Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science 13, pp. 59–74 (2002)

Cremation grave Examples from Vendel upper class in the Vendel and Viking Periods

Anita Malmius

Few are aware of the fact that organic material such as textiles and leather can survive in cremation graves. Even fewer are aware that charred fragments contain almost the same information as unburnt prehistoric textiles. This fact provides the opportunity for comparing textiles from different groups in society, for studying textile development, and for gaining access to a much greater textile material based on the numerous crema- tion graves. In this article the outfits of the men buried in the cremation graves in “Vendla’s Mound”, dated to the Vendel and Viking Periods, are compared with those buried in the contemporaneous boat-graves in Vendel.

Introduction strong materialistic attitudes to death and life thereafter. The In an overview of Scandinavian textile- and leatherworking, buried person has been provided with a full set of equipment Eva Andersson (1995: 16) observes that the textile craft for the after-life. Thanks to the custom of equipping the tends to be mentioned only in passing in the archaeological dead with rich grave-goods, we can today obtain insights literature and research discussions, and that dress is primar- into some aspects of the culture of buried persons. But only ily seen as a complement to buckles and other ornaments. certain categories of objects have been laid down in the The reason for this would seem to be ‘the shortage of finds graves – already their contempories made choices as to what and other evidence’, but also, ‘poor knowledge of what has was at the time considered suitable and representative. been found and lack of interest’. Much of what has been deposited tends to be of perishable This applies even to the results of the craft, namely the material: wood, textiles, leather, bone, food, etc., (Arbman textiles themselves, but in the case of textiles from cremation 1938: 10). If we depend only on the material that has been graves it is more a matter of lack of knowledge than lack of preserved, we run serious risk of obtaining a biased picture of finds. Few are aware of the fact that organic material such as the range of objects in use in prehistoric times. This is even textiles and leather can survive the cremation pyre. Many are more the case with regard to material from cremation graves. on the other hand aware that textiles, feathers and leather in It is further important to remember that only certain groups Scandinavia can be preserved in inhumation graves by con- of people were entitled to be buried in style and to be tact with objects of bronze, silver and iron. Archaeological equipped with grave-goods. textile material is however in any event a rarity and it is there- Textile finds are by tradition separated from other fore of utmost importance that all material that survives be archaeological finds and perhaps this is why they have failed taken care of. to be further analysed and documented (see below). Many The greatest problem in Nordic archaeological textile re- of the rich graves were excavated during the National Ro- search is without doubt the perishability of textile material in mantic period when archaeological interest focused on deci- the ground. Textiles survive only in special conditions sively manifesting antiquity as a period of greatness. Textile (Geijer 1994: 297ff), which means that the finds cannot be finds were considered at that time to be of minor import- considered representative of the original material. Previous ance. To obtain a more balanced and clearer image of pre- archaeological generations have deliberately chosen to ex- historic society, I have in my research instead taken as my amine the usually very find-rich inhumation graves. The starting point all sorts of textiles, woven fabrics and other boat- and chamber graves of the Vendel and Viking Periods textile techniques using animal, vegetable and metallic raw have been found especially interesting since they record materials, down, feather, leather, fur, etc., from different  

Figure 1a. Map of Sweden Figure 1b. The “Vendla’s showing locations of Vendel, Mound”, Raä 8 and the Valsgärde, Old Uppsala and boat-grave cemetery (Sw. Birka. Drawing Kjell Persson. båtgravfält), Tuna, Vendel. After Seiler 2001.

types of graves and different environmental contexts. The buried in the boat-graves have been interpreted as men on textiles are placed in the centre of their immediate and gen- the basis of the find material. eral context. As a step in this direction, I here wish to draw Since 1991, the Archaeological Research Laboratory attention to the textile material in cremation graves. (AFL) at Stockholm University has conducted archaeological excavations in the proximity of Vendel church in northern Background Uppland. The original purpose was to localize and examine a In Uppland, rich boat-grave cemeteries, including those at settlement, which could be linked to the famous boat-graves, Vendel and Valsgärde, were excavated at an early date and but the project has been expanded to include studies into vari- are partly published (Stolpe & Arne 1912; Arwidsson, ous aspects of Iron Age society in eastern Svealand including 1942, 1954, 1977). The chronology of the Vendel boat- an attempt to understand the power structures current in the graves is based (1912: 59f) on Montelius 1892, Salin 1904 Late Iron Age (Arrhenius & Herschend 1995). The model and Stjerna 1905. The five Vendel Period boat-graves in the areas chosen for analysis, Vendel and Valsgärde, lie respec- Valsgärde cemetery have been dated by Arwidsson (1977: tively 30 and a couple of kilometres north of Old (Gamla) 126ff). Because of the large number of finds of high quality Uppsala. Excavations so far at Vendel have resulted in settle- in the fourteen boat- and chamber-graves at Vendel – a place ment traces located south of Vendel church, only c. 50 m which has given its name to a whole epoch before the Viking from the boat-grave cemetery. At least two buildings can be Age – we know that these interments began c.  520/30 defined, a dwelling house and a farm building. Finds and ra- (Arrhenius 1983) and continued until the late Viking diocarbon datings indicate that the settlement was estab- Period. The boats complete with their contents, which in- lished in the end of the 5th century and continued on into cluded textiles, leather, down, etc., were placed in the the Viking Period (Isaksson et al. 2002: 41f). A settlement ground unburnt in a period when the dead usually were study of the surrounding area shows that the ‘Tuna terri- burned on pyres and buried in cremation graves. All persons tory’ in prehistoric times included a much greater region

    than the area around the boat-graves and their associated Figure 2. Plan of Raä 8 settlements (Seiler 2000) (fig. 1a, b). Within that extended showing locations of area, there lie three large cemetery groups and several settle- cremation graves A2: 2 and A1: 2. After Seiler 2001. ment-indicators, of which, three cemeteries and a settle- ment were excavated archaeologically during 1996 and 1997 (Seiler 1997). These settlements, boat-graves and cre- mation graves are situated on or in direct proximity to Vendel esker, i.e., an environment that does not facilitate the preservation of textiles. In the autumn of 2000 however, textiles were found in cremation grave A5, Vendel 1:8, dated to the later half of the 5th century and located in the cemetery close to the western churchyard wall (Raä 27). These fragments are however too charred to allow for ana- lysis of binding system and thread count. Charred finds suitable for analysis were however found in the spring of 2000 in the cremation graves in Vendla’s Mound, Raä 8, at Vendel, Vendel par., Uppland. Raä 8 is situated on the crown of a hill about 280 m south-southeast of Vendel church. The monument consists of two burial mounds (A1 and A2) without any distinctive boundary between them. The southernmost and largest is known locally as Fröken Wendelas hög (Miss Wendela’s Mound), Drottning Vendlas kulle (Queen Vendla’s Hill) and the like. The hill and mounds measure c.35×30 m and at highest 6 m. The hill has a strategic location in terms of ex- posure, lying close to Allerbäcke, which forms the hypo- thetical prehistoric territory boundary. Seiler (2000) has ar- gued that Vendla’s Mound functioned as a boundary-marker within Tuna with regard to Karby to the south and that it was erected when the Tuna farm became established during the 5th century or beginning of the Vendel Period (Isaksson & Seiler 1997: 74; Arrhenius 2002). In all, three graves with cremation deposits were found within Vendla’s Mound and of these graves, two, A2: 2 and A1: 2, contained charred tex- tiles (fig. 2). On the evidence of the composite comb L2 and gaming The osteological material is too fragmentary for defini- boards, Seiler (2001) dated grave A2: 2 to the second half of tive sex-determination but the dimensions of these sites, the the 6th century, based on Lindqvist 1936: 166ff, 216ff; hunting birds, gaming pieces, etc, and total lack of female Sandberg 1976: 12ff; Petré 1984c: 70ff. A radiocarbon es- ornaments, provide strong indications that these are male timate from the grave provides a later date, possibly due to graves (Seiler 2001: 56ff), (table 1). contamination during sampling. New samples have been The aim of the present investigation is to establish which submitted for radiocarbon dating. The grave contained types of textiles those buried in Vendla’s Mound were fitted- three textile fragments and the burnt bone of animals and out with, and to compare these to the textiles from the con- two humans: a child and a youth who, because of the so temporaneous boat-graves in order to try to establish what symbolically closely placed cremation urns, are considered function the textiles held, and to obtain information as to to be possibly siblings. Additional grave finds consisted of whether those buried in different types of graves were pro- rivets from a boat, two beads, horse fittings, two pottery vided with fabrics/costumes of different kinds. More gen- vessels, etc. eral, but very important, questions which my textile re- Grave A1: 2 has been dated by Seiler (2001) to the 9th searches hope to illuminate are which types of textiles and century on the basis of its composite combs, relying on leather can be expected to be found in cremation graves, how Ambrosiani 1981: 25; Bergkvist 1993: 40. The grave con- to recognise the remains of textiles from cremation graves, tained in addition twelve textile fragments and the burnt how to recover textile material during archaeological excava- bone of animals and of possibly two humans – a child and a tions, and what potential this material encompasses. youth, interpreted as a child in the company of a thrall or free servant for the journey to the otherside. There were also Previous finds of charred textiles rivets from a boat, gaming boards, two pottery vessels, a Cremation deposits beneath mounds and stone settings penannular brooch, a shield mount, and frost-nails. were the dominant burial rite in eastern Sweden right down

  

Table 1. Contents from Raä 8, graves A2: 2 and A1: 2. Fish-bones analysed by Lembi Lougas, other bones by Christian Lindqvist (Seiler 2001: 69).

Grave and grave content Raä 8, grave A2: 2 Raä 8, grave A1: 2 Dating late 6th cent 9th cent Grave type bone deposit under carefully urn-cremation pit with constructed cairn surrounding cremation layer Grave context burial mound, small grave mound, small Late Late Iron Age cemetery Iron Age cemetery Burial rite cremation cremation Genus/ total no. indiv burnt bone: 1 child, burnt bone: 1 child, 1 youth 1 youth (siblings?); genus: prob. male (thrall?); genus: prob. male Animals burnt bone: 1 horse, 3 dogs, burnt bone: 1 horse, 2 dogs, sheep/goat, cattle, pig, cat, merlin, sheep/goat, cattle, pig, cat?, sparrow- and goshawk, crane, perch, grey-hen/hen, goose, goldeneye, pike, lavaret, carp, roach, eel, etc. salmon/trout, carp, etc. Textiles/dress no no accessories on the deceased Textiles/dress 3 textile fragments 12 textile fragments accessories, other 2 beads 1 penannular brooch Personal equipment 1 composite comb 3 composite combs 3 flint flakes 2 flint flakes 1 whetstone 2 whetstones of schist min. 57 whalebone gaming pieces min. 13 whalebone gaming pieces 1 object of antler 1 knife handle? Weapons no 1 shield mount Coffin/boat min. 28 boat rivets; 16 nails; 1 staple min. 41 boat rivets; 24 nails; 61 brads Imported objects/ trade no no Craftwork no no Animal equipment horse equipment (9 rivets) 3 frost-nails Food and drink 2 pottery vessels 2 pottery vessels plant and animal-remains Other silicate-slag silicate-slag unidentif. iron objects 1 iron mount; 1 bronze mount; 2 bronze nails; 1 bronze plate

to the end of the 10th century or around the year 1000 lication of the third volume reporting these excavations, (Gräslund 2000: 34). In the Mälar area only a few finds of Birka III (Geijer 1938). textile material and leather have been recovered (reported) Despite the fact that 566 cremation graves were exam- so far from cremation graves; the finds reported here date to ined (Arwidsson 1984, table II) only one cremation grave, the Viking Period. In the cemetery at Lunda, Lovö, Lovö possibly two, contained any fragments of fabric. Charred parish, Uppland, both textile and leather fragments were re- fabric was noted from cremation grave Bj 88 (Arbman 1943: covered in a charred state but these are still not analysed 39; Hägg 1986: 52). In Bj 71/91 silk fragments were found (Petré 1984: 66). In a burial mound c. 200 m southeast of (Hägg 1986: 56), but it is not reported whether the silk be- Hallunda Farm in Botkyrka parish, Södermanland, charred longed to the cremation grave or inhumation grave. fragments of a silk fabric were preserved and have been ana- Of the 1110 graves which were investigated, 76 of the in- lysed (Malmius 2000: 1ff). humation graves and 18 of the cremation graves contained On the island of Björkö, containing the trading site Birka, work in/with gold- and silver thread belonging to plaited in Adelsö parish, Uppland, an exceptionally large amount of ‘passementerie’ of various shapes, as additional effects in wo- textiles of various sorts were excavated at the end of the 19th ven braids and variously worked ornaments. The metal century by Hjalmar Stolpe (Arbman 1940, 1943). That ma- threads are of different sorts, mainly drawn wire (German terial, with/without metal thread, was separated from the Draht), lamella (German Lahn), spun drawn wire and spun other finds and ascribed its own find-category as textile ma- lamella (Malmius & Lindblom c-ms; cf. definitions in terial (Arbman 1943: IX). These textiles were first sorted Strömberg et al. 1979; Geijer 1980: 89ff; 1994: 23f ). A and analysed by Geijer in connection with work on the pub- thread of spun lamella is made from a flat thin strip of metal

   

Tables 2a–b (right). a) The thread-count sum, T, is calculated as the a) sum of the mean values [thread count in warp/cm] + [thread count in weft/cm]; the value obtained indicates the coarseness of the fabric: Fabric coarseness T the higher the sum the finer the fabric. The values in the tables Very fine > 30 threads/cm reflect fabrics of wool and ; other values apply for silk. Fine 20–29.75 threads/cm Less fine 14–19.75 threads/cm b) The weave rib factor, R, is calculated as ([thread count in warp]/ Coarse < 13.75 threads/cm [thread count in weft] -1; R>0). The warp is here defined as having the highest thread count. The value obtained expresses the relation- b) ship between the thread count in warp and that in weft: the lower the value, the more balanced the fabric. In ribbed fabric the thread Relationship warp/weft R count of the warp is double or more than double that of the weft. 0.0–0.09 Ribbous fabric can be divided into weakly ribbous R=0.1–0.39; Ribbous fabric 0.1–0.9 medium ribbous R=0.4–0.69; strongly ribbous R=0.7–0.99 Ribbed fabric > 1.0 (Malmius 1996:81; 1998:80–81). The values in the tables reflect fabrics of wool and linen; other values apply for silk.

e.g. gold (the lamella), spun around a core of another mater- cavation, and carry out water sieving and flotation of the ial. A spun drawn wire thread is made from a solid round- grave contents in the laboratory, etc. sectioned wire of metal e.g. silver, spun or wound around a textile core. Inside such a spun drawn wire thread of silver Textile fragments from from one of the cremation graves in the cemetery at Vendla’s Mound – material and method Ormknös on Björkö, threads of silk are preserved Because of careful excavation in the field and careful exam- (Arrhenius 1978; Malmius & Lindblom c-ms). ination of the cremation layer in the laboratory, charred tex- tile fragments could be recovered from A2: 2 and A1: 2 (Seiler Charred textiles 2001: 62). The fragments are black and on some surfaces Charred fragments of woven fabric exhibit different charac- glossy and without any textile structure, while other surfaces teristics depending on the find circumstances, for example show the clear characteristics of textiles. Charred textile frag- whether found in a cremation grave, inhumation grave or ments from cremation graves are generally hard like these and settlement, or from the manufacturing of so-called ‘schmelz- thus can take further laboratory treatment. The 15 textile kugeln’ (Malmius a-ms). Fabric fragments from cremation fragments from cremation graves A2: 2 and A1: 2 were rinsed graves are black, glassy and slag-like on some surfaces, and in in deionized distilled water and air-dried. After this they were general hard. The fragments are often very small and confus- cleansed from surface dirt with the help of a tweezers and ingly like charcoal, and it is only when they are magnified scalpel, or the soil and mineral particles were brushed away that the material can be fully recognised, the woven fabric with a soft brush. Another method was to reverse the air- appearing in certain areas as if unburnt thus enabling bind- stream from a vacuum-tweezers since the delicate air-stream ing system, spinning, thread count, hems, etc., to be studied. can remove fine soil carefully and effectively. Prehistoric cremation techniques were highly efficient with a After this, the material was documented and examined burning temperature of at times almost 1000 degrees, as can using scientific methods in parallel with conventional tech- be seen from smelted glass, bronze, etc. Organic material nical textile research methods (Geijer 1994: 467). For tech- therefore usually burns away especially if oxygen was in nical textile definitions, see Strömberg et al. 1979; Burnham plentiful. But sometimes charred fragments remain of seeds, 1981; Geijer 1994: 21ff; Cyrus-Zetterström 1995. Thread- shells, grave bread, food remains (Hansson 1996: 61f), tex- count sum, T, and rib- factor, R, have also been calculated. T tiles and leather (Petré 1984: 66). The textile fragments that indicates fabric coarseness and R how balanced the fabric is. survive have probably lain in the periphery of the pyre, or R=0-0.09 shows that the fabric is balanced, R=0.1-0.9 is a been protected by some metal object. Textile work employ- ribbous cloth and R>1 a ribbed cloth (table 2). During the ing metal threads, especially those of gold, can often be de- Viking Period the thread system with the highest thread tected in the black cremation layer already in the field. But, if count is often the warp and the lowest is the weft, but which fragments of charred textiles and leather are to be correctly is warp and which is weft cannot be established with certainty preserved for future generations, it is necessary that we know unless the selvage or starting border survives (Malmius 1996, how to recognize this material, carefully extract it during ex- 1998, 2000).

  

In order to identify the fibre material/raw material, the were woven to see if it contained proteins or carbohydrates, fragments were analysed in a scanning electron microscope i.e. was of animal or vegetable origin (Malmius a-ms). (SEM). Charring experiments were carried out with modern and modern fabric of wool, linen and silk. FTIR-ana- Results lysis (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry) was after- wards conducted on samples of the modern material, which Grave A2: 2 had been subjected to heat, and that not subjected to heat. The three textile fragments are all black, small, partly glossy- The charred textile material from Raä 8 was then compared black, ‘blistered’, and hard. One fragment, ID 3, was so with the heat-subjected/non-heat subjected modern sam- charred that only a weak textile structure could be observed. ples and with charred material from cremation grave Hal- On another fragment, ID 2, the binding system could be de- lunda 74:34, in Botkyrka parish, Södermanland. The aim termined, which was . The third fragment, ID 1, being was to identify the material from which the textiles in Raä 8 better preserved could be determined with regard to binding

Table 3. Cremation grave A2: 2. Fabric 1, woven in 2/2 twill. This carbonized fabric was examined with reference to BS (binding system), M (material), Max (maximum size in cm), Thr/cm (threads/cm in ), M Thr/cm (mean thread-count/cm in warp and weft), MP (number of measuring points), T (thread-count sum), R (rib factor), Sp (spinning), Yarn Ø (yarn diameter in mm), Sp-a (spinning angle), F- mm (fabric thickness in mm) and Colour.

Grave ID (n) frg X Y BS M Max Thr/cm M thr/cm MP T R Sp YarnØ Sp–a Fmm Colour Fabric Fig

A2:2 1 1 1475 4829 2/2 ky Wool 1,0x0,55 18,25-20x8,25-10 19,25x9 3x4 28,25 1,14 z/z 0,25-0,4x0,6-0,8 30-50x0-30 0,7 Black 1 3 A2:2 2 1 1475 4829 ?ky – 0,6x0,3 – – – – – – – – – Black – – A2:2 3 1 1475 4829 – – 1,0x0.8 – – – – – – – – – Black – –

a) d)

b) c)

e) Figure 3. Cremation grave A2: 2. Fabric 1, ID 1, woven in 2/2 twill. (a). Scale 1:1. (b) The fragment consists of two layers of identical folded cloth. Scale bar = 1 mm. (c) The binding system is clearly observable in places, here filled in. (c.10x). (d) SEM micrograph WDF 0.45; 660x. (e) Pattern of 2/2 twill. Photo author.

    system, thread count, spinning, yarn diameter, spinning an- hand char and solidify into black lumps, provided they do not gle and fabric thickness. The fragment is woven in 2/2 twill lie on the embers, in which case they disintegrate. FITR-ana- and measures 1.0×0.55 cm (fig 3; table 3). It consists of two lysis showed that the material in ID 1, fabric 1, was of animal layers of fabric folded along the tighter thread system, which origin, almost certainly wool (Malmius a-ms). is more than twice as tight as the looser thread system (T=28.25; R=1.14). In both directions the yarn is single and Grave A1: 2 z-spun. The structure and morphology of the fibre material The fragments in grave A1: 2 are somewhat less charred than could not be established by SEM, as the fibres were too de- those in grave A2: 2, which means that on some fragments the formed and partly smelted. The charring experiments showed individual fibres were observable with a magnifying glass. however, that in an oxidized environment, such as a funeral Colour varies from grey-black to black. In total there are 12 pyre, vegetable fibres break down from the intense heat and at textile fragments, all small, somewhat glossy-black, ‘blistered’ about 600°C turn into whitish ash. Animal fibres on the other and hard. Four of these, ID 9–12, could not be more closely

Figure 4. Cremation grave A1: 2. Fabric 1, b) ID 1, woven in 2/2 twill. (a) Scale 1:1. (b) The fragment is very even and finely woven. The binding system is observable over the whole surface. Scale bar = 1 mm. (c) SEM micrograph WDF; 61x. (d) SEM micrograph WDF 0.45; 610x. Photo author.

a)

c) d)

   determined other than with regard to textile structure and example that it might be the remains of a fold (fig. 5; table four others, ID 5–8, could only be determined to be twill. 4). In square x1457; y4826, fragment ID 4 was found wo- The remaining four are found in three adjoining excava- ven in 2/2 twill. Even this fragment has an upturned edge tion squares (one-metre squares). In the middle square, from a hem or fold, in this case along one side (fig. 6; table x1458; y4826, there was found a very well preserved frag- 4). Comparison with the charring experiments and FITR- ment, ID 1, of a 2/2 twill which is very even and finely wo- analyses point towards the material being wool (Malmius a- ven (fig. 4; table 4). ms). A compilation and comparison of all fragments how- In square x1458; y4825 there were two fragments, ID 2 ever shows that these 2/2 twill fragments may have belonged and 3, both woven in 2/2 twill. ID 2 is smooth and consists to one, possibly two, different fabrics (fig. 7). ID 2 and ID 3, of a single layer of fabric, while ID 3 seems to be hemmed at found in the same square, are of the same quality and come one corner, where the edges are folded over. No hemming probably from the same fabric. ID 4 could also belong to stitches are however visible. The binding system is not visible that fabric since it is of similar quality and is in addition, as on the back of the fragment and the ‘folded’ edges are not ID 2 and ID 3, provided with a turned-up edge, possibly fully intact, so other interpretations cannot be ruled out, for from a hem. It cannot however be ruled out that ID 1, from

Figure 5. Cremation grave A1: 2. Fabric 2, ID c) 3, woven in 2/2 twill. (a) Scale 1:1. (b) The fragment is probably hemmed to form a corner point. Scale bar = 1 mm. (c) SEM micrograph WDF 0.45; 42x. (d) SEM micrograph WDF 0.46; 610x. Photo author. a)

b)

d)

   

Table 4. Cremation grave A1: 2. Fabric 1, woven in 2/2 twill, and fabric 2(?), woven in 2/2 twill. These carbonized fabrics were examined with regard to BS (binding system), M (material), Max (maximum size in cm), Thr/cm (threads/cm in warp and weft), M Thr/cm (mean thread-count/cm in warp and weft), MP (number of measuring points), T (thread-count sum), R (rib factor), Sp (spinning), Yarn Ø (yarn diameter in mm), Sp-a (spinning angle), F-mm (fabric thickness in mm) and Colour.

Grave ID (n) frg X Y BS M Max Thr/cm M thr/cm MP T R Sp YarnØ Sp–a Fmm Colour Fabric Fig

A1:2 1 1 1458 4826 2/2 ky Wool 0,73x0,41 30,75-32x18,25-18,75 31,25x18,5 5x3 49,75 0,69 z/z 0,3-0,4x0,4-0,5 40-55x40-50 0,7 grey-bl 1 4 A1:2 2 1 1458 4825 2/2 ky Wool 0,75x0,55 19,5-21,75x14,25-16,25 20,75x15,5 3x3 36,25 0,34 z/z 0,3-0,5x0,4-0,7 20-40x40-50 0,7 grey-bl 2? – A1:2 3 1 1458 4825 2/2 ky Wool 1,5x1,2 21,26-16x16,75 22,0x16,25 3x3 38,25 0,35 z/z 0,4-0,5x0,4-0,5 20-40x20-40 0,5 grey-bl 2? 5 A1:2 4 1 1457 4826 2/2 ky Wool 1,5x1,1 17,75-19x15-16,75 18,25x15,5 4x3 33,75 0,18 z/z 0,3-0,4x0,4-0,5 20-40x20-50 0,7 grey-bl 2? 6 A1:2 5-8 4 1457 4826 ? Ky – 0,8x0,4 – – – – – – – – – grey-bl – – A1:2 9-12 4 1458 4825 – – 0,7x0,5 – – – – – – – – – grey-bl – –

Figure 6. Cremation grave A1: 2. Fabric 2, ID 4, b) woven in 2/2 twill. (a) Scale1: 1. (b) The fragment has a turned-up edge/hem along one side. Scale bar = 1 mm. (c) SEM micrograph WDF 0.48; 70x. (d) SEM micrograph WDF 0.48; 410x. Photo author.

a)

c) d)

  

Figure 7. Rib factor diagram showing the four analysed fragments from grave A1: 2. Only fragments with the same binding system and material can have belonged to the same original fabric. The rib factor diagram is constructed with the highest thread count on the y- axis and the lowest on the x-axis. The diagonal lines indicate rib factor 0.0 (along this line the fabric has as many threads in warp as weft) and rib factor 1.0 (along this line the fabric has twice as many threads in the one thread system as the other). Perpendicular to the rib-factor line 0.0 lie the lines for thread count sum, T=30 and T=46. The thread count sum is the same along the whole line. The fabrics are depicted as rectangles or lines, within which the thread count varies. The plus sign (+) marks the mean thread count. In those areas where the rectangles overlap one another, the fabrics have the same thread count (Malmius 1996, 1998). If other data also show agreement, and the position in the grave allows it, then the fragments have probably/possibly belonged to the same original fabric. Fabric 1, ID 1, from grave A2: 2 is included to show the relationship between that fabric and the fabrics in A1: 2. The woollen fabrics are woven in 2/2 twill. Drawing author.

the central square, belonged to another fabric since the 1983: 44) (table 5). One additional grave, boat-grave X, thread count in that fragment is considerably higher than in dated to the end of the 6th century, contains textile remains ID 2–4. but these have not been analysed (Stolpe/Arne 1912: 38ff). The charring experiments showed that thread density in- in 2/2 twill occurred in boat-graves XIV, XII creases under the influence of heat. The amount of increase and XI (table 6), where fabrics woven in tabby were also depends on the position of the fabric in the pyre, i.e. the tem- found. Even other binding systems appeared there including perature level and the surrounding context. The thread 2/2 broken twill/ broken lozenge twill, weft- or warp-floated count in the analysed fragments is therefore probably higher tabby and soumak (Bender Jørgensen 1986: 236; Mattsson than the original thread count; by how much however, is 2000: 29; Malmius b-ms). hard to establish without additional experimentation. A comparison with the fabric from cremation grave A2: 2 The higher thread count in ID 1 can therefore be caused and the textiles woven in 2/2 twill from boat-graves XIV, XII by that fragment having lain closer to the pyre centre while and XI showed that the yarn in all cases is z-spun and that the other fragments lay more peripherally; that is to say, all the raw material where it could be established, is animal, fragments could have belonged to the same original fabric. probably wool. Correlation of thread count and yarn dia- But the grave contains two persons and the textile frag- meter is harder to establish, partly because of the variety in ments were found over a large area so it is not impossible thread counts within the boat-grave material (T=24–39.75) that at least two different fabrics are present. A comparison and partly because the heated-affected fabric 1, from crema- of textiles by their appearances in the SEM-micrographs in- tion grave A2: 2, possibly has now a higher thread count dicates that ID 1 is no more charred than the others. My (T=28.25) than it had originally, due to the heat – a phenom- interpretation is that these four 2/2 twill fragments be- enon shown in the charring experiments. It is however clear longed to two fabrics, that ID 1 comes from a fabric that in that the cremation grave fabric compares best with the lesser charred state is of very fine quality and medium-ribbous fine fabrics from the boat-graves and that it cannot be ex- (T=49.75; R=0.69) (fabric 1), while ID 2–4 probably be- cluded that fabric 1 is even coarser than the boat-grave fabrics. long to a different fabric (fabric 2) which in charred state is The experiments also show that fabrics of animal mater- also of very fine quality but weakly ribbous (T=33.75– ial shrink almost as much along the warp as along the weft 38.25; R=0.18–0.35). (Malmius a-ms). By this one can conclude that the fabric in the cremation grave originally had twice as many threads in Textiles at Vendel during the the one direction as the other, or at least was strongly ribbous. Migration Period/Vendel Period Four of the fragments in the boat-graves are strongly ribbous, Our knowledge of the textiles used in clothing and grave fur- while the majority are weakly to medium ribbous. nishings at Vendel during the 6th century comes from exam- ination of the remains of textiles from the boat-graves at Textiles at Vendel during the Viking Period Vendel church, that is graves XIV, XII and XI dating to be- For the 9th/10th centuries, we have knowledge of clothing tween 520/30 and the end of the 6th century (Arrhenius and grave furnishings at Vendel from the preserved textiles

   

Table 5. Contents from the Vendel-period boat-graves XIV, XII and XI at Vendel, Vendel par., Uppland (Stolpe/Arne 1912; Bender Jørgensen 1986: 236; Mattsson 2000: 20f; Malmius b-ms).

Grave- and Grave XIV, Vendel Grave XII, Vendel Grave XI, Vendel grave content

Dating 520/30 –560/70 late 6th cent late 6th cent Grave type boat-grave boat-grave boat-grave Grave context boat-grave cemetery boat-grave cemetery boat-grave cemetery Damaged/ undamaged badly damaged when centre plundered of its weapons plundered grave was opened Burial rite inhumation inhumation inhumation Genus man man man Animals 1 bridled horse (in the stern), 2 pigs (centre of boat), 3 horses shod with frost-nails 2 dogs (in the prow) 2 horses, 1 cattle, 2 dogs, (outside the boat) 1 boar (outside the boat) Textiles /dress accessories textile on/ inside helmet – – on the deceased belt with bronze mounts Textiles /dress accessories, textile, function not determined textile fragments on sword, textile fragments on shield grip, other on outside of helmet, on inside helmet, on rivethead, on strap-end, on iron mount sword Personal equipment helmet on head helmet helmet knife hanging from belt chain mail chain mail gaming pieces gaming pieces comb dice Weapons 1 double-edged sword, 2 double and 1 single edged fragment of 1 double-edged sword, shield, spear swords, 2 shields, 1 spearhead, 2 shields, 1 lance, spearheads arrowheads Coffin / boat boat, c. 8 m long, boat, prob. orig. boat, c. 9 m long just over 1 m wide just over 7 m long Imported objects /trade (?) 1 glass beaker (?) Craftwork wool shears, knife, knife-like wool shears, knife, hammer knife, hammer blade tool Animal equipment horse-bit, saddle mounts, 2 bridles (1 ornate, 1 simple), bridle, frost-nails, hook, leash(?) stirrups, frost-nails saddle, frost-nails Food and drink food for the journey, (no cauldron) iron cauldron with iron cauldron chain, pot fork, cooking spit(?), drinking horn, mount (?) Other wooden vessel flint, birch-bark objects of birch-bark, sculptured wooden animal head

in chamber grave VIII. That grave is dated to c. 850 – early in Vendla’s Mound, thus do not accord with the fabrics in 10th century (Stolpe/Arne 1912: 59; Arbman 1938: 21) chamber grave VIII. The fragments in the cremation grave (table 7). The material from boat-graves IV and VI dating to are of very small dimensions: the largest measures 1.5×1.2 9th/10th centuries and from chamber grave VIII, preserved cm and fragment ID 3, has a very high thread count. This is in the stores of the Museum of National Antiquities, Stock- the same with the other fragments found in the same grave. holm, have been searched through and found not to contain The limited size of these fragments means that it cannot be textile remains. ruled out that some could have had a broken diagonal, and According to Stolpe/Arne (1912: 32), grave VIII con- that the binding system really was 2/2 broken twill or 2/2 tained ‘A small collection of fine gold thread, partly retaining broken lozenge twill. The great difference between the its form of tiny spiral-shaped plaits. Has clearly been woven graves is however the absence of gold and silver thread in into fabric’. Analysis at AFL, discovered besides the spun A1: 2. Gold and silver threads occur in the 6th century in gold lamella threads, also spun silver lamella threads and tex- cremation graves in the East and West Mound at Old tiles woven in tabby and 2/2 broken lozenge twill. The spun Uppsala (Lindquist 1936: 144, 178; Larsson 2000: 30ff; lamella threads had presumably decorated one or several Malmius b-ms). Not before the 9th century, do gold and sil- weavings (Salmi 2001, Malmius c-ms). ver threads recur though they still are a rare find in graves The woven 2/2 twill fabrics from cremation grave A1: 2, before the 10th century when the overwhelming majority of

  

Table 6. Fabric fragments woven in 2/2 twill from the Vendel-period boat-graves XIV, XII and XI at Vendel. These fragments are not carbonised, they are attached to metal fragments where the metal salt has penetrated the fibres to a certain extent and placed itself as corrosion around the textile. Despite this, the fabrics can often be analysed in certain areas with regard to BS (bindning system), M (material), Max (maximum size in cm), Thr/cm (threads/cm in warp and weft), M Thr/cm (mean thread-count/cm in warp and weft), MP (number of measuring points), T (thread-count sum), R (rib factor), Sp (spinning), Yarn Ø (yarn diameter in mm), Sp-a (spinning angle) and Colour.

Grave (n) frg Site BS M Max Thr/cm M Thr/cm MP T R Sp YarnØ Sp-a Tt mm Colour Fabric

Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill A? 0,75x0,65 14,5-20x11,5-16,5 17x13,5 4x4 30,5 0,26 z/z 0,46x0,42 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 1,1x0,85 11-15x9-12 13,5x11 5x6 24,5 0,23 z/z 0,46x0,46 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,91x0,62 17-21,5x12,15 19,75x13 6x6 32,75 0,52 z/z 0,44x0,4 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 1,0x0,62 15-17x10-12,5 16,25x11,25 4x5 27,5 0,44 z/z 0,45x0,42 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,5x0,4 13,5-16x10-12 14,5x11,25 4x4 25,75 0,29 z/z 0,5x0,5 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,5x0,4 10-15x10-12,5 12,75x11,5 6x5 24,25 0,11 z/z 0,43x0,43 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,7x0,65 16,5-21,5x9-13,5 19x11 2x2 30 0,73 z/z 0,46x0,5 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,6x0,6 15,5-18,5x12-13,5 17,5x12,5 4x4 30 0,4 z/z 0,58x0,58 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 fr helmet 2/2 twill – 0,55x0,55 20-21,5x11,5-13,5 20,75x12,5 3x4 33,25 0,66 z/z 0,45x0,45 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 1,3x0,9 17-24,5x9-11 19x10 6x6 29 0,9 z/z 0,55x0,47 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 0,85x0,85 13-20x10-12 15,25x10,75 4x5 26 0,42 z/z 0,43x0,56 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 1,05x0,85 14,5-20x10-13,5 16,5x12 6x4 28,5 0,37 z/z 0,53x0,5 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 1,9x1,3 16-19,5x12,5-13,5 18x13 3x3 31 0,38 z/z 0,47x0,47 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 1,2x0,95 14-17,5x11-13,5 16x12 1x1 28 0,33 z/z 0,45x0,47 – – br – Vendel XIV 1 – 2/2 twill – 1,15x0,95 15,5-17x11-15 16,25x12 5x6 28,25 0,35 z/z 0,42x0,44 – – br – Vendel XII 1 on Fe–frg 2/2 twill A 0,9x0,75 23,5-27,5x14 25,75x14 3x1 39,75 0,84 z/z? 0,2-0,4x0,4-0,5 30-45x? – br 1 Vendel XII 1 on Fe–mount 2/2 twill A 2,0x1,0 15-16,75x12,5 15,75x12,5 2x2 28,25 0,26 z/z 0,33x0,5-0,6 30-55x20-40 – mbr 2 Vendel XII 2 on Fe–frg 2/2 twill V? 1,4x1,3 10,75-13,75x9,75-12,5 12,5x11,5 5x4 24 0,09 z/z 0,5-1,3x0,5x0,8 10-40x10-30 – mbr 3 Vendel XI 1 on sword 2/2 twill – – – 22x12 – 34 0,83 z/z – – – – – Vendel XI 1 on sword 2/2 twill – – – 22X15 – 37 0,47 z/z – – – – –

occurrences appear. On Björkö, they occur in cremation terpreted as a tunic/shirt and caftan, additional binding sys- graves, inhumation graves and chamber graves (Geijer 1938: tems such as spin-patterned tabby and warp- or weft-float 68ff; Arrhenius 1978: 52; Malmius & Lindblom g-ms). patterned tabby, can probably be ascribed to clothing fabric The buried persons in chamber grave VIII and cremation (Malmius 1998: 67ff). grave A1: 2, which might be contemporaneous, have thus The settlement excavations close to Vendel church indic- been provided with textiles of different binding systems and ate that the large hall’s southern part was used for textile pro- to some extent of different materials – whether this is the ori- duction and food-preparation. A concentration of frag- ginal situation or due to preservation conditions cannot be ments of numerous -weights lay around the house’s established. southernmost row of posts (Isaksson et al. 2000: 19), while almost 2 m away in posthole A254, a seed of flax was found. Textile traditions and production A probable flax seed was found in cremation grave A1: 1 in In the cremation graves A2: 2 and A1: 2, the fabrics are wo- Vendla’s Mound (Hansson 2002: 6). Since flax contains 40% ven in 2/2 twill. When, where and how has this type of fabric fat it is the first of all fossil seeds to be destroyed (Gustafsson been used? The textile finds most commonly found in Scan- 1989; Hansson 1999: 22, table 1). In one of the earlier dinavia during the late Roman Iron Age and Migration houses, dated to c.  500, the only complete loom-weight Period (c.  300–550) are weaves in 2/2 twill and tablet- find occurred in a gully (Isaksson et al. 2002: 19). Loom- woven bands (Geijer 1994: 272). In the Migration-Period weight fragments, numbering 205 in all, were also found in chamber grave at Högom, Selånger parish, Medelpad, dated the settlement at the church-bell steeple-hut, Raä 28, in fea- to c. 500 or slightly earlier, the dead man was dressed in a ture A14, which is dated to the Late Iron Age (Seiler 1999a). costume consisting of tunic, trousers and cloak. There was A spindle whorl was found in a grave at Bergby, Raä 38, A35, also an extra tunic and extra cloak. All items of clothing were just north of Tuna. It is made from the joint-bone of an an- made of wool and woven in 2/2 twill. The head garment was imal. A spindle whorl was found in a Viking Period grave at made of beaver fur (Nockert 1991: 9ff). The fabrics are Skarbo, Raä 151, A7 and a stray find of a spindle whorl was mostly balanced to medium ribbous. found at Karby (Seiler 2001: 63, 69 [part 2], 47 [part 1]). During the Vendel Period, the occurrence of these fabrics Clear evidence thus exists for local textile production at lessens in favour of unbalanced woollen fabrics woven in 2/2 Vendel. Which fabric or fabrics were woven there, cannot be twill and 2/2 broken lozenge twill. Even tabby-woven fab- stated with any certainty. rics of linen begin now to appear in the grave material – a fact that is highly unusual during the Migration Period The function of the textiles (Bender Jørgensen 1986: 164). Now that the clothing from Were the discovered fabrics in the cremation graves used as boat-grave 5 at Valsgärde, Old Uppsala parish, has been in- clothing or grave furnishings? Ibn Fadlan, the Arabian ex-

   

Table 7. The Viking-Period grave material in chamber grave VIII, equipped with both clothing and grave furnishings, though Vendel, Vendels par., Uppland (Stolpe/Arne 1912; Salmi 2001; of simpler character, as described for this chieftain. Malmius & Lindblom c-ms). A comparison between the grave-goods in cremation grave A2: 2 where two young persons were laid to final rest Grave and grave content Chamber grave VIII, Vendel and the grave-goods in the relatively contemporaneous Dating 850’s to early 10th cent boat-graves XIV, XII and XI (tables 1 and 5), where a single Grave type chamber grave man was buried in each boat, shows that the cremation Grave context boat-grave cemetery graves especially contain grave-goods consisting of ‘per- sonal’ equipment (weapons are missing) and animals. Here Damaged/ plundered undamaged can also be found rivets belonging to horse fittings and some Burial rite inhumation pottery vessels (probably intended as containers for food). Genus man The numerous boat-rivets imply that a boat could have been Animals 2 horses, 1 dog, 1 sheep included in the pyre (Müller-Wille 1970; Schönbäck 1994: (in chamber) 122). In the boat-graves however, the predominant find, be- Textile /dress gold- and silver threads? sides the boat itself, is warrior equipment such as helmet, accessoried on the deceased weapon and chain mail, together with rich equipment for Textiles / dress textile on chain mail accessoried, other horses and dogs. In boat-graves XIV and XI, the iron couldron takes on a central role for food and feasting. The Personal equipment chain mail, knife with handle wound in silver lack of an iron cauldron in grave XII can be explained by the Weapons spearhead boat there having been damaged in the 19th century when a new grave was laid out. The buried persons have also been Coffin /boat no provided with tools of various sorts. In both the cremation Imported objects / trade (?) graves and the boat-graves, horses occur though in differing Craftwork bone awl numbers. The inclusion of other kinds of animals varies Animal equipment gilt strap-mounts richly from grave to grave. decorated with interlace and animal ornament, bridle, If one likewise compares cremation grave A1: 2 from the horse chain 9th century with chamber grave VIII which is dated to the Food and drink iron chain? end of the 9th/ beginning of the 10th century, the same dif- ferences occur, though with some variation (tables 1 and 7). The grave-goods in the cremation grave still consist of ‘per- sonal’ equipment – in this grave emphasized by a possible penannular brooch known in the Birka graves as an item par- plorer, recorded in c.  920 how the Rus, i.e. Scandin- ticularly of men’s dress (Thålin 1984: 19f ). Weapons are de- avians, were dressed and how a rich chieftain was looked af- cidedly absent, with one exception, a shield mount. Boat-riv- ter when he died. He was dressed in a costume consisting of ets imply that a boat may have been included in that grave too. stockings, trousers, boots, a tunic and a caftan of gold bro- Helmets are no longer included in the Viking Period boat- cade with buttons of gold, and a cap of brocade and sable fur. grave and chamber-grave material, as was otherwise custom- In the burial ship, a couch within a tent/pavillion was made ary during the early Vendel Period in Vendel and Valsgärde ready with a mattress of Greek brocade. The chieftain was (Stolpe & Arne 1912; Arwidsson 1942, 1954, 1977; Lund- placed on the mattress and supported by means of the cush- ström 1983: 106). Warrior equipment is otherwise not as ions. Next, he was provided with food, drink, weapons, dog, abundant as during the Vendel Period. Chamber grave VIII horse, cattle and other animals, and finally one of his female contained only chain mail and spearheads. In both cremation slaves. Then the ship together with the deceased and his graves and chamber graves, horses and dogs occur, though in grave goods was set alight. Ibn Fadlan even described the liv- differing numbers. Other animals vary with regard to type ing Rus: ‘I have seen the Rus as they came on their merchant and number. journeys and encamped by the Volga. I have never seen more Who then are these men who are buried one by one in the perfect physical specimens, tall as date palms, blonde and boats or burnt on the pyre, two children/ youths together(?) ruddy; they wear neither tunics nor caftans, but the men possibly in a boat?. It is quite clear that we here have two dif- wear a garment which covers one side of the body and leaves ferent groups – an older weapon-bearing one and non a hand free’ (Smyser 1965: 92ff) – the standard male apparel weapon-bearing children and youths. Ever since the boat- worn by the Rus in the 10th century seems thus to have been graves were discovered at the end of the 19th century, the the cloak. men in the graves have been ascribed many professions – as Whether the children and youths at Vendel were the re- kings, earls, chieftains, etc. (Norr & Sundkvist 1995: 408f). cipients of a similar burial ritual as described by Ibn Fadlan, According to Anton Seiler (1999b: 73), who has studied the cannot of course be established, but there are several parallel colonization of Vendel, the boat-graves should be interpreted features, such as the boat/ boat rivets, food, vessels for food, as burial monuments erected over the major male personages animals and textiles. It is thus not impossible that they were of Tuna who in the first place were landowners but who prob-

   ably belonged to a growing political and religious elite. quality. Both fabrics in that grave are weakly to medium Arrhenius (2000: 96) considers that it is the king’s warriors ribbous. who are buried in the boat-graves, belonging to cavalry, It would appear from the fact that two of the fragments, which during this period constituted the most advanced of ID 3 and 4, were hemmed, that fabric 2 must have belonged warriors. The custom of boat burial (Müller-Wille 1970; to an item of clothing. The pointed corner shape of fragment Schönbäck 1980: 108ff), of which the rich boat-grave at ID 3 brings to mind an open garment such as a jacket or caf- Sutton Hoo from the 7th century is the most famous (Bruce- tan where the lower front edge has such a form. The tradi- Mitford 1979), might be the result of close contacts with the tional woollen fabrics in 2/2 twill, which are thicker and Continent, where the warrior ideal was well established warmer than the e.g. tabby fabrics, were used for all sorts of among aristocratic circles. On the Continent however, the garments and all sorts of uses. All the discussed woollen fab- dead were buried primarily in wooden chambers where the rics are of qualities which suit items of clothing such as deceased and his/her grave goods were laid down in a man- cloaks, jackets/caftans or warm shirts. But without precise ner comparable to the typical Scandinavian boat-graves contexts, it is hazardous to differentiate between textiles for (Gräslund 1980; Müller-Wille 1991: 186f). In such circles garments and textiles for grave furnishings and even where a person’s status and social rank was displayed by dress – its the context is known, it is not always possible to establish the material, colour and cut. This was valid both in the current primary function of very small textile fragments. Further- life and that which was to come. Dress was therefore a very more, a similar confusion or combination of functions is ob- important ingredient of burial equipment. The young per- vious from the written sources and their glosses, e.g.: Old sonages in the cremation graves, who were given horses, Norse feldr or möttull, skikkja = cloak (Smyser 1965: 92ff), dogs, hunting birds, and other animals as grave-goods, were fellur (-ar, -ir) = skin rug, fur, fur coat (Leiström 1972: 67), even provided with games. These bring to mind hunting, felldur (- ar, -ir) = fur, fur cloak (Blöndal 1920-24:181), warring and competition and young aristocrats educated in feldur = fur, coat (Sigurdsson 1970:171), feldr (-ar, -ir) = the style of the day as future weapon-bearers and officials. cloak (www.midhnottsol.org/zoega/text/h134.text). Seiler (1999b: 74) considers that the cremation burials in Vendla’s mound are probably monuments over the relatives Summary of the major landowners. What then can the textiles add to It has been possible to establish that in the cremation graves this interpretation? in Vendla’s mound, only woollen fabric in 2/2 twill oc- The textile examination shows that the young persons in curred, a binding system found also in the Vendel Period cremation grave A2: 2 had received woollen fabric of tradi- boat-graves where it is associated with helmets and swords, tional 2/2 twill, a type of fabric, which also the older men in i.e. these fabrics occur on/close to men. On the other hand, the boat-graves received during the Vendel Period. The the fabrics in the new binding systems and materials, which charred fabric in the cremation grave is today of fine quality occur in the contemporaneous boat-/chamber-graves do not (19.25×9 threads/cm; T=28.25) and is unbalanced (R=1.14) occur. Whether this is the result of preservation conditions but probably originally was of a quality with fewer threads/ or that these fabrics were reserved for the higher social strata, cm. There is thus no fabric of directly comparable quality in cannot be established by this investigation alone, but re- the boat-graves, which are of fine to very fine quality and quires further comparative work. It is my hypothesis how- weakly to strongly ribbous. But it seems as if the new fashion ever, after this pilot study, that the men in the Vendel Period with unbalanced woollen fabric eventually broke through or boat-graves were provided with both traditional and new was on its way to a break-through at Vendel during the 6th ‘fashionable’ fabrics, but the man in the Viking Period boat- century. The fabric in cremation grave A2: 2 is folded and grave only with ‘à la mode’fabrics – fabrics that confirmed consists of two layers of fabric of the same sort, which may his rank and status. Some of these fabrics were probably im- indicate that it belongs to an item of clothing. Macrofossil ports or gifts. analyses however indicate that the deceased lay on a bed of In the cremation graves only traditional woollen fabrics hay or else that the horse whose burnt bones were found in were found, and these may have been made locally. It is pos- the grave had been provided with hay (Hansson 2002: 6). sible that these fabrics belonged to a prospective warrior’s The fabric may also come from a bolster, cushion or some- hemmed blanket/cloak, which during the Viking Period was thing similar, which became folded in connection with the probably fastened with a penannular brooch (this supposi- cremation act. tion is based on the young men’s warrior-like sporting or Even the Viking-Period cremation grave A1: 2 contained gaming pursuits and presumed position in society) – a gar- woollen fabric of 2/2 twill, possibly of two different qualit- ment that in the grave served as a shroud. However, as shown ies. The man/warrior in the Viking-Period chamber grave by the weavings in the Högom grave, woven fabrics of that VIII had on the other hand received a completely different sort could be used for all sorts of garments. Further examina- set of fabrics woven in tabby, 2/2 broken lozenge twill, and tion can hopefully provide better information on how the probably a woven fabric embroidered with gold and silver fabrics in the cremation graves were used. threads. By this investigation of the textile fragments in Vendela’s One of the charred fabrics (fabric 2) in A1: 2 is of very Mound, I have hoped to show that charred textile fragments fine quality and the other fabric (fabric 1) is of even higher contain almost all the information available from unburnt

    prehistoric textiles. Investigations such as this provide the February 2–3, 1981, pp. 39–70. Lamm, J.P. & Nordström, H.-Å. opportunity for comparing textiles belonging to different (eds.). The Museum of National Antiquites, Stockholm, Studies 2. groups in society, for studying textile development and for Stockholm. gaining access to a larger textile material based on the nu- Arrhenius, B. 2000. Tuna och Husby i Vendel. I: En bok om Husbyar, M. Olausson (ed). Avdelningen för arkeologiska undersökningar, merous cremation graves of the Vendel and Viking Periods. skrifter nr 33. Riksantikvarieämbetet, pp. 93–100. Örebro. My hope is that as a result, cremation graves in general will Arrhenius, B. 2002. Die ländlichen Siedlungen im Umfeld von now be considered a valuable source for textile material. Birka. In: Haitabu und die frühe Stadtentwicklung im nördlichen Europa. 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