars…an implicit, unconscious grammar (for verbal communication), which we call ‘internal grammar,’ and an explicit, conscious grammar (for written language), which we call ‘external grammar’”
(Germain, 2018, p. 16). Similar to Paradis’s work on bilingualism (1994, 2004, 2009), Netten and
Germain (2012) prioritized the importance of implicit, rather than explicit, competence.
Netten and Germain (2012) offered several strategies to assist SL teachers in developing their students’ internal grammar. Mueller expounded on these strategies in that the educator needs to be engaging, lively, and an overall facilitator rather than the “teacher” label (K. Mueller, personal communication, June 26, 2020). She also identified that the educator needs to prioritize important words to inform the cyclical learning of the remaining four principles. Finally, Mueller indicated that the teacher should also speak in complete sentences and encourage students to do the same.
Further, Germain (2017) suggested that teachers avoid closed statements for student repetition such as, “This afternoon, I had eggs,” because such sentences may not reflect the lived realities of all learners in the classroom. Germain stressed no explicit grammar exercises or lessons directly because they do not correspond with the natural language learning from the first language. Instead, he indicated that grammatical accuracy becomes realized through teacher modeling and immediate correction as students interact in the TL throughout the five principles. In this model, students repeat the corrections made by their teacher-facilitator to internalize the correct usage, and then they have opportunities to correct their own mistakes through practice and by listening to peers modelling the correct usage.
However, Netten and Germain (2012) stressed that only after sufficient oral practice should teachers point out grammatical features of the language (during the reading phase) with students.
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The oral modelling sequence is the critical first step of the loop. First, the educator creates a discussion question for students to answer from their own experiences. This question must be carefully crafted so that it can facilitate meaningful discussion, and it must be based on student interest since it will also be repeated throughout the conversations. For example, if students enjoy pizza, the teacher may introduce the oral phase with a personal photo that includes a pizza of preference. The instructor might say: J’aime le pepperoni sur ma pizza. Qu’est-ce que tu aimes sur ta pizza?16 In small groups, students would practice answering the question in the TL and using complete sentences. Students would be encouraged to only use their first language to identify a missing word in the TL. In this exchange, students might ask their teacher: Comment est-ce qu’on dit “shrimp” en français?17 The teacher would continue to use complete sentences to reinforce vocabulary and would require the student to repeat the complete sentence containing their new item.
The loop continues with the teacher then asking additional questions, which are rooted in the students’ personal experiences, such as determining the preferences of the students’ peers. The educator continuously mixes the student groups to maximize the number of interactions. These discussions should occur throughout the course. It is through speaking in the TL that students shift from mere learning to acquiring the content and transition from speaking about oneself, to speaking about other peers in the classroom.
Principle 2: Literacy-Based Pedagogy. Netten and Germain (2012) understood the term literacy in a multifaceted perspective from the Government of Ontario’s position (2004) as the ability to use the language and rich images, to read, write, listen, speak, see, and to represent, think, and interact in a critical manner with others (Germain, 2017, p. 35). Netten and Germain recognized that literacy is extremely difficult in the TL (Germain, 2018), and, therefore, the reading content should scaffold the vocabulary used during the oral phase of the loop (K. Mueller, personal communication,
16 This phrase translates as “I like pepperoni on my pizza. What do you like on your pizza?”
17 This phrase translates as “How do you say ‘shrimp’ in French?”
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June 26, 2020). The reading should be introduced to students “directly in the L2/FL, without any explicit reference to translation” (Netten & Germain, 2012, p. 98) and with as many authentic texts as possible that reflect real-life experiences.
In the pre-reading stage of the literacy loop (Netten and Germain, 2012), the teacher contextualizes, predicts, and discusses the reading in connection with personal experiences and in complete sentences. This technique is to prevent students from merely reading word by word without understanding the text’s overall message. The teacher then undergoes the reading stage whereby the practitioner reads the text without interruption. Comprehension questions then help verify student comprehension. In the post-reading stage, the students also re-read the text individually, and in small groups. The teacher then points out important vocabulary, sounds, and spelling and encourages students to continue identifying similar patterns within the text.
During the pre-writing stage of Netten and Germain’s (2012) literacy loop, the teacher first prepares the students to write by encouraging a discussion in which students re-use the oral language they already know how to use. The teacher works with the students to create a class exemplar of what the writing production might look like and then encourages students to reflect on how they will write themselves. The teacher reminds students of the spelling of important words and revisits grammar components, if needed. Students also read and orally respond to their peers’ texts to compare experiences and revisit vocabulary during the post-writing stage.
Principles 3, 4, and 5: Project-Based Pedagogy, Authenticity and Interactive Speaking. I have combined the remaining three principles of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) because I perceive them to be interrelated. The third, fourth, and fifth principles are overarching and ongoing strategies for teachers to apply the literacy loop in practice and, specifically, to reinforce oral language in all tasks.
The third principle is project-based pedagogy, whereby, through projects, students experience increased motivation to learn about the TL as they are working towards completing authentic tasks
66 throughout the units, and with the completion of a final task (Germain, 2017). Netten (2020) stated that all projects need to grow the input so that, by the end of the unit, the student gains sufficient procedural knowledge. For example, Germain (2017) envisioned students progressing from answering questions in complete sentences, to reading a paragraph, to writing, and to completing a project (p. 39). Questions need to be posed to students at the beginning of the projects, which are always crafted from student intertest. While completing authentic activities, students are more likely to be motivated to communicate orally in the TL as noted in the brain’s limbic system. However, Germain (2017) cautioned teachers to not prepare role-play activities that contain personalities far from their students’ lived realities. For example, students are unlikely to become waiters in a French-speaking community; therefore, it is more common that language learners would be clients of a restaurant. Accordingly, learners would benefit from simulating real-life opportunities in their SL classrooms.
Germain (2017) stated that students should be exposed to as many authentic experiences as possible to reuse and store the content in their implicit, or procedural, memory, which is the fourth principle. Netten (2020) clarified that the term authentic refers to content that is relevant to the interests and experiences of the student. The student needs the teacher to provide opportunities where they can communicate their ideas to truly realize authentic content for cognitive development. Further, the students’ messages and contributions are more important than linguistic accuracy.
Social interaction is the fifth principle. SL educators need to create speaking conditions for students to exchange knowledge with each other (Netten, 2020). Further, as Ricordel and Truong
(2019) observed in their research of the neurolinguistic approach, language students are often taught the same TL content, or input, from their teacher. However, the researchers also recognized that language learners may not necessarily understand the input in the same manner as their colleagues.
Students need ongoing opportunities for speaking, exchanging, collaborating, and negotiating amongst peers (p. 335) for an enhanced output, or the learned content that students express to others (Ricordel
& Truong; Swain, 1985). When students interact with each other, they develop their spontaneous
67 interaction, improve their oral fluency (Netten & Germain, 2012), and develop the limbic portion of the brain (Netten, 2020).
The Influence of the Neurolinguistic Approach for Culture. As this dissertation focused on culture, I now discuss how Netten and Germain’s (2012) neurolinguistic approach incorporated culture.
Germain (2017) conceived culture acquisition as using the same processes for developing internal grammar with implicit and explicit cultural competence (p. 113). Just as internal grammar cannot be taught, students gain implicit cultural competence through repeated exposure. Inspired by neurolinguistics, Germain argued that the acquisition of culture begins through the oral stage (p. 114).
In practice, students learn about culture, first, through the experiences or comments made by the teacher and then sharing their own lived experiences. Next, language learners read about cultures using authentic texts; however, such introduction is gradual and begins with professions, family members, pastimes, celebrations, and other identity markers. Germain offered the following example, which I have translated into English:
Hello. My name is Marianne Mercier. I am French. I live in Paris.
My father is French, and my mother is Québécois. My father’s name is Jacques
Mercier and my mother’s name is Cécile Dion. That is not Céline Dion, the famous Québécois
singer! My mother is not a singer. She is a psychologist for children.
In my notebooks, I will talk about my family. And what a family! (p. 116).
Germain argued that students gradually learn about Québécois singers, such as Céline Dion; however, he felt that language learners should begin with familiar words such as family, professions, and other language content.
The Influence of the Neurolinguistic Approach for this Study. The neurolinguistic approach
(Netten & Germain, 2012) was incorporated into this inquiry for multiple reasons. Firstly, it was
Canadian-based and designed by FSL researchers in education. Concepts from the approach were presented and highly recommended for use in Canadian FSL programs (Canadian Parents for French,
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2019). In my conception, the approach directly aligned with the overall spirit of the revised FSL curriculum of this inquiry (OME, 2014) as the document prioritizes oral communication. Further, Carr
(2010) stated that students,
are well served by an approach that highlights oral language development through a cycle of
active modelling and scaffolded language use/ re-use … to develop an “internal grammar”
[using a] literacy-rich approach [for students] to interact with text [which includes] written,
spoken, heard, viewed. (p. 10)
Carr’s (2010) arguments reminded me of the importance of orality in FSL. Accordingly, the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) directly aligned with the curriculum focus for oral communication of the Ontario FSL curriculum document because listening and speaking became two separate learning strands with additional objectives to the previous curriculum documents (OME, 2014).
Since researchers identified student insecurities with oral proficiency (Rehner, 2014), the neurolinguistic approach may assist teachers in increasing their learners’ communication so that they complete their
FSL program being able to converse in basic French. Additionally, Netten and Germain (2012) recognized the interconnectedness of both language and culture, which coincided with my axiological research values (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). This inquiry also incorporated the approach as a data analysis tool when reviewing how the participants approached culture through the five principles. The neurolinguistic approach has been growing in popularity with the development of its own association
(https://cifran.org), and it has become a part of official course design in Canadian universities, such as
Western (https://frenchimmersion.uwo.ca/Teachers/teachersprogram.html). Finally, the simple design of the principles and the overall messages of the neurolinguistic approach can, in my argument, merge theory into practice for busy teachers who prioritize tangible strategies for use in their classroom.
The Cultural Green Beans
The green beans represent the cultural content of the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom. Similar to the importance of eggs to craft a salade niçoise, green beans are necessary elements for the recipe.
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Likewise, culture should be metaphorically sprinkled throughout the SL classroom because language and culture are not separate, but interrelated (Germain, 2017). Much research regarding culture and its directions was addressed at the beginning of this chapter. To summarize, this inquiry approached culture while considering three main concepts: (1) the pluricultural perspective and the action-oriented approach from the CEFR documents (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018), (2) critical pedagogy
(Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013), and (3) LX
(Dewaele, 2018) and the creation of CX as inspired by the work of C2 (Bilash, 2009). Ideally, the
Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teacher can consider these concepts to maximize authentic learning in the classroom regarding what, where, when, and how to approach cultural content with students.
The ICT Potatoes
Ong (1982) recognized that society’s new form of oral communication is “secondary” in the form of “telephone, radio, television, and other electronic devices” (p. 11). ICT can assist Ontario Grade
9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers bring French cultures into their classrooms. ICT resources support pluricultural opportunities in bridging the gap between the classroom and the authentically rich outside world. Consequently, ICT tools are the potatoes of my salade niçoise, which constitute the most substantial ingredient. I reason that none of the eggs or green beans can be adequately presented in
English-dominant communities, such as the GTA, without the ongoing provision of ICT materials.
However, I support the research argument that teachers should not misuse ICT because it can negatively impact the level of cultural interaction in the language classroom (Hobbs, 2008). For example, teachers should not limit cultural learning to a screening of a French language film using an interactive board because there is no personal interaction with the cultural content. Rather, it would be advantageous if SL educators include ICT resources to inspire, complement, or bolster, students’ cultural interactions.
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The Consumer Student
Even when teacher-chefs prepare plentiful salads containing eggs, green beans, and potatoes, the language students are equally important. The consumer of this salad is the Ontario CF Grade 9 student. Howard (2003) stressed the importance for student voice, which has also been evidenced in the Canadian CF setting (Cooke, 2013; LANG, 2014). The student’s plate serves as the salad’s base, which means that the CF student can contribute to the salad’s shape and taste. For example, a weaker
CF classroom may require more eggs, which means that the teacher could recycle and repeat newly taught cultural concepts on an ongoing basis.
In my conception, the language learner is also responsible for the understanding, appreciation, and interaction with French-speaking communities, which is reminiscent of the salad consumer’s responsibility to eat the salad in order to enjoy its flavour and nutritional benefits. This inquiry directly focused on the Growing Success policy document (OME, 2010b) to describe the work required of the student for cultural acquisition and interaction. The policy document is local to Ontario and is mandatory for use by the province’s FSL teachers in addition to the FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). Growing
Success identifies the learning skills for the province’s students, which include “responsibility, organization, independent work, collaboration, initiative, and self-regulation” (OME, 2010b, p. 11).
Ontario teachers assess these work habits in all subject areas, including French. These skillsets remind students of their individual importance in the learning process. For example, the FSL teacher cannot force a student to admire, share, or interact with French cultures. However, it would be advantageous for SL learners to take ownership over cultural aspects of their FSL education.
The Seasoning of Parents and School Administration
Even with the freshest and most superior ingredients, a salad is tasteless without the appropriate seasoning. Conversely, an overly salty or peppery salad, resulting from FSL stakeholder micro-management, can ruin the taste. For the purposes of my inquiry, salt represents school administration, and pepper refers to the level of parental support in the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom.
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Researchers recognized that school administration (Cooke, 2013; Milley & Arnott, 2016; Mollica et al.,
2005) and parent support (Arnott, 2017; Vandergrift, 2015) can ignite or discourage FSL teacher development, such as the teacher’s willingness to learn, shape the overall success of the program, and impact student engagement or disinterest in FSL education (OME, 2013a).
Approaching French cultures can be better supported with a caring school team of both parents
and administration. According to the secondary school FSL curriculum, parents are asked to,
encourage and monitor homework or project completion….encourage their children to go to the
library to borrow books, music, and DVDs…in French, and talk about them with their
children…watch and listen to French-language programs [and] join a local group to meet other
parents and to find out about French resources and cultural opportunities in the community.
(OME, 2014, p. 12)
School boards have also mirrored suggestions found in the curriculum such as the Algonquin and Lakeshore Catholic District School Board who gave parents specific suggestions about French media including “TFO, Netflix, YouTube, Radio Canada, TV5, TVA [and] Télé-Québec” (n.d., p. 5). It would be advantageous if school administration supported and explored the “ways to embed FSL in the school culture and to highlight the diversity of French-language countries and French-language regions across Canada” through marketing initiatives (OME, 2013a, p. 14). As a Grade 9 CF teacher, I also recognize the influence of both principals and department heads because they are often in charge of approving field trips and in-class guest speakers. Without administrative and parental support, teachers may encounter greater challenges in fully engaging students in exploring and interacting with French cultures.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, I introduced the conceptual framework which guided this inquiry. I justified the construction for the metaphorical salade niçoise. I maintained that culture can be flavourful and plentiful, but it must be appropriately prepared to meet the students’, or consumers’, needs.
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The nested pedagogical orientations framework (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) was an important theory in the salad because it justified the importance for teacher differentiation of cultural practices based on the needs of students and the environment; however, these educators should consider modeling more transformative practices.
My second main orientation to this chapter was the neurolinguistic approach (Netten &
Germain, 2012). It directly corresponded with the oral communication priorities of the Ontario FSL high school curriculum (OME, 2014). It also conceptualized the how in approaching potentially challenging cultural content with Grade 9 CF students through a procedural process. Finally, the approach helped me analyze the effectiveness of the participants’ cultural strategies of this inquiry.
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Chapter 4: Methodology
The study sought to provide greater insight into how Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French- speaking teachers approached cultural content with beginner level students. Chapter 3 presented my conceptual framework as a metaphorical salade niçoise that guided this inquiry. The various theories improved my understanding about how the province’s Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers perceive cultural pedagogy, and the theories also illustrated techniques for educators to internalize cultural vocabulary into their students’ memories.
In this chapter, I outline how I prepared and conducted my research study. First, I rationalize my choice for qualitative social constructivist case study research. Next, I outline my research sample and recruitment strategies. After, I summarize my data collection tools and explain my analysis process of the data. Finally, I defend the legitimacy and safety of my study through the ethical considerations and trustworthiness sections and conclude the chapter.
Qualitative Social Constructivist Research Paradigm
Previous chapters of this dissertation identified many complexities to my research topic, which included culture, curriculum, and the non-native French-speaking teacher. Through a qualitative case study of a social constructivist research paradigm, the following research questions guided the inquiry:
1. How do non-native French-speaking teachers in Ontario approach French cultures in the Grade
9 Core French curriculum (OME, 2014)?
2. How do these teachers specifically implement the added Intercultural Understanding sub-
strand of the curriculum in authentic ways?
I exclusively interacted with teachers as participants because educators are the individuals who implement curriculum expectations. My choice corresponded with previous research studies regarding culture in the CF classroom (J. Webb, 2012). Researchers initiated exploration of how CF teachers approached French culture (Viswanathan, 2016); however, few inquiries directly investigated how non- native Grade 9 CF educators approached the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised FSL
74 curriculum (OME, 2014). To begin exploring these complexities, I designed my research questions to satisfy two key objectives: (a) to investigate how Ontario CF Grade 9 non-native French-speaking teachers approached cultural content of French-speaking communities with beginner level students, and (b) to explore how these educators addressed the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand. These two objectives became part of my ontological stance (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016) because I knew from experience as an educator that teachers are responsible for instructing the classroom and fulfilling the curriculum document.
I exclusively explored the Ontario CF classroom due to its popularity among FSL students. For instance, the OME (2018) identified that there were 67, 204 Grade 9 academic CF students, 35, 397
Grade 9 applied CF students, 3, 934 Grade 9 open CF students and 11, 591 Grade 9 French
Immersion students during the 2017-2018 school year. As a result, the Ontario Public School Boards’
Association (2018) required “1032” (p. 18) secondary school FSL teachers to teach the mandatory CF classes, all of which fall within the Grade 9 curriculum (OME, 2014). These statistics justified the importance of high school CF teachers over other FSL programs.
I argue that the terms “qualitative research,” “social constructivist paradigm,” and “case study methodology” often share many common characteristics. Although some tables and figures in this dissertation might imply more of a quantitative approach to research, my study respected qualitative research. According to Creswell (2013), “[q]ualitative research begins with assumptions and the use of interpretive/theoretical frameworks that inform the study of research problems addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 44), and “[i]n social constructivism, individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work” (p. 24). Pederson (2011) observed the multiplicity of definitions for case study. For the purposes of this inquiry, I incorporated
Yin’s (2009) definition of case study as, “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
75 phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 18). Creswell (2013) indicated that a case can be
“a concrete entity, such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership” (p. 98).
Researchers often approach their studies with the understanding that society is complex
(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016; Misco, 2010) as observed at “a particular point in time” (Bloomberg &
Volpe, 2016, p. 41), which, in my argument, is a commonality between qualitative, social constructivist, and case study research. From personal teaching experience, the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom is a dynamic classroom with students who possess varying levels of French competency. French grammar is, metaphorically, the traditional and predictable grandmother of the family; whereas, French culture is the unpredictable infant, which Ontario FSL teachers should strive to manage (Cousineau, 2018).
Therefore, I launched this inquiry to better comprehend this metaphorically unpredictable child.
In fact, a case study following a social constructivist research paradigm is prepared in support of the “multiple realities” (Creswell, 2013, p. 20) rooted in participant knowledge. For example, the participants of this inquiry had varying numbers of students, worked in different school districts, and had travelled to different francophone regions. As such, I could not make specific assumptions about how
French cultures are approached in all Ontario Grade 9 CF classrooms, which was part of my epistemological stance of how knowledge is constructed (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). Consequently, the study enabled me to get close to participants by using interviews and a focus group as the main data collection tools.
Due to the variety of experiences of participants, I designed the inquiry to uncover research meaning (Kroll & LaBosky, 1996; Lincoln & Guba, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Pitri, 2006) in a co-created process to establish a “new, shared reality” (Lincoln & Guba, 2013, p. 41) of what culture looked like and how the participants approached French cultures. Further, the study was also prepared to improve personal practice (Merriam, 2009), which is an example of what I value, or my axiological position
(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). Throughout this inquiry, I sought to discover vocabulary scaffolding strategies, technological resources, textbooks, and field trips raised by my participants in order to better
76 serve my own Grade 9 CF classrooms, and I hoped that the participants would also share and gain new cultural strategies.
There were also specific reasons for choosing the social constructivist research paradigm.
Dewey (1938) viewed classrooms as experimental spaces where greater connections should be allowed “between education and personal experience” (p. 25). Freire (1968/1970) argued that educators need to feel empowered and heard for general societal improvement. The CF program has endured a negative history (Cooke, 2013; LANG, 2014; Lapkin et al., 2006; Mollica et al., 2005), and, accordingly, researchers have found that it requires revitalization (Ontario Public Boards’ Association,
2018; Stern, 1986). As an Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teacher, I had faith that
Ontario’s CF teachers are sound pedagogues who want the best for their students. Consequently, my research study provided many examples of how the participants interpreted French cultures as legitimate and competent French teachers.
Case Study Methodology
As identified by Pederson (2011), empirical researchers of case study methodology included
Merriam (1988), Stake (1981), and Yin (1984). The Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom, as taught by non- native French-speaking teachers, was my bounded system and case “group” (Creswell, 2013, p. 98).
Case study methodology was the best fit for an initial study on French cultures because the study explored what, why, when, and how students learned about, and interacted with, French-speaking communities, while focusing on a particular sample of teachers who shared similar non-native French- speaking identities as their students.
I perceived case study research as a sound methodology, which has been echoed in research
(Creswell, 2013; Flyvbjerg, 2010, Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2009). In fact, Yin (2009) argued that case studies have similar rigor to scientific experiments because case study research begins with theoretical assumptions (p. 15). The results from case studies are explained in support of the data patterns.
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Additionally, upon completion of a case study, and similar to scientific experiments, Yin stated that it is a common future direction to replicate the research for future inquiries (p. 15).
I also opted for a case study because of its “intensive description and analysis of a bounded social phenomenon (or multiple bounded phenomena)” (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016, p. 46), which has been similarly defined by other case study researchers (Merriam 1998, 2009; Stake, 2006). According to Merriam (2009), bounded cases are obvious to identify. My small sample size supported a bounded approach to case study research (Simons, 2009) of a real-life situation (Merriam, 2009) because I focused on the classroom and classroom teacher. In my particular context, I concentrated on the teacher directly working with students, in lieu of focusing on curriculum writers or ministries of education who may perceive themselves to be exalted curriculum experts (Kincheloe et al., 2013). Creswell
(2013) argued that an effective case study is one that collects a multitude of data sources for “in-depth understanding” of the case (p. 98). In later sections of this chapter, I describe the four data types of this inquiry, which contributed to the richness of the findings. Case study research allowed me to thoroughly investigate a small sample with several data collection tools because curriculum should be predominantly perceived as lived (Aoki, 1991). Therefore, case study research is commonly selected for exploratory research to provide initial suggestions to complex problems (Parsons & Taylor, 2017), which in my case, were Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking educators and their cultural approaches.
Case study methodology also supported my axiological researcher stance (Bloomberg &
Volpe). For example, I believed that Grade 9 CF teachers can prepare culturally relevant, yet linguistically approachable, lessons for students, and, for this to occur, teachers need to be ongoing learners. Consequently, this methodology enabled me to illustrate Grade 9 CF non-native French- speaking teachers’ individual strategies and lived experiences (Simons, 2009) because participants are
“real people” (p. 15) and need to “speak for themselves” (Lincoln et al., 2011, p. 123). The cultural strategies presented in Chapter 5 benefitted from case study methodology because the teachers had
78 multiple opportunities to extend their responses. My preference for case study methodology was also of similar practice for previously conducted studies in Canadian FSL education (Arnett, 2010; Falardeau &
Simard, 2011; Prasad, 2014; Viswanathan, 2016). Therefore, case study research through a qualitative social constructivist paradigm was the approach for this inquiry to thoroughly explore the vast topic of culture by respecting the professional expertise and realities of Ontario Grade 9 non-native French- speaking educators.
Research Sample
Ontario Grade 9 Core French Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers
This dissertation investigated Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers. I explored educators because they are important curriculum stakeholders who inform the school’s
“vitality” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009, p. 23). I am also a non-native French-speaking educator; therefore,
I had a personal interest in how these practitioners approached cultural content. The study’s goals added to previous research findings, particularly when many of these French teachers have been neglected in the Canadian FSL community (Kissau, 2005; Lapkin et al. 2009; Viswanathan, 2016).
I expanded the research area to the entire province of Ontario to represent a stronger participant voice regarding cultural approaches. Initially, I wanted to recruit more than 40 Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers for the questionnaire, which was the first data collection tool of the inquiry. However, from personal experience as a fellow educator, I knew that participating in a research study might be burdensome for teachers; therefore, my research goal modified to obtaining at least 40 teachers. This number was also more feasible and appropriate for an initial case study about the unique research questions. My small sample size better supported the characteristics of the
“bounded social phenomenon” of case study research (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016, p. 46) and 40 CF teachers came close to that of a similar study when Viswanathan (2016) had “47” educators (p. 78).
Furthermore, 40 teachers constituted a large enough sample to represent a variety of sociodemographic backgrounds, school districts, and levels of teaching experience for more realistic
79 portraits of Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers. In actuality, 50 teachers completed the questionnaire.
Originally, I recruited teachers who taught at least one academic, applied, or open level Grade
9 CF class commencing in the fall of 2018 and concluding in January 2019 to collect the most recent experiences within this classroom. Additionally, since the academic, applied, and open Grade 9 CF program streams share the exact overall intercultural expectations (see Appendix A), I was open to exploring any of the three Grade 9 CF programs. I welcomed a variety of employment positions, such as long-term supply teachers, permanently hired educators, public school educators, Catholic school teachers, and private school teaching personnel. It was necessary to revise my research criteria because I could not recruit sufficient participation based on my original parameters. Therefore, I updated my study’s flyer and extended the research criteria to Ontario non-native Grade 9 CF educators who had taught at least one section of Grade 9 CF since 2017.
Recruitment
Three main sampling methods were incorporated for participant recruitment. Firstly, I employed purposeful sampling. Creswell (2015) defined purposeful sampling as the act of intentionally selecting
“individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon” (p. 205). Due to my specific research questions, I required purposeful sampling because not all Ontario FSL teachers are non- native French-speakers or teach Grade 9 CF. Purposeful sampling has been recognized as a legitimate form of recruitment for studies related to teacher perceptions about curriculum (Miles & Huberman,
1994; Misco, 2010). I also engaged with the snowball sampling strategy (Allen, 2017). According to
Tenzek (2017), “much like a snowball is made, as the participants share contacts, more participants are added to the study and there is an accumulation of participants over time” (p. 2). I contacted personal acquaintances to potentially participate and market my study to their individual contacts, whom I never considered. Lastly, I utilized my own social media accounts to post my research announcement.
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Through the process of purposeful sampling, from late September to October 2018, I emailed various FSL teacher associations and stakeholders, such as professors, to seek their assistance in promoting my research study to their professional network of Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French- speaking teachers (see Appendix C18). Fifteen out of 36 contacted representatives confirmed their support as recruiters for my study. Next, I requested that they disseminate my research flyer to their contacts. My recruitment flyer (see Appendix D) also contained a direct link for interested Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teachers to complete an anonymous questionnaire (see Appendix E).
From 50 respondents to the survey, I invited ten out of an interested 26 teachers to participate in my study. These ten teachers were selected out of the 26 interested Ontario CF non-native French- speaking teachers based on the following criteria, in no particular ranking order: (a) their punctuality in responding to my communications, (b) their experiences having taught at least one CF class since
2017, and (c) the geographical location of their school.
Data Collection Methods
I addressed my research questions with four data collection opportunities: (a) an online questionnaire, (b) two online/face-to-face/telephone semi-structured interviews per teacher, (c) one online focus group, and (d) the invitation for participants to share cultural resources.
Online Questionnaire
An anonymous online questionnaire using Google Forms (https://www.google.ca/forms/about) was used to recruit participants. The online survey was open from October 26, 2018 to April 21, 2019, and it generated 50 responses. The survey lasted approximately 30 minutes. Dörnyei and Taguchi
(2010) indicated that questionnaires are highly popular in “second language research [as they are] extremely versatile and [gather] a large amount of information quickly…that is readily processible” (xiii).
In fact, questionnaires where used in previous Ontario FSL studies (e.g., Faez, Majhanovich, et al.,
18 I was formerly named Rochelle Gour; however, my name changed to Rochelle Guida in the summer of 2019 due to my marriage (see Appendix C).
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2011; Lapkin, S., & Barkaoui, K. (2008; Viswanathan, 2016). This questionnaire also visualized how a sample group of the province’s Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers approached French cultures.
Teachers anonymously completed the online questionnaire to encourage honest responses and to establish a secure and private environment (see Appendix E). The questionnaire was comprised of 33 questions, mostly following the Likert scale (Likert, 1932). “A Likert scale is a type of test item in which respondents indicate their attitude toward a particular statement by choosing one of a small number of ordered alternatives….and descriptors other than levels of agreement can also be used”
(Powers & Knapp, 2010). Most questions had participants select from either untrue (1), somewhat true
(2), mostly true (3), or true (4). Questions ranged from the number of CF classes taught by the teachers, to the accessibility level of cultural resources, so that I could establish an initial understanding of Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers’ “cultural focus” (Damen, 1987, p. 249).
Other questions followed the nominal scale structure as the respondents selected the most applicable answers based on their experiences, such as location of their instruction as a former teacher-candidate so that I could understand their professional, linguistic, and cultural identities.
From the 50 respondents, 26 teachers granted me consent, implied by a specific action of selecting YES, to use their answers for this inquiry. For the teachers who selected YES, I sent a consent letter for their review and consideration to become potential research participants. The remaining 24 teachers permitted me to use their questionnaire responses; however, they did not want to participate in the case study. Table 4 summarizes the collected data obtained from the questionnaire.
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Table 4
Google Form Summary
Teacher Identity 39/50 Ontario CF teachers 27/50 teachers taught in at least 3 schools or more in their district 20/50 teachers had one section of CF in Grade 9 academic or applied in September 2018 32/50 teachers were exposed to the revised curriculum (OME, 2014) for at least four to five years 18/50 teachers stated that being a native speaker is not important 23/50 teachers were working in Southwestern Ontario School Culture 26/50 teachers identified a multiethnic student body 16/50 teachers identified somewhat with a multi-ethnic FSL department 33/50 teachers mostly had non-native French-speaking teacher colleagues in their department 20/50 teachers shared cultural resources with colleagues 26/50 teachers were happy about the Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub-strand (OME, 2014) 25/50 teachers included non-European cultural materials 21/50 teachers requested more professional development for culture Cultural Beliefs of the Teacher 40/ 50 teachers were happy about learning about cultures 21/50 teachers had sufficient knowledge of French cultures 20/50 teachers prioritized culture in the CF classroom Curriculum, French Language and Cultural Practices of the Teacher 31/50 teachers used authentic, cultural materials such as job applications 17/50 teachers stated ‘untrue’ that it is easier to approach culture to the Grade 9 CF academic than the applied and open levels 19/50 teachers cited ‘mostly true’ that assessing cultural content is difficult 27/50 teachers cited ‘somewhat true’ that students used French to discuss French-speaking cultures 3/50 teachers had ‘sufficient access’ to cultural materials 5/50 teachers had sufficient cultural training 20/50 teachers frequently reviewed the curriculum (OME, 2014) 9/50 teachers modified their teaching style 25/50 teachers reviewed FSL policy documents and frameworks for culture 22/50 teachers regularly created cultural activities from scratch 7/50 teachers reused cultural materials year-to-year
Note. For the teacher identity section of the questionnaire, educators had to select one option from a list of potential responses. The remaining sections of the survey followed ordinal scaling, whereby the teachers had to identify which degree of truthfulness they associated with each question. The ranking scale started at 1 for untrue, to 4 for true. The statistics presented in this table reflect my researcher bias of what constituted an important observation to note. For example, I considered it pertinent to the study that nine out of fifty teachers felt that they had to modify their teaching style to address culture.
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The findings from Table 4 highlighted the general characteristics of the 50 Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teacher-respondents. Most educators were instructed in Ontario universities and worked with non-native French-speaking teacher colleagues. Almost half of the teachers taught in Southwestern Ontario, which was relevant to the research because this area is geographically urbanized. 64% of the teachers had at least four years of experience with the revised curriculum (OME, 2014). This statistic was important because it suggested that these teachers were prepared to implement the various curriculum expectations in practice.
Several positive observations were noted from Table 4 regarding the teachers’ perceptions of, and their experiences with, French-speaking cultures. Firstly, the teachers were generally happy about their ongoing learning about francophone communities. Secondly, the educators did not modify their teaching practices to respect the requirements of the revised FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). Thirdly, many teachers did not personally design their cultural content, which suggested that the teachers did not experience feelings of teacher burnout. Fourthly, the educators did not reuse the same cultural material year-to-year for the Grade 9 CF program, which could indicate the teachers respected that culture is dynamic and not stagnant.
There were also concerns with some of the findings from Table 4. 40% of respondents shared cultural resources within their FSL departments. Additionally, only three out of 50 teachers had sufficient access to cultural resources. With respect to the taught cultural content, half of the respondents focused on non-European French-speaking communities. These findings were of concern because they did not support global awareness of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014), nor of the CEFR
(Council of Europe, 2001), whereby FSL students should be “critically literate in order to synthesize information, make informed decisions, communicate effectively, and thrive in an ever-changing global community” (OME, 2014, p. 3). The findings from the questionnaire introduced how French cultures were approached in the province; however, it was limited in its ability to convey detailed examples, which prompted the need for other data collection opportunities.
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Interviews
Interviews formed the bulk of the data collection for this inquiry. Interviews were also incorporated in similar studies in FSL regarding the effectiveness of the CEFR (Council of Europe,
2001; see also Piccardo et al., 2019). McGreal (1983) indicated that interviews ignite participant self- reflection and encourage professional development opportunities. Additionally, other researchers posited that interviews are “targeted [and] insightful” (Yin, 2014, p. 6) and can allow for “rich, thick descriptions” (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016, p. 154), which supported my social constructivist stance to research of their Grade 9 CF worlds (Dewey, 1963; 1938) as each participant had different student populations, classroom structures, and school climates to consider in their cultural approaches.
Interviews have provided intimate spaces for participants to share their lived experiences (Creswell,
2015). Accordingly, two rounds of interviews became the predominant data collection method used for this study.
Both interviews were conducted in either face-to-face, online, or telephone formats, as determined by each participant; however, the majority were phone interviews. Each interview required approximately one hour to complete; nevertheless, I also allowed time for open discussions to respect the “conversation of the interviewee” (Creswell, 2015, p. 220). I made jokes and I also shared my personal experiences as a fellow educator, which have been noted as two techniques of effective qualitative researchers (D. Stewart et al., 2007). I engaged in the probing process with statements such as “Tell me more” (Creswell, 2015, p. 220) when I felt participants could better explain their experiences in greater detail, and when they needed to return to the focus of the interview questions.
For each interview, teachers were asked to bring the curriculum document (OME, 2014) and any cultural materials, such as lesson plans and activities. My intent was: (a) to add to “convergence of evidence” (Yin, 2014, p. 121), (b) to capture “interpersonal behavior and motives” (p. 106), (c) to empower participants by allowing choice in what they shared (Creswell, 2015), and (d) to visualize how cultures are approached by these participants. Before each interview, I emailed each participant with
85 the interview questions so as to avoid or limit participant bias out of concern that the teachers would falsely answer the questions to maintain a specific impression of self.
The first interview occurred in fall 2018, for three main reasons: (1) to extend the responses from the questionnaire, (2) to discuss the participants’ initial perceptions and strategies of approaching
French cultures, and (3) to identify any professional cultural learning goals participants wished to achieve throughout the semester. It contained 17 semi-structured interview questions, which were divided into two sections: (1) teacher identity, and (2) conceptions of curriculum and cultures (see
Appendix H).
The second interview was conducted at the end of the semester in either December 2018 or
January 2019, in accordance with each teacher’s availability: (a) to encourage teacher reflection about the overall evolution of the their semester, (b) to find out how they might integrate intercultural expectations for culminating tasks,19 and (c) to establish future needs and goals. It contained 14 semi- structured questions (see Appendix I), with similar rationalizations as for the first interview, to keep consistency and simplicity for the participants.
Focus Group
Upon completion of the interview process, participants were invited to take part in an online focus group. Krueger (1988) defined focus groups as “carefully planned discussion(s) designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment” (p. 22).
They have been historically popularized since WW2 and maintained their dominance in social science research (D. Stewart et al., 2007). For example, Bloomberg and Volpe (2016) argued that focus groups should “create a candid conversation that addresses, in depth, the selected topic” (p. 174). D. Stewart
19 The term culminating task is used in the Ontario secondary school system and is defined as a final assignment allocated to students, typically, at the end of a course to demonstrate the learning through “comprehensive achievement” (OME, 2010b, p. 80) that reflects the work completed over the course of the semester. Normally, the culminating task accounts for about 15% of the final grade; however, the percentage is determined by the school boards. It is part of the final assessment worth 30% of the final grade. According to the Ministry of Education, a final task can be “from one or a combination of the following: an examination, a performance, an essay, and/or another method of evaluation suitable to the course content” (p. 80).
86 et al. (2007) also observed that participants “build on the responses of other group members” (p. 43), which better supported this inquiry to conceptualize cultural approaches from Ontario Grade 9 CF non- native French-speaking teachers. The focus group also supported my axiological research position
(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016) that values teacher collaboration, in particular, to potentially mediate complex, cultural concepts for non-native French-speaking educators.
I did not opt for another interview, nor observe classrooms, for this inquiry because I respected my participants’ time constraints while they were preparing for their final examinations. My focus group had four research goals: (1) to extend the discussion from the interviews, (2) to facilitate the exchange of cultural resources and teaching strategies between fellow CF teachers of the province through the process of networking, (3) to discuss participants’ professional growth as cultural pedagogues with fellow peers for empowerment, and (4) to share any recommendations for better approaches to French cultures in subsequent semesters to improve the Grade 9 CF landscape.
On January 31, 2019, seven out of the ten research participants joined the focus group, which was on the Zoom online conferencing system (https://zoom.us) and lasted less than two hours. The focus group was planned to be conducted on Skype (https://www.skype.com/en); however, I discovered that the platform could not support eleven individuals (i.e., the researcher and ten anticipated participants). Participants were given the option to either come to my home in the GTA, call into the meeting, or download the conferencing system to their computer; however, most participants opted to join with their personal device.
Before the meeting, participants were emailed to bring any cultural materials, as well as the curriculum document (OME, 2014), to the discussion. I also sent them an overview of the focus group meeting (see Appendix K), as well as general login instructions (see Appendix J). To prevent participant bias, the teachers did not receive the focus group questions prior to the meeting; however, I did summarize its overall scope in my consent letter. Ten discussion questions formed the focus group discussion (see Appendix K); however, similar to my approach for the two interviews, I was always
87 flexible in allowing for open-ended discussions, which D. Stewart et al. (2007) indicated is an important researcher personality trait for effective focus groups.
The meeting was structured as follows: (a) participants presented themselves using their pseudonym, (b) we reviewed the research questions, (c) participants discussed their cultural approaches (see Appendix K), (d) participants commented on practitioner growth over the course of the semester, and (e) participants exchanged contact information if desired. The teachers were asked to keep their cameras off; however, they needed to have their microphones on for a more meaningful conversation. Additionally, participants could send instant messages to the other attendees through the chat feature of the conferencing system.
Cultural Resources
Apart from good faith, I asked participants to share any cultural resources for a tangible record of their cultural practices. Bloomberg and Volpe (2016) argued that document analysis is an effective and “primary source of qualitative data” because documents, charts, resources, and other materials portray the “values and beliefs of participants in the setting” (p. 157). Local to my teaching context, document analysis was also used to explore how provincial documents supported Ontario FSL students with exceptionalities (Muhling & Mady, 2017). The consent letter of this inquiry indicated that participants were welcome to share cultural materials throughout the study. Five out of ten teachers shared cultural material, such as website links, lesson plans, and final tasks (see Appendices M-P).
Data Analysis
I analyzed all data through a non-objective, and non-positivistic lens to respect the integrity of qualitative case study research. This lens meant that I did not predict the knowledge of my participants, nor determine what is an appropriate way to teach French cultures to students with pre-existing “facts or laws” that may be considered with a positivistic research paradigm (Lincoln et al. 2011, p. 99).
Similar to Lincoln et al.’s characterization of positivistic researcher tendencies, I did not come to the study as a “disinterested scientist” (p. 99) with my own agenda as to how Ontario non-native French-
88 speaking Grade 9 CF teachers should approach cultural content. Further, the data for this study was analyzed through an iterative process, just like the multiplicity of colours when turning a crystal prism
(Lincoln et al., 2011; Richardson, 1994, 1997). Therefore, my qualitative constructivist research paradigm directly supported the needs of my research goals and was a validated choice according to researchers (Lincoln et al., 2011).
I also adopted the characteristics of “case study analysis and representation” (Creswell, 2013, p. 199). Creswell observed that case studies begin the analysis process through the initial organization of data. Firstly, prior to the official launch of my study, I solicited the support of my fellow Ontario FSL teacher colleagues, doctoral students, and my thesis supervisor to review my interview and focus group questions. This review was initiated: (a) to ensure the clarity of all questions, (b) to consider participant time constraints, and (c) to verify the appropriateness of each question in relation to the research questions for “consistency” (Bloomberg &Volpe, 2016, p. 163). Further, to better respond to my vast topic of approaching French cultural content, I prepared to use as many data collection forms as possible.
I immediately stored the data from each participant in designated folders on my computer.
Creswell also noted that case study researchers interpret their data through “margin notes” on the side of the transcriptions (p. 190), which was also my practice for the interviews and focus groups. I recorded any misunderstandings and I followed up with participants in subsequent emails. Themes were generated based on participant responses. Relative to Creswell’s analysis that researchers make
“naturalistic generalizations of what was learned” (p. 191), the findings and recommendations of this inquiry were interpreted based on my shared identity as an Ontario non-native Grade 9 CF teacher- researcher.
Interviews and Focus Group
I digitally recorded and then transcribed all interview and focus group discussions. I did not use a transcribing service because, as a busy full-time high school teacher and researcher, I needed to
89 revisit the conversations. Next, I replayed all recordings from my two recording devices to verify the accuracy of the transcriptions. Wherever there was an increased intonation from my participants, I bold faced words, such as “ramped up” or “I know that” from the participant known by the pseudonym
Camille during her first interview. When I was not confident about the accuracy of transcriptions, such as the spelling of French words, I emailed the teachers excerpts of the interviews or the focus group.
As a result, I demonstrated a qualitative research technique of member checking, which is when the researcher returns “an interview or analyzed data” to confirm the validity of the research (Birt et al.,
2016, p. 1802). However, I did not send the teacher-participants their entire interview transcripts out of a desire to respect their time constraints as full-time teachers who may not wish to read multiple pages of their responses.
After I re-read the transcriptions, I engaged with structural coding by bolding key words from the transcripts. Subsequently, I produced a separate document, which contained a table with key themes per participant in the form of summarized memos to generate “an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon [adding] rigor, breadth, and depth [and] corroborative evidence” (Bloomberg & Volpe,
2016, p. 46). Under each column, I pasted excerpts of the conversations which reflected each theme.
Accordingly, I became a research “bricoleur” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 4), or collage maker, whereby
I collected all data to generate common patterns (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016) and “themes” (Creswell,
2015, p. 243) in support of my research question “to understand the complexity” of the participant experiences (p. 46).
As recognized by Maguire and Delahunt (2017), coding data into themes is “much more than simply summarizing the data; a good thematic analysis interprets and makes sense of it” (p. 3353). As a summary strategy, I also left comments on the side bar of my Word documents on all transcriptions, which became my initial reactions to the statements. Next, I re-read the transcriptions in their entirety once again to confirm any missed quotation or theme that would be pertinent for the study. I printed all the transcriptions and summary notes, and then engaged in the structural coding process. I assigned a
90 designated colour to each theme, such as green to represent the amount of each teacher’s travel experience.
When establishing each theme, I endeavored to maintain awareness of my inherent researcher bias. For instance, I recognized my previous experience with the Ontario FSL elementary curriculum
(OME, 2013b) for my master’s study because I had explored a similar research topic of curriculum enactment (Gour, 2015). Accordingly, I had been introduced to themes such as teachers’ extreme discouragement regarding curriculum change and the importance of ICT resources in the FSL classroom. Additionally, I shared similar non-native French-speaking teacher experiences as my participants. Therefore, I had pre-existing ideas as to how cultural content should be approached in the
Grade 9 CF classroom, including the need for age-appropriate resources.
Research analysis levels from Bloomberg and Volpe (2016) were also considered to interpret the findings. Firstly, I reviewed each finding for the interviews, the focus group, and the cultural resources, and I considered “all the possible explanations” (p. 246). I interpreted how the experiences of each participant compared with the other teachers’ experiences to respect “cross-case analysis” (p.
246). Bloomberg and Volpe also stressed the importance of researchers’ ability to identify “discrepant findings [so as to better portray] real life … perspectives that do not always coalesce” with the research purpose or question (p. 163). However, to maintain the spirit of the social constructivist research paradigm (Kroll & LaBosky, 1996; Pitri, 2006), I also considered unrelated data because I valued the voices of my teacher-participants. Nonetheless, the majority of the findings directly supported my research questions, such as the teachers’ high confidence levels as cultural pedagogues, the limited access to ICT resources for culture, and the importance of travel to French-speaking communities.
Cultural Resources
Several participants shared cultural resources (see Appendices M, N, O & P). They were analyzed in accordance with my conceptual framework, regarding how each resource supported the salad’s ingredients, the salad maker, or the consumer. For example, resources that presented more
91 international French-speaking communities and asked students to identify the meaning of superheroes
(see Appendix N) were connected to the transformative orientation to pedagogy of the nested pedagogical orientations model (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Cultural resources which scaffolded the learning and focused more on oral communication, project-based pedagogy, literacy practices, and authentic tasks, corresponded to the neurolinguistic approach (Netten &
Germain, 2012).
All themes were also analyzed in accordance with the ingredients, the salad maker, and the consumer of my salade niçoise conceptual framework. To respect the word limit and research scope of this dissertation, I predominately analyzed the salad-maker teacher using the nested pedagogical orientations model (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and the eggs in correspondence to the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) and considered the cultural theories of the green beans. Table 5 outlines the focused concept of the salad, which informed the data analysis.
Table 5
A Summary of the Main Theories for Data Analysis
Ingredient or Concept(s) Researcher(s) Individual Salad maker Nested pedagogical orientations Cummins (2001, 2009); Cummins et al. (2007) (Teacher) Eggs Neurolinguistic approach Netten & Germain (2012) Green beans Pluricultural approach to culture Council of Europe (2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach Council of Europe (2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model Weaver (1986) Critical pedagogy Aoki (2005b); Bartolomé, (1994); Freire (1968/1970, 2000); Keneman, (2013); Salazar (2013) LX to CX a Bilash (2009); Dewaele (2018) a The CX is my personal conception of how language learners can identify their cultural repertoire, which is value-neutral and directly inspired from Bilash (2009) and Dewaele (2018).
The ingredients were limited in the data analysis portion of this inquiry, because I did not directly interact with students who were labeled as consumers, parents as pepper, and school
92 administration as salt. Further, I did not include many theories that discussed the importance of ICT in the FSL context. However, these ingredients were still considered in some of the research findings and recommendations of the inquiry.
Ethical Considerations
I remained an ethical researcher due to the number of data collection tools of this inquiry and the sensitivity of my research questions exploring teacher practices. In October 2016, I completed the training course entitled Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans
Course on Research Ethics (TCPS 2: CORE) to review ethical research design procedures and principles. Following the completion of my research ethics application, the University of Calgary
Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board (CFREB) granted me approval to begin the study on October
23, 2018.
My study was of a low or minimal risk for physical, psychological, emotional, or social harm. For example, completing surveys, discussing pedagogical techniques, sharing resources, and conversing with colleagues are common in similar research of the Ontario FSL classroom (Arnott, 2017; Duncan,
2016; Faez, Majhanovich, et al., 2011; Faez, Taylor, et al., 2011; Piccardo, 2013; Viswanathan, 2016).
From my professional experience, teachers have commonly shared practices and challenges with colleagues in spaces such as staff meetings and professional development days. Therefore, my study was safely structured.
Justice, Respect, and Well-Being
Participant justice, respect, and well-being were also considered in this study. Firstly, the inquiry extended to the entirety of the province, which increased participant voice. The uniqueness of the inquiry also provided additional insight into the marginalized CF program (Cooke, 2013; LANG,
2014) and the negative perceptions of the non-native French-speaking teacher (Modiano, 2006;
Turnbull, 2011; Wernicke, 2017). All stages of consent were clearly and thoroughly written to explain the research endeavour to participants (Creswell, 2015). The teachers had to indicate yes or no to
93 allow me to include their questionnaire responses in the study. The official consent letter outlined the scope, and researcher and participant rights. For example, I explained the overall content of the two interviews and the focus group and presented the foreseeable benefits in participating, such as networking. Participants were also reminded of the study’s withdrawal process.
I also considered the well-being of my participants by respecting their time as full-time teachers. For example, the interviews and focus group ranged between one to two-hour discussions.
The teachers were also reminded of their ability to prematurely leave the meetings. Additionally, the flexible interview and focus group formats respected the teachers’ privacy and time. For example, the discussions were away from school property to prevent fellow colleagues overhearing, and they did not increase participants’ commutes by having to drive to a designated meeting location for the data collection. The educators shared their experiences in many formats either in person, using a phone, or through virtual communication.
Participants were also remunerated for their time in the form of a $50 gift card to various stores for online shopping. This gift was still given to participants who prematurely withdrew from the first interview. However, teachers who exclusively completed the online questionnaire did not receive a gift card. I rationalized this choice because they remained anonymous when completing the survey.
Further, the online questionnaire did not significantly contribute to the data of this study to merit the $50 gift card.
I also considered the mental health of my teacher-participants. For example, I did not want the questions from the interviews and focus group to evoke feelings of incompetency as cultural educators, nor to ignite feelings of hatred toward their employers for any lack of cultural resources. To reduce or mitigate participant anxiety, the consent letter indicated that there were no official success criteria for approaching French cultures. Furthermore, participants were never judged, but, rather, they were celebrated for their uniqueness of cultural strategies. In anticipation of any foreseeable participant
94 stress, I prepared a cultural and stress-management resource document (see Appendix L) for post- study care; however, my participants did not indicate any stress during or upon completion of this study.
Confidentiality
Creswell (2015) stressed that “[p]articipant confidentiality is of utmost importance” in research
(p. 231). Accordingly, I underwent an extensive list of measures to maintain confidentiality. Before I began the study, I liaised with a teacher’s union vice-president for guidance with respect to confidentiality. She reminded me of the inherent risks of classroom research because students may be identified and cautioned me about conducting research on fellow colleagues who were part of my teaching union for reasons of conflict of interest. Additionally, recruiters, such as FSL teacher associations and personal contacts, did not share personally identifiable information, such as names, specific school districts, or the ages of their Ontario non-native French-speaking Grade 9 CF teacher contacts. Recruiters were only allowed to contact their professional network using personal email addresses so that their employers would not be privy to the teachers’ identification.
My data collection tools were also confidential and established participant trust. The online questionnaire was anonymous until the point when the teacher decided to waive privacy in order to receive additional information to potentially become a participant. Moreover, I included responses to the online survey from teachers who granted me consent to include their answers in the dissertation.
Participants’ contributions were permitted provided that these educators matched the recruitment criteria, and signed the interview, focus group, and cultural resource consent letters.
Throughout the study, the participants used their personal email addresses so that their employer would not have access to our communications. The teachers also created their own pseudonyms, which were maintained throughout the study and post-study. Whenever participants shared cultural resources, they were asked not to include student-sensitive information such as names, grades, or school logos, nor provide resources that were employer-property without consent or infringed on copyright.
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For both interviews and the final focus group, I reminded participants that our conversations would be recorded; however, the teachers were not required to answer all questions. Regardless of the interview format, the teachers were “free from distractions” (Creswell, 2015, p. 220) in that I made sure no one else was present during the conversations. Additionally, I used an old cell phone, which no longer had access to the Internet, and a digital recorder to capture the discussions. All transcribed files were encrypted and password-protected in a password-protected computer.
Before the focus group, the teachers were reminded of potential confidentiality breaches, specifically, with the risk that participants might recognize voices from other teachers. To mitigate confidentiality concerns, participants were asked to turn off their cameras prior to joining the session. I reassured the participants that I would exclude any sensitive information, such as employer names and student names, if they were mistakenly stated by the participants. Accordingly, these strategies helped maintain confidentiality. Essentially, the level of researcher-participant intimacy grew from an anonymous questionnaire, to one-on-one interviews, to deeper vulnerability with a focus group of multiple participants present.
Upon conclusion of the inquiry, I deleted unused data by cleaning out the trash can of my computer, phone, and digital tape recorder. Data kept for the dissertation was safely stored in a password-protected computer with encrypted files, which protection was communicated to participants in the consent letter. Further, participants were informed in the consent letters that post-study, the results could be included in conference presentations and published in peer reviewed journals. Upon completion of the study, the participants would receive an electronic copy of the thesis for their records.
Trustworthiness
Conflict of Interest
I recognized the inherent pressure to participate in my study while I liaised with various FSL community members during the recruitment process. For instance, when some of my personal contacts emailed their colleagues about my study, I reminded my recruiters not to pressure their colleagues but,
96 rather, to focus on the foreseeable benefits of the research. Also, I knew some of my participants; however, researchers have noted that interviewing close contacts can provide a sense of participant trustworthiness towards the investigator and provide the study with more rich and truthful data
(Blichfeldt & Heldbjerg, 2011). Nevertheless, I reminded my contacts that our relationships would not be impacted if they declined participation, or if they prematurely withdrew from the study.
I was also cognizant of my inherent power dynamic as a concurrent researcher and full-time high school teacher. Acknowledging my pursuit of a doctorate degree, fellow CF colleagues had the potential to feel intimidated or pressured to participate because I may have been perceived as an expert in FSL education. However, I clearly stated in my consent letter that I, too, was looking to learn from my fellow Ontario non-native French-speaking teachers.
Cohesion
Interacting with the researcher and other participants can add to participant sensitivity with regard to sharing experiences with others. For example, focus groups may run the risk of peer pressure for some participants who want to give the best response because other participants are listening to the conversation through the “groupthink” mentality (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016, p. 156). As a strategy, I raised comments from the interviews during the focus group discussion to confirm if the opinions shared by the participants during the focus group corresponded with what they had stated during the one-on-one interviews.
There are more benefits than disadvantages when researchers bring participants together in study environments. Researchers have noted that homogeneous groups of participants can ignite conversation and potentially reduce possible conflict during the discussions for “[g]roup cohesiveness”
(D. Stewart et al., 2007, p. 25). As I focused on the non-native French-speaking teacher, I observed that the teachers welcomed each other’s contributions, such as their discussion about a cultural grant received from the government and how they chose to spend the money. I made sure, however, that quiet teachers were given opportunities to speak during the focus group so that I would reduce potential
97 risk of participant marginalization or power disparities amongst the group members (Bloomberg &
Volpe, 2016). I began the focus group by allowing for open contributions. I subsequently asked all remaining individuals, who had not had an opportunity to speak, to present their opinions. As a result, my focus group served as a legitimate space for the participating teachers to share ideas and contribute to their provincial community of Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to highlight how I planned and realized the study. I first defended my researcher position regarding the qualitative social constructivist exploratory case study design, in that the exploratory, yet bounded, nature of qualitative case study research better supported the vastness of my research questions. I then presented my research sample and recruitment strategies. Next, I summarized the data collection types, including how they were interpreted. The main discussion portion of this chapter centered on my holistic analysis of the participants’ cultural approaches through the establishment of themes. Finally, I defended how my study was ethical and of a sound design, and I concluded the chapter.
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Chapter 5: Findings
Chapter 4 presented the rationale and the design of my exploratory case study which followed a qualitative social constructivist research paradigm. Based on the research questions of this inquiry, my methodology directly suited the exploratory nature of the study.
The purpose of this chapter is to present important data from this inquiry. The teacher- participants experienced various challenges in approaching culture. Concepts such as transculture
(MLA, 2007) and pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018), for instance, were unfamiliar to the teachers. Additionally, they felt that approaching culture dynamically was difficult as non-native French-speaking teachers, and they spent many hours preparing their cultural activities in order to become personally aware of the cultural experiences of the French-speaking regions. Several participants did not have sufficient ICT resources, which they felt were essential in exploring French cultures and bringing the authentic world into the classroom space.
Participants also demonstrated positive examples of approaching cultural content. Some of these examples connected the teachers’ practices with elements of the neurolinguistic approach
(Netten & Germain, 2012), such as the prioritization of oral activities, project-based pedagogy, and reviewed vocabulary. Other examples exhibited the social constructivist orientation of the nested pedagogical framework (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) through discussions and interactions with French-speaking communities. Further, ICT resources assisted the ten participants with some culturally authentic activities for their students. In general, the participants felt that music,
French cuisine, and travel better engaged their students with la francophonie. The CEFR (Council of
Europe, 2001) was their go-to framework more than their curriculum document, in determining the appropriate level, French language content, and tasks that they planned for their students.
In this chapter, I first outline key themes of the two interviews. Next, I highlight important contributions made by my participants during the focus group. Finally, I present the cultural resources and conclude the chapter.
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Review of the Research Purpose and Questions
Through a qualitative social constructivist case study, my research inquiry explored ten Ontario
CF non-native French-speaking teachers in their approaches to cultural content with their students during a high school semester from September 2018 to January 2019. The following research questions guided my inquiry:
1. How do non-native French-speaking teachers in Ontario approach French cultures in the Grade
9 Core French curriculum (OME, 2014)?
2. How do these teachers specifically implement the added Intercultural Understanding sub-
strand of the curriculum in authentic ways?
The findings from the two interviews with each teacher have been combined within the first section of this chapter because the results were common amongst both data collection opportunities.
The first interview built on the teachers’ responses from the questionnaire, introduced their professional identities, and presented their initial cultural approaches at the beginning of the semester (see Chapter
4). The second interview provided more in-depth review of the participants’ cultural practices including self-reflection in the form of personal goals post-study, and teacher observations of student progress.
Table 6 summarizes the profiles of each participant based on their responses from the online questionnaire and from the first interview. To recap, the table contains participants’ responses based on the Likert scale (Likert, 1932) as well as questions that required the teachers to select a response from a list of choices using nominal scale. Table 6 begins with participants who had the greatest number of years of teaching experience and progresses toward teachers who were newer to the profession. This table does not include data from the second interview, which was more reflective in nature.
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Table 6
Participant Profiles
Participant # of Grade 9 CF School-Type & Teaching Experience a b c Teacher- French Language Priority for Sufficient Native Pseudonym classes during the Geographical Traveler Experience d Cultural Knowledge Speaker semester of the Region to French Content of French Teacher study Communities Cultures Preference Manno 1 section of Grade 9 Catholic school 30+ years YES Former CF student Mostly true True Somewhat academic CF in the GTA Taught IB French Important Former elementary school B2 level of the CEFR FSL teacher Camille 1 section of Grade 9 Catholic school 20+ years YES Former CF student Untrue Mostly true Somewhat academic CF in the GTA Former elementary school Important FSL teacher for 10+ years C1 level of the CEFR Carla 2 sections of Grade 9 Public school in 20+ years NO Former CF student Mostly true Mostly true Somewhat applied CF the GTA Former elementary school CEFR level not stated Important + 3 sections of Grade FSL teacher 9 academic CF Claire 2 sections of Grade 9 Public school in 20+ years YES Former CF student True Mostly true Not academic French Central Ontario Former elementary school Important FSL teacher C1 or C2 level of the CEFR Yvonne 1 section of Grade 9 Public school in 15+ years YES Former CF student Mostly true Mostly true Somewhat academic French Southwestern Former elementary school Important Ontario FSL teacher C1 level of the CEFR DELF training
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Participant # of Grade 9 CF School-Type & Teaching Experience Teacher- French Language Priority for Sufficient Native Pseudonym classes during the Geographical Traveler Experience Cultural Knowledge Speaker semester of the Region to French Content of French Teacher study Communities Cultures Preference Rosina ---- Catholic school 9+ years YES Former CF student Mostly true True Extremely in the GTA IB teaching experience in Important Spanish B2 or C1 level of the DELF exam corrector CEFR
Helena 1 section of Grade 9 Catholic school 6+ years YES Former CF student Mostly true Somewhat Extremely academic CF in the GTA Former elementary school true Important FSL teacher with AIM B2 or C1 level of the teaching experience CEFR DELF exam corrector
Nora 1 section of Grade 9 Private school 2+ years YES Former CF student Untrue Somewhat Not academic CF in Southwestern Former elementary school CEFR level not stated true Important Ontario FSL teacher Rachel 2 sections of Grade 9 Public school in 2+ years YES Former CF student Mostly true Somewhat Extremely academic CF Southeastern Core and French true Important Ontario Immersion teaching C1 or C2 level of the experience CEFR Christina 1 section of Grade 9 Catholic school 1+ year YES Former CF student Mostly true Mostly true Not pre-IB e academic CF in the GTA Current high school FSL Important + 1 section of Grade teacher B2 level of the CEFR 9 academic CF
102 a The term International Baccalaureate Program, or IB in this column, is a global curriculum offered by accredited institutions from early childhood to adolescents
(https://www.ibo.org/programmes). b The term Diplôme d'études en langue française, or DELF in this column, is a language diploma created by the French
Ministry for National Education that certifies the specific language level of the test-taker. Students can be tested at six language levels, which are inspired by the
CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). FSL teachers, who are called les correcteurs correct the test (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org). c The Accelerative
Integrated Methodology, or AIM in this column, is a second language methodology, created by Wendy Maxwell, which focuses on “high-frequency vocabulary, introduced with gestures and contextualized in stories, drama, songs and dance … and allows students to rapidly achieve levels of oral and written proficiency rarely seen with conventional methods” (AIM Language Learning, 2017). d The Common European Framework of References for Languages, or CEFR in this column, outlines six language proficiency levels (Council of Europe, 2001). e International Baccalaureate Program, or IB (https://www.ibo.org/programmes).
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Many of the teachers shared similar cultural identities and experiences (see Table 6).
According to the online questionnaire, seven of the ten secondary school educators had prior teaching experience in elementary schools. Half of the teachers taught in publicly funded Catholic schools and the other half in non-denominational schools. All participants, except Rosina, taught at least one class of Grade 9 CF during the time of this inquiry. Carla had the most CF sections, with five in total. Many teachers had greater exposure to the Grade 9 CF academic program rather than the open or applied level classes. Another commonality was that Camille, Christina, and Rosina worked at the same school.
Over half of the teachers were working in the GTA and travelled to French regions.
Four of the teacher-participants indicated that their French language proficiency was at least at the B2 level of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) and six teacher-participants declared a C level from the Framework. Both levels constitute intermediate or advanced level French and all teacher- participants were former CF students. Moreover, eight out of ten participants felt that their French cultural knowledge was sufficient for the Grade 9 CF context. Finally, the majority of these teachers felt that it was either not important or somewhat important to be a native French-speaker to fulfill the role of a CF teacher.
Data for the First Research Question
My first research question investigated how the teachers approached French language cultural content from September 2018 to January 2019. In this next section, I identify and elaborate on five themes which arose from the two interviews and the focus group of this inquiry. Table 7 summarizes the cultural approaches raised by the participants during the two interviews with X indicating the participant’s engagement with the said approach or strategy that shaped the establishment of the five themes.
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Table 7
A Summary of Cultural Approaches from the Interviews
Participant Dynamic Standard ICT a Student Travel Music Food Comparing Student DELF b Recounting Controlled Requirement English Definition French Research Theme Theme Lives with French CEFR c Travel to Short for Ample Use of Culture Projects Communities Students Activities Prep Time Cultural Approaches – Interview 1 Manno X X X X Camille X X X X X X X X X X X X Carla X X X X X X X X X Claire X X X X X X X X X X X Yvonne X X X X X X X X X Rosina X X X X X X X X X X X Helena X X X X X X X X X Nora X X X X X X X X Rachel X X X X X X X Christina X X X X X X X X Cultural Approaches – Interview 2 Manno X X X X Camille X X X X X X X Carla X X X X Claire X X X X X X X X Yvonne X X X X X X Rosina X X X X X X X Helena X X X X X X X Nora X X X X X X X X Rachel X X X X X X X Christina X X X X X X X X X X X
a Information and Communications Technology. b DELF (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org). c CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001).
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Theme 1: Dynamic Definitions of Culture
All teacher-participants in this study felt that approaching French cultural content was difficult to define and confounding to approach (see Table 7). Participants described the goal of culture as students obtaining various points of views of communities (e.g., Manno, Interview 1) and learning how to be respectful to various communities (e.g., Claire, Interview 1). These two examples closely adhered to the definition of culture from the curriculum, which is defined as “the customary beliefs, values, social forms, and material traits of an ethnic, religious, or social group. It includes the arts, literature, lifestyles, and traditions” (OME, 2014, p. 380). Comparatively, the overview section of the Grade 9 CF academic program states that students, “will also enhance their understanding and appreciation of diverse
French-speaking communities, and will develop skills necessary for lifelong language learning” (p. 58).
Participants provided insight into the complexities of defining culture. Carla argued that it was
“so many things” (Interview 1). Camille found it difficult to define culture and become culturally proficient in the Canadian context due to the country’s multicultural landscape (Interview 1). Similarly, Camille recognized the importance of exposing students to a variety of French-speaking communities when she said, “there’s Martinique, there’s Sénégal, there’s France, there’s Belgium, there’s, I mean, take your pick, there’s Québec, so what’s your definition of culture? That again is an issue….Proficiency is hard”
(Interview 1). Rosina added that many French colonies have lost their linguistic and cultural ties to
French, and she questioned their importance in the Grade 9 CF classroom (Interview 2). Consequently, several teachers perceived culture as a process without finite bounds.
Perceptions of Transculture and Pluriculture
Chapter 2 established my preference for pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001,
2016, 2018) when discussing how teachers should ideally approach cultural content. I used the definition of pluriculture from the CEFR, which is the “ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures” (Council
106 of Europe, 2001, p. 168). I also referenced my second-best cultural definition of transculture (see
Chapter 2) wherein it means “critical language awareness … interpretation and translation, historical and political consciousness, social sensibility, and aesthetic perception” (MLA, 2007, pp. 2-3). Both definitions became part of the metaphorical green beans necessary for my salade niçoise.
Prior to conducting the first interview with participants, I established my preferred term to define culture, which was pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). I also appreciated the term transculture (MLA, 2007). I decided to ask participants to define transculture, but I did not ask them to interpret pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). I recognized that the words may have been unfamiliar to the teachers because they are not found in the curriculum document (OME, 2014).
Accordingly, my research dilemma was to explore both concepts, yet avoid testing my participants’ theoretical knowledge on these terms to better support case study research (Merriam, 2009). I investigated the term transculture with my participants because I thought that the trans- portion of the word would prompt the teachers to consider culture as interchangeable across communities and experiences.
I observed that half of the teachers misunderstood transculture (MLA, 2007), or, were unfamiliar with its characteristics (Camille, Claire, Manno, Nora & Rosina). Claire, Manno and Rosina had the closest responses to the definition, with Manno’s example of the act of “transferring from one culture to another” (Interview 1). Other teachers defined the term as the act of comparing one’s culture to another (Camille, Carla, Helena & Yvonne). Rachel stated that transculture was the “knowledge of various cultures” (Interview 1). Additionally, Christina considered her high school travel experiences “in
France and in Belgium” as a CF student to have shaped her current conception of French culture
(Interview 1). Based on the example contributions of the teachers regarding the characterization of transculture, they focused more on the superficial understandings of culture, rather than emphasizing the “critical…consciousness [and] social sensibility” piece of the word (MLA, 2007, pp. 2-3).
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Authentic Culture
While culture is dynamically defined and characterized, it is also dependent on elements that can be considered “authentic.” Based on my practitioner experience, as well as the curriculum document, FSL teachers may want to consider approaching French cultures in authentic interactions
(OME, 2014). All participants defined authentic with real-life examples, which closely matched the curriculum’s definition of authenticity whereby it states the following: “Materials originally created in
French and intended for a general French-speaking audience (e.g., newspaper, articles, short stories, novels, poems, television programs, films, websites)” (p. 379). For example, Yvonne defined authentic as, “Real world….it has to be something that they would actually need in the real world if they were to find themselves in a francophone community, what would they truly need in order to communicate with a francophone person?” (Interview 1). Conversely, Camille identified her definition of authentic by contrasting it with inauthentic scenarios from her experience as a former elementary FSL teacher:
In the grade 5 or 6 textbook, we used to do an entire unit on les fourmis.20 And we learned
about les fourmis charpentières,21 I can’t even remember them all now! And I speak French!
That just goes to show you how irrelevant they are. I don’t think that English speakers know the
difference between the different types of ants in English. We used to teach that to the kids, and
it was so irrelevant … It was useless! (Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
Therefore, Camille took her negative experience as a learning strategy to improve her current practice as a high school teacher by designing authentic and purposeful activities to effectively and “honestly use this language” (Interview 1).
Participants also expressed their overall goals for authentic cultural materials. Helena sought to improve her general comprehension about the stereotypes of French culture such as “songs, their
20 The word fourmis means “ants” in French.
21 The words fourmis charpentières mean “carpenter ants” in French.
108 costumes they wear…videos [and] cinema” (Interview 1). In another perspective, Claire and Nora focused more on the history and the “origins” of peoples for authentic content (Nora, Interview 1).
Teachers also raised concerns about authenticity. For example, Manno felt that there are limitations to the level of authenticity possible in the FSL classroom even though French teachers consider their material to be “authentic” (Interview 1). Likewise, Rosina indicated that no amount of preparation or professional development can thoroughly prepare FSL teachers to teach culture because these educators may not know of available resources and how effective the materials can be for their students (Interview 2).
Cultural Iceberg Model. Throughout the study, several teachers (Claire, Manno, Rachel,
Rosina & Yvonne) referenced the cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986). Claire, Rachel, and Rosina formerly discussed the iceberg (Weaver, 1986) and its cultural implications with students. Rachel casually “mentioned it” to students (Interview 1). Claire learned about the model as a conference attendee for FSL teachers and she observed that many deep portions of the iceberg “are oral based”
(Interview 1). Claire did not describe a specific scenario when the iceberg was taught to students, but justified that she made “more of an effort to explain some deep culture” (Interview 1). Claire also emailed me an image of the iceberg after the first interview. Rosina introduced the iceberg to students at the beginning of the semester to inform the cultural Friday tasks.
Yvonne stated that going below the iceberg’s surface “is really, really challenging” (Interview 1) and maintained her position that the surface level of the iceberg should be exposed to Grade 9 CF students due to their basic language proficiency (Interview 2). However, more teachers believed that approaching French cultures should extend to the deeper elements of the cultural iceberg model, regardless of grade or language proficiency. During the first interview, Carla, Claire, Helena, and
Rosina provided example activities that, in my argument, represented the hidden layer of the iceberg such as: (a) going to the store (Helena), (b) being aware of clothing trends, musical preferences, and driving styles (Carla), (c) knowing both verbal and non-verbal communication (Carla), and (d)
109 incorporating unfamiliar expressions and gestures, such as kissing and other forms of affection (Claire
& Rosina). Accordingly, the model quickly became a commonly referenced resource to assist the participants in determining the what and the how of cultural depth for their Grade 9 CF students.
Theme 2: Challenges as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers
Lack of Confidence
Despite confidently identifying as proficient FSL teachers, some participants were also insecure with their French language level. Notably, Camille and Rosina recognized that their perfectionist personalities impacted their confidence as non-native French-speaking teachers. Accordingly, Rosina desired to “master” French (Interview 1). Camille and Carla were insecure about their French when they interacted with native speakers. Also, Carla did not feel that she received sufficient oral practice in
French as a teacher-candidate in teacher’s college. As a licenced educator, Camille felt similarly when she pursued an additional qualification course in French.
During the first interview, Camille and Rosina connected their cultural and linguistic doubts with their lack of travel to a variety of French-speaking communities. Camille expressed that she felt like a
French “imposter” and never felt “good enough” as a non-native French-speaking teacher, even though she declared to be at the C1 level of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). For example, she recounted,
“So, my husband and I might go somewhere and somebody’s from France and speaks French and he’d say, ‘Oh my wife speaks French!’ and I would say, ‘No, no! No, I don’t! Not really! I just pretend to’”
(Interview 1). Her personal doubt as a proficient speaker was particularly noticeable when she interacted with Québécois and other Canadian French variations. Additionally, Camille felt embarrassed interacting with native speakers during parent-teacher interviews because she was “blubbering” in
French (Interview 1). Throughout the first interview, Camille repeated the words “imposter” four times and “judge” five times when describing her experiences as a non-native French-speaking educator
(Interview 1). This sentiment contradicted her declaration on the questionnaire that it was only
110 somewhat important to be a CF native speaker. Camille argued that a native speaker is the best option for the Grade 9 CF class:
To teach francophone culture properly … in a perfect world, I …would have experience in those
cultures myself. I would have traveled to France … to Québec … to Senegal … You really need
to have lived the culture to be able to really, really, really give anecdotal evidence and get the
kids fired up about it and inspired by it. (Interview 2, January 16, 2019)
Camille felt that francophone speakers are immersed in the day-to-day culture, which, in her argument, cannot be easily acquired by a visitor-teacher to then share with students. Rachel and Rosina also shared similar feelings. Rachel summarized their sentiments:
[Native speakers have] a more authentic approach to the context of [an] expression where it’s
mostly used, why it’s mostly used, does it have a positive connotation, does it have a negative
connotation? When me, a non-native, I’ve learned this expression from the Internet … or from a
video that I have watched but I don’t necessarily have the experience with it, which might be
hard for me. (Interview 1, November 22, 2018)
Rachel’s contribution demonstrated the cultural complexities faced by non-native French-speaking teachers. Additionally, Rosina felt that native French-speakers “might know more historical facts about the country, or political facts, or … about general culture, like holidays and food and fashion …as opposed to a person who is just researching it (Interview 1). Both Rachel and Rosina maintained their position about the significant importance of the native speaker from the questionnaire to the interviews.
Camille also felt that the content of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014) added to her insecurities. For the majority of her career, Camille followed grammar-based curricula, and she only recently had to consider more cultural content in her FSL classes. She justified her opinion with the following explanation:
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[Culture] was a non-issue in teaching [because] you were teaching avoir22 and être23 in grade 4
and … adding faire24 and aller25 in grade 5 … and so forth …. Culture was like a byline …. It
was a way to teach the language, it wasn’t the focus. (Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
According to Camille, verb conjugations dominated the previous FSL curricula (OME, 1998, 1999,
2000). Recently, Camille improved her confidence level about Québec cultures even though she had over “20 years” of teaching experience (Interview 1). Camille indicated a permanency of imperfection as a non-native French-speaking teacher when she declared, “I will forever feel like I am about to make a mistake [and that] I am being judged [and] I will forever not forgive myself for never being perfect in
French” (Interview 1). Camille clarified that her experiences were local to her own feelings, which are not necessarily congruent with fellow non-native French-speaking teachers. Nevertheless, several participants were insecure with French language and cultures.
Additional Preparation Time
At the start of the semester, the majority of teachers (Camille, Carla, Claire, Christina, Helena,
Rachel, Rosina & Yvonne) required additional preparation time to learn about French cultures, which became a stressful experience (see Table 7). Yvonne felt that the Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub-strand (OME, 2014) was the most challenging even though “it tends to be very small, especially, in a Grade 9 applied classroom” (Interview 1). Additionally, Camille felt overwhelmed with the number of French-speaking regions around the world (Interview 1). Carla aspired to improve her understanding of Acadian cultures (Interview 1), and Claire wanted to learn more about the histories of
French-speaking cultures (Interview 1). Rosina (Interview 1) and Yvonne (Interview 1) stated that they did not know enough about Asian and African French-speaking communities.
22 The verb avoir means “to have” in French.
23 The verb être means “to be” in French.
24 The verb faire means “to do” or “to make” in French.
25 The verb aller means “to go” in French.
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Throughout the interviews, the teacher-participants shared their attempts to learn more about francophone cultures; however, they required ample preparation time and witnessed various challenges. Firstly, Rosina ordered a novel about francophone Africa; however, she felt that there were not enough resources about these regions for continued activities post-novel (Interview 1). Camille struggled with the meaning of various song lyrics and sought assistance from a Grade 12 native speaker student to determine its appropriateness for the classroom. Camille learned that one of the
French songs was,
completely inappropriate on every level. It was almost sexually aberrant, like it was bad, bad,
bad, bad, bad! …just for that one line … I researched it for an hour and a half, then go look for
a kid, then go online, it probably took two hours for that one line! (Interview 1, October 31,
2018)
Without the expertise of the French-speaker student, Camille indicated that she would not have been aware of the unacceptable language in the song. The participants also recognized the additional preparation time to simplify (Carla, Rachel & Rosina) or assess (Camille, Claire & Yvonne) cultural content due to their lack of cultural proficiency as non-native French-speaking teachers. For example,
Carla and Rachel both prepared a brochure assignment, which took approximately “two to three hours” to create (Carla, Interview 1). Yvonne spent a total of ten to twelve hours to prepare for cultural activities (Interview 1). Claire required time to correct student errors, such as the differentiation between
Niger and Nigeria on assignments (Interview 1). At the time of the second interview, the number of teachers required less time prepare for cultural activities (Carla, Christina, Claire, Nora, Rachel).
Overall, the participants identified the need for additional planning time for culture.
Theme 3: Affordances as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers
Growth in Confidence
Despite the insecurities felt in dealing with the additional preparation time needed for culture, participants also shared examples of their confidence as sound non-native French-speaking educators,
113 which contradicted some of the responses from the survey and from the first interview. Firstly, Camille felt that native French-speaking teachers may disadvantage Grade 9 CF students because they may not know how to simplify cultural “knowledge” (Interview 2). Additionally, Camille argued that FSL teachers need “to be proficient [in] explaining some of the aspects of French culture” (Interview 1) with the following clarification:
Do they need to know what the different meals are in Senegal in order to learn French- no they
don’t! Does that make it more interesting for them, yes! So, cultural proficiency, in other words,
being proficient, knowing a whole bunch about the culture is not my goal! The goal is to teach
them French, get them to love French, feel like they can make themselves understood in that
language and they can understand what they are seeing and hearing. Culture, to me, is a by-
product of that, or a side. So, my goal is not for me to teach them culture. I do, but that is not
part of my job. If you ask me what is my job, it is for them to speak! (October 31, 2018)
Additionally, Christina argued that non-native French-speaking teachers “appreciate the culture a lot more [and are] a lot more passionate … and willing to share with others” (Interview 1). Manno shared a similar point of view, stating that non-native French-speaking teachers maintain “a more neutral, cultural point of view” (Interview 1). Moreover, Rosina felt that being a native speaker does not automatically render an educator as a cultural expert, but that the ideal cultural pedagogue is well-traveled (Interview
1). Other participants also recognized the influence of frequent travel to French-speaking regions to develop their oral proficiency (Christina, Rachel & Yvonne) or DELF (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance- ca.org) teacher-training opportunities (Helena). Regardless, many participants were confident in their linguistic and cultural abilities as non-native French-speaking educators.
Learning through Students
The majority of teachers approached culture through student-led research presentations (see
Table 7). As a result, Carla, Christina, and Rosina felt that they increased their own cultural and linguistic knowledge by assessing student work. Rosina argued that “the more grammar sheets you
114 correct […] the more work that you see from the students, the more French knowledge you gain [and could] foresee the questions that [students] might have for each task” (Interview 1). For instance, Carla acquired more knowledge of small towns of France such as the “food […] traditions [and] songs” through student-led projects of imaginary tours to the communities (Interview 1). Therefore, the participants placed greater responsibility on their students to demonstrate their learning of la francophonie.
Support from Native Speakers
Some participants received support from native speakers in their approach to culture. For example, Christina became a French teacher because of her positive interactions with her former high school French teacher. Christina’s mentor also encouraged her to pursue the Explore Program (Council of Ministers of Education Canada & Government of Canada, n.d.)26 to develop her oral proficiency.
Additionally, Claire established meaningful relationships with francophones while abroad on exchanges to France (Interview 1). Conversely, Manno maintained relationships with friends, former colleagues, and distant family members in written form such as “Facebooking [and] WhatsApping” as well as in oral form (Interview 1). Yvonne kept in contact with English-language teachers whom she met in France and invited them to her home in Canada (Interview 1). Rosina made continuous efforts to converse with native speakers, such as board consultants (Interview 1). Nora (Interview 2) and Yvonne (Interview 2) liaised with native speakers for their classrooms. Therefore, many non-native French-speaking participants were willing to seek out either cultural or linguistic support from native speakers of French.
Support from Non-Native French-Speaking Colleagues
There were more examples of teacher collegiality than teacher isolation with regard to approaching cultural content. Yvonne frequently shared French menus retrieved from airplanes and put
26 The Explore Program is “an intensive language-immersion program…in the spring or summer….Participants in Explore receive funding that covers tuition fees for the programs, instructional materials, meals and accommodations, workshops, and other mandatory activities” (Council of Ministers of Education Canada & Government of Canada, n.d.).
115 them on a “team drive” (Interview 1). Rosina sought assistance from colleagues to decide what, where, and how to include French cultures per grade level, arguing:
For la neuvième,27 for core, it’s [Africa and Asia]. Most of us do, analyser des chansons
francophones28…but other people do different things during the week. But most of us…do have
some kind of francophone presentation at some point for the grade 9s. (Interview 2, January
25, 2019)
Consequently, Rosina collaborated with colleagues to obtain departmental consensus for key tasks of their Grade 9 CF program. Additionally, Helena was grateful that the final exam was co-created with another colleague. Therefore, participants felt that exchanging resources with one’s FSL team can prevent teacher burnout (Rachel, Interview 2), improve one’s morale (Nora, Interview 2), and produce transparent assessments (Manno, Interview 2).
Teacher Agency
Most teachers of this inquiry demonstrated ongoing efforts to increase their French cultural repertoire. They incorporated a variety of techniques and resources to maintain considerable knowledge of French-speaking communities (see Table 7). Carla felt that students recognize the teacher’s “passion” as opposed to the educator’s linguistic and cultural identity (Interview 1). Camille,
Carla, Christina, Claire, and Nora argued that personal growth is essential for a French cultural and language teacher. Carla and Christina improved their linguistic and cultural competencies by frequently listening to French music. Rosina often played online French games, which she connected to her improved accent “like Parisian French” (Interview 1). Camille frequently revised her travel unit and scaffolded the Canadian passport French language application form to make it linguistically accessible for students. Camille also included a variety of French-speaking regions in her activities because she argued that culture is “not just France anymore” (Interview 2). During the second interview, several
27 The word neuvième means “Grade 9” in French.
28 The words analyser les chansons français mean “to analyze French-speaking songs” in French.
116 teachers shared that they conducted cultural research in preparation for the conclusion of their semester (Carla, Christina, Claire, Helena, Nora & Rosina). Carla identified “40” influential francophone
Canadians (Interview 2). Rosina researched dialects of France as well as current events in African countries (Interview 2). Christina reviewed Instagram (https://www.instagram.com) posts from native speakers (Interview 2). Additionally, Carla, Claire, and Helena redesigned final assignments, such as when Claire used multiethnic superheroes as models to better reflect the diversity of her students
(Interview 2).
The participants also made goals for subsequent Grade 9 CF classes. For example, Carla wanted to reduce her grammar-abundant teaching style, have smaller groups for activities, reduce teacher-centered instruction, and include more cultural expectations on her rubrics. Accordingly, she felt that this inquiry ignited her practitioner reflection about cultural teaching practices and inspired her to “step it up a bit!” (Interview 2). Camille planned to revise and expand her travel unit. Claire wanted to improve her understanding of the contextual meanings behind lyrics. Manno and Yvonne sought to increase their knowledge of African communities. Rosina wanted to get her students to a higher CEFR- level of proficiency, from A1 to A2 (Council of Europe, 2001). Manno desired to be more positive about the profession. Nora planned to incorporate small changes to her practice to avoid teacher burnout.
Therefore, the findings indicated ongoing teacher agency to refine their cultural knowledge.
Letting Go of Perfection
Several educators (Camille, Christina & Claire) recognized the perfection of imperfection in approaching French cultural content as non-native French-speaking teachers. Nora questioned why teachers should even be defining and measuring cultural competency (Interview 1). Claire recognized her lack of knowledge of African cultures; however, she was not discouraged by admitting her lack of perfection and still prepared a superhero unit based on African characters (Appendix N). Christina and
Claire stated that students are also responsible for their own learning about cultural communities.
Manno stressed that cultural appreciation cannot be forced upon students (Interview 2). Camille felt that
117 the revised curriculum (OME, 2014) does not require teachers to extend cultural learning to profound levels (Interview 1). Christina argued that FSL teachers should “not go into every aspect of the French language and culture in great detail, but for the students to just get a gist of it” for travel purposes
(Interview 2). Therefore, many participants felt comfortable as non-native French-speaking teachers.
Theme 4: Pedagogical Techniques and Factors
Influence of Travel
Table 8 presented a summary of the participants’ travel experiences. All teachers of this inquiry shared at least one travel experience to a French-speaking community, mostly either to Quebec or
France. Camille and Nora had the most recent travel experience in 2017. Christina, Claire and Yvonne spent a year in a francophone community, and subsequently, spent the longest time away from home as compared to other participants. The majority of travel experiences took place over the summer holidays for all participants.
Overall, the participants recognized the affordances of travel for cultural approaches in their classrooms. Camille felt that travelling improves language proficiency for non-native French-speaking teachers (Interview 1). Claire recognized her advantages having lived in Northern Ontario and having travelled to Québec and Europe because she heard French “in the streets” (Interview 1). Nora advocated that travel can “add more of an authentic first-person perspective to the…curriculum”
(Interview 1). Table 8 summarizes the participants’ specific trips to French-speaking communities.
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Table 8
A Summary of Participant Travel Experiences
Teacher Location Length of Stay Travel Purpose a b Manno France 3 months in the 1980s Summer bursary Québec 2 summers for 2 months in early 1980s Summer bursary Camille France Three months of high school High school exchange Québec Two weeks in 2017 Projet à Québec Claire Northern Ontario Childhood Residence Québec Six weeks in university Summer bursary France Third year of university Exchange program Yvonne Québec 2011 for two weeks Projet à Québec France 3rd year of university approximately 20 years ago Personal vacation Rosina France 3 or 4 March Break trips in 2011, 2013 & 2015 March Break trips with students Helena Québec Summer 2007 Explore program Nora Europe 3 summers of 2015-2017 Personal travel Québec Summer of 2014 Explore program Rachel France 2 months in university University course Québec Summer of 2016 for 2 months Explore program Christina France One year in university Third year university exchange Québec Grade 10 for 6 weeks Explore program in high school a Projet à Québec, occurring in this column, is “an intensive, 10-day immersion program for French as a Second Language (FSL) Teachers, held in Québec City,
Québec” (OMLTA, 2017), which is funded by the Ontario Modern Language Teachers’ Association, the OME, and Perspectives Eduscho. b Explore (Council of
Ministers of Education Canada & Government of Canada, n.d.), occurring in this column, is another immersion program (see footnote 26).
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Explore Program. Christina, Claire, Helena, Nora, and Rachel pursued this program. Nora learned to dance and shared her skills with her Grade 9 CF classrooms through this experience. Nora also obtained history books from her Québec dancing coach that contained information about the first
French-speaking families of Chicoutimi (Interview 1). Nora’s Québec trip inspired her to prepare a cultural contest for her students where they had to prepare and defend their imaginary trip to their school principal (Interview 2). Rachel was exposed to Québec cuisine while staying with her host family, such as pouding chômeur29 which became her favourite dessert. Therefore, there were many positive experiences of the Explore Program.
Projet à Québec. This two-week travel opportunity in Québec (OMLTA, 2017) was also well received by Camille and Yvonne. Camille described it as follows:
50 [Ontario] French teachers … go to Québec City. They stay at Laval University in residence,
and they spend the morning … in class … and then they spend the afternoon doing cultural
excursions. Everything is paid for by the government and OMLTA, with the exception of …
transportation there … you’d have to pay about 70% of your meals ….you do everything from
… museums … hiking, we did an interpretative centre [to learn about] Native spirituality rituals,
a ton of tours [such as] the Plains of Abraham. Imagine a Grade 8 trip … ramped up and
geared towards teachers and learning, learning, learning! (Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
Camille thoroughly enjoyed her experience due to the variety of activities, low cost, and how the experience improved her French confidence when interacting with Québécois cultures. Several participants expressed an increased appreciation of Québécois cultures after participating in these programs.
International Exchanges. Some of the teachers participated in international exchanges to
France. Christina and Claire travelled to France for a year-long exchange for their university degrees.
The immersive experiences allowed Christina to apply her cultural knowledge “taught through [her]
29 Pouding chômeur is a traditional pudding from Québec, which is made with maple syrup and a cake mixture.
120 textbooks [and] teachers” and transfer it into her classroom (Interview 1). Claire met many friends who were native speakers, and, subsequently, she learned about their localized communities of France
(Interview 1). Therefore, there were some international French examples shared in this study.
Recounting Travel Experiences to Students. Five of the ten participants (Camille, Claire,
Christina, Nora & Yvonne) shared their French travel experiences with their students (see Table 6).
Nora argued that travel lends a “first-person perspective to the teaching” (Interview 1). Claire provided the greatest number of experiences and detail. While abroad in France for a university exchange, Claire learned about when to use tu versus vous to address the “you” pronoun and subsequently shared her experiences with her Grade 9 students, like when her students switched between informal and formal social situations using both tu and vous in role play activities. Claire demonstrated her vocabulary growth, such as when her native speaker roommate taught her that, while souliers and chausseures both translate to shoe in English, chausseures was the preferred word in France at the time of her exchange (Interview 1).
Camille shared her learning about Canadian and Québécois history from her Projet à Québec
(OMLTA, 2017) opportunity with her students (Interview 1). Christina relived and extended her cultural learning from textbooks to her students from her “hands on experience” traveling to France (Interview
1). Yvonne shared photos of her trip to Calais to her students to enrich their experiences for
Remembrance Day celebrations (Interview 1). Claire learned that eight students from her school participated in the Explore Program (Council of Ministers of Education Canada & Government of
Canada, n.d.), and felt that these students were inspired to travel due to her sharing of lived experiences (Interview 1). Therefore, Camille concluded that effective cultural teaching “comes down to personal experiences” (Interview 1).
From Standard to Multiple Frenches
Accents from France were the preferred French varieties at the beginning of the semester (e.g.,
Camille, Carla, Christina, Nora, Rosina & Yvonne) because the teachers felt that these variations were
121 more comprehensive for their students (see Table 6). Christina acknowledged her bias toward France due to the influence of her former native FSL teacher who was born in that country (Interview 1). Nora argued that the Parisian accent felt “more formal” for her students and was commonly used in elementary school (Interview 1). Rosina felt that the Parisian accent was “tighter,” and that France offered a greater number of contributions due to its economy and the overall culture of the country
(Interview 1). Rachel observed that many of her students automatically conceptualized French as from
“France” (Interview 1). Other participants integrated a greater variety of French accents (Claire, Helena,
Manno & Rachel). Helena incorporated many European and African French accents due to her experiences with the DELF (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org). She felt that her students preferred
“Swiss French because it’s very clean [or] Africa [that has] a very beautiful French [using] a slower rhythm” (Interview 1).
The results from the second interview demonstrated continuous efforts by several teachers to include multiple French varieties in their Grade 9 CF classrooms (Camille, Claire, Helena, Nora, Rachel
& Rosina). Christina conducted additional research on Québec expressions (Interview 2). Other teachers revised their final assessment by including a greater number of French-speaking communities
(Camille, Claire, Rachel & Yvonne). Yvonne indicated that her final project grew in complexity in that her students had to present “to their peers about the African or Asian francophone countries that they have visited, what they did and what they saw [and reference] cultural components about typical foods of the area, tourist attractions…” (Interview 2). Rosina had greater exposure to African communities; however, she maintained a cultural preference for France and Québec because these two regions better supported her students’ lived experiences and identities (Interview 2). Therefore, the overall experiences illustrated an evolution of a monocultural accent from France, to a variety of Frenches in the participants’ classrooms.
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Importance of Information and Communications Technology
All participants integrated ICT in various ways to approach French cultures (see Table 6).
Figure 6 specifies the number of references to ICT content during both interviews and is organized from the highest to lowest ranking of references. Multi-resource websites, or “one-stop-shop” sites, containing a variety of cultural resources and formats were the most popular ICT resource type. Claire,
Rachel, and Yvonne used TV5Monde (https://langue-francaise.tv5monde.com) and Claire, Helena,
Rachel, and Rosina used Idéllo (https://www.idello.org). Both websites offer videos, articles, and online games for teachers, parents, and students. Additionally, the search engines filter the age and the CEFR language levels (Council of Europe, 2001) to better support the needs of students. Yvonne incorporated
TV5Monde (https://langue-francaise.tv5monde.com) for her “listening activities” so that students could discover “real francophone people … talking about a specific topic … and how their accent might make it more or less challenging” (Interview 1). Nora travelled to Martinique and made friends with native speakers. She used Skype (https://www.skype.com/en) on two occasions to chat with a native speaker from Martinique. She encouraged her students to ask questions in French to interact with the presenter.
Nora wanted to have another session, but the presenter had to cancel.
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Figure 6
Referenced Online Tools
16 16 14 11 11 12 9 10 8 7 6 4 3 3 4 2 2 2 1 1 0
With respect to the fewest technological references in Figure 6, Christina incorporated Google
Maps (https://www.google.com/maps) to show students the streets of Paris and practice giving and understanding directions to famous attractions (see Figure 6). Claire mentioned the importance of student portfolios and wanted to explore portfolios from “New Brunswick [where FSL students] do and look at not just one language, but they look at multiple languages…how they perform…and how competent they are in their languages and how they impact their culture” (Interview 1). She then prepared an electronic portfolio assignment where her students had to reflect on their French learning throughout the semester (Appendix M). Manno avoided many ICT resources because she and her school administration were very “wary” about its dangers (Interview 1). She relied predominantly on
CDs from various textbooks to provide aural communication activities (Interview 1). Claire and Yvonne regularly used Google Drive with colleagues. In general, the teacher-participants had distinguished preferences for online ICT resources.
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Music
Many teachers used music to approach French cultures (Camille, Carla, Claire, Christina, Nora
& Rosina; see Table 6). Carla incorporated music in her Grade 9 CF class to increase student relaxation and motivation “even if they don’t understand it. [Because] the beat accommodates to their liking…in that environment where they think that they should be learning” (Interview 2). Christina, Nora, and Rosina planned for music during specific days of the week. Christina prepared her own playlist of
French music; however, she selected songs from “Top 40 lists from France” (Interview 1). Claire also prepared her own playlist of French music and indicated that students learned about one musician per week; they reviewed several songs from each artist and voted on their preferred songs. Claire used lyrics training websites for her students to sing along and identify missing words. She also found online grammar resources inspired by various songs (Interview 1). Camille viewed music as the basis of adolescents’ lives, so incorporating music was “the most authentic thing” for culture and to provoke deep thought and discussion with her classes for issues including racism, immigration, and identity
(Interview 1). According to Camille, her students had to “look at the words, at the same time as they say the words, and at the same time as they hear the words” (Interview 1). Camille also stated that her
Grade 9 CF students created their own playlists in her class, and they informed Camille that they would frequently listen to their French music at home (Interview 1). Therefore, the findings indicate that music was an important tool for teachers when approaching la francophonie.
Food
Almost half of the teacher-participants incorporated food in approaching French cultural content
(Carla, Helena, Manno & Rosina; see Table 6). Carla and Rosina used food as a motivator for student presentations. Rosina asked her students to research a desired recipe and then role-play ordering the dish at a restaurant (Interview 1). According to Rosina, her students also learned about grammar, such as the imperative tense, when learning about French cuisine. Helena thoroughly incorporated food in many of her cultural activities. She indicated that her students frequently role-played at the market,
125 which she stated was also her preferred activity to conduct. Helena took her students to a Franco-
African restaurant for dance lessons and to enjoy the local cuisine. Her students also made crepes in class and spoke French when following the simplified recipes that she modified in advance (Interview
1). Manno shared cultural “snippets” of French cuisine for informational purposes due to classroom management issues (Interview 1). Claire considered student allergies and religious restrictions:
I remember seeing on a Facebook group, someone had done a whole unit on chocolate where
she bought all these different types of chocolate, have all these kids try the chocolate, this little
activity, I thought that was brilliant! But you got a kid who has a nut allergy, you got to be very
careful with food for sure. I think food is definitely a large part of the culture. (Interview 2,
January 5, 2019)
Therefore, while classroom management issues and allergies were a concern for some teachers, several participants still incorporated food to motivate their students to explore and interact with French cultures.
Diplôme d’Études en Langue Française and the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages
Everyone except Carla and Nora referenced the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), and/or the
Diplôme d’études en langue française, which is also called the DELF French exam (https://delf- dalf.ambafrance-ca.org; see Table 6). Helena provided the greatest number of references to both the
CEFR and DELF.
Camille, Rachel, and Rosina felt that the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) is the foundation of the curriculum (OME, 2014). Camille characterized the CEFR as, “very task-based, which gives the kids a reason to want to speak the language [to] present…ask for directions…have an opinion…it’s well scaffolded….it starts off small and then it builds on it” (Interview 2). Manno also believed that the
Framework (Council of Europe, 2001) reduces the pressure on Ontario FSL teachers to teach abundant grammar concepts (Interview 2). Yvonne and Rosina appreciated the growth mindset approach of the
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CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) that is better in line with Ontario’s Grade 9 CF students. Yvonne presented the analogy of students as swimmers:
When I explain my class to my students, French classes [are] like taking swimming lessons. As
soon as you jump into the pool, you’re swimming. You may need my help to stay afloat but
you’re still swimming. (Interview 2, January 23, 2019)
Her comment focused on what students can do rather than their inabilities in French. This concept corresponds with the language found in her FSL curriculum, and the program’s overall vision where it states that “students will communicate and interact with growing confidence in French” (OME, 2014, p.
6). Similarly, in the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), the Can Do statements are “positively worded, even at low levels” (p. 37).
Claire and Helena frequently referred to DELF-inspired (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org) books such as Inventaire linguistique des contenus clés des niveaux du CECRL (Eaquals, 2015).
Additionally, both teachers were involved with board-level DELF (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org) or
CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) training. Similarly, participants stated that the CEFR levels assisted them in the planning process, and for their listening activities. As previously mentioned, some of the teacher-participants even used ICT resources that organized their audio content with corresponding
CEFR levels. Helena and Yvonne shared thorough examples of how they applied their knowledge of the CEFR or DELF (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org) in practice. Helena incorporated DELF-style and CEFR-inspired activities with the following scenario:
It was about applying to a sports club. So, I had bunch of images in front of me and the
students had no control because they just had what they learned, sort of their pre-knowledge
but they were in a situation. There was a multitude of images of different sports in front of them
and they had to choose what they wanted to sign up to the club for….I was the club sort of
administrator and they were the clients. (Interview 1, November 14, 2018)
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Her experience illustrates action-based principles from the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) because the learners had to resolve an authentically plausible situation in a French-speaking community.
A surprising finding was that Carla and Nora did not consider concepts from the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) to inform planning practices. Carla was unclear as to its importance and feasibility, especially if using the Framework is not common practice amongst colleagues (Interview 2). Nora argued that Ontario FSL teachers and school boards should not overuse the CEFR because it is not an effective framework for culture:
[Nora’s previous school board] almost focused too much on that and they actually lost a bunch
of the culture because they were focusing too much on the questions and the “I can”
statements, and … it was a lot more teacher-directed… so I will kind of use it a little bit here
and there, kind of as a guideline but no, not fully. (Interview 1, November 19, 2018)
Nora’s former colleagues focused more on the explicit language of the Framework (Council of Europe,
2001), rather than applying the characteristics as program considerations. Despite Nora’s experience with the CEFR, most participants endorsed the Framework.
Vocabulary Simplification Strategies
The teacher-participants began to simplify vocabulary during the second interview stage of the research. Figure 7 visualizes the participants’ strategies.
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Figure 7
A Summary of Vocabulary Strategies
Prepping Native Speakers Simplifying Instructions Prep Time for Students Tu versus Vous Literature Circles Slowing Audio Gestures & Visuals Ongoing Review Online Games Anchor Charts
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Several participants indicated that they frequently reviewed vocabulary words with their students (Christina, Claire, Helena & Rachel). For instance, Christina stated that her students maintained a journal and reused cultural expressions:
In the first part of the notebook…students…build their vocabulary. They do have one section,
which is called mot du jour,30 and they need to write such word down, and as a class together,
they choose a pair each day and they have to come up with the sentence where that word is
used in the class context and write that sentence on the board. (Interview 2, January 15, 2019)
Additionally, taught vocabulary was also incorporated during final assignments with the following example from Claire:
For example, we did like a superhero unit and they learned about body parts [when] going to
the doctor. Then, for the superhero unit, they learned how to say les bras, les jambes,31 like so
30 Mot du jour means “word of the day” in French.
31 Les bras, les jambes mean “the arms, the legs” in French.
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it’s kind of bringing it forward and using it again. And then, they use their new vocab like how to
say a cape or how to say a mask … they hear it…see it…speak it and then, we try to write it so
that they can see it again and again. (Interview 2, January 5, 2019)
In both examples, Christina and Claire designed their activities by naturally progressing vocabulary and through ongoing repetition.
Student-Centered Exploratory Learning and Assessment
According to the teacher-participants, students had significant responsibility for their cultural learning, with many of the tasks being group presentations or activities connected to the learners’ home cultures. Figure 8 illustrates the number and type of activities.
Figure 8
A Summary of Student-Centered Activities
Writing
Role-play cultural scenarios
Class discussions
Student-led presentations
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Many presentations were based on a travel unit for final assessments (Camille, Carla, Nora,
Rachel & Yvonne). Camille rationalized the importance of her virtual travel unit with the following assumption of how a Grade 9 CF student might think:
Ok, I’m in grade 9. I hate French. I’ve always hated French. I’m going to take it in Grade 9 and
I’m going to get out as soon as I can. I will never have to take French again because it’s
useless. Well, how can I change this mentality and make the kids feel like it’s useful? When
would any of them actually use French? When they travel. That’s the only way. They’re not
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thinking about jobs, they’re thinking about, “One day I might see the Eiffel Tower! One day I
might go to Martinique and lay on a beach. One day.” (Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
Her unit was student-centered and included filling out a passport application, regional research about their ideal destination, going through customs, restaurants, taxis and reserving hotel rooms. According to Camille, the activities had to be purposeful and as simulating as possible to reflect authentic travel experiences. Nora and Yvonne observed student engagement when they participated in various competitions as part of the travel unit. Also, Carla and Rachel added brochures to this cultural presentation. Some of the regions could only be from African or Asian communities (Claire, Rachel &
Yvonne). Several activities had lengthy durations, as much as two and a half months, for students to complete and present their cultural findings (Yvonne, Interview 1).
Other teachers approached cultural presentations in shorter duration throughout the semester
(Camille, Christina, Helena, Rachel & Rosina). Christina and Rosina had designated cultural days, which Manno appreciated during the focus group. Rosina provided the following explanation to this activity:
I’ve done for six years … So, every Friday, they have to pick an aspect of the culture [of] any
francophone country and they’ll have to present it …I had one student … talk about the school
system in France … and school exchanges because she was really interested in doing that
there. I have had students doing fashion, so they talked about … film festivals, Jour de la
Bastille,32 French perfume, Coco Chanel ... (Interview 1, November 23, 2018)
Rosina motivated her students and initiated learner agency for cultural understanding and interaction. It was important for Rosina that there was cultural structure to correspond with the beginner language level of her Grade 9 CF students. Other participants preferred student-led role-playing activities
(Camille, Claire, Helena, Rachel & Rosina). Helena summarized her garage sale activity as follows:
32 Jour de la Bastille is France’s national holiday.
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I did a garage sale – it was one of my biggest and the most exciting units. The students, after
they learned an array of vocabulary, they had to sell their items [and] had to review the
prices…argue the prices, they had tangible, real items in front of them. I had actual French
teachers come in so that they had real, French speakers. It was during the springtime, when
their parents do a real garage sale….I think they liked it very much because it reviewed a lot of
important vocabulary, important grammar tenses like to be able to talk in the present. It also
exposed them to a lot of new French words that they didn’t know. (Interview 1, November 14,
2018)
This activity challenged students to determine the ideal products to sell to peers. It also required her students to research, negotiate, and persuade in French through spontaneous communication.
Some teachers indicated that they informally discussed French culture with students, and connected the learned content with their students’ personal experiences (Camille, Carla, Claire,
Christina, Rachel, Rosina & Yvonne). For example, Claire taught her students superficial elements of culture such as the colours of the flag; however, Claire placed greater emphasis on making connections to “Canada…their home culture [and] the iceberg” (Interview 1). Rosina and Yvonne included cultural content in writing activities. As shared in both interviews, Rosina had designated writing days and a variety of text-types such as film reviews and journal jeudi, otherwise known as journal Thursday. For these activities, Rosina stated that her students included cultural expressions to express their ideas in writing. Yvonne shared that her applied level Grade 9 CF students wrote simplified texts such as filling out “feedback cards” as imaginary restaurant guests (Interview 1).
When preparing for cultural presentations, teachers often stressed the importance of effective research skills (Camille, Claire, Nora & Rosina). Camille exposed her students to unreliable websites from white supremacist groups to show her students the importance of scholarly research (Interview 2).
Camille had limits as to how much time she spent on confirming the cultural accuracy of student work.
For example, she did not confirm the correct spelling of restaurant names to respect her professional
132 time for more important matters, such as teaching her students how to speak in French (Interview 2).
Therefore, in numerous ways, the teacher-participants acted as cultural facilitators with their Grade 9
CF students who took on larger roles regarding cultural learning and interaction.
Influence of School Administration and Colleagues
Several participants connected the effectiveness of their cultural practices with the influence of their school administration team and colleagues. During the first interview, five of ten participants felt supported by their FSL department and provided ample detail when discussing their positive experiences (Carla, Christina, Claire, Helena & Nora). Christina’s FSL colleagues shared her learning style and provided her with cultural resources. Claire co-created her final Grade 9 assignment with her team to strengthen the assignment’s legitimacy and consistency. Helena and Carla divided cultural research time with colleagues to reduce their personal workload.
Nora was the sole interviewee who directly referenced support from her principal to help her approach cultural content. For example, Nora’s principal allowed her to launch Skype sessions
(https://www.skype.com/en) to communicate with francophone contacts from Martinique with students.
Nora recognized her principal’s positive appreciation and support for French cultures to offer rich exploratory experiences. Nora argued that private schools are able to support such activities better than public schools. Many teachers of this inquiry did not experience similar support and subsequently requested additional support and resources (Camille, Carla, Christina, Claire, Manno & Nora). Figure 9 summarizes the desires of each participant during the interviews.
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Figure 9
Participant Requests
Technology Student Language Portfolio Standardized Material Cultural Planning Time Language Lab History Focus Collegial Support Online Resource Bank Native Speaker Visits Mandatory FSL Teacher Trips Improved FSL Teacher Hiring & Training Cultural Literature Simplified Pedagogical Material Money for Field Trips & Resources 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The participants requested ongoing administrative and collegial support to increase their professional development regarding la francophonie. Camille questioned the competency of Ontario
FSL teachers who have not traveled to international contexts (Interview 2). Similarly, Helena argued that non-native French-speaking teachers should have immersive trips for professional development such as a vacation to France to understand “real culture” (Interview 1), which sentiment Camille and
Yvonne also shared. Helena felt a lack of professional development regarding the CEFR (Council of
Europe, 2001) and the curriculum (OME, 2014), and she argued that this deficiency leads Ontario FSL teachers to misunderstand how culture is defined and approached in the classroom because they immediately think of superficial aspects such as “a croissant or a bottle of wine” (Interview 2). The teachers also felt that they lacked quality cultural resources. Many of the participants requested that the
OME share online depositories with the entire community of Ontario FSL teachers. The teachers specifically requested language appropriate videos for Grade 9 CF students for consistency (Christina,
Claire, Rachel & Rosina). Rosina also wanted additional African French resources (Interview 2).
The teachers also requested additional funding for field trips (Camille, Christina, Claire &
Manno). Camille rationalized that French restaurants are costly and inaccessible for large class sizes.
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Furthermore, she saw a decline in international trips to French-speaking communities due to her high school’s organizational structure:
There is push-back. It’s hard…I asked for permission to take students to Europe and I wanted
to do a history trip because I knew that France is not allowed but I teach history and I thought
that I could slide some things in there. [The principal] told me to go to my department head and
ask. The department head told me, that that was a history department initiative and that if
somebody was going to do it in the history department, they would let me know. I have two
sections of history! I teach more history than some of their history teachers because they have
religion as well. (Interview 2, January 16, 2019)
Camille highlighted the multitude of steps, rules, and school hierarchy which prevented her from exploring the notion of field trips for her Grade 9 CF classes. Camille and Christina also preferred to have a mandatory Grade 9 CF trip; however, Camille immediately recognized the dilemma with her request because, “that would take money from the government …from the school [and] time away from classes [and] take supply teachers. That would take a board-wide initiative” (Interview 2).
Carla longed for language labs for her students to “listen” and “watch” cultural content
(Interview 1); however, she did not have enough ICT resources. She frequently brought in her personal device for cultural learning, when other departments of her school were already equipped with “Chrome books” (Interview 1). Helena used physical cultural artefacts as a solution to mitigate the lack of ICT equipment in her school (Interview 2). Therefore, most participants could not explore French cultures at their desired level due to the lack of administrative support for resources and experiential learning.
Theme 5: Students’ Reactions to Cultural Approaches
Lack of Cultural Interest
The participants also discussed student disengagement with la francophonie. Manno and
Rachel witnessed student disinterest with French cultures. Rachel observed unmotivated students while reading about African communities because her students never brought up what they understood about
135 these regions (Interview 1). Nora also felt that her monocultural school body impacted her students’ understanding of French-speaking regions due to lack of community exposure to a multiethnic space.
Manno expressed that her students lacked the maturity to learn about different francophone regions:
[They are] hyper-critical, they’re social-media children, they were born with the phones.
Remember they’re 13 and 14-year-olds. A lot of them are very immature 13 and 14-year-olds.
So, you have to teach very carefully, and you have to find something that you think they will
accept and not make fun of. (Interview 1, November 17, 2018)
Some teachers, such as Manno, approached French cultures with short activities (see Table 6). Manno indicated in the first interview that her cultural research projects were “three or four complete sentences” per student and the tasks were completed in class to prevent direct translation using
Google Translate (https://translate.google.ca). If evaluated, Manno put culture in the knowledge category of the Ontario achievement chart (OME, 2014, p. 32). Manno observed “[s]mall steps” of cultural growth; however, she predicted that her response would have been more positive with a well- behaved Grade 9 CF class (Interview 2).
Religion is one of the invisible cultural components of the iceberg (Weaver, 1986). While half of the participants taught in Catholic schools (Camille, Carla, Christina, Helena & Rosina), they did not significantly reference religious concepts in their Grade 9 CF classrooms due to student disinterest
(Carla & Helena). At times, Christina’s and Rosina’s classes included Catholicism during student presentations which involved describing various festivals. Helena frequently discussed Catholic principles with students, such as the contributions of “St. André Bassette to St. Kateri….Even [in]
Montreal, how every street is almost always a saint street” (Interview 2). Carla summarized her students’ lack of connection to Catholicity saying, “If they say only the Hail Mary and the Our Father all the time, they don’t even care!” (Interview 2). Therefore, participant consensus revealed that their students’ maturity influenced the level of appreciation and interaction of French cultures.
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Beginner Language and Cultural Proficiencies
Apart from the lack of learner maturity level, the teachers shared other reasons for student disengagement with French cultural content. All participants except Yvonne encountered challenges, with the two main reasons including: (a) their students’ beginner French-language linguistic proficiencies, and (b) their students’ lack of understanding of cultural concepts.
Helena argued that there was too great of an inconsistency of French proficiency at the elementary school level. She observed that in “one school, they come very strong with their reading and their writing- they know grammar inside out … other students … are more oral because they were using the AIM Program”33 (Interview 1). Therefore, due to their learners’ basic knowledge of French, the teacher-participants could not fully explore la francophonie with their Grade 9 CF students.
Consistently, teachers could not profoundly approach cultural content because they stated that their students used translation software due to their lack of comprehension. The teachers also observed that their students struggled to read and comprehend rich authentic texts (Camille, Helena,
Rachel & Rosina). Christina and Rachel encountered challenges using Idéllo (https://www.idello.org) because the audio content was too advanced for their students. For a final unit task, Claire noted that her students did not understand the difference between Niger and Nigeria (Interview 1).
To mitigate some of the student comprehension issues with French, more than half of the teachers incorporated English in their Grade 9 CF classes (Camille, Carla, Christina, Claire, Rachel &
Rosina; see Table 6). Reasons for using English included: to explain the dangers of non-scholarly websites (e.g., Camille), to deepen the students’ cultural research (e.g., Christina & Claire), to explain student marks and assignments (e.g., Camille & Carla), to watch videos with Québécois French (e.g.,
Camille & Claire), to talk about the students’ personal cultures (e.g., Christina), to compare English-
French translations of songs (e.g., Christina), to explain cultural expressions (e.g., Rachel), to
33 AIM Program (https://www.aimlanguagelearning.com/what-is-aim)
137 summarize audio content of different French varieties (e.g., Carla), and to see how francophones sing in English (e.g., Claire).
In general, Camille argued for English in the Grade 9 CF classroom with the following statement:
English. In grade 9, yes. In grade 9 core, with kids this level, yes. If it were extended? No, not
ok at all. If it were grade 11 core, not ok. Part of the reason is this. Grade 9 core, is a sales job.
Do you want them to keep taking French? Cause they’ve hated it thus far!
So, imagine if I said all that stuff about culture in French to them, they wouldn’t
understand it! What would be the point? Don’t bother saying it! So, I think I can defend
it quite well, because I learned French as an English speaker, sitting in a core
classroom, and this is how I learned well, and I knew what I learned. If you explain a
grammar rule to them completely in French, they will not get it. And I think that’s the
argument I’ve had with native French speaker teachers, No, no, it has to be exclusively
in French, that’s not how you do it. No, it really doesn’t have to be. They’re thinking in
English. They’re not there yet, and they need the English comparison to understand.
(Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
Essentially, for students to go culturally “deep,” the teachers incorporated English as a tool to simplify the French cultural content and to improve student expression. The teachers used English to keep students wanting to learn French.
Improved Student Engagement and Proficiencies
Participants expressed more positive experiences with culture as they observed their students’ progression towards the end of the semester (Camille, Carla, Christina, Manno & Rachel). Camille,
Carla, and Rachel specifically observed oral proficiency growth. For example, Rachel witnessed her students referencing French African expressions in the hallway after learning about them before the
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Christmas break (Interview 2), which was a similar observation for Carla (Interview 2). Furthermore,
Camille recognized the significant growth of vocabulary during the final assessment period:
We had our culminating [activity] last week. Oh my God! They were amazing! The kids who
walked into that room and didn’t know Je m’appelle,34 like Je was I- literally! They had to
choose two [oral] scenarios out of the five, practice with their partners for the week, prepare,
and then on the day of [the culminating task], I chose one of them and they had to just go with it
…I jumped into character and said, You’re all wrong! Those are all stupid ideas! We need to go
here! And here’s why! And [one student] said, but they don’t have a beach and I said that I
wanted a beach [but] but they have Paris plages!35 …We can go and pretend that we are on
the beach! We can get the best of both worlds! But the boy responded, but they have no skiing
…The program is working, I just need to keep doing it, like making it better! (Interview 2,
January 16, 2019)
Camille noted significantly improved spontaneity and fluency in her weaker students through these exchanges. Further, Christina confirmed that more of her students were reading the news at home and sharing their knowledge with the class (Interview 2). Manno indicated that her students enjoyed competitions in determining the best gift for one of their teachers (Interview 2). Towards the end of the inquiry, the teachers observed considerable student improvement with regard to their interest, understanding, and interaction with French cultures.
Summary of the Results for the First Research Question
Data from the first research question confirmed some teacher challenges in defining and conceptualizing cultures. Consensus identified that culture is dynamic, and it should be authentically approached to fully engage FSL students. Many participants required ample preparation time to locate authentically relevant and language-appropriate resources for their Grade 9 CF students. As a result,
34 Je m’appelle means “My name is’” is French.
35 The word plages means “beaches” in French.
139 many participants felt like imposters in French cultures, simply due to their non-native French-speaking identities.
Despite participants’ insecurities, the data from the first research question demonstrated a greater number of affordances than disadvantages of these teachers. Many participants already knew about the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986), and understood the complexities of French cultures.
Similarly, several teachers shared their travel experiences with their students to offer them real-life examples of French cultures. Other forms of teacher agency included: (a) multiple examples of French music, (b) the frequent use of ICT, and (c) an ongoing reliance on the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) as a framework for their practices. Near the end of the inquiry, many teacher-participants witnessed improved student engagement with greater interaction in French.
Data for the Second Research Question
Observations of the Intercultural Understanding Sub-Strand
I now address the second research question of this inquiry, which explored how the participants directly implemented the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014).
To recap previous sections of this study, the revised curriculum has four curriculum strands, which are
Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing, with an overview of the mandatory expectations found in
Appendix A. Within each strand, the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand co-exists along with non- mandatory teacher prompts and instructional tips, such as “Comment les différentes communautés sont-elles représentées à travers la musique?” (p. 61), which translates in English as asking students to think about how different French-speaking communities are represented in music. The prompts and instructional tips appear in italic font and assist teachers in fulfilling the official course expectations.
Table 9 presents the curriculum strands, instructional tips, teacher prompts, and any examples from the curriculum objectives which were referenced by the participants during the first interview.
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Table 9
References to the French Curriculum – Interviews
Interview 1 Teacher(s) Referenced Curriculum Strand(s) Referenced Teacher Prompt(s), Instructional Tip(s), or Examples of the Curriculum Objective(s) Carla Listening X Christina, Nora, and Yvonne Speaking X Claire Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing with greater Example to meet the curriculum objective: emphasis on the Listening strand “read travel brochures or information from websites about different French-speaking African or Asian regions and create a multimedia presentation on the cultural highlights of these region” (p. 68) Rosina Reading and Speaking Teacher prompt : “Quel est votre emploi du temps de la semaine? Comment décries-tu tes activités quotidiennes?” “De quoi voudrais-tu parler avec tes camarades dans ton exposé oral? Pourquoi?” a (p. 63)
Example to meet the curriculum objective: “dramatize events in a story to convey the importance of foods, feasts, and/or traditions in an Aboriginal community” (p. 95)
Helena Reading and Writing and eventually Listening and X Speaking Manno and Rachel A balanced approach to the four strands X Camille Speaking and Listening X
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Interview 2 Teacher(s) Referenced Curriculum Objective(s) Camille, Helena, Manno, and Rachel B3.1 Communicate information orally about French-speaking communities in Africa and Asia, including aspects of their cultures and their contributions to la francophonie and the world, and make connections to personal experiences and their own and other communities (p. 64) Christina and Yvonne B3.2 Identify sociolinguistic conventions associated with a variety of social situations in diverse French-speaking communities* and use them appropriately in spoken interactions (p. 65) Claire, Rachel, and Rosina C3.1 Using information from a variety of French texts, identify French-speaking communities in Africa and Asia, find out about aspects of their cultures, and make connections to personal experiences and their own and other communities (p. 68) Rachel and Rosina A3.1 Using information from oral French texts, identify French-speaking communities in Africa and Asia, find out about aspects of their cultures, and make connections to personal experiences and their own and other communities (p. 61) Carla and Claire C3.2 Identify, in a variety of French texts, examples of sociolinguistic conventions associated with a variety of social situations in diverse French-speaking communities* (p. 68) Helena A1.2 Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose and meaning of oral French texts about new and familiar topics, with contextual and visual support (p. 59) Nora A3.2 Using information from oral French texts, identify and demonstrate an understanding of sociolinguistic conventions used in a variety of situations in diverse French-speaking communities* (p. 61)
Note. X means that the teacher did not reference a teacher prompt or an instructional tip.
Reprinted from, “The Ontario curriculum, grades 9 to 12: French as a second language – Core, extended, and immersion French, 2014 (revised),” by Ontario
Ministry of Education, Queen’s Printer for Ontario (http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/fsl912curr2014.pdf). Copyright 2014 by the Queen’s
Printer for Ontario. a This teacher prompt translates as: “How do you use your week? How do you describe your typical activities? What would you like to talk about with your classmates for your oral discussion? Why?” (OME, 2014).
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Despondence
For the purposes of this inquiry, I used the word despondence to symbolize either the teacher’s loss of hope, extreme discouragement, disengagement, and unattachment with the province’s secondary school FSL curriculum (OME, 2014). This term was also incorporated in my master’s dissertation (Gour, 2015) of a similar curriculum research study (OME, 2013). Accordingly, the term despondence became my researcher tradition to describe extreme feelings of teacher disengagement with curricula.
The participants in my doctoral research were indifferent to implementing the exact language of the intercultural curriculum sections (OME, 2014), especially during the first interview. Only Claire and
Rosina cited teacher prompts or instructional tips from the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand. Carla felt that the province placed less focus on local francophone cultures, such as Acadian French communities. Instead, she noticed greater references to French-speaking African and Asian regions, which she felt were potentially geographically inaccessible and unfamiliar to her Grade 9 CF students’ local cultures. Carla felt that the cultural focus for Grade 9 CF students should be Canadian francophone regions (Interview 1). Yvonne focused more on the “overall expectations and less on the minutia of the specifics” because she felt the teacher prompts and instructional tips did not have sufficient “real-world application” (Interview 1). Christina and Nora reviewed the teacher prompts and instructional tips more frequently in teacher’s college; however, they felt that the curriculum’s vagueness prohibited their direct use of the teacher prompts and instructional tips in daily practice.
Camille, Carla, Nora, and Yvonne created their own teacher prompts and instructional tips based on their professional expertise and the needs of their students. Further, Helena followed more DELF-
(https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org) and CEFR-inspired (Council of Europe, 2001) resources to inform her planning, rather than the curriculum document (Interview 1).
These examples demonstrated that the teachers covered the overall curriculum expectations; however, they were less preoccupied in following the specific objectives and non-mandatory curriculum
143 content. More often, participants consulted external resources to approach specific cultural content with their students.
Speaking Focus
While there was curriculum despondence, most teachers preferred the oral communication strand (i.e., speaking and listening tasks) in their approach to French cultures (see Table 9). Further, at the time of the second interview, participants shared oral communication expectations, such as the frequent reference to the B3.1 expectation (OME, 2014). Camille summarized the consensus of the other participants regarding the purpose of cultural education:
When would any of them actually use French? …. We order food on the airplane. We go
through customs. All of these are dialogues that they go with a group of people and I switch up
the groups. So, they practice with one group, and then they present with another group, and
they don’t know who they are going to get. They don’t know if they are going to be le douanier36
or if they’re going to be le visiteur.37 And they have to be capable of actually responding and
using it. And at that point, they should start to feel a little more confident and they realize that
it’s useful and then they can feel, I can actually go through customs and speak French to
someone if I had to. I can get the bare minimum across. (Interview 1, October 31, 2018)
Camille’s perception of student values reflected the experiences of the other nine teachers. The teachers felt that the speaking strand had a positive effect on students by increasing learner motivation to learn about la francophonie in authentic situations, such as the airport, which are common across cultures and are also oral based. The abundance of oral communication references were notable in direct contrast with the absence of references to the writing strand (see Table 9).
36 The word le douanier means “the customs officer” in French.
37 Le visiteur means “the traveller” in French.
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Summary of the Results for the Second Research Question
In general, the teacher-participants seldom referenced and integrated specific expectations found in the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of their revised curriculum (OME, 2014). Most educators glossed over the suggested curriculum material in exchange for more oral communication expectations for French cultural content. The teachers focused on francophone Africa and Asia as a basis for their cultural content. Also, the participants approached culture by focusing on curriculum expectations, which were driven from sociolinguistics. The findings for the second research question were significantly shorter in length as compared to the data for the first research question. Overall, the lack of detail in this section strengthened the finding of teacher despondence towards their direct integration of the curriculum document for culture.
Findings from the Focus Group
As discussed in the methodology chapter of this inquiry, the focus group was conducted for participants: (a) to extend the discussion from the interviews, (b) to exchange cultural resources and teaching strategies with fellow Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teachers, (c) to discuss their professional growth as cultural pedagogues for empowerment, and (d) to share any cultural recommendations applicable for the Grade 9 CF landscape. Findings from the interviews were similar to the focus group discussions; however, I designated a separate section in this chapter for the focus group because it presents collective responses and overall discussions from a larger group of teacher- participants than the previous teacher-researcher communication of the two interviews. Therefore, the data presented here came exclusively from the focus group and not from the interviews.
On January 31, 2019, seven out of the ten research participants (Camille, Carla, Claire,
Helena, Manno, Rachel & Rosina) joined the two-hour focus group, which was on the Zoom conferencing system (https://zoom.us). Christina, Nora, and Yvonne were absent. Ten questions guided the discussion (see Appendix K); however, as was the case for the two interviews, open-ended questions were also accommodated. I prepared and showed the teachers a table summary of their
145 cultural resources from the first interview as a visual to ignite discussion with other participants during the focus group (see Appendix K).
Helena and Manno began the discussion and explained their activities. All participants were interested and actively participated, such as commenting or sharing their own resources and ideas.
Camille, Helena, and Manno provided the greatest amount of cultural sharing during the focus group.
Further, Manno was the sole participant who referenced a curriculum expectation during the discussion.
Table 10 summarizes the cultural resources or activities discussed during the focus group in order of teacher participation.
Table 10
Teacher Resources and Techniques – Focus Group
Participant Activity or Resource Description Helena Garage sale activity -vocabulary building opportunity (clothing, money, furniture) -students read garage sale ads, then composed their imaginary sales -spontaneous oral interactions with other Grade 9 CF classes who bought the garage sale items, used fake money, and had authentic materials
Manno Ma passion, mon talent a -structured mini-essay with pre-taught writing techniques (final task) -no electronic devices were permitted -students referenced francophone cultures associated with their passion -optional oral presentation of their paragraphs to their peers and teacher -interested students brought in artefacts, such as origami, to represent their passion
Helena Field trip to a Toronto restaurant -waiters spoke to students in French -students had to “serve to their own groups” in French -students experienced a drumming activity from an African dancer -Helena shared her funding strategies through a grant to offset the costs
Rosina Chef à l’école b -a French-speaking chef visited the school and cooked in her classroom
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Participant Activity or Resource Description Claire African drummer guest visitor -a performer visited “once per semester” for all Grade 9 CF students of the school
Carla Impressionist lesson from a guest -an artist visits and mostly speaks in basic visitor French -her goal for next year for Grade 9 CF classes
Rosina Designated cultural days of the -she organized tasks for particular days week -Lecture lundi, musique mardi, montre-moi mercredi, jeux jeudi, and culture vendredi c
Rachel Ideal trip activity -students discussed their ideal trip based on a cultural attraction
Camille Voyage virtuel d -virtual travel unit that was crafted from a student complaint about the ineffectiveness of cultural presentations -students filled out a simplified French passport application, and role-played passing through customs, taking taxis, etc.
Claire Artiste de la semaine e -weekly activity whereby students discussed song themes with their class to explore the meaning of lyrics
Claire Faire la bise f -video activity that demonstrated kissing acts across French cultures
a Ma passion, mon talent means “My passion, My talent” in French. b Chef à l’école is an FSL culinary culture program in Ontario which translates to “chef at school” (https://chefalecole.ca). c Lecture lundi, musique mardi, montre-moi mercredi, jeux jeudi, and culture vendredi mean “reading Monday, music
Tuesday, show-and-tell Wednesday, games Thursday, and cultural Friday” in French. d Voyage virtuel means “virtual voyage” or “virtual trip” in French. e Artiste de la semaine means “artist of the week” in
French. f Faire la bise means “kiss” or “to do the kiss” in French.
Visible in Table 10, the teachers shared a variety of strategies, activities, and assessment tasks for culture that they prepared or organised for their students. Much of the conversation, however, was not spent on the curriculum document (OME, 2014). Manno observed that the curriculum is flexibly designed and argued that Ontario FSL educators are not required to directly review the document on a
147 daily basis. Manno followed the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) in lieu of the curriculum, because she felt that Framework reminds educators to steer away from lecture-style presentations. Manno argued that activities should be structured “like a trip and more a CEFR approach, action-oriented [pretending that] this is where you are in this country, research this country in groups of two, three, or four, solve the problem.” Despite the indeterminacy, other participants (Camille, Manno, Rachel & Rosina) indicated that Grade 9 CF students require detailed instructions and cultural rubrics for transparency; however, the teachers did not discuss which curriculum expectations to include in such documentation.
Consequently, references to the revised curriculum were exchanged for more discussions about cultural activities and strategies.
Helena’s garage sale activity had the greatest focus during the discussion. Helena stressed that her students had overwhelmingly positive experiences when they had to pretend to sell their household items to their peers. Helena also discussed how she reviewed vocabulary throughout the semester in preparation for this activity. For example, she used DuoLingo (https://www.duolingo.com) and Kahoot (https://kahoot.com), and she progressed her units from household items, to clothing, to money, to restaurant words. Camille appreciated that Helena collaborated with Grade 9 CF co-workers by merging classes together for the garage sale so that students could enhance their relationships with other learners within the school and promote the positive experiences of Grade 9 CF. Manno connected Helena’s garage sale activity with environmental education because students were being reminded of the importance to buy and sell recycled items. Overall, the participants greatly appreciated the purpose, design, and enactment of Helena’s garage sale activity.
The participants also enjoyed learning about Camille’s travel unit. Camille shared how she brought the unit into the final assessment task:
The culminating [assessment] at the end of the semester is where they get to use all of it. So,
they have four days of the week to practice all of these situations and then on the day of the
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culminating [task], I just pick one out of a hat and say, the four of you, you are getting a hotel
room and you need two king size beds, go!
They have a spontaneous situation that I mark them on. I interrupt the dialogue and I
act as a character. So, I’ll go in and challenge them a little bit further and cause a problem. I’ll
say the plumbing doesn’t work in the room, something along those lines to see if they can react
to it. By the end of the semester, they actually feel that they can go somewhere and speak in
French and travel and do all those authentic tasks in the target language.
Carla and Helena appreciated the spontaneity of Camille’s activities because they took place during a traditionally structured and formal time at the end of the semester. For most Ontario Grade 9 CF teachers, the culminating project can factor into 15%, or up to 30%, of the final grade (OME, 2010b).
Camille’s travel unit, and particularly her end task for the course, demonstrated that orally interacting in
French is possible for Grade 9 CF students even at the most stressful time of the semester during examinations.
Manno’s final writing task also took up substantive time during the focus group; however, the other participants did not comment on her activity. Manno indicated that her students composed mini- essays about their passions and connected their preferences with French-speaking individuals. The participants shared more aural, oral, and tactile activities for culture during the focus group, rather than traditional writing-based assignments.
The discussion also focused on various issues for the implementation of francophone cultures in the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom. Five out of seven focus group participants shared their overall challenges in defining and approaching French cultures (Camille, Carla, Helena, Manno & Rosina). For example, Camille, Helena, and Rosina felt pressured to know everything as non-native French- speakers. Further, Helena and Rosina struggled to establish an appropriate quantity of cultural resources to share with their Grade 9 CF students. Despite her years of teaching experience, Manno felt that “culture…is more and more difficult to define and emulate. So, that intercultural understanding
149 component of the curriculum…is …very difficult to outline and teach.” Helena expanded on Manno’s point by saying that culture evolved due to:
training [because] culture is how people behave in a certain situation, how they behave at that
market, how they communicate at the market, and preparing our students for authentic tasks at
the market. So, that definition of culture that I used and that I grew up with, listening to Charles
Aznavour38 is not truly the definition anymore.
The focus group revealed that, even towards the end of the inquiry, some teacher-participants still occasionally felt culturally inadequate as non-native French-speaking teachers.
Challenges with regard to experiential cultural learning for Grade 9 CF students also existed in the findings. Field trips and in-school demonstrations took up a substantive part of the discussion due to the participants’ recognition of the immersive benefits for culture as well as the difficulties in initiating such opportunities. Manno and Rosina encountered challenges in obtaining grants for field trips.
Helena recognized her ability to go to a French restaurant due to her received grant. However, the teachers preferred in-class experiences for Grade 9 CF students in lieu of day trips because the participants felt that their students were often not mature enough to go outside of their school community for extracurricular learning.
Resource Analysis
Throughout the study, some participants shared cultural resources. For example, Helena shared her CEFR-inspired (Council of Europe, 2001) teacher resource book that enabled her to create a variety of activities throughout her semester (Eaquals, 2015). Five out of ten teachers (Camille,
Claire, Helena, Rachel & Yvonne) provided specific materials, with the majority found in Appendices M
(Camille), N (Claire), O (Yvonne), and P (Rachel). There was a combination of external references as well as teacher-generated resources. Links that teachers shared after an interview were not attached in the Appendix section of this inquiry because I prioritized my analysis of longer resources.
38 Charles Aznavour was a French language musician.
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There was one reference that directly included content from the revised curriculum (OME,
2014). Yvonne created a Google Form (https://www.google.ca/forms/about) as an observational tool for assessing student progress throughout the course (see Appendix O). She also shared the form with her students so that they were privy to her observations. Her form began with the overall curriculum expectations that form the basis for her observations. She assigned a level and selected a specific skill to look for when observing her students, such as if she saw her students asking questions with peers.
The form also included strategies, such as asking students to verify their pronunciation, and next steps including “No Google Translate.” However, there was not much cultural content on the form. Therefore,
Yvonne provided me with a structured assessment tool that she felt was integral to all language strands and activities within her course.
Similar to the interviews and focus group, the participants who shared resources focused more on cultural activities and assessments. Travel was the predominant theme of the resources. For example, Rachel shared her Guadalupe information sheet that she designed for her Grade 9 CF class
(see Appendix P). Rachel used the present tense and incorporated tu, which means “you,” to match the language level of her learners. She included drinking water options, the currency of the country, transportation, lodging, typical cuisine, flora and fauna, and attractions in the resource. Rachel intended the document as a tool for her students to be adequately prepared for an imaginary trip to Guadalupe as tourists.
Camille shared four documents from her travel unit, which was discussed during the interviews and focus group (see Appendix M). Throughout the resources, Camille used simple language and mostly point-form statements to discuss expectations and goals. Camille directed her learners to first select a francophone region of their choice and write an introductory paragraph about the country, with information such as the colour of the flag and the overall climate. She then listed the unit’s tasks, which were mostly oral-based and required problem-solving. These tasks included ordering food on a plane, asking questions of tour guides, and writing a food critique of a restaurant. A taxi dialogue from the
151 travel unit contained comprehension questions and then asked the students to compose their own dialogue using the vocabulary. Additionally, Camille indicated that the students had to imagine that they needed a taxi from the airport in their francophone region to their hotel, and they were asked to use vous, which means “you,” as a sign of respect in addressing the unfamiliar taxi driver.
Camille also provided the final task instructions in her resource, which, she expressed, took four days for student completion. Camille indicated that her students first wrote a paragraph about what they did in their francophone country and identified future travel plans. Then, they worked in teams and practiced two out of five scenarios in preparation for Camille, who became an additional actor in one of their scenarios. For the final dialogue, Camille shared that the students could not refer to their notes to mimic an authentic conversation. Regarding assessment, Camille used the “I can” statements of the
CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) in a rubric (see Appendix M); however, she did not include cultural expectations. Nevertheless, Camille included in the application section of her achievement chart that a
Level 339 student “applies vocabulary and grammar conventions in new contexts with considerable effectiveness.” Therefore, Camille prioritized travel throughout her course to motivate student learning and increase spontaneous communication in French.
Claire shared the most cultural resources. During the first interview, Claire provided many hyperlinks to online music, the Joual accent, her classroom French music playlist, and artist posters
(see Appendix N). Additionally, Claire shared a link to Season 2 of an African music competition that she watched with her students. Post first interview, Claire sent additional links for cultural activities, and described how they fit into the iceberg model (Weaver, 1986). Therefore, music was an important cultural theme for Claire in her Grade 9 CF classroom.
During the second interview of this inquiry, Claire shared three assignments: a superhero creation assignment, an electronic student portfolio, and a francophone region task (see Appendix N).
39 According to the revised curriculum, a Level 3 student is the “provincial standard for achievement. The student demonstrates the specified knowledge and skills with considerable effectiveness. Parents of students achieving at level 3 can be confident that their children will be prepared for work in subsequent courses” (OME, 2014, p. 31).
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Additionally, she shared a list of conversation starters that she gave to her students for oral proficiency development and a blog containing cultural resources from another Ontario FSL teacher
(https://bonneideefsl.blogspot.com). For Claire’s superhero assignment, Claire indicated that her students drew superheroes inspired by their home cultures after reviewing francophone superheroes from Marvel Comics (https://www.marvel.com/comics). As part of the portfolio assignment, Claire asked students to prepare video-recorded, spontaneous conversations with partners, imagining that they did not know each other for sixty seconds. Claire’s success criteria included cultural expectations, such as using the tu pronoun for “you.” Her rubric also had both overall and some specific expectations from the revised curriculum (OME, 2014). Further, she added culture in her assessment under the Thinking and
Inquiry section of the rubric.
Claire’s francophone region assignment was more extensive than her other shared resources.
She indicated that her students could only select a region from Africa or Asia to research, and they were required to present in front of their class for approximately five minutes. They used a choice board to inform their presentation role, format, and audience. For example, the learners could present as an artisan, a tour guide, a chef, an immigrant to Canada, or a geographer. The presentation formats included a commercial, a game show, a demonstration, a PowerPoint, or a skit. Further, Claire added verbiage directly from the revised curriculum, such as to recommend, to persuade, to entertain, or to explain (OME, 2014) in the assessment criteria for the presentation. The research had to include a minimum of two French-language resources, and Claire prohibited the use of Wikipedia
(https://www.wikipedia.org). Claire also gave her students research templates. According to Claire, her students also had to bring an authentic product to the class, such as an object, a food item, or music, and Claire’s learners were assessed using all four components of the Ministry’s standardized achievement chart. Claire did not include cultural expectations in this rubric. Based on the data, Claire provided the greatest number of cultural resources, which were based on her students’ ethnic
153 backgrounds, and grew towards immersive experiences where her learners had to become francophone community members.
The resources found in this inquiry demonstrated that the teachers mostly focused on culture throughout the semester, with travel as a preferred theme (see Appendices M, N, O & P). However, there appeared to be more of a cultural focus in assessments. Cultural expectations were not explicitly written in many of the resources; however, based on the teachers’ observations, the students were implicitly expected to work towards becoming culturally versed in various francophone communities.
Further, the participants predominantly created their resources from adapted authentic material and, in keeping with appropriate language levels, they used the present tense and the informal tu pronoun to address their students. Finally, the teachers prepared cultural resources to encourage student spontaneity in French.
Chapter Summary
This chapter summarized the opinions and experiences of the ten research participants for this inquiry regarding how they approached French cultural content in their Grade 9 CF classrooms. First, I presented the data from the interviews. Despite participants’ concerns about their ability to thoroughly approach French cultures as non-native French-speaking teachers, they evolved in their understanding from the first interview to the final interview. According to their observations, the teachers engaged their students using music, travel, French cuisine, and ICT resources through action-based tasks. The educators, however, noticed that funding, teacher-training, and collegial support were limited. Next, I highlighted important comments from the focus group. Much of the data confirmed findings from the interviews; however, it served as a space to learn from fellow participants about cultural practices. The teachers provided additional detail to several activities and assessments which, they felt, were welcomed by their students. Lastly, I summarized the participants’ various cultural resources. The materials further visualized that the teachers wanted their students to prepare themselves to interact on a global scale and be ready to meet their next francophone speaker. The resources were simplified to
154 the language level of the learners and prepared the students to conduct their own research on la francophonie. Finally, I concluded the chapter.
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Chapter 6: Discussion
Chapter 5 summarized important themes of this case study. All participants perceived culture dynamically and focused on tasks to increase student motivation for communication and interaction in
French. Several teachers incorporated the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) and its resources, as well as ICT, for themes including francophone food, music, and travel. Further, the teachers did not frequently refer to their curriculum document (OME, 2014) to inform practice. Despite my participants’ initial respect for native speakers, the ten teachers were active learners in their language and cultural development.
This chapter interprets the various experiences of the participants (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016), and connects the data to the larger area of FSL educational research. This dissertation identifies trends and some contradictions of culture, Grade 9 CF, and the non-native French-speaking teacher. Similarly,
I consider how the initial hypotheses were supported in the research findings. First, I establish the interconnectedness of my qualitative social constructivist case study, conceptual framework, methodology, and results. Second, I present eight findings that transpired from the first research question. Lastly, I explain the two findings in support of my second research question and conclude the chapter.
Research Paradigm and Methodology Rationale
As discussed, I conducted a qualitative exploratory case study following a social constructivist research paradigm. I investigated ten Ontario CF non-native French-speaking teachers as they approached French cultural content in their Grade 9 CF classroom(s) from September 2018 to January
2019. The Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom was the study’s metaphorical “ecosystem” or world (Dewey
(1963; 1938) that lacked thorough research. The methodology had thorough data collection opportunities with descriptive experiences (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016) of each teacher’s cultural practices to generate enriched meaning-making processes of their environments (Kroll & LaBosky,
1996; Pitri, 2006). My methodology directly aligned with my researcher values (Bloomberg & Volpe,
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2016) to conduct a study on teacher perceptions of curriculum and culture and to improve practice by way of qualitative research (Creswell, 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The case study enabled the participants to share their voices (Lincoln et al., 2011) about curriculum and culture as contemporary events (Creswell, 2013; Parsons & Taylor, 2017; Yin, 2009) in the Ontario FSL teaching context. Throughout this chapter, I connect my literature review, conceptual framework, and my practitioner experience into each finding. Table 11 summarizes each finding in relation to the components of my salade niçoise. Table 11 is directly referenced in each finding of this chapter.
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Table 11
A Summary of the Findings
Research finding Ingredient or individual Inspired concept(s) First research question 1.Importance for dynamic culture Green beans Lived curriculum through a predominantly lived (Aoki, 1999) curriculum Pluricultural approach to culture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986) Critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013) LX to CX a (Bilash, 2009; Dewaele, 2018) Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) 2. Limited deep culture Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) Green beans Cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986) Salt administration (e.g., principals, Transforming FSL resources (https://transformingfsl.ca/en/resources) department heads) Salad consumer student Learning skills from the Growing Success policy document (OME, 2010b)
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Research finding Ingredient or individual Inspired concept(s) First research question (continued) Limited deep culture (continued) Pepper parental support Board-level parent guides, e.g., French as a Second Language: Supporting Students in French as a Second Language: Parent/Guardian’s Guide (Algonquin & Lakeshore Catholic District School Board, n.d.; OME, 2013a, 2014) 3. Cultural challenges as non- Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations native French speaking teachers (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) 4. Increased cultural affordances Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations as non-native French-speaking (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) teachers Green beans Pluricultural approach to culture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986) Critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013) Salad consumer student Learning skills from the Growing Success policy document (OME, 2010b) 5. Reliance on the CEFR Green beans Pluricultural approach to culture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986) 6. Superficial use of ICT Potatoes Information and communications technology section in the curriculum (OME, 2014, pp. 51-52) Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007)
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Research finding Ingredient or individual Inspired concept(s) First research question (continued) 7. Travel as a predominant theme Green beans Pluricultural approach to culture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Action-oriented approach (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) Cultural iceberg model (Weaver, 1986) Critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013) 8. Initial modelling of Eggs Neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) neurolinguistic approach Second research question 1. Initial curriculum despondence Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) Lived curriculum (Aoki, 1999) 2. Growth in curriculum Salad maker teacher Nested pedagogical orientations appreciation and integration (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) Lived curriculum (Aoki, 1999)
Note. Not all theoretical concepts in Table 11 were observed in this study; however, all concepts represent components of my ideal salade niçoise Grade 9 CF classroom. a As discussed in Chapter 2, the CX is my personal conception regarding the importance of ongoing cultural learning, which is value-neutral and directly inspired from Bilash (2009) and Dewaele (2018).
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Interpreting the Findings for the First Research Question
My first question was the following:
1. How do non-native French-speaking teachers in Ontario approach French cultures in the Grade 9
Core French curriculum (OME, 2014)?
Eight findings helped me answer this research question. I interpreted the data for these findings in connection with the literature review and my conceptual framework.
Finding 1: Importance for Dynamic Culture through a Predominantly Lived Curriculum
Overall, the teachers carefully selected and metaphorically sprinkled their cultural green beans in response to their students’ needs. All participants indicated that defining and realizing French culture is complex; however, the teachers also understood the interconnectedness of language and culture, which was similarly observed in other research studies (Falardeau & Simard, 2011; Freire & Macedo, 1987;
Germain, 2017; LeBlanc et al., 1990; Zarate, 1986). The participants did not perceive culture to be within a contained unit or “sociocultural vacuum” (Loveday, 1982, p. 47). Textbooks were not the primary source for cultural content in this study, which supported recommendations to avoid static and unchanged printed text
(Izquierdo, 2014).
The certified teacher-chef was responsible for preparing the Grade 9 CF salade niçoise classroom in response to the needs of the learner, who metaphorically consumed the salad. Much of the data focused more on activities and strategies, rather than the curriculum document (OME, 2014), which demonstrated that the ten participants integrated their cultural content through a predominantly lived curriculum approach
(Aoki, 1999). Each participant indirectly applied the metaphorical “periodic table” (Hall, 1959, p. 222) of culture through distinct programming choices as to who, what, where, when, and how cultural content was approached. Therefore, these teacher-chefs tried their best to listen to their student-consumers’ requests.
The participants’ variety of approaches extended the argument that is it impossible to look for cultural consistency amongst educators (Falardeau & Simard, 2011).
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Many teachers modelled the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986) in their practice. For example, the student-consumers learned about sociolinguistic variations, such as the different ways to say “friend” or
“let’s get a bite to eat” (Carla, Interview 2) and the different ways to say “shoe” in French (Claire). In my argument, the iceberg helped the teachers have open discussions about the complexities of culture and reminded them about the importance for critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire,
1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013). Yvonne argued that, in respect to the Grade 9 CF students’ basic language abilities, teachers should focus on the visible iceberg (Weaver, 1986). Yvonne suggested that, at bare minimum, Ontario Grade 9 CF educators should clarify to students that French culture is not homogeneous. Only a couple of participants explicitly referenced the iceberg with students
(e.g., Rosina). Alternatively, Rosina introduced the iceberg at the beginning of the semester so that her students could understand deeper cultural characteristics during cultural Fridays. Therefore, it appeared that many participants understood the construction and the importance of this cultural model. However, the decision of the majority of the participants to not directly teach the model to their students suggests that it is more important to demonstrate principles of the iceberg in practice, rather than in theory.
Not all participants incorporated the same French regions; yet, each participant focused on international French, and particularly Parisian, in most examples. This prevalence corroborated research that there is still a lingua franca of Parisian French in Ontario Grade CF classrooms, and, perhaps, a continued societal perception of Parisian French as the standard accent (Armstrong & Jamin, 2002; Clouet,
2006; Miller et al., 2011; C. M. Stewart, 2012; J. Webb, 2012; Wernicke-Heinricks, 2013; Wernicke, 2016).
However, several teachers also prioritized local French-speaking communities, such as Québec or
Northern Ontario, because they felt that their students were more likely to visit these communities from
Ontario (e.g., Camille, Christina, Claire & Nora), which examples contrasted with the findings of Hodgetts and the National History Project (1968) in that the teachers did not gloss over Québec communities.
Accordingly, their preferences for Canadian Frenches supported previous recommendations from FSL
162 researchers regarding the importance of local French cultures in the Canadian FSL classroom (Chapelle,
2009; Hodgetts & National History Project, 1968; LeBlanc et al., 1990).
Based on observed practitioner growth in cultural approaches towards the end of the semester, I felt that the teachers modelled my value for the CX perspective because they grew in different capacities their “C’s” of different francophone regions. Carla was the predominant participant who, despite the lack of travel experience, exposure to French in teacher’s college, and opportunities to practice her French, prepared concrete goals post-study that I argue reflected the transformative orientation to pedagogy
(Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Some participants’ activities from the second interview and focus group had elements of critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000;
Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013). For example, the superhero unit (Claire; see Appendix N) examined who can be a superhero and taught students about rectifying “social inequalities” (Keneman, 2013, p. 24). The participants were still learning and improving their cultural proficiencies but also recognized that it was impossible to know it all (e.g., Camille, Manno). Their belief contributed to the research perspective that educators should be guides or coaches for learning (Van den Branden, 2009). Therefore, the results from
Finding 1 demonstrated that the ten teacher-chefs recognized the fluidity and complexities of French cultures, drew from the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986), exposed their students to culturally relevant content (Le Blanc, 1990), and predominantly modelled the lived curriculum perspective (Aoki, 1999).
Finding 2: Limited Deep Culture
The cultural green beans of the salade niçoise Grade 9 CF classrooms were not as deep of a green as they could have been. Despite participants’ understanding of cultural complexities, most experiences were superficial in the form of “cultural products [such as] music, food, and literature” (J.
Webb, 2012, p. 43), which prevented them from reflecting more of the transformative orientation (Cummins,
2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and paralleled other FSL teacher studies (e.g., Masson, 2018). This finding was unexpected because I thought that the teachers’ recognition of the importance of rich cultural
163 content would be embodied through their actions. For example, many teachers predominantly used French food and music (e.g., Camille, Christina, Claire, Helena, Manno & Rachel), which limited their cultural depth below the iceberg (Weaver, 1986). Some teachers took their students to French restaurants, offered crepe making opportunities, prepared food market dialogues, and designed cuisine presentations.
Accordingly, their frequent references to francophone cuisine were comparable to experiences in other FSL classrooms (Mueller, 1985). Similarly, music was a popular “cultural product” (J. Webb, 2012, p.
43) for half of the teachers (e.g., Camille, Claire, Christina, Nora & Rosina). Modern francophone music was the overall focus, which reinforced the popularity of current French music in the FSL classroom (J.
Webb, 2012). The abundance of references to food and music in this study might indicate that these universal cultural examples are beginner French students’ initial contact and hooks to interact with French communities.
Some participants observed student disengagement towards African and Asian French communities, and the teachers reacted by alternating their regional priorities, which augmented research regarding unmotivated SL students with foreign communities (Chapelle, 2009; Drewelow, 2012; Sercu,
2002). While Manno sought to include more profound culture and Carla wanted field trips, they both recognized that their Grade 9 CF students’ lack of maturity impacted their engagement. Accordingly, more of Manno’s deeper cultural activities took place in more advanced French classes. Manno’s experiences resonated with my professional experience because many of my Grade 9 CF students did not continue with
French after Grade 9 and were unmotivated to extend their learning for culture. Thus, some participants did not prioritize their planning time primarily for French culture, which mirrored findings in research (Masson,
2018; Mueller, 1985) and added to examples of the transmission orientation to pedagogy (Cummins, 2001,
2009; Cummins et al., 2007) since many of their activities were teacher-controlled or stopped at comprehending cultural facts.
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In another observation regarding cultural despondence, most participants prioritized French oral communication and had varying perceptions about the usage of English in the Grade 9 CF classroom (see
Table 6). Some educators prohibited the use of English in the French classroom or used it under teacher supervision for specific reasons including to discuss assignment procedures and summarize French audio.
Towards the end of the inquiry, there was an additional teacher who used English more readily in the class, which suggested that, as assessments increased in complexity over the course of the semester, English became necessary to help explain instructions and content to beginner level FSL students.
From personal teaching experience, there has often been greater pressure on Grade 9 CF educators to focus on oral communication for daily life, rather than speaking about francophone cultures.
The curriculum document also focuses more on oral proficiency because it is part of the “enduring ideas” section (OME, 2014, p. 7). Consequently, I was not overly surprised by the oral emphasis in the study.
When I recently consulted and searched the word culture on the Transforming FSL website, only one cultural resource appeared, which was designed for the elementary school context
(https://transformingfsl.ca/en/resources?s=culture). Regardless, prior to the study, I had assumed the teachers would have shared more examples where students spoke about French cultures and made connections with the students’ lived experiences. Therefore, the participants’ prioritization of oral communication for everyday speech challenges Mueller’s (1985) empirical argument that culture should be the focus in the classroom. It also reinforces the pressure for teachers to follow priorities set forth by their
FSL stakeholders.
To summarize Finding 2, the ten teachers intended to dynamically approach culture; however, they did not profoundly explore many aspects of francophone regions below the “iceberg’s surface” (Weaver,
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1986) because they were still on their way to becoming Michelin star40 teacher-chefs. The teachers observed student disengagement with unfamiliar cultures and had to adjust their planning to support their learners’ needs and interests and concurrently respect the oral communication priority. Therefore, the teachers encountered challenges in dynamically approaching culture with deep green string beans for their salads.
Finding 3: Cultural Challenges as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers
Being non-native French-speakers somewhat impacted the teacher-chefs’ cultural depth. As discussed in Chapter 5, many participants felt like French imposters when interacting with native speakers, which insecurities remained consistent with findings from previous research (Lightbown & Spada, 2013;
Newcombe, 2007; Wernicke, 2016). Further, the participants originally indicated confidence in their knowledge about several French cultures (see Table 6); however, the teachers’ views were somewhat contradictory because they did not possess deep cultural knowledge about francophone Africa and Asia. In my conception, their lack of cultural knowledge corresponded with the participants’ limited and recent travel to francophone communities, as well as their lack of personal exploration of francophone Africa and Asia.
Their feelings were similar to half of the Ontario FSL teacher-participants from De Luca et al.’s (2017) research. At times, my participants were unable to understand contextual meanings of song lyrics because they were unfamiliar with some expressions. Therefore, the findings suggest that, even in more recent research from 2018-2019, non-native FSL educators still experience insecurities in French language and culture, in particular, when they cannot readily access the communities due to geographical barriers.
There were various challenges in terms of managing participants’ insecurities. Christina remained attached to Parisian cultural content because her former French teacher came from France. It appeared
40 A Michelin star is “the most coveted [culinary] award,” and, while the award technically goes to restaurants, “the credit for it goes to the chef in charge of the kitchen” (Chef Academy, 2020).
166 that more teachers who travelled to European French communities used standardized French in their classrooms. Consequently, the challenges connected with research arguments that there is an increased likelihood that non-traditional French variations would be challenging to understand and implement in the
French classroom because non-native FSL teachers are frequently introduced to standardized French accents (Clouet, 2006; Dewaele, 2004). Overall, participants’ difficulties were reminiscent of the challenges faced by other Canadian non-native French-speaking CF teachers (Lightbown & Spada; Wernicke, 2016).
The teacher-participants who had more recent travel experiences to francophone communities shared more references to everyday and current cultural content with their students, bringing back sociolinguistic lessons of what “shoe” meant in different French varieties (Claire) and describing and reliving WW2 from a visit to Calais, France (Yvonne). In comparison, the educators who had fewer trips to these regions approached French cultures as a tradition (J. Webb, 2012) by opting for more introductory characteristics, including the flag, cuisine, and festivals, in the form of student presentations (e.g., Carla,
Manno & Rosina). This finding suggests that non-native French-speaking teacher-travel is essential in order to provide students with greater examples of “‘little c’ culture” (Kramsch, 2013, p. 65) underneath the water of the iceberg (Weaver, 1986).
Even though many participants valued teacher collaboration (e.g., Manno, Nora, Rosina & Rachel), there were limited examples of it in practice during the study. The two main examples came from Camille and Helena; Camille spent summers working with her teacher-friends to explore the CEFR (Council of
Europe, 2001), and Helena combined classrooms to extend her garage sale activity with a larger group of students. As a result, both teachers prepared engaging activities that were closer to modelling the transformative pedagogical orientation (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). These two examples add to research that working with fellow colleagues can improve the morale and confidence of non-native
French-speaking teachers (Masson, 2018).
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The teachers of this study commonly felt isolated, and predominately shared resources with colleagues the “odd time” (Manno, Interview 1). These educators looked for ready-made cultural resources to minimize planning time, which was also an identified strategy among other FSL teachers (De Luca et al.,
2017). Further, participants noted challenges in offering rich cultural tasks, while their colleagues maintained a more narrowed and grammatical focus in their Grade 9 CF classes, because the teacher- participants respected collegiality and did not wish to undermine their fellow peers’ professional practices.
Accordingly, I argue that reduced interaction and collaboration among FSL educators weakened the teachers’ willingness to continue learning through my CX perspective.
The results from Finding 3 demonstrated that the non-native French-speaking identity was, at times, a challenge for enriched cultural activities and confident interactions with native speakers. In practice, the teachers used the standard French accent due to its popularity, comprehensive sound, familiarity for students, and teacher bias. For culturally rich activities, the participants preferred additional preparation time and collaboration with peers; however, their desires were not necessarily met in reality.
Therefore, many participants opted for pre-planned cultural activities, and, some participants did not fully demonstrate significant cultural growth at the end of the semester.
Finding 4: Increased Cultural Affordances as Non-Native French-Speaking Teachers
Despite the cultural challenges for non-native French-speaking educators, most teacher-chef- participants demonstrated improvement in their French cultural approaches towards the end of the semester, which strengthened their legitimacy as cultural pedagogues to begin to eliminate the discussion of the native speaker (Paikeday, 1985).
Application of the Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework
The non-native French-speaking participants modelled all components of the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Some participants frequently mirrored the transmission orientation (e.g., Carla, Christina, Claire, Helena, Nora & Rosina) through online vocabulary
168 games to add to the orientation’s focus on “phonics [and] direct instruction” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 38).
Other teachers approached culture in “snippets” (Manno, Interview 1). The participants’ modelling of this orientation represented a “legitimate” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 38) and an “important” (p. 37) frame of practice because teachers have often used the transmission orientation for the “rule-based aspects of the language” (p. 38). Further, in my experience, initially memorizing vocabulary to begin oral communication in
French has been beneficial for Grade 9 CF students. Other teachers demonstrated more examples of this orientation due to the lack of cultural maturity of their students and lack of planning time to prepare for culturally rich activities. These experiences added to the realities of other FSL teachers having “minimal” planning time to increase their cultural knowledge (J. Webb, 2012, p. 38; see also De Luca et al., 2017;
Viswanathan, 2016), and they also corresponded with the lack of student language proficiency and motivation of Grade 9 CF learners who may require additional teacher-centered support.
The participants who lacked resource sharing opportunities with colleagues also reflected more of the transmission orientation to pedagogy (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). For some of the educators collegial support was minimal, such as only forwarding cultural ideas via email. Other teachers did not have much time to revise materials to model other pedagogical orientations. Consequently, some participants refrained from exploring a greater number of French varieties, which corresponded with findings from research regarding the direct link between the educator’s “socio-cultural knowledge [and] what is being taught in their classrooms” (J. Webb, 2012, p. 63). Based on personal experience, it has been reassuring to have collegial support as a non-native French-speaking educator in a social constructivist or transformative orientation because critically based activities could be enhanced or supported with collegial affirmation.
Conversely, in my argument, more participant-teachers (Christina, Helena, Nora, Rachel, Rosina &
Yvonne) modeled the social constructivist orientation because their activities demonstrated “higher-order thinking abilities” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 44) and asked students to analyse, synthesize, and evaluate
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“alternatives” (p. 38). For example, Christina noticed improvements with student understanding and willingness to discuss their reactions to President Macron’s address to his citizens when she allowed
English and gave her students the readings the night before the lesson. However, she did not indicate any deeper discussions to reflect concepts of critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire,
1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013) to read between the lines of the speech, which would equally demonstrate the transformative orientation (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). The participants who frequently redesigned units also reflected the social constructivist orientation because these teachers knew that their activities required deeper levels of cultural interaction (e.g., Camille &
Claire). Overall, these teachers were willing to delve deeper into the invisible layer of the cultural iceberg
(Weaver, 1986) with their students.
There were fewer examples of participants who reflected the transformative orientation for “critical literacy” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 39; see also Cummins, 2001, 2009). Some teachers considered the contextual meanings of songs (e.g., Claire), discussed the construction of politeness (e.g., Claire), referenced historical lessons to inform present society (e.g., Camille & Yvonne), and reminded students about White supremacist dangers in research (Camille). While the term pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) was not present in the nested pedagogical orientations model (Cummins,
2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007), I established that the concept assists the teacher in determining what culture to incorporate. However, as previously justified in this dissertation, participants were not asked to define pluricultural competence, but they were asked to define transculture (MLA, 2007). Despite having little familiarity with the word, Claire had the closest interpretation of the term as:
…the idea of merging different cultures and finding connections between the different cultures, and
seeing….similarities and differences between [the students’] own culture and the French
culture….And realizing that even the French culture itself is not the same because it’s all over
the world in various, different forms, not just dialect, but also how other countries have kind of
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adopted each language or merged the language in terms of colonization. For me, trans, means
anything that is involving, that is also kind of encompassing, that kind of extends between many,
many cultures, and in many, many, variety of forms. (Interview 1, November 21, 2018)
Claire’s conception of transculture (MLA, 2007) corresponded with how she perceived and prepared her cultural tasks.
At the onset of this inquiry, even though Claire declared that she lacked cultural knowledge of francophone Africa and Asia, she significantly grew in her understanding. Claire was already open to learn about cultures. Secondly, she declared that her students were introduced to different French variations, from that of Northern Ontario to a variety of dialects in France. Thirdly, her resources extended to foreign communities of francophone Africa and Asia to improve her students’ understanding and interest with these cultures, even for her culminative course task that had a high weighting to the final grade (see Appendix N).
More of Claire’s activities (see Appendix N) went below the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986), including when she indicated that she helped students see themselves in French superheroes, such as Ngozi, to develop world cultures (Bhabha, 2011), to “read[ing] between the lines” (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 39), and challenging White supremacism to demonstrate critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire,
1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013). Claire’s ongoing initiatives and teaching strategies revealed that Grade 9 CF teachers can demonstrate the transformative orientation to pedagogy (Cummins,
2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Therefore, Finding 4 emphasized each participant’s pedagogical expertise in determining the who, what, where, when, why, and how of culture through the modeling of the three nested pedagogical orientations.
Non-Native French-Speaking Teacher Agency
Congruent with other research studies, several participants (e.g., Manno & Rosina) felt that it is impossible to be a cultural expert in all areas (Byram et al., 2002), and, subsequently, they reflected the developmental stage of Michelin star chefs. However, throughout the study, participants expanded their
171 cultural knowledge of la francophonie and attempted to represent the infinite definitions of what it means to be French, just like the teacher-participants of other CF studies (e.g., Masson, 2018). Helena read books, was DELF-trained (https://delf-dalf.ambafrance-ca.org), and fully integrated the CEFR (Council of Europe,
2001) because many of her shared experiences throughout this inquiry required her students to resolve a problem or achieve an authentic objective. Also, Claire and Rosina frequently reviewed online websites to improve their French proficiency. Even as a C1 French speaker (Council of Europe, 2011), Camille questioned her linguistic proficiency throughout the study, but, in practice, she was confident in orally interacting with students in role-play activities. Therefore, these educators’ initiatives aligned with research on the “value-neutral…LX” argument (Dewaele, 2018, p. 3) because, throughout the study, they understood the higher importance for students and SL teachers to recognize ongoing language and cultural development rather than distinguish between the order and level of SL students’ language proficiencies.
Most teachers expressed the desire to learn more about francophone Africa and Asia to improve student connections with these communities, which experience was also consistent in other FSL classroom research (J. Webb, 2012). The teachers’ willingness to explore more non-Eurocentric francophone regions might also indicate that the standardized French lingua franca (Armstrong & Jamin, 2002; Miller et al.,
2011; C. M. Stewart, 2012) is diminishing in FSL teaching contexts. Further, participants’ ambition to learn about these regions: (a) demonstrates the possibilities for ongoing cultural learning for non-native French- speaking educators in my conception of the CX, (b) justifies the importance of teacher change in practice
(Cummins et al., 2007; Donohoo & Velasco, 2016; Hannay et al., 2010, Molinaro & Drake, 1998; OME,
2010a; R. A. Thomas, 2017; Viswanathan, 2016), and (c) prioritizes cultural competency for non-native
French-speaking educators (Francis & Jean-François, 2010; Viswanathan, 2016).
An unexpected observation was that the number of teaching years did not directly cause the teachers to represent one particular orientation of the nested pedagogical framework (Cummins, 2001,
2009; Cummins et al., 2007). I originally thought that participants would have kept the same cultural
172 activities throughout the years. However, experienced practitioners, such as Manno, were active cultural learners through the maintenance of professional relationships with native speakers. Similarly, Camille frequently redesigned her travel unit, which has been described as a common technique for professional cultural development (Furstenberg, 2010; Reeser, 2003; Tang, 2006; Witte, 2014). These strategies suggest that positive teacher attitudes for cultural learning are more important than the teacher’s age, experience level, or nativeness to the language. Furthermore, the techniques of the experienced teachers of my inquiry support my argument that the ideal teacher-chef understands that cultural competence is an ongoing process throughout one’s career, and practitioners might want to consider ongoing cultural development through my CX perspective in lieu of compartmentalizing and limiting teacher growth with C1 or C2 (Bilash, 2009).
In my conception, being a non-native French-speaking teacher also provided advantages for Grade
9 CF consumer students. Participants indicated that they empathized with their students’ language learning because these educators were also predominately CF students (see Table 6). The teachers’ strategies included: (a) rewording and simplifying authentic texts (e.g., Rachel), (b) reminding students of their teacher-backgrounds as former CF students (e.g., Claire), and (c) allowing for English when appropriate
(e.g., Camille, Carla, Christina & Claire). These initiatives contributed to the benefits of being a non-native
French-speaking teacher (McNeill, 2005; Newcombe, 2007). This section of Finding 4 highlighted participants’ personal peace in not knowing every aspect of culture, yet their willingness to continue learning about unfamiliar francophone regions. Similar to other research arguments (Kipp-Ferguson, 2013;
Masson, 2018), being a pedagogue was more important than my participants’ linguistic or cultural identities.
Therefore, these teacher-chefs’ agency in learning was more important than linguistic attributes, and their non-native speaking identities even proved to be advantageous in the Grade 9 CF context.
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Increased Student Responsibility
Finding 4 also revealed the importance of student ownership for learning as consumers, to reduce their reliance on the non-native French-speaking teacher as a cultural expert. Based on the teachers’ experiences, the students were not being served as “clients,” but had increased responsibilities to “digest” the cultural content. At the beginning of the semester, several educators shared that many of the Grade 9
CF students researched general cultural information or listened to French songs. Towards the end of the study, the participants stated that their students role-played as imaginary travelers, justified ideal vacations, and participated in immersive in-class experiences. The teachers also taught their students research skills to better navigate the Internet for cultural projects, which added to research findings regarding increased student engagement with technology (Sefton-Green, 2006). Additionally, the learners led cultural presentations and prepared informative brochures on various French-speaking communities.
Overall, many cultural activities throughout this inquiry were student-driven, which shifted the responsibilities of the participants to become facilitators, guides, or coaches (Van den Branden, 2009) and justified the importance of the Learning Skills and Work Habits of the Growing Success policy (OME,
2010b). Based on the teachers’ comments, their student-consumers determined their own levels of cultural interaction, which correlated with other research findings on this subject (Byram et al.,2002; Council of
Europe, 2001; Cummins et al., 2007; Damen, 1987; National Research Council, 2005; Tyler, 1949). Thus, the native speaker dichotomy may not be a major factor for student learning and interaction with cultures, because the onus has come to rest on the language learner to, metaphorically speaking, eat and digest the salade niçoise.
Finding 4 established that the non-native French-speaking teachers of this study were capable in approaching dynamic cultural content with beginner level French students and followed more examples of the social constructivist orientation to pedagogy (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). The data also confirmed the value of non-native French-speaking teacher agency for cultural learning. Finally, the
174 participants’ increased number of student-led cultural activities modified the responsibility of the teacher- chef to be more of a cultural facilitator for their students, who, in my argument based on the teachers’ experiences, consumed the salade niçoise.
Finding 5: CEFR Reliance
The majority of the participants often used the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) and its related resources in daily practice (e.g., Camille, Claire, Helena, Nora, Rachel & Yvonne). Claire and Helena also purchased CEFR-inspired resources for cultural activities. Several teachers (e.g., Camille, Carla, Claire,
Manno & Yvonne) taught their students the difference between formal and informal registers when speaking “appropriately in everyday greetings” (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 159). Claire and Rosina’s discussions about kissing characteristics matched with the CEFR A2 language level descriptors that indicate that the student “can recognise and apply basic cultural conventions associated with everyday social exchanges” (p. 159).
From my teaching experience, the CEFR’s (Council of Europe, 2001) language level descriptors have offered more detailed, concrete, and organized ways to bring culture into the classroom than curriculum documents, which matched participants’ opinions as well as opinions from similar research
(Council of Ministers of Education Canada, 2010, 2015; Duncan, 2016; Faez, Majhanovich, et al., 2011;
Faez, Taylor, et al., 2011; Masson, 2018; Piccardo, 2013; Rehner, 2017; Vandergrift, 2006; Viswanathan,
2016). Metaphorically speaking, the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) also provided “greener beans” for participants’ salades niçoise.
All participants, in varying examples, introduced to students the importance for cultural diversity and openness to others, which are two characteristics of pluriculturalism (Council of Europe, 2016; see
Table 1). Some participants reminded students about the ongoing language and cultural journeys of language learners (e.g., Claire & Nora), with reminders including Claire’s which was, “I’m exactly like you!
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And a lot of them are ESL students….they speak multiple languages….It’s just a matter of learning and seeing what the differences are and appreciating cultural differences” (Interview 1).
Other teachers supported the A1 and A2 descriptors (Council of Europe, 2018; see Table 1), such as Yvonne who, taught her students how to write the “time in a French manner with an h, as opposed to a colon” (Interview 1), and Carla, who introduced texting habits of French speakers to her Grade 9 CF students (Interview 2). English was also used, when necessary, to show similarities and differences across cultures (e.g., Christina & Rachel), which represented another example of pluriculturalism from the CEFR.
Yvonne introduced the difference between “I want” and “I would like” by stomping her foot and acting as a
“petulant child when [she said] ‘je veux’ as opposed to, ‘Madame, puis-je avoir,’ with a nice smile…and with an open demeanour and expression” (Interview 2).
However, a surprising finding was that the teachers did not mention newer reference tools from the
Council of Europe (2016, 2018). Furthermore, as discussed in this dissertation, my teacher-participants were unfamiliar with important terms from the Framework, such as pluricultural competence, even though the term did exist in the original conception of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). My observations suggest that educators may not be aware of these recent CEFR developments, and/or they require additional research time and professional development opportunities to learn about the changes. Further, their lack of specific references to the CEFR resources may suggest that teachers already implement the content in practice, and they may prefer to jump into teaching rather than reviewing documents.
Finding 6: Superficial Use of Information and Communications Technology
Nine out of ten teachers actively incorporated ICT to better approach French cultures, which represented the heavy, foundational, role of my metaphorical potatoes of the salade niçoise. However, a surprising finding was that the potatoes were small because the participants used ICT resources to gain
“access to authentic French-language materials” (OME, 2014, p. 52) rather than for cultural interaction.
Also, the participants obtained pre-made pedagogical units from multisource websites and online
176 vocabulary games. Five of the ten teachers (Christina, Claire, Helena, Rachel & Rosina) used either Idéllo
(https://www.idello.org) or TV5Monde (https://langue-francaise.tv5monde.com) for oral comprehension activities, which supported the popularization of these two sites in Ontario FSL research (De Luca et al.,
2017; J. Webb, 2012). The participants’ ICT use also suggested that they were trying to avoid teacher burnout by obtaining authentic, yet linguistically accessible, cultural content for their Grade 9 CF students.
The participants also encountered challenges in obtaining reliable, accessible, and frequent ICT potatoes for their salades. Despite ongoing use, the teachers were not fully convinced about the language appropriateness of the province’s recommendation of Idéllo (https://www.idello.org). Some teachers seldom received Chrome books (e.g., Carla) or could not frequently access computer labs (e.g., Helena) to better provide their students with transformative pedagogical activities (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al.,
2007). Consequently, Helena purchased cultural materials. I can empathize with the participants because, in my place of practice, ongoing access to Chrome books for students is challenging when we have to share this resource with many educators in our department.
Further, Manno expressed doubts about the safety of several ICT options, such as Skype
(https://www.skype.com/en). I identified with Manno’s experience because I have felt concerns about my professional duties, reduced teacher control, and student safety while communicating online with strangers.
In my past experiences, I have Skyped with French and Italian classes in Ontario, Quebec, and in Italy; however, I had to prepare permission letters, use school equipment, and prepare contingency plans for absent students who could not participate. However, the Ontario College of Teachers reminded the province’s practitioners that “most popular video conferencing platforms were not created for educational purposes. Hackers have been able to crash sessions and steal information, which raises concerns about student privacy and the security of information such as recorded videos” (2020). Therefore, Manno’s lack of
ICT use due to safety concerns may reinforce the importance of teacher preparedness for such formats.
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Participants’ ICT issues, such as their lack of resources, contributed to similar teacher experiences in other research studies and further demonstrated that FSL programs are marginalized (Cooke, 2013;
Milley & Arnott, 2016; Mollica et al., 2005). The findings also highlighted that ICT needs to be secure and used properly, which may be challenging for teachers if they are unfamiliar with the technical features.
Participants who did not have adequate ICT access may have followed more of a transmission style to pedagogy (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) because these educators may have had to directly teach culture through controlled and accessible materials already present in their classrooms.
Finding 6 established that the participants used ICT resources to introduce cultures or for student presentations. However, the results also presented ICT issues, including ongoing access, safety concerns, lack of support from the school administration (salt), and ineffective or linguistically challenging content for
Grade 9 CF students. Essentially, while ICT can be an effective medium to connect the Grade 9 CF classroom with transformative opportunities to exchange and learn in a third space (Bhabha, 2011) with critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013), there needs to be sufficient preparation in terms of the ICT format, duration, and presentation.
Finding 7: Travel as a Predominant Theme
Travel was the most popular cultural theme and was the preferred area for profound cultural approaches (see Chapter 5). The cultural depth of the travel theme ranged from surface level knowledge
(Weaver, 1986) to some action-based tasks following the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). I observed that the teachers who recently traveled to French regions were able to share more first-hand experience of the
“‘little c’ culture” (Kramsch, 2013, p. 65). For instance, Nora had the most recent travel in 2017 and was the only participant who Skyped with a native speaker, whom she met while abroad in Martinique. Additionally,
Camille used her travels to Québec as a foundation to discuss inequalities during the Quiet Revolution and go below the cultural iceberg’s visible layer (Weaver, 1986) with some aspects of critical pedagogy (Aoki,
2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013). However, the lack of
178 recent and frequent travel to French communities may suggest that the teachers require funding to be able to go to these destinations. Also, the popularity of Québec as a travel destination strengthens the legitimacy of local francophone cultures as main sources for cultural learning for non-native French-speaking teachers who are typically are born into a standardized French through their educational upbringing.
Chapter 5 also explained the participants’ mixed reviews regarding the importance of field trips for
Grade 9 CF students. Some participants took their Grade 9 CF classes on field trips (e.g., Carla & Helena) or received funding for virtual guest speakers (Nora). Nora created a Québec travel project as a contest with the potential for their principal to grant her private school class with an actual trip to the province. Other participants did not offer field trips due to their students’ maturity level (e.g., Manno & Rosina), or insufficient funding (e.g., Camille, Christina, Claire, Manno & Rosina). Christina shared that her principal
“disregarded” a field trip for Grade 9 CF students because funding should be reserved for “students in higher grades of French…as a reward” (Interview 2). Accordingly, the lack of administrative support, or salt for the salad, prevented experiential learning outside the classroom and may suggest cultural advantages for teaching in private schools.
Finding 7 established the importance of exploratory learning external to the FSL classroom walls
(Lapkin, 2006; J. Webb, 2012) because of the culturally “artificial” nature of the French classroom (J. Webb,
2012, p. 52). However, the findings reinforced the administrative challenges around changing imaginary cultural experiences into real interactions for a more pluricultural approach to culture where the learner uses French as a “social agent…in several cultures” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 168).
Finding 8: Initial Modelling of the Neurolinguistic Approach
My research problem identified complex questions regarding culture for the Grade 9 CF classroom.
I longed to learn how to make culture stimulating, current, linguistically approachable, and internalized for the beginner level French student by respecting the five cyclical stages of the neurolinguistic approach
(Netten & Germain, 2012). As discussed in Chapter 3, I argued that teachers achieve the main how of
179 culture through following the neurolinguistic approach, which became my metaphorical eggs of the ideal salade niçoise classroom. While I did not introduce the approach to participants, I assumed that they would naturally demonstrate frequent examples of its principles in practice. Based on my analysis, the participants indirectly supported some of the “project-based pedagogy” (p. 100), “authentic communicative activities” (p.
100), “literacy-based pedagogy” (p. 97), and “interactive teaching strategies” (p. 102).
All participants tried their best to get to know their students, such as through surveys (e.g., Carla) and by making connections with francophone cultures and their students’ home cultures. Netten (2020) indicated that this connection is a fundamental component of the neurolinguistic approach when teachers begin their planning, first, by connecting with student interest so that there is a greater chance that students are motivated to speak about something of interest and subsequently internalize content. For example,
Yvonne recognized student interest with weddings, which led her to research nuptial processes in Europe, and then to the Middle East because she shared that many of her learners belonged to Middle Eastern cultures. In turn, Yvonne observed student engagement when they discussed wedding traditions in French.
The participants’ activities upheld the importance of “speech acts…through a focus on authentic, everyday uses of the language [with] increased opportunities for students to practise” (Rehner, 2017, p. 23).
Additionally, these tasks ignited procedural memory (Netten & Germain, 2012) when the teachers shared that their students reacted and negotiated with peers (e.g., Camille’s customs officer dialogue and debate about activities to do in Paris), which demonstrated the approach’s “interactive teaching strategies” (p.
102).
There were some references to the “literacy-based pedagogy” principle (Netten & Germain, 2012, p. 97) and the “boucle” process for learning that begins with oral, reading, writing, reading, and the return to oral (Germain, 2017, p. 37). For example, five participants shared their travel stories from francophone regions with their students, such as reliving Quebec (Camille), France (Christina, Claire & Yvonne) and francophone Europe (Nora). Claire shared that her students learned about the tu versus vous pronoun by
180 listening to Claire recount her lived story, but also integrated the pronouns throughout the semester for many oral activities. In fact, as shown in her electronic portfolio task, the rubric required students to include the tu pronoun in their assignment (see Appendix M). Other teachers modeled the later portions of the
“boucle” (Netten & Germain, 2012, p. 97) by adapting text to correspond with the previous input exposed to students (e.g., Rachel; see Appendix P). Yvonne shared an example where she began her class with a prompting question. Yvonne instructed students to “discuss it with themselves and then within their own little groups, to come up with what they want their answer to be and then…talk about it as a whole class”
(Interview 2).
There were also some examples of the development of “internal grammar” (Netten & Germain,
2012, p. 94). Many pedagogical units corresponded with each other and vocabulary was often recycled
(e.g., Camille, Claire, Helena & Rachel), such as body parts for the superhero unit (e.g., Claire; see
Appendix N), or pre-taught money and clothing for the garage sale (Helena). Also, Christina and Rosina indicated that their students integrated vocabulary words in their personal journals and wrote in complete sentences. Christina shared that her students read each other’s writing and helped with the editing process.
The participants also stated that their students reused cultural metaphors outside of the classroom (e.g.,
Carla, Christina & Rachel), which suggested that the learners internalized some of the cultural grammar.
Camille was the predominant participant who provided further examples of internal grammar development (Netten & Germain, 2012) when she modelled appropriate interactions with a custom’s officer, and then, by the end of the course, Camille indicated that her students had to improv authentic situations in oral formats for their final assessment (see Appendix M). Camille’s emphasis on spontaneous communication challenged the traditional forms of assessment that tend to restrict beginner students to pen and paper. It was my first time learning about a spontaneous culminating task in Grade 9 CF. Since only
Camille truly modelled the internal grammar strategy, it was apparent that it is an uncommon practice and a surprising finding in my inquiry.
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The findings corresponding to the first research question challenged a linear view to culture for a more lived curriculum perspective (Aoki, 1999). The teacher-chefs differed in their selection of francophone regions and made pedagogical decisions mostly modelling two of the nested pedagogical orientations
(Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). The participants frequently approached culture through music, food, and travel, with the assistance of available ICT and the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001).
Despite participant insecurities regarding their cultural knowledge, the teachers increased student responsibility for cultural learning as the salad’s consumer. Further, the educators improved their cultural competencies through ongoing research and through some exchanges with colleagues, which demonstrated the growth mindset of my CX perspective to remove previous beliefs that cultural learning is limited and bounded in a C1 or C2 understanding (Bilash, 2009). However, due to limited funding, access issues, and the general speaking priority of their program, the teachers were unable to fully delve into cultures, and they did not fully model all principles of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain,
2012).
Interpreting the Findings for the Second Research Question
The second research question of this study addressed the curriculum document:
2. How do these teachers specifically implement the added Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of
the curriculum (OME, 2014) in authentic ways?
Two findings answered the final research question of this study. As with the first question, I interpreted the data for the second question based on references from the literature review and from the conceptual framework. Appendix A presents the overall expectations of the Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing curriculum strands (OME, 2014).
Finding 1: Initial Curriculum Despondence
While the participants understood the revised curriculum (OME, 2014), they found it ineffective and seldom referenced it in practice. At the beginning of the semester, only Claire and Rosina referenced
182 teacher prompts and instructional tips. Further, much of the interviews and focus group prioritized cultural challenges and teaching strategies, rather than ongoing discussions about the curriculum.
The lack of explicit cultural expectations in the participants’ assessment practices was surprising due to the province’s push for “transparent” evaluation (OME, 2010b, p. 2). The absence of cultural success criteria might suggest that the educators perceived their curriculum to be less linear, traditional
(Bobbitt, 1918; Charters, 1971), formal (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 1995-2020), or official
(Pollard & Triggs, 1997), and more as experienced, lived (Aoki, 1999), “[s]ituational” (Aoki, 1983, p. 9), approached (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009), alive and holistic (Goodlad, 1984; Rugg & Shumaker, 1928), and
“within…context” (Misco, 2010, p. 185). Participants’ initial curriculum despondence also reinforced their representations of the more flexible, student-centered, social constructivist and transformative curriculum orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007).
I related to my participants’ despondence with personal practice because my school administration has indicated that the overall curriculum expectations are the only mandatory components. Thus, it is possible that my teacher-participants have received similar messages in their schools. Their disconnection with the curriculum in practice added to the experiences of my former elementary school FSL teacher- participants of my master’s research (Gour, 2015) with their revised curriculum (OME, 2013), as well as similar findings from other researchers (Seitz, 2017). Further, I am less likely to frequently refer to the curriculum document when I have to teach seven or eight classes of different French programs. I can connect my “chaos” (Viswanathan, 2016, p. 10) with participants who also taught different FSL programs, such as Manno. Overall, my teacher-chef-participants of this dissertation prioritized the needs of their student-consumers rather than strictly following a regimented “recipe” from their curriculum document. This finding suggests that, perhaps, I should disregard my practitioner paranoia to follow the exactitude of the curriculum document (OME, 2014).
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Finding 2: Growth in Curriculum Appreciation and Integration
Despite the vagueness of the revised curriculum (OME, 2014), the teacher-participants increased their references to the curriculum document at the second interview stage, and they reflected more of a
“dialectical relationship” (Aoki, 1984, p. 114) between the intended (Seitz, 2017) and lived (Aoki, 1999) curriculum. All teachers cited at least one curriculum expectation during their second interview, including
Rachel who referenced three Intercultural Understanding expectations (OME, 2014), as well as Claire,
Helena, and Rosina who shared two expectations (see Table 9). Further, half of the teachers (Camille,
Christina, Helena, Nora & Yvonne) referenced more aural and oral communication expectations, rather than those from the reading and writing sections of the Grade 9 curriculum (OME, 2014). This focus amplified the oral communication priority of the neurolinguistic approach for the Grade 9 CF classroom
(Netten & Germain, 2012).
The curriculum states that ICT resources are important planning considerations for FSL teachers
(see Chapter 1). I identified that my participants used many websites and presentation software for cultural introductions and presentations (see Finding 6). Therefore, despite their challenges, the teachers did address most of the ICT planning considerations portion of their curriculum (OME, 2014).
My participants also used their curriculum document (OME, 2014) to revise cultural assessments.
The participants referenced the achievement chart from their FSL curriculum and their Growing Success policy document (OME, 2010b). For many of the cultural tasks, half of the teachers (Camille, Christina,
Nora, Rachel & Yvonne) used the application category, which is described as the:
• application of knowledge and skills (e.g., strategies, concepts, processes) in familiar contexts
• transfer of knowledge and skills (e.g., strategies, concepts, processes) to new contexts
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• connections within and between various contexts (e.g., between personal, global, cultural,
historical, and/or environmental contexts; between French and other languages; between the
school and other social contexts. (OME, 2014, p. 32)
For example, Yvonne declared that she included the application category in assessments when her students had to accurately label currency or write “their address or their phone number” (Interview 2).
Therefore, the overall application focus was a steppingstone for students to interact and play with culture through a third space (Bhabha, 2011; Witte, 2014) and develop pluricultural competency (Council of
Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018).
However, more teachers incorporated all, or most, of the assessment categories of the province’s standardized rubric for their cultural activities. Nora summarized the consensus in her explanation of the final project for the semester:
So, the knowledge that they knew about the region, so what was important. If I’m only there for let’s
say seven days- what would we do and what would we not need to do, … which cities would you
like to go to, what is going to work with a group of thirty students? How are you going to
communicate that to your class? And how are you going to explain why do we need to do this, and
have a bit more of an application part of it. So, it was kind of a little bit of all of them because it was
their first, really big, … cultural project. (Interview 2, January 14, 2019)
More teachers of this inquiry included multiple assessment categories given that Ontario Grade 9 CF students need to be aware of cultural facts (i.e., Knowledge & Understanding), organize their cultural content (i.e., Thinking & Inquiry), clearly communicate their information (i.e., Communication), and apply the cultural concepts (i.e., Application). I connected this finding with Nora’s explanation of her final project and as visualized in the cultural resources of this inquiry (see Appendices M-P). As a Grade 9 CF teacher, I connected their preferences with my personal pressure to address as many assessment categories as
185 possible to justify the legitimacy of tasks, and, thus, I made the research assumption that my participants shared similar sentiments.
The participants’ increased curriculum reliance (OME, 2014), identified at the second portion of this inquiry, contributed to the principles of the Growing Success policy document (OME, 2010b), such as transparency, to ensure that the participants covered all expectations. Reviewing the curriculum provided teachers with the how in approaching cultural content with beginner level Grade 9 CF students through language appropriate teacher prompts, instructional tips, and curriculum expectations. In my argument, reading the curriculum also motivated my participants to redesign their cultural activities in the establishment of their success criteria (e.g., Camille, see Appendix M; Yvonne).
Therefore, the teachers’ increased curriculum reliance by the end of the inquiry supplemented
“traditional assessment methods” (J. Webb, 2012, p. 51) found in Canadian FSL research (LeBlanc et al.,
1990; J. Webb, 2012). However, since the findings for this question were significantly less than the data for the first research question, the teacher-participants lived (Aoki, 1999) their curriculum document (OME,
2014) more than they adhered to its specific content. Accordingly, in my conception, my teacher-chefs adapted their curriculum document to the needs of their student-consumers.
Chapter Summary
This chapter answered the two research questions of this inquiry, which explored how ten Ontario non-native French-speaking Grade 9 CF teachers from September 2018 to January 2019 approached
French cultures with their curriculum document (OME, 2014). From the onset of the study, the participants were ambitious learners and were knowledgeable about the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001). Factors including the level of professional experience, French language proficiency, and the number of trips to francophone communities did not impact the participants’ overall willingness to learn about French cultures.
These teacher-chefs provided their students with opportunities to consume knowledge about a variety of French-speaking regions because they recognized the vastness of la francophonie and the depth
186 of the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986). Subsequently, the participants shared a variety of authentic cultural activities and assessments. Through their initiatives, the educators demonstrated many concepts from the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and some aspects of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012).
Despite their initiatives, the participants encountered several environmental challenges, such as large classroom sizes, lack of ICT, limited preparation time, lack of funding, and limited sharing of cultural resources. Accordingly, there were not enough examples of other components of my salade niçoise, such as the pluricultural approach (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018), critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b;
Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013), and the third space (Bhabha,
2011; Witte, 2014), to prompt additional FSL research considerations.
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Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 6 interpreted the main findings of my research questions regarding the cultural and curriculum approaches of ten Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking educators. The main observations were that the non-native French-speaking teacher has significant advantages in approaching culturally complex content with Grade 9 CF students using the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986), and ICT. The findings also demonstrated many examples of the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) and teacher agency. However, other facets of my conceptual framework that go beyond superficial cultural aspects were absent from the data.
In this chapter, I summarize my conclusions from the findings. Next, I reflect upon my study’s limitations and establish how they became delimitations. I then propose four recommendations. Finally, I present the benefits of my study, raise important research questions, and conclude this dissertation.
Conclusions
I discovered a research gap in that few studies focused on the combined scenario of the non-native
French-speaking teacher, the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom, and French cultures. As a teacher with a similar identity to my participants, I yearned for better cultural strategies appropriate for the Grade 9 CF classroom. Further, I sought to present possible characteristics of marginalized non-native French-speaking educators and their capability in the CF program. Through a qualitative social constructivist case study, I collected thorough data and maintained a small participant sample size to better explore my complex research problems. I conceptualized an ideal Grade 9 CF classroom as a salade niçoise prepared by a
Michelin star teacher-chef. My practitioner experience enabled me to relate to my participants’ realities; however, as a concurrent researcher, I also distanced myself from the teachers’ experiences and discovered new observations. In my argument, the participants prepared plentiful salades for their Grade 9
CF student-consumers to enjoy, which reflected the following characteristics: (a) Michelin star teacher-
188 chefs in progress, (b) runny eggs, (c) light-coloured green beans, (d) small, bland potatoes, (e) under- seasoning, and (f) nourished student-consumers. Table 12 summarizes my expectations, findings, and unexpected discoveries, and it illustrates a balanced level of expected and unexpected findings that answer my research questions.
Table 12
A Summary of Expectations, Findings, and Unexpected Findings
Components of Research assumptions that became Unexpected findings my conceptual findings framework Salad maker -capable non-native French-speaking -age or teaching experience did not teachers impact teacher agency -modelling of the nested pedagogical -limited teacher-travel to francophone orientations framework (Cummins, 2001, regions 2009; Cummins et al., 2007) -little to no travel to non-Eurocentric French communities Eggs -oral communication focus -application of some concepts of the -unawareness of the neurolinguistic neurolinguistic approach (Netten & approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) Germain, 2012) Green beans -understanding of dynamic culture -thorough knowledge of the cultural -CEFR popularity iceberg (Weaver, 1986) -little curriculum reliance -initial curriculum despondence (OME, -food, music, and travel popularity 2014) -priority for francophone Africa and Asia -despondence toward Ministry-level but the return to Eurocentric Frenches resources -culture not formally assessed -no reference to pluricultural competence -unawareness of critical pedagogy (Aoki, (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, -no recognition of the revised CEFR 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013; materials (Council of Europe, 2016, Salazar, 2013) 2018) -few cultural resources shared in the appendices ICT potatoes -misuse of ICT resources -limited use of interactive communication tools Consumer -enjoyment of food, music, and travel -eventual enjoyment of francophone student -student-led research African and Asian cultures Administrative -little parent or administrative voice or and parental support seasoning
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This study addresses research gaps, such as how Ontario CF teachers perceive and work with their revised curriculum and Intercultural Understanding sub-strand (OME, 2014), and my participants’ experiences challenge negative perceptions of non-native French-speaking educators. The findings confirm the importance of the neurolinguistic approach for the development of internal cultural grammar (Netten &
Germain, 2012), the CEFR for action-based and pluricultural perspectives to the word “culture” (Council of
Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018), critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000;
Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013), and the recognition of the teacher-pedagogue through the nested pedagogical orientations framework (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). Therefore, this exploratory study satisfactorily answers many of my research questions and contributes to FSL literature.
Limitations
Four main research limitation categories existed within this study. Firstly, I shared a similar linguistic background and career identity to my participants. I also came to the study with my own curriculum and cultural insecurities, which demonstrated researcher bias and shaped the content of my data collection. As a full-time teacher, a personally led action research study could have provided research with more frequent and thorough cultural observations of one Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom.
The study was of a small research scope; I exclusively explored non-native French-speaking high school teachers. The rich experiences came from only ten individuals, all in the province of Ontario, and, since most participants were from the GTA, the study did not represent the totality of experiences across the province. I could have considered other participants, such as native French speakers, Grade 9 CF students, or parents, or, other grade levels, to discover the amount of learning and interaction with cultural content throughout secondary school. Additionally, the research could have investigated other FSL programs, such as Extended French or French Immersion, because these students have increased exposure to French in high school. The study’s short duration of four months limited my ability to conduct
190 classroom observations of the teachers approaching cultural content in action. Consequently, I took my participants’ declared responses in good faith.
The ingredients of the conceptual framework were also interpretive and biased, based on my own axiological, epistemological, and ontological researcher positions (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2016). Firstly, I recognize that my salad, as a framework, may not be the preferred representation of what an Ontario
Grade 9 CF classroom should look like. Secondly, there could also be arguments to make the student the chef of the salad in lieu of the consumer to better align with one of the principles of the neurolinguistic approach that stresses student input at the forefront of unit planning (Netten & Germain, 2012). Thirdly, I did not include all ingredients typical to a salade niçoise, such as tuna or anchovies, to separate many of the theories found in the green beans. Fourthly, my interpretation of the participants’ runny eggs of the neurolinguistic approach may be linked to my lack of formal introduction of the approach to participants. For example, I could have presented the literacy buckle (Germain, 2017) to the participants during the first interview for their reflection about how they already incorporated concepts of the approach in practice.
The study’s data collection tools could have included additional questions for participants. Since I valued the term pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) in lieu of culture, I could have asked the teachers to define it and bring the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) with them during the interviews as a reference tool. Similarly, I did not ask my participants to directly reference the curriculum expectations, but rather, language strands during the first interview. Also, as the teachers were not required to share cultural resources, I received a small sample of material. Therefore, my decisions for this study had various consequences which impacted the number and strength of the recommendations.
Delimitations
Many of my limitations became delimitations. To begin, there were advantages of my personal researcher bias as a non-native French-speaking teacher through a case study methodology. For example, having similar experiences to those of my participants enriched my interview and focus group questions.
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Likewise, my initial insecurities about French cultures and the Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub- strand (OME, 2014) initiated self-reflection in the teacher-participants. Accordingly, several teachers re- read the curriculum document after the first interview and were inspired to explore francophone Africa and
Asia at a more profound level.
I did not feel ready for an action research study to explore my own classrooms and, subsequently, preferred to learn from my province’s colleagues. I also respected the professional advice of a teacher union to not observe fellow Ontario colleagues as a teacher-researcher to judge their practices and potentially compromise their students’ confidentiality through observational research. Therefore, my qualitative social constructivist case study research choice enabled rich data collection forms to answer complex research topics while maintaining professional boundaries and privacy standards.
My small research scope was ideal for the exploratory design of this inquiry. Since researchers had yet to investigate all three components of curriculum, culture, and the Ontario Grade 9 CF teacher, it was most appropriate to begin with the educator who is in charge of enacting curriculum. Also, this inquiry presented stronger research arguments by focusing on one teacher-type: the non-native French-speaking educator. Further, my choice in exploring non-native French-speaking teachers augmented positive characteristics and contributions about this historically disrespected educator (Modiano, 2006; Turnbull,
2011; Wernicke, 2017).
This Ontario Grade 9 CF study was localized to my professional area of teaching practice, but still represented highly populated geographical locations and FSL programs (Canadian Parents for French,
2017; Viswanathan, 2016). I explored the final mandatory FSL class to initially determine what cultural approaches looked like in the Grade 9 CF classroom. The results of this inquiry begin to affirm that profound cultural learning and interaction are possible in beginner level CF programs.
Despite my biased salade niçoise conceptual framework, its construction directly supported the interpretative spirit of qualitative research (Creswell, 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 2013; Merriam, 2009). I did not
192 allocate the student as the salad’s chef because the teacher is the professional who is responsible for enacting curriculum and part of the educator’s role is to be responsible for determining student goals and interests (OME, 2014). I presented a handful of ingredients and I did not include all items of a salade niçoise in the attempt to keep the dissertation simpler to comprehend. Similarly, I did not introduce the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) to participants to avoid potential participant stress in understanding an unfamiliar model. Subsequently, I supported a characteristic of case study research design whereby researchers do not test participants (Merriam, 2009). I also recognize that I came to the study with an initial understanding of the neurolinguistic approach and its literacy buckle (Netten &
Germain, 2012); therefore, the data analysis did not thoroughly reference this concept. Despite the lack of thorough explanation of the neurolinguistic approach, this exploratory study provided initial insight into the benefits of the approach in Grade 9 CF.
While my study was of a short duration, I respected the time constraints of busy high school teachers, yet I managed to successfully encapsulate the natural cycle of a semester. Participants were not tested on terminology, such as pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018), and they were not expected to frequently cite the curriculum document (OME, 2014) when responding to the questions during the interviews and focus group. The teachers were also reminded not to divulge cultural content that breached copyright laws or student confidentiality. Therefore, my limitations served a purpose in reinforcing that my findings, benefits, and recommendations are original and merit consideration.
Recommendations
Recommendation 1: Respect the Pedagogue
I now offer four recommendations that are beneficial to Ontario non-native French-speaking Grade
9 CF teachers and applicable to FSL stakeholders. Firstly, I ask that educational stakeholders appreciate the identity, expertise, and contributions of non-native French-speaking teachers. My participants created motivating cultural tasks for their students with limited technical, financial, and cultural support. They were
193 resourceful and consulted the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001), ICT resources, and the cultural iceberg
(Weaver, 1986) to inform practice. Each participant demonstrated some aspects of the transformative orientation through a lived curriculum approach (Aoki, 1999); however, the teachers also incorporated many of the intercultural expectations to reflect a linear curriculum perspective (Aoki, 1993, 1999, 2005a).
Essentially, the participants demonstrated that non-native French-speaking teachers are valuable contributors to cultural learning in the Ontario Grade 9 CF classroom. Based on my reflections of the study, a cultural pedagogue:
• understands that culture is dynamic;
• is genuinely interested in continuing to learn about a variety of French-speaking communities;
• is CEFR trained (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018);
• plans for action-oriented tasks below the surface of the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986);
• follows the overall expectations of the curriculum document (OME, 2014);
• plans for, and assesses, cultural content through transparent rubrics;
• maintains a frequently revised and simplified, yet rich, cultural depository of resources;
• gives student choice and ownership for cultural exploration;
• adapts to variable financial support from the school system;
• offers a combination of physical and ICT experiences for students;
• advocates for cultural field trips at all learning levels; and,
• shares cultural techniques and resources with colleagues.
The most important aspect of cultural pedagogy is a teacher’s commitment to continuous cultural learning.
It is through these characteristics of a cultural pedagogue that this educator should be respected in the FSL community.
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Recommendation 2: Improve Teacher-Training and Support
As an ongoing learner, I value the importance of keeping culture fresh, “green,” and relevant to students. Similar to chefs updating recipes, my participants sought to extend cultural learning; unfortunately, they lacked sufficient ICT, training, field trips, or guest speakers to go beyond superficial culture. I return to the French cultural teaching suggestions from LeBlanc et al. (1990, p. 66; see Chapter
2), which assisted me in crafting this second recommendation.
I suggest that FSL teachers need to evolve from an over-abundance of cultural products
(Falardeau & Simard, 2011; Witte, 2014) to go below the iceberg’s surface (Weaver, 1986). FSL educators may want to consider amalgamating, not separating, French language and cultures. When teachers follow this paradigm shift, they are closer to promoting a CX perspective of culture, whereby the educator understands that students evolve in their cultural learning. FSL teachers might also want to consider offering more opportunities for students to learn, critique, play, interact, and reimagine cultural identities and constructions to fully understand la francophonie in their third space (Bhabha, 2011; Witte, 2014).
Furthermore, teachers who perceive culture as pluriculture (Council of Europe, 2001; 2016; 2018) are more likely to include a variety of French accents in the attempt to rupture any implicit standardized ideologies of what it means to be and sound French (R. A. Thomas, 2017; Wernicke, 2017).
Additional non-native French-speaking teacher-training would be beneficial to support ongoing cultural learning and interaction in their classrooms. The province might want to consider providing additional support through a top-down approach: starting with the OME and progressing to local school sites. The OME could also recognize French cultures in future FSL policy documents and resources. The
Ministry of Education could also update the Transforming FSL website (https://transformingfsl.ca/en/home) to provide a greater number of age and language appropriate cultural materials for the Grade 9 CF context that go deeper into French cultures through action-oriented activities. Based on participant concerns about
Idéllo (https://www.idello.org), it might be advantageous for the government to liaise with Idéllo to update
195 the site’s French cultural content for high school students. Further, the OME could allocate additional cultural funding to support Grade 9 CF teachers travelling to francophone Canada. Educators initiating trips to other French communities could also contribute to a multiplicity of cultural experiences and enhance classroom activities. These trips would ideally be frequent so that the teachers are actively apprised of new developments in francophone communities. Finally, Ontario’s educational consultants could provide FSL educators with approved francophone contacts for online interactions and pen pals so that teachers are better protected.
At the local school level, principals could consider the CF teacher as an important stakeholder in the school’s FSL program. It would be beneficial to students if principals could increase school funding for field trips, guest speakers, and updated textbooks and literature, even at this beginner level of French.
Further, school administration might want to consider offering the Grade 9 CF program with equal ICT access to that of other mandatory courses, such as the sciences. Finally, Ontario administrators can support Grade 9 CF educators through the provision of increased protection plans for online security, such as allowing FSL departments to create program-wide consent letters for cultural interaction. These strategies can assist teacher-chefs to improve the seasoning of their salades.
Recommendation 3: Consider Following the Neurolinguistic Approach
Cultural learning is best supported when it reflects the language level of Grade 9 CF students. My participants prioritized authentic project-based pedagogy through oral communication to echo some aspects of the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012). However, "firmer eggs” could have made their salades niçoise heartier and more enjoyable for their student-consumers. As Germain (2017) indicated, culture is implicit; however, in reality, students learn more about culture through explicit participation (Hall, 1977). I maintain that all five principles of the approach (Netten & Germain, 2012; see
Chapter 3) can be applied to culture by simply adding the word “culture” to each principle. Further, in my argument, it is through ongoing practice while speaking to peers, that students develop active listening
196 skills as part of their responsibilities as Ontario FSL students and demonstrate the oral communication priority of the curriculum (OME, 2014). The neurolinguistic approach is simply designed to make theory meaningful to teachers in practice. Therefore, Ontario Grade 9 CF teachers might want to consider using the approach to assist students in optimizing oral communication and internalizing cultural grammar, or firm up the eggs of their salades.
Recommendation 4: Consider Beginning with Travel
A travel focus in the Grade 9 CF classroom can increase student motivation to learn and interact with French cultures. As evidenced in this study, teachers can entice students with superficial travel elements and then progress into more action-oriented tasks, such as applying for Canadian passports in
French and role-playing francophone interactions. Teachers can continue to share their travel experiences and use ICT materials to bring French cultures into their Grade 9 CF classrooms. Furthermore, it would be beneficial if Grade 9 CF educators could engage with exchange companies, bursary programs, and more guest speakers to present cultural opportunities whereby students can live and breathe French culture outside the classroom for “greener beans.”
Benefits of the Study
My research study was exploratory, and I do not argue for a one-way approach to working with cultures. Regardless, I present multiple benefits resulting from my research inquiry. Firstly, my findings enable me to better understand several theories and frameworks important for FSL educational research.
Considering my participants’ examples of the nested pedagogical orientations framework (Cummins, 2001,
2009; Cummins et al., 2007), the basic language level of Grade 9 CF students makes the transmission orientation a sound approach to begin instruction with teacher-led activities; however, this classroom context can still demonstrate other orientations. The results of this inquiry also reinforce the possibilities for the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012) in beginner level CF classrooms due to my participants’ preference for oral communication and project-based pedagogy. Likewise, the study reflects
197 the importance of pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2001; 2016; 2018) through action-oriented cultural tasks with ongoing consideration of the cultural iceberg (Weaver, 1986).
The participants’ techniques refine my own practice, which is a recommendation for effective qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). I am particularly intrigued by Claire’s superhero unit (see Appendix N) whereby her discussions about social inequalities show that Ontario Grade 9 CF educators can work towards the transformative pedagogical orientation (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007). The inquiry also serves as a catalyst for teacher professional development for the participants and for other interested stakeholders because the study stresses the importance for teachers to monitor their own practices. Further, the teachers’ cultural contributions validate non-native French-speaking teachers as legitimate and capable cultural pedagogues.
Future Directions
My study is just the beginning of a complex research problem. Future research can expand on my findings, recommendations, and conclusions. For example, there could be additional research regarding
Ontario Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking educators’ cultural approaches with larger sets of participants to obtain a continued research voice that illuminates these teachers’ experiences. Longitudinal case studies could continue investigating non-native French-speaking educators to determine cultural change and growth in the Grade 9 CF classes across multiple semesters. These studies could provide deeper investigation into the efficacy of the main theories of this inquiry, including the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012), the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007), critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000; Keneman, 2013;
Salazar, 2013), and pluricultural competency (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018) found in the “‘little c’”
(Kramsch, 2013, p. 65) of French cultures below the iceberg’s surface (Weaver, 1986), because not all of these were fully observed in the study.
198
Ontario Grade 9 CF teacher-studies on culture would benefit from extending to rural communities to determine ICT access and proximity to French communities. Considering the popularity of travel as a cultural theme, I would also like to see future research exploring educators’ perceptions and applications of their travel experiences. Irrespective of the program, language level, or student age, future research could explore the world of ICT and how these resources bring French cultures into the classroom and, potentially, the third space (Bhabha, 2011; Witte, 2014). Researchers could investigate the appropriateness of various cultural websites and communication platforms to help teachers introduce and interact with francophone cultures in safe online environments.
As the learner is the direct consumer of the salade niçoise, observational classroom research can explore how Ontario Grade 9 CF students interpret their teachers’ cultural approaches and interact in transformative cultural spaces. Further research could also investigate concepts including the neurolinguistic approach (Netten & Germain, 2012), the nested pedagogical orientations (Cummins, 2001,
2009; Cummins et al., 2007), critical pedagogy (Aoki, 2005b; Bartolomé, 1994; Freire, 1968/1970, 2000;
Keneman, 2013; Salazar, 2013), and pluricultural competency (Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018)in more advanced FSL classes to explore the level of student cultural interaction. It would be also beneficial if future inquiries explore culture in the Grade 12 CF context to examine the students’ final experiences with francophone cultures in the secondary school setting.
Recognizing the influence of other stakeholders in the Grade 9 CF classroom, it would be advantageous to conduct future research studies regarding the roles of principals and parents for cultural education. Focus groups with these stakeholders would allow researchers to collect community experiences so that these stakeholders can also learn from one another. It would also be beneficial for researchers to explore cultural perceptions and techniques of Ontario native French speakers to see how their linguistic and cultural proficiencies shape their cultural approaches.
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Final Remarks
As expressed by Bloomberg and Volpe (2016), “conclusions become the beginning of a new story”
(p. 272). During the focus group of this inquiry, Manno summarized the complex and transitive possibilities that French cultures have for Ontario Grade 9 CF students and can extend to all FSL learners, from which I conclude this dissertation:
What is francophone culture anymore with this global migration and the social media and this digital
world.…I just want the kids to appreciate and find pleasure in learning about something besides
their own, isolated little community….Go out there and learn about the world! Hopefully, the
francophone world and find your identity through there, so that if you continue French…[you] get in
becoming this other sort of francophone self...
Manno’s statement and the overall experiences of the nine teachers of this inquiry demonstrate that it is essential for Ontario Grade 9 CF educators to celebrate cultural complexities and take ownership to learn through a CX perspective as non-native French-speaking educators. Furthermore, we fulfill curriculum through a balanced lived (Aoki, 1999) and linear (Aoki, 1993, 1999, 2005a) approach.
Germain’s (2017) arguments that SL educators should shift from speaking about languages to speaking languages resonated with this study. This belief can also apply to culture in that educators can transition from speaking about cultures to speaking cultures in the SL classroom. As teacher-chefs, we have to work towards obtaining and maintaining our Michelin stars. We can achieve this goal by carefully selecting our salad ingredients, getting our seasonings in order, and listening to our consumers when crafting our salades niçoise for global citizenship en français.
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Appendix A:
An Overview of the Intercultural Expectations
Curriculum Overall Intercultural Expectations for Academic, Applied and Open Levels Strand Listening “… demonstrate an understanding of information in oral French texts about aspects of culture in diverse French-speaking communities and other communities around the world, and of French sociolinguistic conventions used in a variety of situations and communities” (pp. 59, 74, 89). Speaking “… demonstrate an awareness of aspects of culture in diverse French-speaking communities and other communities around the world, and of the appropriate use of French sociolinguistic conventions in a variety of situations” (pp. 62, 77, 92). Reading “… demonstrate an understanding of information in French texts about aspects of culture in diverse French-speaking communities and other communities around the world, and of French sociolinguistic conventions used in a variety of situations and communities” (pp. 66, 81, 95). Writing “… demonstrate an awareness of aspects of culture in diverse French-speaking communities and other communities around the world, and of the appropriate use of French sociolinguistic conventions in a variety of situations” (pp. 69, 84, 98)
Note. Adapted from the Ontario Ministry of Education. (2014). The Ontario curriculum, grades 9 to 12:
French as a second language – Core, extended, and immersion French, 2014 (revised). Queen’s Printer for
Ontario. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/fsl912curr2014.pdf
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Appendix B:
Research Timeline
REB Process : October 30, 2016
• Completed the ethics training course titled, TCPS 2: CORE — Tutorial from the federal government REB Process : August – September 2018
• Prepared for the candidacy examination • Submitted the ethics proposal to the University of Calgary and made necessary revisions
Participant Recruitment, Online Questionnaire and Initial Interviews : Fall 2018
Final Interviews: January 2019
Focus Group: January 31, 2019
Data Analysis: January- May 2019, September-December 2019
Final Iteration of the Dissertation: January- March 2020
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Appendix C:
Recruitment Email for FSL Stakeholders
Dear colleague(s) in FSL education: My name is Rochelle Gour and I am an Ontario non-native (i.e., French is not my first language) high school teacher. I currently teach Grade 9 core French (i.e., beginner level French as a second language) in Ontario. I am also a concurrent doctoral student at the University of Calgary (online program) in the Werklund School of Education. Dr. Sylvie Roy is my thesis supervisor.
I would like to know if you could post an announcement with a direct link to my online survey to your professional network of FSL teachers for my doctoral research. I have provided you with the announcement in the attachment of this email.
I would like to investigate how a sample of Ontario Grade 9 core French non-native French-speaking teachers approach cultural content in their Grade 9 core French classroom(s). I am seeking your permission to post this content to help me obtain my desired number of potential research participants.
When clicking the link, FSL teachers will be directed to an online survey on Google Forms. They will be invited to share their experiences with cultural content in the Grade 9 core French classrooms as non- native French-speaking teachers. Their answers will come directly to me via Google Forms; therefore, no additional work on your part, is required. Please note that this research study has already passed the ethics clearance from the University of Calgary’s Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board.
If you agree, please post my research announcement and survey link; however, please do not email any suitable teachers using their work email addresses. If, after reviewing this message, that you no longer wish to help me recruit teachers, this will not impact our friendship and/or professional bond. I thank you, simply for your time in considering my request.
Merci! Rochelle Gour, EdD candidate/member of the Ontario College of Teachers, OCT
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Appendix D:
Recruitment Flyer
Dear Colleagues in FSL Education,
My name is Rochelle Gour and I am an Ontario non-native (i.e., French is not my first language) high school teacher. I currently teach Grade 9 core French (i.e., beginner level French as a second language) in Ontario. I am also a concurrent doctoral student at the University of Calgary (online program) in the Werklund School of Education. Dr. Sylvie Roy is my thesis supervisor.
CONSIDER TAKING PART IN A STUDY ON THE HIGH SCHOOL FSL CURRICULUM
✓ You currently teach, or have recently taught the Ontario Grade 9 core French course (open, applied, and/or academic) at least once from 2017 to 2018 ✓ French is not your first language (i.e., you are a non-native French speaker) ✓ You want to share your perspectives and expertise with fellow Ontario FSL teachers and learn more about the revised FSL curriculum and cultural content
THEN consider taking part in my doctoral research study titled: How do non-native French teachers in Ontario approach cultural content in the Grade 9 core French program? - How do these teachers interpret and implement the added intercultural strand of the revised curriculum in authentic ways? WHAT’S INVOLVED AND WHEN? Fall 2018 ✓ A telephone, online, or a face-to-face interview of approximately one hour
December 2018 ✓ A telephone, online, or a face-to-face interview of approximately one hour
January 2019 ✓ A focus group with nine other participating teachers of approximately one hour
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WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS? ✓ You will have the opportunity to reflect upon the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum with other FSL core French teachers across Ontario ✓ You may receive cultural resources from colleagues of the province, adaptable for your own Grade 9 core French classroom ✓ You will contribute to new research on core French education and specifically, on the intercultural curriculum strand ✓ You will receive a $50 gift card upon completion of the study (a minimum participation for the first interview is required for the gift card)
IF YOU ARE INTERESTED ✓ Complete the online questionnaire by clicking on the attached link ✓ Check off your permission for me to use your responses for my research ✓ Check off your interest to potentially participate in the study ✓ Insert your personal email address at the end of the survey (do not use your employer’s email address) and I will contact you as soon as possible with additional details and the consent letter
Click here to respond to the questionnaire: https://goo.gl/forms/YGnhXB2In31G8s0d2 Merci! Rochelle Gour, EdD candidate/member of the Ontario College of Teachers, OCT
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Appendix E:
Online Questionnaire
Research Topic: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. Introductory Message & Consent: Thank you for your time to review this questionnaire! Your thoughts on curriculum, French-speaking cultures and experiences of the non-native French-speaking teacher are thoroughly appreciated! You are not obliged to complete this survey; however, I would greatly appreciate reviewing your responses regarding cultural content for the Grade 9 core French classroom! The questionnaire will take approximately 30 minutes to complete. Please complete one survey only.
The purpose of this questionnaire is to present an overview of how Ontario Grade 9 non-native French- speaking teachers approach cultures in their classrooms. Therefore, when answering each question, only think about your current Grade 9 core French classroom(s).
Your identity will be anonymous if you do not include your email address at the end of the survey. However, please note that if you wish to receive details about my study as a potential participant, then you must include your personal email address at the end of this survey, which will no longer make your answers anonymous. For the purposes of the questionnaire, the only identifiable information that you may give to me is your email address (if you choose to do so). This is so that I can communicate with you and provide you with additional details and attach the consent letter for your review. When answering the survey’s questions, do not disclose private information such as your employer, names of students, and your name. Please be reminded that Google owns this survey software; therefore, any of your answers and/or email address may be viewed and stored by this company. Other than Google’s proprietary ownership, no other individuals will have access to your responses and/or email address. I will never share your email address (if you add it to the questionnaire) or any other personal information with others. Nor, will any identifiable data be published in my future research. I will only have electronic files of your responses, which will be safely stored in my personal, password-protected computer and in encrypted
236 files. Your email address will be stored in my digital master list, which will become my list of contact information. I will delete your email address (and any other personal identifiable data if you continue as my participant) as well as the electronic master list of contact information, and unused questionnaire responses, one month after the publication of my thesis. I will delete all electronic files by removing them from my trash can folder of my computer. Please be advised that you will be providing me today with consent implied by a specific action. For example, if you provide me with consent by clicking on the YES box at the end of the survey, you will grant me the permission to keep your responses. Additionally, adding your email address onto this survey, is your automatic consent to share your email with me. Any unused responses will be deleted from my computer one month post the publication of my research study. You do not have to answer all questions and you are free to withdraw (i.e., exit this survey) at no penalty and at any time. Please note that our friendship and/or professional relationships will not be affected if you decide to no longer proceed. If you do not want me to use your responses, please do not click on the YES box. If you wish to receive additional information about my study, click on the YES box. If, having clicked on this box, that you later decide that you are no longer interested, you will have 10 business days to email me to withdraw your questionnaire responses. Otherwise, after the 10th day, I will keep your questionnaire responses indefinitely (unless I decide that they are no longer applicable to my study). When answering the questions in this survey, please be aware of the range of emotions you may feel such as feelings of personal pride for your pedagogical techniques and negative feelings such as the lack of confidence in approaching cultures to students. These feelings are completely normal as the curriculum is still being understood by its teachers. The purpose of my study is not to judge your teaching practice as a non-native French-speaking teacher but rather, celebrate your uniqueness. Culture is also a dynamic component of the second language classroom, which is approached differently by its teachers; therefore, there is no specific measure of cultural competency for teachers. Please note that I cannot provide you with a gift for reading and/or completing this online survey; however, if you wish to participate in my study, you will eventually receive a $50 gift card in recognition for your additional time (after having completed at least the first interview). If you are interested in officially becoming a research participant for the interviews and focus group, please provide me with your personal email address at the bottom of the questionnaire. I will then contact you via email to provide you with a consent letter and additional details about the study’s design. Merci beaucoup!
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Questions Teacher Identity Instructions: Select the most appropriate answer. 1. I obtained my FSL instruction: a- in Ontario only b- in another Canadian province or territory c- through a combination of Ontario and other Canadian province(s) d- internationally 2. I have taught at least one of the FSL (Core, Extended, and/or Immersion) programs (elementary and/or secondary) in Ontario (including long-term occasional teaching positions, supply work, permanent positions, etc.) for: a- 0-5 years b- 6- 10 years c- 11- 15 years d- 16 + 3. Including both permanent and long-term occasional work, as an FSL teacher, I have taught in ___#___schools in my school district. a- only this school b- 1-2 schools c- 3+ schools
4. Including both permanent and long-term occasional work, I have taught __#__ core French classes (in any level or panel): a- 0 (this is my first core French class this semester) b- 1-2 classes c- 3-4 classes d- 5 + classes 5. Including both permanent and long-term occasional work, I have taught __#__ other FSL classes such as Extended French, French Immersion, or for fully French language schools: a- 0 (I have never taught French in these contexts) b- 1-2 classes
238 c- 3-4 classes d- 5+ classes
6. In this current academic year, I have __#__ sections of Grade 9 academic and/or applied French: a- 1 b- 2-3 c- 4 + 7. Through actual teaching practice as a licenced educator, and/or as an FSL teacher-candidate, I have been exposed to the revised 2014 (secondary) curriculum for __#__ years: a- 1st year b- 2-3 years c- 4-5 years 8. Including my first language, I confidently speak in __#_ of languages: a- 1-2 b- 3-4 c- 5+ 9. In my life, I have visited __#__ of French-speaking communities: a- zero b- 1-5 places c- 6-10 places d- 11 + places 10. Being a native speaking teacher of French (i.e., French is the teacher’s first language) to approach cultural content in the Grade 9 core French classroom is: a- extremely important b- somewhat important c- not important 11. I currently teach in: a- Northern Ontario b- Central Ontario c- South Western Ontario
239 d- South Eastern Ontario School Culture Instructions: Select the option that most accurately reflects your teaching practice. 1 (untrue), 2 (somewhat true), 3 (mostly true), to 4 (true). 12. My school’s student body is multi-ethnic. 13. My FSL department is multi-ethnic. 14. Cultural education is an important focus in my school. 15. My FSL department is primarily comprised of teachers who do not have French as a first language. 16. My FSL department exchanges cultural resources with the team. 17. My FSL department and I are happy about the added Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum. 18. My FSL department includes non-Eurocentric communities such as Vietnam, French Polynesia, and New Orleans when presenting French-speaking communities to students. 19. My FSL team requires much more professional development opportunities for cultural education than for other areas of the curriculum. Cultural Beliefs Instructions: Select the option that is most applicable in your teaching practice. 1 (untrue), 2 (somewhat true), 3 (mostly true), to 4 (true). 20. I enjoy learning about other cultures, and I am at ease, interacting with other cultural groups. 21. I feel that I have a sufficient knowledge base of French-speaking cultures as applicable for the Grade 9 core French classroom. 22. Cultural content should be the priority of the revised curriculum. This section of the questionnaire was prepared based on the following references: Bennett, C. (2003). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Pearson Education. Slade, J. C., & Conoley, C. W. (1989). Multicultural experiences for special educators. Teaching exceptional children, 22(1), 62. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005998902200116 Curriculum, French Language, and Cultural Practices Instructions: Select the option that is most applicable in your teaching practice. 1 (untrue), 2 (somewhat true), 3 (mostly true), to 4 (true). 23. When introducing cultural content to my Grade 9 core French students, I use authentic resources such as job applications, menus and popular music.
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24. It is easier to approach French-speaking cultures with Grade 9 core French academic students than with Grade 9 applied or open level learners. 25. I find it difficult to assess cultural competencies. 26. My students often talk about French-speaking cultures in the French language. 27. I have sufficient access to cultural resources for my FSL students. 28. I have sufficient training to effectively use cultural resources with my students. 29. I refer to the revised curriculum on a frequent basis. 30. I did not need to modify my teaching style when addressing the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum. 31. I review various FSL policy documents and frameworks (such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) to assist me in approaching cultural content. 32. I regularly create cultural activities from scratch. 33. I often reuse cultural materials from year-to-year. This section of the questionnaire prepared based on the following existing works: Gour, R. (2015). Engagement or despondence? Ontario middle-school Core French teachers’ perceptions of and experiences with the 2013 Ontario French as a second language curriculum (Publication No. 1604395) [Master’s thesis, University of Toronto]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Viswanathan, U. (2016). Exploring the relationship between core French teachers’ beliefs and their instructional practices (Publication No. 10194535) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Please check off YES or NO for me to use your responses for my research project (even if you wish to no longer proceed with my study).
Please check off if you would like to receive additional information to potentially participate in the study. THIS IS NOT YOUR OFFICIAL CONSENT.
If YES, please provide me with your personal email address HERE. If you indicate YES, I will then send you a consent letter with additional information. There is no need, at this time, to provide me with your full name.
Thank you again, for your time! I would love for you to participate in my study!
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Appendix F:
Letter of Initial Contact Post Questionnaire
Name of Researcher, Faculty, Department, Telephone & Email: Rochelle Gour, Werklund School of Education, Languages and Literacy Supervisor: Dr. Sylvie Roy, Werklund School of Education, Languages and Literacy Title of Project: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
Dear colleague in Ontario FSL education, Thank you for completing the online questionnaire, clicking on the boxes for me to include your responses in my research, and for authorizing me to contact you to potentially participate in my research project entitled: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices. Please note that the University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study.
I am a current FSL teacher of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). I am also pursuing a doctoral degree at the University of Calgary in an online format. French was not my first language acquired at birth. When teaching Grade 9 core French, I always consider how teachers of our identity approach cultural content when the language is not our mother tongue. Additionally, I always think about how we can effectively engage the Grade 9 core French student who still has a beginner level proficiency with rich, cultural content. We, as non-native French-speaking teachers have multiple advantages when interacting with beginner level learners of French such as our ability to sympathize with our core French students, potentially more than teachers who are native speakers. To help improve my own practice and provide greater research and support to the Ontario FSL community of Grade 9 CF non-native French-speaking teachers, I am seeking your participation in my study. In this email, I have attached the consent letter, which provides you with additional detail regarding the project’s scope and research rights.
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Essentially, I would like to interview you on two occasions this semester and then have you join me and fellow FSL teachers for an online focus group in January 2019. During the online focus group, you will be invited to share any cultural resources that you find to be successful for your Grade 9 core French classroom(s). This meeting will also provide you with the possibility to meet other FSL teachers working in different regions of the province and to gain additional resources from all participants that you may transfer in your own context. Additional details and benefits of my study are outlined in the consent letter, which I have attached in this email. Please do not hesitate to contact me via email to discuss the content of the consent letter at your earliest convenience. If you would like to call me instead, you are most welcome to do so. There is no pressure to participate and our decline will not impact our friendship or our professional bond as FSL teachers. At your earliest convenience, please contact me (either via email or phone) of your decision to participate or to decline participation in my study. In faith, Rochelle Gour, EdD candidate, OCT
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Appendix G:
Letter of Informed Consent
Name of Researcher, Faculty, Department, Telephone & Email: Rochelle Gour, Werklund School of Education, Languages and Literacy Supervisor: Dr. Sylvie Roy, Werklund School of Education, Languages and Literacy Title of Project: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
This consent form, a copy of which has been given to you, is only part of the process of informed consent. If you require additional details about something mentioned here, or information not included here, you should feel free to ask. Please take the time to read this carefully and to understand any accompanying information. The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. Participation is completely voluntary and confidential. This is not an anonymous study because you have provided me with your email address to initiate communication. Additionally, you will provide me with your name at the bottom of this consent letter. You are free to discontinue participation at any time during the study with no penalty. Your participation, refusal or sudden withdrawal will not impact any personal or work relationships (i.e., friendships) that you may have with me as the researcher of this study. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to explore how a small sample of Ontario core French (CF) high school teachers who do not have French as their first language, approach cultures and the intercultural curriculum strand in their Grade 9 core French classrooms over the course of one semester (September 2018 to January 2019). What Will I be Asked to Do? You previously completed an online questionnaire using Google Forms, which asked you to provide your responses to a variety of topics including French-speaking cultural content and teaching strategies for the
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Grade 9 core French classroom. You then provided me with your informed consent (without signing your name) by the specific action of clicking YES to allow me to use your responses in my study and a YES to receive additional information to potentially become an official research participant for the subsequent data collection opportunities. In November 2018, I will invite you to participate in an interview for about one hour in duration with 17 questions using one of the following formats: Skype (with a username that protects your identity), a face-to- face meeting (e.g. at your home, my home, etc.), or a telephone call. The purpose of this interview will be to (a) extend the responses from the questionnaire, and (b) to discuss your initial perceptions and teaching strategies of approaching cultures, and (c) to identify any of your professional learning goals to achieve throughout the semester with regards to approaching cultural content to students. Questions such as, “Overall, how do you approach the teaching of culture?” and “How much preparation time is required for a cultural activity in your classroom? What do you have to do to ensure that you are ready to teach this cultural activity to your class?” will form this interview. In January 2019, you will be invited to complete a final interview for about one hour in duration with 14 questions using one of the following formats: Skype (with a username that you will create, which will not include any personal, identifiable information such as your legal name), a face-to-face meeting (e.g., at your home, my home, etc.), or a telephone call. At this point in the study, you will be asked questions to help you reflect about your teaching semester and specifically, about how you integrated curriculum expectations in various ways. Questions such as, “Describe a moment when you witnessed your students getting ‘stuck’ with an authentic French task. How did they eventually understand the culturally complex language items? What did you learn from the experience?” and “What additional support would you find useful as you continue to implement the revised curriculum and specifically with regards to working with cultures?” will form this interview. In January 2019, you will be invited to share any cultural artefacts (e.g., lesson plans, book titles, music titles, etc.) to an online focus group of approximately ten questions using Skype (with a username that you will create, which will not include any personal, identifiable information such as your legal name). The purpose of the focus group is: (a) to exchange cultural resources and teaching strategies to a maximum of nine other Ontario FSL Grade 9 core French non-native French-speaking teachers, (b) to discuss your professional growth in approaching cultural content, and (c) to share any recommendations to better approach cultures in subsequent semesters. Questions such as, “Can you describe a particular unit, lesson, activity or resource that reflects how you addressed these curriculum objectives?” and “How have you evolved in your own awareness and/or development of cultural education?” will form this focus group discussion. What Type of Personal Information Will Be Collected? I require the receipt of your personal email address (which you have already given me in the online questionnaire), your name (for the consent letter), and a Skype username (for the focus group). If you wish, you may provide me with additional information such as your mailing address, postal code, telephone number. You may ask me to meet you at your home to complete the interviews or focus group or call you. You will select a pseudonym (i.e., a fake name) at the bottom of this consent form, which I will use throughout the study. The above information will be stored on a digital master list.
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If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to provide some additional, personal information such as the number of years that you have taught French and your personal proficiency level of French. Any cultural material that you share for my study (i.e., lesson plans, etc.) may be photocopied, scanned, or downloaded for eventual analysis. If shared during the focus group, your material may be reviewed by other FSL teacher-participants. This is to provide me with greater insight into your questionnaire and interview responses and to share resources with fellow FSL teacher colleagues. Are there Risks or Benefits if I Participate? Multiple benefits exist in participating in my study. As the curriculum is still relatively new, your experiences and techniques in approaching cultural content to the Grade 9 core French classroom will be shared to a variety of FSL stakeholders in Ontario and potentially, in other provinces and countries as your contributions can also be transferable in other FSL contexts. This research study will also help you reflect on your own teaching practice and may inspire you to continue exploring the field of culture in future opportunities. Also, the focus group will provide you with a networking opportunity to meet additional Ontario FSL Grade 9 non-native French-speaking teachers and learn from their own experiences. You may also receive cultural resources, which were successful in their classrooms and that may be transferable in your own teaching spaces. Finally, your contributions can also help me improve my own practice as a fellow non-native French-speaking teacher. Upon completion of the study (a minimum completion of the online questionnaire and of the first interview), you will receive a $50 gift card in recognition of your time. This will be provided to you at the end of the study (via email). If you decide to withdraw from the study when you have already completed the first interview, you will still receive the gift card. However, if you only completed the online questionnaire, you cannot receive the gift card because it is to reflect the fulness or most of the completed research study. Additionally, the questionnaire is only a minor contribution to the data collection. There is the potential that you may feel a range of emotions as you complete the online questionnaire, the two interviews and the online focus group. For example, you may become proud of your pedagogical techniques in approaching cultural content, but you may also become concerned that you may be lacking in some curricular expectations on culture. These feelings are completely normal as the curriculum is still being understood by its teachers. The purpose of my study is not to judge your teaching practice as a non- native French-speaking teacher but rather, celebrate your uniqueness. Culture is also a dynamic component of the second language classroom, which is approached differently by its teachers; therefore, there is no specific measure of cultural competency for teachers. Throughout the study, you will be consistently reminded that you can choose how, and the number of questions to answer. If I notice that you become upset, I will immediately provide you with care such as providing you with additional cultural resources. Otherwise, you can always withdraw from the study. For the focus group, there is a risk that your voice made be recognizable to fellow FSL teachers of the province. If you choose to upload your camera on Skype and/or exchange contact information with the other participants, know that your privacy will not be protected.
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What Happens to the Information I Provide? The interview and focus group recordings will be transcribed on the computer and shared with my research team (Dr. Sylvie Roy, Dr. Lenters, and Dr. Hansen). All data (i.e., your responses and any cultural resources that you share) will be safeguarded. Transcriptions from the interview and from the focus group discussion may be printed for my review. I will also photocopy any originals for cultural resources that you may share. I will safeguard these hard copy files (i.e., the transcriptions and any photocopied cultural resources), in a locked cabinet in my home. All other files will be electronic, and each document will be encrypted at the file level and stored in my personal computer, which is password protected. Additionally, I will only store electronic files in my computer and not in a storage space such as Google Drive. However, the online questionnaire responses will be stored in Google Forms. Confidentiality will also be maintained because you will provide me with a pseudonym (i.e., a fake name) and a personal email address. I will only have access to your contact information (i.e., your email address and/or telephone number). Your employer will not have access to your personal information such as your name and your email. During the focus group, you will be asked to keep your camera off, and use a Skype name with your pseudonym or another username of your choice. Unless you prematurely withdraw participation and data, I will keep all data (i.e., your responses and your cultural materials) until one month after my thesis will be published. I will keep all used data indefinitely and I may incorporate it into future research pursuits such as for article submissions and/or presentations. I will return any originals of your cultural resources in the same format originally sent to me and I will return them within 24 hours. I will delete the digital master list by removing it from my TRASH folder, which contains personal information such as your email address, one month after my thesis is published. All unused data will be eventually removed from my TRASH folder of my computer and/or shredded within one month after my thesis is published. When my thesis is published, I will email you an attached copy for your reference. I will also send you your gift card at that time. Participation is completely voluntary, and you can withdraw from the study at any time and can do so by contacting me in person, via email, or by phone. If you withdraw from the study prematurely, you can withdraw your data (i.e., your cultural materials shared, and your responses) within 10 business days since your last data collection opportunity; otherwise, at the 11th day, you will provide me with the consent to keep the material. . If you decide to leave the focus group prior to its conclusion, any cultural material (i.e., lesson plans, etc.) that you share for this discussion may still be kept so that other FSL teacher participants of the focus group can still learn from your experiences and pedagogical tools. Additionally, your responses shared during the focus group may also be kept and discussed by fellow participants when you leave. If you prematurely withdraw, I will keep your email address so that I can send you your gift card (if you completed at least the online questionnaire + the first interview) and so that I can send you an electronic copy of my thesis one month after it is published. Your resources may be shared with my thesis supervisory committee and eventually incorporated into my dissertation. This does not apply to the online questionnaire if you did not grant me permission to include
247 your responses in my study. In this instance, I will not include such data. Additionally, if you withdraw data within 10 business days post your last data collection opportunity, I will not share this information. It will also be immediately removed from my electronic and hard copy files. Signatures Your signature on this form indicates that 1) you understand to your satisfaction the information provided to you about your participation in this research project, and 2) you agree to participate in the research project. In no way does this waive your legal rights nor release the investigator, sponsors, or involved institutions from their legal and professional responsibilities. You are free to withdraw from this research project at any time. You should feel free to ask for clarification or new information throughout your participation. Please email me your official response, only using a personal email account. Note that we will only communicate using our personal email addresses and/or contact each other with our phone numbers. Participant’s Name: (please print): Participant’s Signature: Date: The pseudonym I chose for myself is: Researcher Name: (please print) Rochelle Gour Researcher’s Signature: Date: Questions/Concerns If you have any further questions or want clarification regarding this research and/or your participation, please contact: Researcher: Rochelle Gour, Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary If you have any concerns about the way you have been treated as a participant, please contact the Research Ethics Analyst, Research Services Office, University of Calgary at XXX XXX- XXXX/ XXX-XXXX; email [email protected]. A copy of this consent form has been given to you to keep for your records and reference. The investigator has kept a copy of the consent form.
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Appendix H:
First Interview Questions
Research Topic: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
Time of the Interview: Interviewee: Date: Format (as selected by the participant): The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. Message from the Researcher: Today is: ______. Thank you for your time to volunteer for my study! Your unique experiences will help provide FSL stakeholders with insight as how to approach cultural content as a non-native French-speaking teacher to Ontario Grade 9 core French students. This is also a time for you to reflect as a professional to identify your strengths and areas for professional development with regards to cultural content in your Grade 9 core French classroom. The interview will take approximately one hour to complete. You do not have to answer all questions. Please let me know if you need to prematurely leave the interview. Your identity will be kept confidential throughout the research process because I will use your pseudonym (i.e. your fake name) in my transcriptions. To protect your identity, you have selected the pseudonym of: ______. There are limits to confidentiality, however, as some content that you may share may reflect your unique identity (e.g., if you state that you are the only French teacher of your high school), which in turn, may reveal the location of your work. Only share what you would feel comfortable sharing to a community of interested individuals such as colleagues, employers and the public if they were to listen in on this conversation. As a reminder, do not disclose any sensitive information such as the location of your employer, names of students, your name, and/or any other identifiable information. If, by accident, you reveal any of this type of information, I will not transcribe it in my transcriptions and nor include it in my study. Additionally, focus your responses to your current Grade 9 core French classroom(s) of this
249 semester. If this interview is in a face-to-face format, I will be recording our interview using two recording devices and I will put my cell phone on speaker for this call. Please note that I am only present in my home at this time. Please ensure that no one is in the room with you during this meeting. Additionally, if this interview is conducted via Skype, please be aware that the discussion may be accessed by Skype and that the Skype protocol does allow Microsoft and government agencies to monitor its sessions and that the sessions are not fully encrypted. Please be advised that all your responses may be used in my study but that I will protect your identity using the pseudonym (i.e., fake name) that you gave me at the onset of the study. Unused responses will be deleted at the end of my study, one month after my thesis is published. When answering the questions in this interview, please be aware of the range of emotions you may feel such as feelings of personal pride for your pedagogical techniques and negative feelings such as the lack of confidence in approaching cultures to students. These feelings are completely normal as the curriculum is still being understood by its teachers. The purpose of my study is not to judge your teaching practice as a non-native French-speaking teacher but rather, celebrate your uniqueness. Culture is also a dynamic component of the second language classroom, which is approached differently by its teachers; therefore, there is no specific measure of cultural competency for teachers. You are reminded that you can withdraw from the study at any time (and this interview) and your termination will not impact our friendship and/or our professional collaborations. If you wish to no longer include your data in my study, please let me know no later than 14 business days since your last data collection. At that point, I would immediately delete and/or shred your data but keep your personal email so that I can send you a copy of my thesis and provide you with a gift card (if you complete this entire first interview with me today). Otherwise, if I do not hear from you regarding a data withdrawal request prior to the 14 business days of your last data collection, I will permanently keep used data and I will temporarily keep unused data and your personal information until one month after my thesis is published. Know that I will only store your personal information such as your email address in an electronic master list, which is stored in my password protected computer and is encrypted. I will delete all electronic files from my personal computer and shred any transcriptions one month after my thesis is published. If you share any cultural resources with me today, I will return all original documents to you in the same method that you gave them to me and within 24 hours. Please note that I may photocopy the original(s) for my eventual review and potential incorporation in my study. I would treat the photocopy as a form of data. Please note that I cannot accept any resources of which you did not receive prior sharing permission, student-sensitive information such as their names, and resources which do not adhere to copyright laws. Have you read through the consent letter? Can I clarify anything for you? Do you consent to participate in this interview? Can we begin? I will start the recording now.
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Questions Teacher Identity 1. As a re-cap from your responses to the online questionnaire, please introduce yourself (without revealing sensitive information) as an FSL teacher such as the number of Grade 9 core French sections that you currently teach this semester and any other information that you think would help me better understand you as an educator.
2. Describe your linguistic proficiency of French and how it evolved over the course of your career.
3. Define and describe the characteristics of cultural proficiency as a second language teacher.
4. Identify and describe your cultural proficiencies of French-speaking cultures and how they evolved over the course of your career.
Conceptions of Curriculum and Cultures 5. Which curriculum strands are emphasized in your classroom more than others? Why do you think this is the case?
6. Comment on your reactions to the curriculum’s teacher prompts. For example, are they useful? What do they mean to you?
7. What is the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the words ‘culture’ and ‘transculture’ and why do you think that this was your immediate response?
8. What is the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the word ‘authentic’ and why do you think that this was your immediate response?
9. Overall, how do you approach culture(s) in your classroom?
10. How and when do you include authentic materials in your Grade 9 core French classroom?
11. In general, which variety of French do you think has a greater negative connotation and why? What variety-type of French do you often expose to your students and why? Describe what you have witnessed or currently witness when your students interact with these or this variety(ies).
12. Describe a scenario or a lesson where you introduce your students to French-speaking cultures using a teacher-centered or direct approach?
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13. Describe a scenario or a lesson where you introduce your students to French-speaking cultures using a student-centered approach, for example, student-led research activities?
14. How do you maintain, gain, or inspire student interest in French, while still maintaining grammatical accuracy as they interact with cultures?
15. How much preparation time is required for a cultural activity in your classroom? What do you have to do to ensure that you are ready to teach this cultural activity to your class?
16. What would you say is your ‘go-to’ resource to address the intercultural component of all curriculum strands and why?
17. What would you like to learn more about in terms of French-speaking cultures this semester?
This section of the interview prepared based on the following references: Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom. Addison-Wesley.
Misco, T. (2010). Moving beyond fidelity expectations: Rethinking curriculum reform for controversial topics in post-communist settings. Theory & Research in Social Education, 38(2), 182-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2010.10473422
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
Final Remarks: Thank you very much for the detailed responses to my questions! We will have our second interview in late January 2019.
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Appendix I:
Second Interview Questions
Research Topic: Investigating the Ontario FSL High School Curriculum: An Exploratory Case Study of Non-native French-speaking Teachers’ Cultural Practices
Time of the Interview: Interviewee: Date: Format (as selected by the participant): The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. Message from the Researcher: Today is: ______. Thank you for your time to volunteer for my study! Your continued sharing of your unique experiences will help provide FSL stakeholders with insight as how to approach cultural content as a non-native French- speaking teacher to Ontario Grade 9 core French students. This is also a time for you to reflect as a professional to identify your strengths and areas for professional development with regards to cultural content in your Grade 9 core French classroom. The interview will take approximately one hour to complete. You do not have to answer all questions. Please let me know if you need to prematurely leave the interview. Your identity will be kept confidential throughout the research process because I will use your pseudonym (i.e., your fake name) in my transcriptions. To protect your identity, you have selected the pseudonym of: ______. There are limits to confidentiality, however, as some content that you may share may reflect your unique identity (e.g., if you state that you are the only French teacher of your high school), which in turn, may reveal your work location. Only share what you would feel comfortable sharing to a community of interested individuals such as colleagues, employers and the public if they were to listen in on this conversation. As a reminder, do not disclose any sensitive information such as the location of your employer, names of students, your name, and/or any other identifiable information. If, by accident, you reveal any of this type of information, I will not transcribe it in my transcriptions and nor include it in my study. Additionally, focus your responses to your current Grade 9 core French classroom(s) of this semester. I will be recording our interview using two recording devices and I will put my cell phone on
253 speaker for this call (if this interview is not face-to-face). Please note that I am only present in my home at this time. Please ensure that no one is in the room with you during this meeting. Additionally, if this interview is conducted via Skype, please be aware that this discussion may be accessed by Skype and that the Skype protocol does allow Microsoft and government agencies to monitor its sessions and that the sessions are not fully encrypted. Please be advised that all your responses may be used in my study but that I will protect your identity using the pseudonym (i.e., fake name) that you gave me at the onset of the study. Unused responses will be deleted at the end of my study, one month after my thesis is published. When answering the questions in this interview, please be aware of the range of emotions you may feel such as feelings of personal pride for your pedagogical techniques and negative feelings such as the lack of confidence in approaching cultures to students. These feelings are completely normal as the curriculum is still being understood by its teachers. The purpose of my study is not to judge your teaching practice as a non-native French-speaking teacher but rather, celebrate your uniqueness. Culture is also a dynamic component of the second language classroom, which is approached differently by its teachers; therefore, there is no specific measure of cultural competency for teachers. You are reminded that you can withdraw from the study at any time (and this interview) and your termination will not impact our friendship and/or professional collaborations. If you wish to no longer include your data in my study, please let me know no later than 14 business days since your last data collection. At that point, I would immediately delete and/or shred your data but would keep your personal email so that I can send you a copy of my thesis and provide you with a gift card (because you have already completed the online questionnaire and the first interview). Otherwise, if I do not hear from you regarding a withdrawal request of your data within 14 business days, I will permanently keep used data and destroy unused data and your personal email one month after my thesis is published. I would permanently keep the used data. Know that I will only store your personal information such as your email address in an electronic master list, which is stored in my password protected computer and is encrypted. I will delete all electronic files from my personal computer and shred any transcriptions one month after my thesis is published. If you share any cultural resources with me today, I will return all original documents to you in the same method that you have them to me and within 24 hours. Please note that I may photocopy the original for my eventual review and incorporation in my study. I would treat the photocopy as a form of data. Please not that I cannot accept any resources of which you did not receive prior sharing permission, student-sensitive information such as their names and resources which do not adhere to copyright laws. Have you read through the consent letter? Can I clarify anything for you? Do you consent to participate in this interview? Can we begin? I will start the recording now.
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Questions Teacher Identity 1. Describe your growth level while approaching cultural content since the onset of the semester. 2. How much knowledge of French-speaking cultures is required for core French teachers using the revised curriculum? Can you provide examples of the type and amount of cultural knowledge you think is required? 3. What are your practitioner goals for future core French classes and specifically for the Grade 9 context? Conceptions of Curriculum and Cultures 4. What is an intercultural expectation in the curriculum that you often refer to and why? 5. How important is it for core French Grade 9 teachers to follow the Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR) in daily practice? 6. Describe a moment when you witnessed your students getting ‘stuck’ with an authentic French task. How did they eventually understand the culturally complex language items? What did you learn from the experience? 7. How do you assess cultural competency? For a diagnostic, formative, and summative task? What would be the language used on your rubrics? 8. How important is it to have a collegial sense of teamwork and compatibility with your other FSL colleagues, specifically, when addressing cultural content in your classroom? 9. Do you think that the revised curriculum and specifically the addition of the Intercultural Understanding sub-strand, will inspire students to continue with FSL courses in high school? 10. What additional support would you find useful as you continue to implement the revised curriculum and specifically with regards to working with cultures? Interview questions prepared based on the following references: Duncan, E. (2016). Onlookers to participants: Improving FSL students’ competence and confidence [Master’s research project, University of Toronto]. TSpace. https://bit.ly/2TaDYwS Gour, R. (2015). Engagement or despondence? Ontario middle-school Core French teachers’ perceptions of and experiences with the 2013 Ontario French as a second language curriculum (Publication No. 1604395) [Master’s thesis, University of Toronto]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. Final Remarks: Thank you very much for the detailed responses to my questions! We will have our focus group in late January 2019.
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Appendix J:
Focus Group Preparatory Document
Focus Group Instructions This is the final data collection opportunity for my study. The purpose, as previously mentioned, is to summarize our semesters and network with fellow non-native Grade 9 core French-speaking teacher colleagues. This should take approximately one hour to complete. You will notice that I have allocated 2 hours in the meeting settings just so that no one is kicked out of a session if we go slightly over 1 hour. On January 31, I will text you slightly before the meeting and send you a copy of the focus group questions. Based on consensus, the focus group date has been scheduled for January 31 at 7 pm online. Due to complexities around Skype, we will be using the Zoom platform. Here are the instructions to log on: Before January 31…
✓ Download “Zoom Client for Meetings” from https://zoom.us/download
✓ Open and run the file Zoom.pkg ✓ Test a session yourself, by clicking on this link: https://zoom.us/j/206969492 ✓ Find a headset for your computer (you do not require one, but it is better for the meeting) ✓ Test your audio and your camera (if you wish for us to see you) or know how to turn your camera off (I will also ensure that when you log on, that your camera will be off unless you turn it back on). ✓ Review the curriculum document, and specifically, the Intercultural Understanding curriculum sub- strands for Grade 9 core French On January 31…. ✓ Bring the curriculum document with you ✓ Bring any cultural resources (i.e., culminating assignments with rubrics) for Grade 9 core French that you would like to share with the team and/or merely reference, orally, when speaking. Remember to remove ALL evidence of school identification, student names, your name, etc., when sharing. ✓ Ensure that you are in a quiet space for an improved sound quality ✓ Sit close to your Internet modem ✓ Do not have multiple browsers open during our meeting, or download anything that might reduce the speed of your connection ✓ Click on the following link to begin the meeting: https://zoom.us/j/416986471
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Appendix K:
Focus Group Questions
Time of the Focus Group: 7 pm, ended at 8:45 pm Date: Thursday January 31, 2019 Attendees: Manno, Rachel, Claire, Helena, Camille, Rosina & Carla Format: Zoom
The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. Message from the Researcher: Today is: January 31, 2019 Thank you for your time to volunteer for my study! Your continued sharing of your unique experiences will help provide FSL stakeholders with insight as how to approach cultural content as a non-native French- speaking teacher to Ontario Grade 9 core French students. This is also a time for you to reflect as a professional to identify your strengths and areas for professional development, share your experiences, and learn from colleagues in our safe space about cultural education in the Grade 9 core French classroom as taught by non-native French-speaking teachers. Remember that there are no wrong answers when sharing your experiences. Please focus your responses to your Grade 9 core French classroom(s) from September 2018 to January 2019, or from at least one section last scholastic year. The focus group will take approximately one hour to complete. Please ensure that no one is in the room with you during this meeting. If possible, please ensure that your Internet connection is strong and that you use dial-up instead of Wi-Fi. I will let you know when I begin recording our meeting. I will be recording today’s discussion with two digital recorders and I may place my cell phone on speaker phone if a participant cannot upload Zoom onto her computer. In that instance, I will call the individual and place my cell phone on speaker so that she can listen in on our conversation. Please note that I will be transcribing today’s discussion on my personal computer, which is password protected. The file, containing our discussion, will be encrypted. Feel free not to answer certain questions. When answering the questions in this discussion, please be aware of the range of emotions you may feel such as feelings of personal pride for your pedagogical techniques and negative feelings such as the lack
257 of confidence in approaching cultures to students. These feelings are completely normal as the curriculum is still being understood by its teachers. The purpose of my study is not to judge your teaching practice as a non-native French-speaking teacher but rather, celebrate your uniqueness. Culture is also a dynamic component of the second language classroom, which is approached differently by its teachers; therefore, there is no specific measure of cultural competency for teachers. Please be advised of the various privacy limitations for today’s discussion. For example, Zoom does allow third-party agencies to monitor sessions and that sessions are not fully encrypted. You do not have to turn on your camera for this discussion. However, to simulate a face-to-face conversation, you must keep your audio on. If you choose to turn on your camera, please note that your identity is no longer anonymous or confidential and that you have provided me with your consent by a specific action of uploading your camera. Please note that you may recognize individuals from your local school or teaching district, which is a social risk. If you do not turn your camera on, there is still a chance today, that fellow participants may recognize your voice and subsequently, determine your identity. However, note that I will continue to use your pseudonym when referring to you throughout this conversation and when transcribing today’s discussion. Please email me on my University of Calgary account right now if you do not remember your name. I will not include any personal identifiable information in my research study. Only share what you feel comfortable sharing to a community of interested individuals such as colleagues, employers and the public and imagine that they are present for today’s discussion. At the end of today’s discussion, I will provide you with the space to exchange emails for networking purposes. You are not required to do so, and you can immediately leave the session. If you wish to participate in this networking opportunity, please note that your privacy can no longer be maintained. Exchanging emails with fellow participants is your implied consent by a specific action (i.e., by sending emails to other FSL teachers). All data today may be used in my study, but unused data will be deleted and/or shredded at the end of my study, one month after my thesis will be published. You are invited to share any cultural material such as lesson plans and links to enrich our discussion today. You can do so by adding them in Zoom’s sharing button or by emailing me during the session for me to upload for the group. When sharing any cultural resources, remember to respect copyright laws and only share material that you have created such as lesson plans or other resources which are not generated by students, or by your employer. You can leave today’s discussion at any time without penalty and that the time of your exit out of today’s discussion will not impact our friendship and/or our professional affiliations. Please be advised however, that anything that you say or share with others during the meeting (before you leave), may still be used for my research study so that other FSL teacher participants of the focus group can still learn from your experiences and pedagogical tools in addressing the research question. Fellow participant-teachers may also have access to your shared content such as your cultural resources. Also, when you prematurely leave the session, your responses and/or resources may still be discussed with the other participants. Your
258 resources may be shared with my thesis supervisory committee and eventually incorporated into my dissertation. If you include any originals as cultural resources today, I will return them to you in the same manner that you sent them within 24 hours post this discussion. I will make a copy of the content for analysis. However, I cannot exclude your responses and cultural material if you withdraw from the focus group (after having commenced the session) because it is too late in the data collection process to fully withdraw all of your data. As with any data, I will only keep non-identifiable information for publishing purposes. Have you read through the consent letter? Can I clarify anything for you? Do you consent to participate in this focus group? Can I begin recording our discussion? Focus Group Plan Timeframe Introduction of Share with peers: the focus ✓ Your fake name used for the study 10 mins. group ✓ # of years with the current board and if public or Catholic members ✓ # of current classes of Grade 9 CF ✓ Your FSL program as a high school student ✓ Reasons for participating in this study Review of the How do non-native French speaking teachers within Ontario research approach cultural content in the beginner level French questions education classes within the secondary school setting?
How do these teachers specifically interpret and implement the added Intercultural Understanding sub-strand of the revised curriculum in authentic ways?
20 mins Discussion of When discussing the resource(s), please share with your peers: any shared ✓ How you obtained this resource cultural ✓ Your student reactions resources for ✓ Simplification strategies this meeting ✓ Challenges ✓ Benefits
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30 mins. Presentation How do you react to these activities, techniques, and of the cultural resources? Can you apply this (these) in your current grade 9 activities, CF classroom? Why or why not? techniques a- Listening and singing to music from a variety of French- and resources speaking communities only from the b- Speaking in English to discuss French-speaking cultures vs. first interview speaking in French as much as possible c- Cultural fun facts in lieu of distinct cultural units d- Designated days for culture (e.g. Musique mardi, Montre- moi mercredi) e- Reliving the teacher’s travel experiences to French- speaking communities with students f- Comparing French-speaking educational systems with our own experiences g- Designated travel unit for culture to France (teacher- prepared vs. student prepared) h- Introductory class survey to identify the classroom’s unique student cultural communities i- Online games to review vocabulary (e.g. food vocabulary) using Kahoot, DuoLingo, etc. j- Frequent teacher-prompting to review the learned cultural vocabulary k- Cultural vocabulary on formal assessments (e.g. unit tests) l- Cultural exploration using technology (e.g. Google Maps, news broadcasts) m- French-speaking films (e.g. Coraline, Le petit Nicolas, Les Pee-Wees: L'Hiver Qui a Changé Ma Vie) n- Teacher-modeling of various French-speaking accents to students o- Cultural novels (e.g., Vas-y Johanne) p- Student-led PowerPoint presentations of an assigned francophone region vs. teacher control of cultural content q- Exposing students to more European French than other varieties r- DELF and CEFR-based teacher guides s- Situational cultural activities (e.g., garage sale, at the market, applying for a bursary, registering at a gym, making crepes in the school’s kitchen) t- Field trips (e.g. Lula Lounge for Franco-African dancing and cuisine) u- Referencing famous bilingual celebrities as French-speaking models v- Referencing grammar in cultural activities w- Skyping with native speakers x- Creating dialogues to reference culture y- Cultural writing day using taught expressions
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z- Receiving automatic cultural news feeds on the teacher’s phone (e.g. Instagram)
10 mins Discussion of How have you evolved in your own awareness and/or development practitioner of cultural education over the course of this semester and of this growth study? ➢ What are 1-2 new things that you learned about cultures during this study? Post- Networking Would you like to exchange contact information with each other? meeting Opportunity You are not required to do so…
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Appendix L:
Referral List for Teacher-Participants
Cultural Resources41
Grade 9 French Cultural Project Lesson Plans. (Ontario Teachers’ Federation): https://www.otffeo.on.ca/en/resources/lesson-plans/grade-9-french-cultural-project/
Links to Elementary & Secondary FSL Resources. (University of Ontario Institute of Technology): https://guides.library.uoit.ca/k12teacher/french
International Francophone Organization: https://www.francophonie.org/ A Sample Culture and Civilization Pedagogical Tool: (Le Point du FLE) https://www.lepointdufle.net/penseigner/civilisation-fiches-pedagogiques.htm
Cultural Portal: (rfiSAVOIRS). https://savoirs.rfi.fr/fr/recherche/rubrique/apprendre/thematique/culture- 2717
Francophone Bulletin Website. (Les Rendez-vous de la Francophonie): https://rvf.ca/
Virtual School Exchanges in Canada. (Tandem Canada): https://tandem.ulaval.ca/
Promoting Culture and Identity in the Classroom. (Saskatchewan Teachers’ Federation): https://www.stf.sk.ca/sites/default/files/companion_guide_francis_0.pdf
15 Francophone Cultural Tips for the FSL Classroom. (World Language Café 2018): https://worldlanguagecafe.com/francophone-culture/
41 Appendix L was created in case the teachers developed stress as they participated in this study. It is a combination of French cultural resources as well as stress reduction techniques for educators. This resource was never distributed to participants.
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General Stress Management Resources for Teachers
Teacher Wellbeing. (Ontario Teachers’ Federation): https://survivethrive.on.ca/article-category/teacher- wellbeing/?topic=28&level=Secondary&article_category=13
Stress Management Publications (OECTA): http://www.catholicteachers.ca/For-Your-Benefit/At-Your-Best
From Chaos to Coherence: Managing Stress While Teaching. (Education World): https://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin413.shtml
9 Stress Management Strategies Every Teacher Needs to Know. (Hey Teach!): https://www.wgu.edu/heyteach/article/9-stress-management-strategies-every-teacher-needs-know
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Appendix M:
Cultural Resources – Camille
Introductory Page of the Travel Unit
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Taxi Dialogue
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Performance Assessment Rubric
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Final Course Task STUDENT’S NAME: ______January 8-11, 2019 COURSE: FSF1D PERIOD: 4 TEACHER: TOTAL MARKS: ______Partie A: Préparation en classe Objectif : préparer à parler spontanément dans une interaction authentique. Tu commenceras à travailler seule pour la première période. Puis, tu travailleras en groupe de deux à trois personnes à préparer une interaction authentique et spontanée selon un des scénarios suivants. Tu seras capable de parler de toi- même, de tes goûts et de tes activités préférées, de ce que tu as fait et de ce que tu veux faire à l’avenir, etc. Tu auras accès à tous tes notes de classe et un dictionnaire. Partie B: Dialogue simulé ou jeu de rôle Objectif : parler spontanément dans une interaction authentique. Le jour de la présentation, le groupe présentera un des deux scénarios, choisi par Mme. L’interaction sera authentique et pas lu, donc l’élève n’aura pas accès aux notes pendant la présentation orale. Mme jouera le rôle de quelqu’un inattendu dans le scénario. Échelle d´évaluation tâche culminante orale FSF1D janvier 2019
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INSTRUCTIONS: Tâche culminante orale Jour 1 En individuel, écris un paragraphe de 7 à 10 phrases qui décrit ce que tu as fait dans ton pays choisi et ce que tu feras pour les prochaines vacances. Utilise les verbes au présent, les verbes réfléchis, les adjectifs, le passé composé et le futur simple dans ton paragraphe. Jour 2 En groupe, choisissez deux des scénarios suivants : ● Entrevue à la douane dans l’aéroport - un membre du groupe est le douanier qui questionne une famille qui entre le pays choisi. ● Planifier un voyage avec un agent de voyage - un membre du groupe jouera le rôle de l’agent de voyage et l’autre jouera une personne qui cherche à acheter les billets. ● Acheter quelque chose pour un voyage - un membre du groupe jouera le rôle du vendeur ou vendeuse et l’autre jouera la personne qui veut acheter quelque chose pour le voyage ● Discussion de famille pour les vacances d’été - les membres du groupe joueront une famille qui discute où aller pour les vacances d’été. Personne n’est d’accord. ● Demander et donner des indications à l’hôtel - un membre du groupe jouera le rôle du réceptionniste de l’hôtel, l’autre sera la personne qui leur demande de l’aide à retrouver un tel endroit. Chaque membre du groupe doit remplir le formulaire (page 3) qui indique les autres membres du groupe, les deux scénarios choisis et un brouillon de ce qu’on prépare pour l’examen. Jour 3 Vous continuerez à planifier et pratiquer les deux scénarios. Chaque membre du groupe doit poser et être capable de répondre à plusieurs questions possibles dans le scénario. Mme participera avec votre groupe pendant l’examen pour vérifier la compréhension et la capacité de parler spontanément. Vérifiez l’évaluation dans l’échelle d’évaluation y inclut. Jour 4 Comme groupe, vous présenterez un des deux scénarios, choisi par Mme. Soyez prêts à changer de rôle ou répondre à des questions inattendues. Le dialogue doit être spontané.
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Formulaire à rendre pour la tâche culminante orale
Nom: Autre(s) membre(s) de mon groupe: En planifiant votre examen oral, remplissez les tirets dans ce formulaire et accrochez chaque étape après l’avoir fini. Il faut rendre ce formulaire à la fin de la deuxième journée du travail.
❏ Notre premier scenario choisi:
1. ______Nous allons rechercher les choses suivantes: ______
______
______
______
❏ Notre deuxième scénario choisi:
2. ______Nous allons rechercher les choses suivantes: ______
______
______
______
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Appendix N:
Cultural Resources – Claire Kendji Girac
(né Kendji Jason Maillié, 1996)42
Chanteur célèbre de Saison 3 “The Voice: La plus belle voix”, 2014
42 This is a poster sample that was posted in Claire’s classroom of a francophone musician named Kendji Girac.
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Superhero Assignment Les Super-héros autour du Monde Quand tu dessines ton super-héros, imagine un modèle qui t’inspire et qui démontre une diversité qui reflète toi et ta culture. ● Quelles qualités / traits de personnalités et de culture sont importantes pour toi? ● Quels pouvoirs sont impressionnants? ● Quelles sont les causes défendues? Meet Ngozi, Marvel Comics’ first truly African superhero
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeria-entertainment-chibok/watch-out-wonder-woman- nigerias-chibok-girls-inspire-marvels-new-superhero-idUSKCN1BH1HG https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/investments-immigration/africanews/meet-ngozi-marvel-comics- first-truly-african-superhero Nightrunner - The Batman of Paris https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightrunner_(comics) Nightrunner est un super-héros français qui est un personnage de l'univers DC. Son vrai nom est Bilal Asselah. Il est un jeune homme d'origine algérienne qui vient de Paris. Il a fait sa première apparition en 2010 quand il a été recruté par Batman pour représenter Batman Inc en France. Son pouvoir est le parkour. Bilal peut escalader les murs et se déplacer ultra rapidement dans les villes. Il est moins fort que Superman, mais il est aussi vite que Spider Man. Il est le premier super-héros français dans la mythologie DC/Marvel. Qu’est-ce qu’il fera dans l’avenir?
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Why We Need the Burka Avenger
http://www.dailylife.com.au/news-and-views/dl-opinion/why-we-need-the-burka-avenger-20130729- 2quhe https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/burka-avenger-the-pakistani-feminist-superhero/ Ms Marvel - Kamala Khan https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamala_Khan First muslim female character by Marvel is going to introduce a Muslim girl superhero, Kamala Khan, a teenage girl from Pakistan who lives in Jersey City. Regardez les liens attachés: Slideshare: What makes a superhero? https://www.slideshare.net/MediaOracle/superheroes-around-the-world Les Super-héros Canadiens https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/81951/7-most-canadian-superheroes-ever https://www.marvel.com/characters Super-héros français: http://www.topito.com/top-super-heros-francais-gauloise-camenbert-rougeot http://www.coolfrenchcomics.com/ Super-héros autour du monde: http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/#Browse
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Electronic Student Portfolio Assignment
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Francophone Region Research Assignment
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Appendix O:
Cultural Resources – Yvonne
Google Form Assessment Tool Used by Yvonne for Cultural Tasks
Classroom Observations
Student Name:
Choose Listening to understand Listening to communicate Intercultural understanding in listening Speaking to communicate Speaking to interact Intercultural understanding in speaking
Level: 1- 1 1+ 2- 2 2+ 3- 3 3+ 4- 4 4+ 4++
Skill Focus Pronunciation Use of gestures Use of French vocabulary Coherence and Cohesion Fluidity Interaction strategies Late Absent Other:
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Feedback Use French Verify la pronunciation Use strategies for clarification Attendance/punctuality Using French Elaborate on answers Using strategies Use class time wisely Other:
Next steps Put phone away No Google Translate French only circumlocution listen to instructions Other:
SUBMIT
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Appendix P:
Cultural Resources – Rachel
Guadalupe Information Booklet
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Appendix Q:
Copyright Permission – Council of Europe
Dear Ms. Guida,
Thank you for your message concerning permission to reproduce Council of Europe material. Permission is granted provided that, where relevant, it is clear when a figure/table has been created by you and that all relevant references are included. For your information, the CEFR has been undergoing revision and an updated version is coming out. Should you wish to find out more about this, please contact my colleague … copied here. All very best wishes for your thesis.
Kind regards,
70th anniversary website Publishing / Editions Directorate of Communications / Direction de la Communication Council of Europe - Conseil de l'Europe http://www.coe.int http://book.coe.int
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Appendix R:
Copyright Permission – Pearson Education
Permissions
February 18, 2020 PE Ref # 211697
Rochelle Guida UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY
Dear Rochelle Guida, You have our permission to include content from our text, LITERACY, TECHNOLOGY, AND DIVERSITY: TEACHING FOR SUCCESS IN CHANGING TIMES, 1st Ed. by CUMMINS, JIM; BROWN, KRISTIN; SAYERS, DENNIS, in your dissertation or masters thesis at UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY.
Content to be included is: 45 Figure 2.1 "Nested Pedagogical Orientations Framework"
Please credit our material as follows: CUMMINS, JIM; BROWN, KRISTIN; SAYERS, DENNIS, LITERACY, TECHNOLOGY, AND DIVERSITY: TEACHING FOR SUCCESS IN CHANGING TIMES, 1st, ©2007. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, New York.
Sincerely, Permissions Granting Analyst