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Remembering Fritz Haber in the Year 2015 Remembering Fritz Haber In CHIMIE NOUVELLE N° 119 - novembre 2015 19 Joseph GAL(1) (1) University of Anschutz Medical Campus, Mail Stop A-022, Aurora, CO 80045 (USA), [email protected] de la chimie Remembering Fritz Haber Remembering Fritz Haber Histoire in the Year 2015 in the Year 2015 Cet article est reproduit avec l’aimable autorisation de l’Actualité Chimique dans lequel il a été initialement publié (L’Act. Chim., 2015, 397-398, p. 114). Abstract Mots-clés German chemist Fritz Haber (1868-1934) was one Synthèse de l’ammoniac, guerre chimique, of the greatest chemists of the 20th century. He Première guerre mondiale, éthique et moralité earned a PhD in organic chemistry in 1891 but then dans les sciences switched to other areas and carried out important research on a broad variety of chemical problems. He had exceptional scientific talent, versatility and 1. Introduction a superb capacity to combine theoretical science with technical application. He was awarded the By the end of the 19th century the world’s popula- 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his invention of tion had reached ca. 1.6 billion, and mass starva- the synthesis of ammonia from its elements, which tion was looming on the horizon. Indeed, the emi- saved the world from mass starvation by provid- nent British scientist Sir William Crooks warned ing nitrogen fertilizers. During World War I Haber, in 1898 that within a few decades millions would a staunch advocate of chemical weapons, became starve to death, because of the lack of food due to the leader of the German chemical warfare pro- insufficient amounts of nitrogen fertilizers, which gram, for which he has been controversial to this are essential for food production [1]. But all that day. As a young man he converted from Judaism soon changed, with the arrival on the scene of a to Christianity. His family life was unhappy and at German chemist named Fritz Haber (Figure 1) times aggrieved by tragedies. Haber’s exalted exist- [2-6]. He became one of the greatest chemists of ence in science and public life came to an abrupt the 20th century and an eminent figure of modern end with the Nazis’ rise to power and he died in exile Germany. His invention of the synthesis of ammo- in 1934 a broken man. 2015 marks the centenary of nia from its elements hydrogen and nitrogen has the birth of modern chemical warfare, reminding us allowed the production of nitrogen fertilizers in of its protagonist Haber. Moreover, today, with the large quantities and has thereby saved billions from world’s population at over 7 billion and the threat of death by starvation [7]. During World War I (WWI) mass hunger, we are also reminded of Haber’s key Haber became the de facto leader of the German contribution to food production. It is therefore fitting chemical-weapons (CWPs) program [8], and his in 2015 to reflect on Haber’s life and work. role as the “father of modern chemical warfare” has been controversial. Overall, Haber’s life was Keywords an exalted one at the top echelons of science and in Ammonia synthesis, chemical warfare, World War public prominence, but, as we shall see, in the end I, ethics and morality in science his story turned tragic. Figure 1 : Haber in the laboratory in Karlsruhe (Archives of the Max Planck Society, Berlin). Remembering Fritz Haber in the Year 2015 21 The year 2015 marks the centenary of the birth of attended the University of Berlin and the University modern chemical warfare (CW) in which Haber of Heidelberg, and then fulfilled his required one-year played a leading role. Moreover, today, with the military service, after which he returned to his studies, ever-increasing world population – now exceeding at the Technical Institute of Charlottenburg (Berlin). seven billion – and the resulting threat of mass star- He became interested in organic chemistry, and in vation, we are also reminded of Haber’s ammonia 1891 earned his doctorate at the University of Berlin synthesis and the nitrogen fertilizers it provides for with a dissertation entitled “Über einige Derivate food production. It appears particularly fitting there- des Piperonals” (On some piperonal derivatives) fore in this year 2015 to remember Fritz Haber. under the guidance of Carl Liebermann, the eminent dye chemist. Haber then spent short stints at several industrial companies and at universities in Zurich and 2. Beginnings and early career Jena. During his stays at various universities, Haber was exposed to several eminent chemists, e.g., Robert Haber was born into a liberal Jewish family on Bunsen, Georg Lunge, and Ludwig Knorr. December 9th, 1868, in Breslau, a city in the Silesia region of what was then Prussia, one of the many While in Jena (1892-1894), Haber converted to sovereign German states of the time (today Breslau Christianity and was baptized a Lutheran. Such con- is called Wrocław and is in Poland). In January 1871, versions were not uncommon among young Jewish just two years after Haber’s birth, the German states were unified and modern Germany was created, in the form of the German Empire. Haber’s father, Siegfried, was a pros- perous merchant in dyes and pharma- ceuticals. Three weeks after Haber’s birth, his mother, Paula (1844-1868, née Haber, she was Siegfried’s cousin), died of complications of giv- ing birth. Haber the child was thus raised without his mother’s love and guidance. But Haber’s father remar- ried and the stepmother cherished the young boy. It has also been suggested, however, that Haber’s father may have held the son somehow respon- sible for the death of his beloved first wife, with potentially serious psycho- logical effects on the son [5, 9]. Haber benefited from a gener- ally good educational system. He attended St. Elisabeth High School in Breslau, an institution oriented toward the humanities, but mathe- matics and science, especially phys- ics, were also part of the curriculum. Haber became interested in chemis- try early in the high-school years. He Figure 2 : Clara Haber, née Immerwahr (Archives of the Max Planck Society, Berlin). 22 CHIMIE NOUVELLE N° 119 - novembre 2015 professionals and were often motivated by the desire iously suitable for providing a high product yield to facilitate career advancement. In 1894 Haber moved (despite the low ammonia content in the equilib- to Karlsruhe in southwestern Germany where he had rium product gas mixture) and able to withstand been offered a position as Assistent at the Technische the extreme conditions required: a temperature of Hochschule Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe Institute of ca. 550º and a pressure of at least 200 atm. A cata- Technology). He became interested in physical chem- lyst was also necessary, and after many experiments istry, chemical technology, and other areas of chemis- osmium was found to be highly effective in that try, and carried out investigations on a variety of prob- role. Haber’s success in the fixation of nitrogen was lems, e.g., thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, a unique achievement that revealed his great abili- dye technology, gas technology, electrochemistry, ties in combining theoretical chemistry with practi- thermodynamics of the reactions of solids, metal cor- cal technical considerations. It is noteworthy in this rosion, the thermodynamics of gas reactions (publish- respect that the eminent German chemist Wilhelm ing a successful monograph on this subject in 1905), Ostwald (1853-1932, Nobel Laureate 1909) had etc. The variety of subjects he tackled was indeed tried to synthesize ammonia from its elements some impressive. He worked with great diligence, and many years earlier but failed. of his findings, e.g., in electrochemistry, were of great importance and received considerable recognition. Haber publically announced his discovery on March He was eventually rewarded for his hard work and 18, 1910. His achievement immediately catapulted achievements: in 1906 he was appointed full professor him to the forefront of German science. In 1911 he (“ordinarius”) and director of the Institute of Physical moved to Berlin where he was appointed head of Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Karlsruhe. the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, a prestigious institute cre- In 1901 Haber married Clara Immerwahr (1870- ated for him. He was also appointed professor at the 1915) (Figure 2), a chemist and perhaps the first University Berlin and was elected member of the woman to earn a doctorate in chemistry in Germany. Prussian Academy of Sciences. Eventually he was She too was born in Breslau into a Jewish family, awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his and she too converted to Christianity. synthesis of ammonia. BASF had the rights to the industrial development 3. Synthesis of ammonia – “bread from air” of Haber’s discovery and entrusted the task to one of their talented scientists, Carl Bosch (1874-1940). The history, technology, and implications of Haber’s Upscaling Haber’s laboratory method to an indus- synthesis of ammonia from its elements (“the fixa- trial process was an immensely challenging task, tion of nitrogen”) is described in detail in the excel- including finding an economically viable catalyst lent volume by Smil [7]. (osmium was not) and designing equipment that would endure the extreme conditions of tempera- By the beginning of the 20th century it was well ture and pressure previously unheard-of in indus- understood that to solve the problem of nitrogen- trial chemistry. Nevertheless, Bosch and his team fertilizer shortage the synthesis of ammonia from succeeded in a relatively short time and the first its elements was required. Haber first attempted the ammonia plant using the Haber-Bosch process, as synthesis in 1904-05 but failed. In 1908 he tried it Haber’s invention came to be known in its industrial again, with financial support from Badische Aniline form, began operating in 1913.
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