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Arachaeology

The Classical Review / Volume 17 / Issue 08 / November 1903, pp 403 - 424 DOI: 10.1017/S0009840X00208822, Published online: 27 October 2009

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0009840X00208822

How to cite this article: (1903). Arachaeology. The Classical Review, 17, pp 403-424 doi:10.1017/ S0009840X00208822

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Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/CAR, IP address: 130.209.6.61 on 28 Jun 2015 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 403 mander. But fuyjj.a means strictly in A. a chemical is %\i) to K(s &\\ots A. explains by iv iviois with matter, though he is distinguished in another fihp...&\\as S'... This is the distinction between respect from Anaximander. (2) Chronological order immanent fivva/us where the same thing exists first in references is by no means invariable. Of. for in an undeveloped, then in a developed state, and instance : De An. I. 2. transeunt Siva/its (y Karct K\.VT\

A.BCHAEOLOGY. ZEUS, JUPITER AND THE OAK. (Diod. 17. 50 ioavov) or stump (Curt. 4. 7) 23 umbilico maxime similis) covered with (Continued from p. 278.) emeralds 1 and other precious stones. Now a sacred stump of this sort almost pre- In the present paper I propose to show supposes a sacred tree. And, in point of that the cult of Zeus as it existed in the fact, at the Ammonium there was or once Oasis of Ammon and in several towns of had been an ancient oracular oak, a circum- ancient Crete, Caria, etc., was essentially the stance commonly neglected or discredited,2 same as the cult of the Pelasgian Zeus at but distinctly stated by Clem. Al. protr. 11 Dodona, i.e. that Zeus was at each of these Dind. = Euseb. prep. ev. 2. 3 Dind. yepdvSpvov cult-centres conceived as a triple divinity 8k i/ra/x/Aois epij/xcus TtTifj.rjfji.evov KO.1 TO avrodi (sky-god + water-god + earth-god) dwelling fiavretov O«TJ Sput fj.tfia.pavfj.evov /xvOois in a sacred oak and served by a priestly-king, yeyrjpaKoai KaraXu^/are. Sil. Ital. 3.688 ff. who was regarded as an incarnation of Zeus says still more explicitly that at the himself and whose duty it was to maintain Ammonium there was an ancient grove of the sun's heat by magical means. oaks (premunt nunc sidera quercus) and one The priestesses of Dodona are reported to tree of especial sanctity in which the deity have said that of two black doves (•n-eAeiao'es), resided and before which altars were kept which flew from Thebes in Egypt, one came burning (arbor uumen habet coliturque to Epirus and founded the oracle of Dodona, tepentibus aris). There were also sacred the other to Libya and founded that of Zeus birds (Aristoph. av. 716, Strab. 814, Plut. Ammon (Hdt. 2. 55). This implies that v. Alex. 27, Curt. 4. 7. 15),3 the fy 'C the cult of Zeus at the famous Ammonium 1 Emeralds, which shone with a peculiar radiance in the Libyan desert was similar to that of of their own (Hdt. 2. 44), were associated elsewhere Zeus at Dodorla; and Herodotus definitely with solar gods (Theophr. de lap. 24 f., Plin. not. states (2. 57) that such was the case. The hist. 37. 74 f.). details known to us fully bear out the 2 On the ground that oaks would not be found so far south. But Plin. not. hist. 16. 32 expressly resemblance. Zeus had a female consort states that ono species of evergreen oak (parva aqui- Hera 'AppwvCa (Paus. 5. 15. 11 with folia ilex=quercus cocci/era Linn.) grew in north Frazer's note, cp. the gem figured by Over- Africa ; and modern writers cite several others (qu. beck Kunstmyth. Zeus Gemmentaf. 4,13 and ballota Vest, qu. mibcr Linn., qu. Mirhechii Durieu : La Grande Encyclopidie x. 1065 b, 1066 a, b). Wernicke ant. Denhn. ii. 1 pi. 5, 3). His 3 These authorities mostly mention ravens. But cultus-image was an old wooden statue the myth in Hdt. 2. 55 speaks of a dove, as does 404 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. whose waters were cold at noon but warm prerogative, that of giving oracles. in the morning and evening (Hdt. 4. 181, Whether the ancient kings of the Oasis al.), a perpetual lamp (Plut. de def. orac. 2), mentioned by Q. Curtius were regarded as and ' the ancient palace of the kings' (Curt. incarnations of Ammon we do not know. 4. 7. 21). In short, the whole apparatus of But it is highly probable. For, not only the oracle bore a striking resemblance to did the Euhemerists declare that Ammon that of Dodona. Strabo (329 frag. 1) adds was a Libyan king (Diod. 3. 68), but it was that they both gave their responses in the the regular thing in Egypt for the king to same way, ov Sia \ayo>v dXAa Sia nviav trvfir imagine that his father was the sun-god jioXiav. And tradition relates that in early Ammon-Ra incarnate (Budge Hist, of Egypt days Zeus Ammon, like Zeus Naios, had en- vii. 145). M. A. Moret in his remarkable joined human sacrifice (Apollod. 2. 4. 3). treatise du caractere religieux de la royauti It may well be, then, that the Ammonium Pharaonique Paris 1902 has proved this to too was a site of Pelasgian worship. demonstration (chap. 2) and has further There is every reason to believe that the shown that the Egyptian king habitually Pelasgians had a footing, not only round listened to 'des incantations magiques qui the snores of the Aegean, but also along ecartent de lui, dieu solaire, les ennemis du the north coast of Africa. These ' Graeco- Soleil' (p. 314). In this connexion the Libyans' or ' Libyo-G-reeks,' as Prof. various accounts of Alexander's visit to the Flinders Petrie called them in 1890 (J.H.S. Ammonium merit attention. According xi. 271 ff.), may therefore have had a cult to Callisthenes (Strab. 814, cp. Plut. v. Alex. of their god in the Oasis, a cult naturally 27) and Aristobulus, ' whose account is fused (a) with that of the Egyptian ram-god generally admitted as correct' (Arr. anab. 'AmUn (on whom see Pietschmann in Pauly- 3. 3), Alexander was guided thither by two Wissowa s.v. ' Ammon') if the ram was ravens (cp. also Curt. 4. 7. 15, Diod. 17. traditionally associated with the Pelasgian 49). On his arrival he, and he alone, was Zeus (see p. 184 f.) and (b) with that of the allowed by the priest to enter the temple Punic Ba'ahhammdn,' dweller in the sacred without changing his garments. Moreover, post' (see E. Meyer in Roscher Lex. i. 2870, the priest, who ordinarily gave his responses who figures the Ba,ed-stele of Lilybaeum with by nods and tokens, told Alexander plainly its three sacred posts or stones), if the Pelas- that he was the son of Zeus (Callisth. ap. gian Zeus likewise had his sacred stump. Strab. 814); and as such1 he used afterwards Gerhard Gr. Myth. § 198 n. 7 was the first to wear the purple cloak, the special shoes in modern times to question the Egyptian (Trepto-^iSeis)) and the horns of the god character of Zeus Ammon ; and Overbeck (Ephippus ap. Athen. 537 E). The conquer- Kunstmyth. Zeus p. 273 ff. brings forward ing hero guided by the birds to the ora- weighty arguments in favour of the view cular seat and accepted by the priest as that he was a genuine Greek divinity. We the son of Zeus is indeed a highly sugges- need not, then, with Ktister, emend or ex- tive incident. Ptolemy I had a temenos at plain away Suid. "A/I/MOV' ovofw. Otov Dodona (Athen. 203 A) ; Philip of Macedon 'EAAijnKou. Zeus of the Oasis was in truth had ' a round building' near the Prytaneum the same god as Zeus of Dodona. The at Olympia (Paus. 5. 20. 9); Alexander former, like the latter, was a sky-god or sun- was deified at the Ammonium. Were they god (Pind. frog. 36 Chr. "A/ifjuov 'OXvpirovnot each and all victorious embodiments of SSOTTOTO, Mart. Cap. 192 Kopp. Ammon the god % identified with Phoebus, Macrob. 1. 21. 19 Ammonem, quern deuin solem occidentem Dodon or Dodonos, from whom according Libyes existimant; cp. the Kpyvrj 'HAibv, to one version Dodona took its name, was etc.]^ who controlled the rain and springs of the son of Zeus by Europa (Steph. Byz. s.v. water (Plut. v. Alex. 27 sends rain, Serv. AuSciny, schol. II. 16. 233 cod. V). Zeus had Aen. 4. 196, alib. his ram finds water; cp. consorted with Europa by a fountain at Ammon-masks as fountain-mouths in Over- Gortyn under an evergreen plane (Theophr. beck Kunstmyth. Zeus pp. 277, 285, also hist. pi. 1. 9. 5, Varr. de re rust. 1. 7. 6, Parthey das Orakel u. die Oase des Ammon Plin. not. hist. 12. 11), which on account of p. 136), exercising at least one chthonian its remarkable foliage Theophrastus com- pared with an oak growing at Sybaris (Theophr. loc. cit., Varr. loc. cit.). The that of Semiramis in Diod. 2. 20. Wild doves are so numerous in the Oasis nowadays that the Foun- 1 Apelles painted Alexander holding a thunderbolt tain of the Sun is known locally as the Fountain of (Plin. not. hist. 35. 92), i.e. with the attribute of Doves (Rohlfs von Tripolis nach Alcxandrien2 ii. Zeus himself: cp. the gem figured and discussed by 121). Wernicke ant. Denkm. p. 47, pi. 4, 9. THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 40& comparison suggests that the plane, the his oak-nymph in a Cretan oak. If it be finest of all Cretan trees (Hoeck Kreta i. 40), objected that this metamorphosis of Minos did duty for an oak ; and the- same may be is nowhere mentioned, Mr. Svoronos bids us true of the various plane-trees connected remember that Minos was a hypostasis of with Zeus 'Ayapcfivutv (p. 277 n. 2). But, the Cretan Zeus and as such emight well apart from this possibility, more certain adopt this animal disguise. He supports traces of the oak-cult at Gortyn survive in a his contention by citing the singular variant well-known series of silver didrachms, of according to which Ganymedes was carried off, not by Zeus transformed, into an eagle,2 but by Minos (Echemenes Kpr/TiKd ap. Athen. 601 E). From Crete, he adds, the cult of Britomartis made its way to Aegina- (Anton. Lib. 40, Paus. 2. 30. 3); and the Aeginetans averred that to win their eponymous nymph Zeus had taken the same form, that of an eagle (Roscher Lex. i. 148, 40 f.). Here Mr. Svoronos might have strengthened his case by noting that in Aegina too Zeus was connected with an oak. FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Ov. met. 7. 622 relates how the island was peopled in answer to the prayer of Aeacus, which two samples are here given (fig. 1 = son of Aegina, who stood beneath an oak Brit. Mus. Gat. Glc. Coins Crete p. 38, pi. that was sacred to Jupiter and had sprung 9, 5; fig. 2 = Bunbury Gat. no. 1179, ' de semine Dodonaeo.' Quite possibly now in Brit. Mus.). Mr. J. N. Svoronos in Atyiva means f Oak-island' and is a cognate the Revue Beige de Nvmi&matique 1894, of alyikiotfi, aiyU, Biche, oak. However that p. 113 ff. has shown that the usual description may be, it was no hap-hazard choice that of these types as Europa in the plane-tree is made Aeacus the colleague of Minos. quite mistaken. The tree is not a plane at The two coins that I have figured corre- all, but an oak. He cites the opinion not spond to the first and last chapters of the only of numismatists such as Prof. P. Gortyn myth. The first shows the oak- Gardner {Types of Gk. Coins -p. 166) and nymph seated in maidenly modesty on her Messrs. Imhoof-Keller (Tier- und Pflanzen- tree with no hint of Zeus-Minos or his bilder p. 63, 40), but also of Mr. Spyridion designs. The second shows her later on in Miliarakis, Professor of Botany at Athens, a very different guise; she is here the who states that ' les feuilles des arbres . . . divine queen : like Hera at Argos she wears qui sont les mieux representees de toutes, a crown and holds a sceptre surmounted by ainsi que tout le reste, laissent reconnaitre a bird; with her left hand she raises her facilement a toute personne qui connatt les peplos after the fashion of a bride, while arbres de la Grece, que ce n'est pas un with her right she caresses the eagle. The platane, mais bien un chSne (SpCs).' Mr. tree-trunk has become a veritable throne ; Svoronos argues with much probability that and its bare surface is everywhere bursting the coins in question illustrate a myth pre- into bud, for the tree-nymph has been served by Callim. h. Diem. 189 ff. Brito- fertilised indeed by her royal and divine martis, a Gortynian nymph in the train of consort. That consort was probably credited Artemis, was loved by Minos and, being with solar powers; for one coin of Gortyn pursued by her lover, took refuge Aao-ijjo-iv has the whole design of Britomartis and vrrb tynxrl.1 When after a nine months' chase her eagle in the tree surrounded by a circle he was about to seize her, she plunged from of rays (Rev. Beige de Num. 1894, pi. 4,14),a a height into the sea; and, being caught by Didrachms of Tisyros also bear the type the nets of the fishermen, was thenceforward of Britomartis seated in her oak (ib. pi. 4, Called Dictyna, while the height was named 3). But it is to Cnossus, the home of Minos, Mt. Dicte. The latter part of this tale is that we naturally turn for the most definite aetiological and late. Mr. Svoronos thinks a A sarcophagus-relief in the Vatican (Wernicke that the earlier version of it can be restored antike Derikm. ii. 1. pi. 8, 19) and a cameo of the from the coin-types: Minos, taking upon Marlborough collection (Furtwangler Steinsehneide- him the form of an eagle, wooed and won kunst pi. 65, 52) show Ganymedes feeding the eagle iu front of an oak with acorns. 1 The oak-woods of Crete, now fast disappearing 3 Cp. the solar rays round the eagle that is carry- (Hoeck Kreta, i. 39), are mentioned by Dionys. orb. ing oil' Thalia on a red-figured vase of the Hamilton de8cr. 503. collection (Tischbein i. pi. 24). 406 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. evidence of the relation between the king by his cult-title TaXcuds or TaAAatog (Hesych. and the oak. And here we are not disap- s.v. TaAaios, C.I.G. 2554) taken in connexion pointed. Unless I am much mistaken, the with the Hesychian gloss TOAZeuses, of whom one was Zeus essay on the ' Mycenaean Tree and Pillar 'Okv/jarios, the other a king of Crete (Diod. Cult' rightly regards this scene as ' the 3. 61). It would also suit the mythical rela- worship of a trinity of sacred trees,' and tions of Minos to Britomartis and to Gany- cites other examples of tree-trinities vener- medes. Other arguments in support of it ated in Greece and elsewhere, e.g. ' a triple are adduced below: for the moment these will serve. 1 The Cretan Zeus BiSiras {O.I.A. ii. 549) was identified with Zeus 'r£rios by Voretzsch {Hermes The Cretan Zeus, of whom Minos appears iv. 267), who derived the epithet from a Cretan to have been the human representative, was f)l$a>p=$Sa>p, cp. the Phrygian fieSv (Clem. Al. (1) a sky-god. His solar character is shown strom. 5 p. 673). THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 407 group of trees, with their trunks closely base and each supporting the figure of a dove drawn together' on a gold ring from My- (fig. 3 reproduced by permission from cenae (J.H.S. xxi. 141 ff. figs. 25, 56). I Ann. Brit. Sch. Ath. 1901-1902 viii. 29 fig. would suggest that the provenience of the 14). 'The trinity of baetylic columns,' says gem from the Idaean Cave points to the cult Mr. Evans, ' recalls the fact that in the case being that of the Cretan Zeus, and that the of the gold shrines of Mycenae, and again in three trees behind the altar are those in which the Temple Fresco from the Palace of his triple godhead resided. Even as late as Knossos, we find a triple group of pillar Theophrastus' time there grew in the mouth cells.' Mr. Evans takes the three-fold of the Idaean Cave a remarkable poplar that shrines of Cnossus and Mycenae to be those was thought to bear fruit (Theophr. hist, of a dove goddess, though he is careful to plant. 3. 3. 4, cp. ib. 2. 2. 10, [Aristot.] mir. note that ' the dove also appears as the ausc. 69 Westerm.), and we have repeatedly " Messenger " of Zeus' {ib. p. 29 n. 3). In seen the aiyeipos serving as a substitute for view of the fact that doves were believed to a sacred oak (p. 273). have fed Zeus in a Cretan cave (Athen. 491

Fie. 3.

On the floor-level of the original palace B) and that the gem representing a trinity at Cnossus Mr. Evans discovered ' the re- of trees was found in the Idaean Cave, the mains of a miniature Sanctuary including very cradle of Zeus, I would—with all a Pillar Shrine with sacred doves, altars deference to Mr. Evans' opinion—rather with their ritual horns, a kind of portable conjecture that the trinity of pillars, seat for a divinity, and other accessories,' whether Cnossian or Mycenaean, was the e.g. three small triton-shells like the one conventionalised but still aniconic form of figured on the gem from the Idaean Cave. a triple tree-Zeus. In favour of this con- The pillar shrine was clearly the object of jecture is the close analogy subsisting chief importance in this most interesting between the Zeus-cult of Dodona and the deposit. It consisted of a group of three Zeus-cult of Crete. Zeus at Dodona was terra-cotta pillars standing on a common sky-god, water-god, and earth-god (p. 178f.). 40*8 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. So, as I have just shown, was Zeus in Crete. 5. 65).' In other words, there was at Zeus at Dodona had a sacred oak. So had Cnossus, as at Dodona, the joint cult of a Zeus-Minos in Crete. About the Dodonaean sky-god and an earth-goddess. And, if oak were ranged three doves, as we see from we may identify the goddess with a dove on a bronze coin of Epirus (fig. 4 redrawn her head as Aphrodite (cp. the gold plaques from Mycenae in Perrot-Chipiez op. dt. p. 652, figs. 293 f.), we obtain one more point of contact; for Aphrodite also was worshipped in the precinct at Dodona. To complete the parallel, I must show that not only Zeus-Minos but also Rhea and Aphro- dite had sacred oaks. If Zeus was lord of sky and sea and earth, it must be admitted that Rhea made him a FIG. 4. suitable partner : «c yap TI/S 'Peas KOI yfj icai OdXaaaa KCU ovpavos crvve^erat (schol. Ap. from Imhoof-Keller Tier- und PflanzenbUder, Rhod. 1. 1098). The passage on which the pi. 5, 28). When, therefore, we find three scholiast is commenting describes how the doves perched upon a triad of pillars in the Argonauts, in order to lay a storm, went up palace of Zeus-Minos himself, are we not Mt. Dindymon and sacrificed to Rhea. right in regarding them as the sacred birds They cut down an old stump of a vine, of a triple tree-Zeus ?1 which Apollonius calls a yepdvSpvov (1. This analogy between the Zeus-cults of 1118), and Argus of Dodonaean fame Dodona and Cnossus is strikingly confirmed shaped- it to serve as the image of the by another of Mr. Evans' brilliant dis- goddess. They next covered it with boughs coveries. He found a later chamber of the of oak (1121), and when they had wreathed same palace actually arranged as a shrine themselves with oak leaves (1123 f.) with its cultus-objects still in position (Ann. proceeded to offer sacrifice. The scholiast's Brit. Sch. Ath. 1901-1902, viii. 97, fig. 55). remark on 1124 is almost superfluous: Behind a low tripod-stand for offerings ' They wore a wreath of oak leaves because stood the horned sockets of two double the tree is sacred to Rhea. It is sacred to axes. Round these sockets were grouped Rhea, as Apollodorus vepl 6t&v bk. iii. states, sundry terra-cotta figurines, including one of because it is useful for building purposes a male votary holding a dove and another and for food.' Autonomous coins of Smyrna of a goddess with a dove on her head. show the head of the same Great Mother Against one of the sockets was resting a surrounded by an oak-wreath (fig. 5 = Brit. small double axe of steatite with duplicated blades. Mr. Evans justly infers ' a dual cult' (ib. p. 101), viz. that of a goddess as well as a god, who wielded the symbolic weapon; and he publishes a Cnossian gem on which a goddess bearing a double axe is engraved (ib. p. 102).2 ' The accumulating proofs,' he says, ' supplied by signets, gems, and seal impressions of the cult of a divine pair in Min6an Knossos, not infrequently associated with lions, make it probable that the cult of the Cretan Zeus was here linked with that of Rhea, the ruins of whose FIG. 5. Fio. 6. temple with its sacred Cypress Grove were pointed out at Knossos in later days (Diod. Mu8. Gat. Ok. Coins, Ionia pi. 25, 10) or the name of the eponymous magistrate similarly 1 The gold models of a temple-facade from placed (fig. 6 = ib. pi. 25, 6). Aphrodite Mycenae show two doves as acroteria on the triple too had her sacred oaks, as is evident not shrine (Perrot-Chipiez La Grice primitive p. 337 fig. Ill) and Soph. Track. 172. 'Apx- 1900 p. 37). Cnossian shrine can be paralleled from THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 409

Dodona, ' Yonder,' says Philostratus in his Agamemnon king of Mycenae is described description of the Dodonaean precinct by Lye. 1369 f. as Z-qvi T«i Aairepcruo (Philostr. maj. im. 2. 33. 1), 'is placed the | 6JU.WWJU.OS Zeu's: the same author says of axe (ireXeKvs), which was left by Hellus the him Zciis %irapTia.Ta.i'i alfj.v\oiside of the world over are put to death at the close of head. They say also that he instituted a set period to prevent the decay of their games in Delos, where he was the first that supernatural powers. Among the traces of began the custom of giving a palm to the this primitive custom that survived in victors.' Plutarch's description of Theseus Greece he quotes {ib. 18) the fact that the dancing the labyrinth-dance round the Spartan kings were liable to deposition Si' horned altar of the sun-god suggests that a er&v Iwea (Plut. v. Agis 11), and compares ritual analogous to that of the Minotaur with it the tradition of Minos' nine-year had once existed in Delos, an island which rule. The ninth year, then, was a critical like Crete had borne the name Asteria time for the Cretan sun-king, whether we (Hesych. s. v. 'Aarepirj, alib.). call him Minos or the Minotaur. At such a If, as I have tried to prove, Minos was a crisis it would be incumbent upon him to human king regarded as Zeus incarnate, defend his title against all comers; and it the famous grave of Zeus on Mt. Jukta was on the occasion of the third recurring becomes intelligible: it was simply the period that Theseus slew the Minotaur grave of Minos. The schol. Call. h. Iov. 8 (Plut. v. Thes. 15, 17). declares that the original inscription on it I have shown that at Olympia (p. 273 ff.) was Mivwos rov Aios T<£$OS and that the and probably at Dodona (p. 278) the obliteration of the word MtVwos led to the challenge of the priestly-king gave rise to a popular misconception. This is of course regular athletic contest. The same thing absurd; but the tradition that it was the happened at Cnossus. A hint of it is perhaps grave of a man-god may well have lingered conveyed by two Hesychian glosses, Ta\cuds- on and even have occasioned the specu- 6 Zevs iv KpijTy and TaXaiSmjs* Aya>v yv/wucos.lation of Euhemerus, who asserted that 412 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. Zeus in particular had been a former king ing the sun's heat, we are not told. But it of Crete (Hoeck Krela iii. 331 fl\). Pyth- is probable. For, on the one hand, a agoras, when he visited Crete, after purifica- perpetual fire was kept up in the old palace tion rrj Ktpawia. Ai'0u and sacrifice and inspec- at Cnossus: the oath of the Drerians and tion of the throne yearly prepared for Cnossians (Cauer del.2 121, Rhein.Mus. 1856 Zeus, inscribed on the tomb an epitaph x. 393 ff.) began onvvut TOLV *Ev K£ITdr) (Lyd. known as TreXticas because of its axe-like de mens. p. 117, 12 Wuensch): e.g. in beak, and is still called we\eKdvos (D'Arcy Thessaly Heracles established a temenos of Thompson 6k. Birds s.v.). A bird thus Cythera Ilao-i0a«o-o-a beneath an evergreen connected with the oak and the axe may oak because she had helped him to capture well have figured in the Cnossian legend of the oxen and daughter of Geryones Zeus-Minos, whose metamorphosis into an ([Aristot.] mir. ausc. 133, p. 48, 12 eagle at Gortyn we have already con- Westerm.). All this tends to prove that sidered.2 the Cnossians had a yearly ceremony, at That Minos as oak-king maintained a which their queen was solemnly wedded to perpetual fire for the purpose of replenish- the sky-god or sun-god. Was this the itpbs 1 yd/ios celebrated annually near Cnossus by So the MSS. Caelius Rhodiginus antiq. lect. xii. 11 read £6avas=£iara ! Liebrecht cj. (ay&vasmeans of a mimetic representation (Diod. (Philologus xxii. 710). Bernays kept zanas, but 5, 72) t The name Daedalus certainly thought that Macrobius tad misconceived the mean- recalls the Daedala of Plataea, a yearly ing of the Zanes at Olympia {Hermes 1875 ix. festival at which the oak-tree bride was 127 f.). 2 The cultus-images of the Italian Picus furnish prepared for her husband Zeus (Frazer G.B? a close parallel to those of the Cnossian deities found i. 225 f.). t>y Mr. Evans. ' He was represented,' says Mr. Marindin (Glass. Diet. p. 712), 'in a rude and The extant remains of the palace at primitive manner as a woodeu pillar with a wood- Phaestus, a town founded by Minos (Strab. pecker on the top of it, but afterwards as a young 479, Diod. 5. 78), are so similar to those of man with a woodpecker on his head.' See Dion. the palace at Cnossus (J.H.S. xxi. 336 ff. Hal. ant. Bom. 1. 14, who compares the woodpecker on his wooden pillar at Tiora with the dove on the 3 Cp. also Clem. Rom. homil. 5. 13 Zei/s oak at Dodona, and also Plin. not. hist. 10. 41. Sla ralipov 5jA0ei>. THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 413 xxii. 387 ff.) that we look with some con- d. Inst. 1890, v. 245) calls this amphora fidence to find the same cult of an oak-Zeus ' Korinthisch-attisch' and states that accompanied by Rbea and Aphrodite there Roulez's publication of it is ' sehr ungeniig- also. Coins of Phaestus (Fig. 8 = Brit. Mus. end.' I would suggest that TeAicos is a misreading of /EXKOS. However that may be, ib is clear that at Phaestus there was a cult of Zeus TeXxovos, oak-god and sun-god, whose sacred bird was the cock. The Phaes- tians worshipped Rhea also, as we know from an inscription {Mus. ital. d. ant. class. iii. 735 f.). And, lastly, there was a temple of Aphrodite %KOTIO. in. the same town (etym. mag. 543, 48 f.) : the analogy of Zeus SKOTITOS etc. (infra) makes it probable that FIG. 8. she was the goddess of an oak-grove. In short, the royal cults of Cnossus all reappear Cat. Gk. Coins Crete pi. 15, 10) represent a at Phaestus. youthful god seated in a tree and holding A well-known fresco found in the House on his knee a cock. The legend b E VX VM 01. of the Tragic Poet at Pompeii (fig. 9 = i.e. /cX^avos is interpreted by the gloss in Wernicke ant. Denhm. II. i. pi. 3, 10) shows Hesychius FeXxavos- 6 Zevs trapa Kpr/acv.1 the marriage of Zeus and Hera. Iris as Mr. Svoronos has pointed out (Rev. Beige de bridesmaid presents the richly-attired bride Num. 1894, pp. 127, 137) that the tree on to her groom, who receives her xev' "" these Phaestian coins is identical with the Kap-n-w. Behind them is a shrine of Rbea, oak on the coins of Gortyn (figs. 1, 2) ; and represented by a column with three lions on his identification is confirmed by the fact its triangular abacus, cymbals and flutes that there was a festival called J-eX.Ka.via atsuspended from its shaft, and a tympanum Gortyn (Comparetti Leggi di Gort. p. 24, leaning against it. The subject painted by no. 10, 1 /JeXxavifois). It is commonly the Hellenistic artist is in fact that de- supposed that Velchanos is etymologically scribed by the Hellenistic poet: Theocr. 17. the same word as Volcanus (Preller-Jordan3 131 ff. ' Thus was brought to fulfilment the ii. 148, n. 1, Stolz Hist. Gram. d. Lat. Spr. sacred wedlock of the immortals, whom Rhea i. 127) : if so, this oak-Zeus might be a god bare to be rulers of Olympus : one couch was of fire or heat. "Welcker Gr. Gott. ii. 245 strewn for the slumber of Zeus and Hera by explained the cock by the help of a passage Iris, a virgin still, with perfume-brightened in Pausanias, who in describing certain hands.' Overbeck Kunstmyth. Zeus p. 239 statues • dedicated to Zeus at Olympia says ff. has made it probable that the scene of the (5. 25. 9 Frazer): ' The one with the scut- marriage is laid by the painter in Crete at cheon of the cock on the shield is Idomeneus, the foot of Mt. Ida. This suits not only the descendant of Minos. They say that the mountainous landscape and the woods Idomeneus was descended from the Sun, who in the background, which might be any- was the sire of Pasiphae, and that the cock where, but also the combination of Zeus- is sacred to the Sun, and heralds his rising.' worship with Rhea-worship, which is attested If, then, we could establish any connexion for Cnossus both by literature (Eur. KpiyrVs between the name /eXxavos and the Minoan frag. 475 a Dind., Diod. 5. 65 f.) and by the cock, we should be in a fair way to under- monuments (supra). Now Zeus in the wall- stand the full meaning of our coin-type. painting is depicted as wearing a wreath of Now a black-figured amphora from Vulci oak-leaves.2 Overbeck therefore suggests represents the combat between Theseus and (op. dt. p. 242) that the oak may have been the Minotaur in the presence of Minos and sacred to the Cretan Zeus. His suggestion nine other persons ; along with them are is, as I have already shown, confirmed by the ranged two pairs of large cocks inscribed Gortyn coins and the throne of Minos. It respectively TeA/cos and XOITOS, Xairos and remains to mention the three youthful male S^ett? (Roulez Ghoix de vases, pi. 10, Reinach figures seated beside Zeus. Welcker (alte Rep vases peints, ii. 271). Holwerda (Jahrb. Denhm. iv. 96 f.) explained them as the Idaean Dactyli; Stephani (Bull, de I'Acad. 1 Cp. Hesych. 'EiripviTios- Zcbs iv KJWJTJ). Preller- de St. Petersb. xii. 302, 80) with less prob- Robert 4 p. 130 n. 3 connect tpvos, ipvircu. On this ability as personified Meadows; alii aliter. showing the title means 'Zeus on the tree,' cp. 2 Hesych. "EvSevSpos- irapek 'PoSlots Zeis- «al Ai6vv

Conceivably they are Minos, Rhadamanthys, Cp. Steph. Byz. s.v. AtaBiovri: KOU and Sarpedon, the three sons of Zeu8 by Si c^r/fri va.iov Aids lepbv ctrai Iv Europa. The point cannot be settled till ®e

FIG. 9.

Strabo 329 states on the authority of ever, SKortras, is not derived from the Suidas the historian that the cult of the thickness of the woods, but from Zeus Dodonaean Zeus came originally from Sicon'ras, whose sanctuary we reach by Thessaly («c rq% irepl SxoroSo-o-av IlcXeuryias;), turning out of the road' etc. Scherer in that Zeus derived his title Hc\a.Priene once 1 Miletus in the days of time being. He was probably identical Bias and lost heavily at a place called The with the eponymous magistrate of the Pan- Oak: ever afterwards the chief oath of ionian League {C.I.G. 2909 iirl Trpvrdvevs the Prienian women was to swear by ' the 'A/xuiropos e8o£ev 'lmvutv rfi fSovXrj K.T.X.) ; darkness at The Oak,' because their sons for the title trpvravK borne by that magis- and fathers and husbands had there fallen.1 trate was elsewhere borne by priestly- Setting, aside this obviously aetiological kings, who were set apart wpos rots 6vV fieyiffTtov), the shadow of the oak there was not only a sacred oak, but also represented the chief divinity of the place. a priestly-king who had charge of the Pan- And, since Priene was an Ionian town, its ionian eo-ria and held office for a very divinities must have been Pelasgian in limited period in the flower of his age. their origin. We are thus led back once What are these but the essentials of the more to a Pelasgian oak-god who cast a Dodonaean cult 1 sacred shade, like the Zeus of Scotussa: Another town belonging to the same the comparison is strengthened by the fact League had its wpvravK (Aristot. pol. 9, 5. that at Priene, as in Thessaly, the women 1305 a 17 f.) or priestly jSao-iXoJs (Ditt.2 are specially mentioned in connexion with 627, 5) and a cult of Poseidon 'EXoooi'tos him. apparently associated with an oak. ' At Here, however, an objection may be raised. Miletus,' says Pausanias (7. 24. 5), ' on the The men of Priene superintended the ritual way to the spring of Biblis, there is an of Poseidon 'EA,i<«uvtos at the Panionian fes- altar of Heliconian Poseidon in front of the tival on Mt. Mycale: this post of honour city.' It will be remembered that the was assigned to them on the ground that oak figures prominently in the legend of they were descended from the Ionians of Biblis. Parthenius (narr. am. 11. 3—4) Helice in Achaea, where Poseidon 'EXuccovtos tells how she hanged herself diro TIVOS had a famous sanctuary (Strab. 384, 639). Spuos, and how the fountain sprang from Their chief divinity, therefore, appears to her tears. Ovid (met. 9. 663) says of the have been Poseidon rather than Zeus. In spring : ' nomen habet dominae, nigraque answer to this I should reply that Poseidon sub ilice manat.' And, according to Nic- is but 'Zeus in the water' (p. 175), and ander (ap. Ant. Lib. 30) {Biblis was turned that, precisely at the place where we should into a Hamadryad. The cult of Poseidon expect to find Poseidon 'EAIKWUOS in his at Miletus was introduced by Neleus the earliest shape, what we do find is a sacred founder of the town, who raised an altar to spring and a cult of Zeus 'EXtioonos. For him in the Poseidion (Strab. 633). Accord- the title 'EXowonos is obviously derived, not ing to the local legend, Neleus had been from Helice, but as Aristarchus saw (etym. led to select his site by Artemis Xirannj, mag. 547, 16) from Mt. Helicon across the under whose guidance he found a fine and Gulf. And on Mt. Helicon was a spring fruitful oak (SpSs): out of it he made an and an altar of Zeus "EXucaJnos (Hes. image for the goddess, and round it he built theog. 4 and schol.). The custom at Miletus (schol. Call. h. lov. 77, cp. h. Dian. Priene was to appoint a young man 225 ff.). Apollo too at Miletus bore the title as (SaaiXivs to perform the sacrifice at the Apv/uis (Lye. 522, Tzetz. ad loc, cp. Strab. Panionian festival {Strab. 384). G. F. 321) or Apvpcuos (schol. vet. ad Lye. 522) ; Schoemann Griech. Alterth. i p. 423 regards whence it may be inferred that the oak-god him as a priestly-king, who reigned for the of the Milesians had solar powers.

1 The cult of an oak-Zeus seems indeed to Zenob. 6. 12 in explaining the proverb T& irepl ApSv &K6TOS cites an abbreviated form of the Prieiiehave been fairly common in Asia Minor. legend fromAristotle' s Samian Constitution. "We dHesychiuo s has preserved the gloss ao-xpa- not know the context in which it there occurred; but Spvs oKopjros; and Schrader Preh. Antt. an ancient name of Samos was Apvovaaa, 'Oak p. 226 connects ao-xpa with aorrpos, &nrpis, Island' (Heraclid. de polit. 10, Steph. Byz. s.v. Sifios, Hesych. s. w. bipvaoa and Apvovea, C.I.G. a kind of oak. This enables us to fix 2905, Plin. nat. hist. 5. 31), and the aniconic Hera the character of Zeus 'Acncpatos, to whom of the Samians may have been an oaken trunk the Lydians brought their first-fruits (Urlichs An/ange d. griech. Kunstlergesehichte p. (Plut. mor. 501 F). He was worshipped 29 n. would restore the pentameter "Hpas fcctl 2a/iioi •xplvivov elxop eSos from Euseb. prep. ev. 3. 8"Hpas at Halicarnassus also, where a herd of goats used to be brought before his temple K.T.A.) and the priest would sacrifice the goat that EE 2 4J6 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. approached his altar (Apollon. hist. mir. branches rise separately from an enclosure p. 107, 20 Westerm.). Imperial coins of of trellis-work (fig. 11 = Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. that town represent him as a bearded god Coins Caria p. 35, pi. 6, 8). Sometimes crowned with rays and standing between they spring from a single trunk, on either two oak-trees, on each of which is a bird side of which is a naked man wearing a (fig. 10 = Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Coins, Caria Phrygian cap : the one on the left wields a double axe ; the one on the right kneels or runs away, turning his back upon the tree (fig. 12 = ib. p. 34, pi. 6, 7). Sometimes a third man is present, who raises both his arms in the air (Imhoof-Blumer Gr. Miinzen p. 142 f., pi. 9, 29). Sometimes no men are there, but the tree is flanked by two lighted altars (fig. 13 = Brit. Mus. Cat. Gk. Cains

FIG. 10. p. Ill, no. 88). The rayed crown implies that Zeus was here regarded as a sun- god ; and it is noteworthy that Menander of Laodicea on the Lycus, in his treatise Trtpi £7riSeocTiK<3v (Walz ix. 329, 26), men- tions an Apollo 'Acncpcuos. Of the birds FIG. 13. Head hist. num. p. 527 remarks : ' the two birds are clearly oracular.'1 Not unlike Caria p. 35, no. 58). May we not venture the ritual of Zeus 'Acrxpcuos was that of to identify this bare trunk with the oak of Zeus at Fedasia in Caria, where a goat used Zeus 'AcrKpaios 2 and Aphrodite the patroness to go before the priest of its own accord; of the town with Aphrodite 'Ao-tcpaial If here too the temple was haunted by a couple so, the resemblance between the cults of of ravens, one of which had a white throat Aphrodisias and Dodona is striking. At {[Aristot.] mir. ausc. 137 Westerm.). both places (a) Aphrodite is connected with Side by side with the cult of Zeus an oak-Zeus; (6) the tree-god had a triple 'ACTK/DCUOS at Halicarnassus there seems to aspect; (o) a fire was maintained before the have been a cult of Aphrodite 'Aa-Kpaia ; for sacred tree; (d) there was a ceremony of the Halicarnassians built at Troezen, their wood-cutting. When iSulla took the title metropolis, a vahv . . . 'Apo8in;s 'A<7/cpaias Epaphroditus and, in obedience to an oracle (Paus. 2. 32. 6). When, therefore, we re- which promised him sovereign power, dedi- flect that an ancient Carian town was cated a golden crown and a double axe in named Aphrodisias, it becomes of interest the temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias (App. to enquire whether its inhabitants likewise de bell. civ. 1. 97), he was unconsciously worshipped an oak. Now imperial coins of acting the part of a second Hellus. At- tached to this temple was an official called 6 oiviKovPhrygia i. 66 n. 1). Alexander is known to have worn a purple robe as an incarnation of Zeus Ammon (Athen. 537 E). I would therefore suggest that 6 oiviKovs was in like manner a human representative of an oak-Zeus, in short the priestly-king of FIG. 11. FIG. 12. 2 Zeus was worshipped at Aphrodisias under the that town show the leafless trunk of a tree title Zeus NiyciJSios {Bull, de corr. hell. 1886 x. 80), with three branches. Sometimes the three i.e. Zeus the god of Niv6ri, the old name of the town (Steph. Byz. s. vv. MiyiKri ir6his and NIV6TJ). A 1 Car the eponym of Caria was said to have been small altar found in a Turkish cemetery near the firstt o draw omens from birds (Plin. not. hist. Aphrodisias and now at Oxford is inscribed Aibs 7. 203). Aa&pavvSov KOI Aibs Meytavrov (Michel 802). THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 417 Aphrodisias. Similarly Anaxenor of Mag- Of the rites connected with the cult nothing nesia ad Maeandrum as priest of Zeus is known : but it is likely that the ravpo6via SuxriTroAis was honoured with a purple robe of Mylasa (Lebas-Waddington 404) re- (Strab. 648); and, since Zeus on coins of sembled the j8ouStratonicea Zeus bore the titles Elsewhere in Caria we come across traces Xpuo-aop€us (Strab. 660) or Xptnradpios (G.I.G. of a three-fold Zeus. Strabo 659 says that 2720, 2721) and IIava>apos (G.I.G. 2719, in or near Mylasa there were three sanctu- 2720, 2721) or Havi^pios (G.I.G. 2715 a, aries of Zeus, that of Zeus 'Oo-oyd>s, that of 2716, 2717). Zeus ' of t"he Golden Sword ' Zeus Aa/?pav8)jvos or Srpartos, and that of was in all likelihood a sky-god like Zeus Zeus Kapios. The connexion between Zeus AaftpavSevs, who also had a sword (Ael. hist. 'Oo-oyws and Zeus Aaj8pav8ip/ds was very an. 12. 30): cp. Xpwdwp, Xpvo-aopos, as epi- close ; for an imperial coin of Mylasa shows thets of Apollo (Pauly-Wissowa iii. 2484, them standing face to face, the former with 57 ff.). Zeus IIava/j.apos- appears to mean a trident, the latter with a double axe in ' the god of broad daylight' (Farnell Cults his hand (Brit. Mus. Gat. Gk. Coins Caria i. 43). The celestial or solar character of p. 133, no. 37), while another even exhibits Zeus at Stratonicea is further shown by the a trident and a double axe combined to form fact that on some coins of the city his head is a single weapon (ib: p. 132, pi. 22, 3). Again, radiate {Brit. Mus. Gat. Gk. Coins Caria Zeus AafipavSrjvo's or STpoVios must have p. 153, pi. 24, 4). At Stratonicea too there been virtually one with Zeus Kapio? ; for in was a ceremony resembling the fSov6via. the temple near Mylasa Zeus Aa/3pav8eus An imperial coin (fig. 14 = Brit. Mus. Cat. had a sword slung at his side and was wor- shipped under the names of STpemos and Kapios (Ael. hist. an. 12. 30). In short, the three Zeuses of Mylasa mentioned by Strabo were but three forms of one and the same god. Zeus 'Oo-oyois with his trident was otherwise called -Z^voiroo-eiSdw (see Roscher Lex. s.v. 'Osogoa') and was certainly a water-god. Zeus Aa/SpavSevs with his double axe was no less certainly a sky-god, and in that capacity sent rain (Ael. hist. an. 12. 30). The nature of the third Zeus is unknown. All three have points in common with Zeus 'Ao-Kpaios. An imperial coin of Mylasa now at Paris shows PIG. 14. Zeus 'Oo-oyws bearing an eagle and a trident and wearing a crown of rays, a trait which, as Drexler pointed out (Roscher Lex. iii. Gk. Coins Caria p. 157, pi. 24, 8) represents 1228, 26), serves to connect him with Zeus the rite taking place before a sacred oak- 'Aovcpaios. Zeus STpanos (= Aa^SpavSijvds) tree. A bull of its own accord approaches was worshipped in a great grove of sacred a garlanded altar or platform, on which plane-trees (Hdt. 5. 119); and we have stands a man wearing a short chiton, a seen the plane more than once take the chlainys, and endromides. In his left hand place of the oak as the tree of Zeus. he holds a sceptre; in his right a dagger, Lastly, Zeus Kapios was honoured not only which he is about to plunge into the neck of at Mylasa but also by the Lydians and the bull. Other coins of Stratonicea show Mysians (Hdt. 1. 171, Strab. 659); and Zeus himseK ip precisely the same costume the cult of Zeus 'Ao-/cpatos was likewise (ib. p. 158, pi. 24, 10). Hence I infer that common to Carians and Lydians (supra). the sceptre-bearing /Joutfvnjs was a priestly- That the Zeus of Mylasa had at one time a king, who acted the part of Zeus himself priestly-king, is probable from Strabo's statement that the most illustrious citizens 'OTr\6a/uos. He was killed and beheaded by some of the town were priests of Zeus person or persons unknown; but his severed head 1 went on repeating the line iir' avSpbs tvSpa KepxiSas Srparios throughout their life (Strab. 659). ciiriicTtivev, ' Cercidas slew a man in single fight,' till the murderer was brought to justice. Does this 1 A queer tale is told by Aristot. de part. an. 3.10.folk-tale point to a primitive custom of monomachia 673 a 17 ff. 3bont a priest of the Carian Zeus for the post of priestly-king ? 418 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. before the sacred oak.1 And since a lighted v. soph. 2. 26. 2) wore a wreath of oak altar is often represented on the coins before (fig. 6) like that of the Great Mother there the figure of Zeus (ib. p. 151, pi. 24, 1), it worshipped (fig. 5). may be conjectured that part of the priest's Now Rhodes too had its eponymous office was the maintenance of a perpetual avr]6pos (Michel 431), who was priest fire. of the sun-god2 (Michel 535, cp. The transition from oak to poplar (pp. 181, 273, 407) seems to have occurred at Sardes. On an imperial coin of that town (fig. 15 = Brit. Mug. Gat. 6k. Coins Lydia p. 267,

FIG. 16.

Herwerden lex. suppl. s.v. o^^p) and Rhodian coins, whose obverse type is a radiate head of Helios, have sometimes on FIG. 15. their reverse side a magistrate's name enclosed by a fine oak-wreath (figs. 16, 17 = pi. 27, 11) we see Zeus AvSios standing on a Brit. Mus. Gat. Gk. Coins Caria p. 261, pillar or pedestal beneath a poplar-tree. In pi. 41, 4). We can but conclude that the his right hand he holds an eagle with closed sacred tree of the sun-god in Rhodes, his wings (so Head op. cit.); in his left, a sceptre. Before him is placed a large stone altar adorned with three figures in relief. Amid the flames can be distinguished the heads of four bulls. That there was or had been a priestly- king at Friene, Miletus, Aphrodisias, Mylasa, and Stratonicea, appears also from the title oT«pavri)avq6po<; {C.I.9. 2673 (Micheff., l 469) and M 6pov 'Eicaralov rod Lebas-Waddington 251 ff.). It follows Xpvvaipov (Lebas-Waddington 292) respectively. that the nature of the magistrate's wreath Probably the title of the local god was otten given as a child's name: e.g. at Corycus in Cilicia the is a reliable clue to the nature of the deity chief deity was Hermes and ' names formed from whom he represented : e.g. at Smyrna the 'Ep/irjs are common there' (6. F. Hill Brit. Mus. avri6po<; (Michel 19, 34, PhilostrCat. Ok.. Coins Lycaonia etc. p. lxvii. n. 4). Still, the possibility remains that the priest who repre- 1 Cp. the Lydian plane-tree, which Xerxes sented the god took the god's name. A list of the honoured with, ornaments of gold and a special priests of Zeus at Corycns (Michel 878) contains champion to guard it (Hdt. 7. 31, Ael. var. hist. with surprising frequency the name Zas, which ean 2. 14). hardly be other than the name of Zeus himself. THE CLASSICAL REVIEW. 419

This suits what is known of the primi- py tive stratum of Rhodian religion. It is Sai/j,u)v Tipo/j.avOtv's Aldiotp Tvpdipios. generally admitted that the sun-god Helios was simply a specialized form of Zeus Apv/mos, a title under which Zeus was wor- (see Rapp in Roscher Lex. i. 1994, 62 ff.), shipped in Pamphylia (Tzetz. in Lye. 536), who was worshipped in early days at certainly denotes an oak-god. Hpofiuiv6evs, Amorgus as Zeus "HXios (Rohl2 p. 55 no. his title at Thurii (Tzetz. in Lye. 537), is 28). It is not surprising, therefore, to probably to be connected with the Sanskrit find the oak as his sacred tree. Probably pramantha, ' fire-stick' (E. Kuhn die Herab- the Zeus 'Ei/SevSpos1 of the Rhodians kunft des Feuers, p. 18). AiOCoxj/ means 'he (Hesych. s.v. "EvSevSpos), like the radiate of the glowing face,' and is a third title Zeus 'Aovcpaios of Halicarnassus, was at of Zeus in use at Chios (Tzetz. in Lye. 537, once sun-god 2 and oak-god. Hence Helen cp. Eustath. 1385, 62 Aids «u'0erov, aWioi// . .. the daughter of Zeus (Od. 4. 227, 569) o>s (jtaeivov. Trapa TO alOo) TO Xa/«ru>. av ' some blending of the worships.' The facts and in the myth of Prometheus, suggests are harmonized by the simple conception of that the reference is, not to the simplest the sun-god driving his chariot up the sky form of fire-stick—a vertical twirled by from the waters of the sea—a conception hand on a horizontal, but to the more familiar enough both in literature and in art.4 advanced type of a fire-drill such as is used by the Eskimos or the North American The same association between an oak-Zeus Indians. An Iroquois sample figured by and a sun-god occurs in Lye. 536 f. the Rev. J. G. Wood Man and his handi- work, pp. 420, 422 shows the vertical 1 See p. 413 n. 1. Hyg. fab. 139 relates that Amalthea hung the cradle of the infant Jupiter in weighted by means of a large wheel or arbore to prevent Saturn from findingit . spindle-whorl and turned by a bow resemb- 3 Hesych. 'EptSi/itos- Ztvs iv 'vlfitp is obscure. ling that of an ordinary bow-drill. How- An inscr. from Camirus (Ditt.2 609) records the ever that may be, Lycophron certainly priests of Apollo 'Epe6i)uos, cp. Hesych. 'EpeBifuos- brings before us a Pamphylian oak-Zeus i 'Aw<{AX<»e icapa. AVKIOIS, KO.1 lopTJ) 'Epedv/iia. There was also a cult of Apollo 'Epu0f/3ios in Rhodes regarded as a solar divinity and to that (Strab. 613). extent at least resembling the Dodonaean 3 According to the common version they became Zeus. poplars (Roscher Lex. i. 1983, 8 ff.). In the Rhodian Tlepolemeia the wreath was of white poplar Not only the oak but also the mistletoe Aeyws dite, here an oak-goddess (pp. 408,416) paired by Euripides (lotion frag. 428 Dind.), the with Zeus (Serv. Aen. 3. 466), was found brother of A.ey«as by Strabo (442), the son in the sacred precinct (Carapanos i. 47,19).2 of AXriov (Weizsacker cj. A"6u>v) by Phere- In Italy also oak-mistletoe occurs in con- cydes (ap. schol. Ap. Rhod. 3. 62); and it nexion with the solar wheel. At Praeneste was by means of a flaming pit thinly Fortuna Primigenia, the eldest daughter of covered with logs and dust that he Iupiter (Dessau 3684—3686), had an an- entrapped and slew Eioneus the father of cient oracular seat adjoining a temple of Dia (ib.). The whole subject of the solar Iupiter Arcanus (C. /. L. xiv. 2937, 2972, wheel has been ably handled by M. Gaidoz, cp. R. Peter in Roscher Lex. i. 1541, 59 ff). who in an interesting series of chapters (Rev. Archeol. 1884 ii. 7 ff., 136 ff., 1885 i. 1 M. Gaidoz (Rev. ArcMol. 1885 i. 180 f.) and 179 ff., 364 ff., ii. 16 ff., 167 ff.) has M. Bertrand (La religion des Oaulois p. 185 ff.) have abundantly proved that the nations of shown that small metal wheels of this type were antiquity symbolized the sun as a wheel beyond doubt solar amulets. One found near Argos and inscribed T# Favantf K.T.X. (Brit. Mus. Oat. and has traced the survival of that symbol- Bronzes no. 253) may have been dedicated to Helios, ism through mediaeval into modern times. who was there worshipped (Paus. 2. 18. 3). Familiar classical examples are the wheel 2 It is possible that the oracular oak of Dodona on coins of Mesembria, and the ' rota Solis' was itself a mistletoe-bearing tree. The wind that stirred the foliage was thought to sound most loudly (De Vit cites Enn. ap. Isid. origg. 18. 36. in a mistletoe-bearing oak. For in II. 14. 398 f. 3, Lucr. 5. 432, 564, Yal. Flacc. 3. 559, OST' Avffios r&oaov ye irepl Spvfflv v^miixouriv \ i/viei, [Sen.] Here. Oet. 1026, Apul.me*. 9.28). It 8s re /iaAHTTa /liya $p4fierai xo^eirah'iw Agathocles- read Spuaiv i£oVitruvius (8. 7. 1.) of a castellum 1. A. J. Evans: Excavations at Knossos, 1902. for the distribution of water in a city. The (Three plates ; 74 cuts.) purpose of the place is further attested by The campaign of 1902, which lasted from Febru- ary to June, was chiefly occupied with clearing the the presence of rough wall-paintings, depict- 3 remainder of the eastern slope of the Palace, which ing a river-god and three nympbs. from the pottery found at different levels was Leporano (Apulia).—At this place (about shewn to cover the early and middle Minoan 10 miles from Tarentum) some early tombs periods. Supplementary discoveries were also made in the northern regions of the Palace. were discovered during agricultural opera- Further investigation round the Boom of the tions iu September, 1899. One tomb con- Oil-Press shewed that all that part was devoted to tained a number of vase fragments which the manufacture and storage of oil; large pithoi have since been put together. In all, there for holding that commodity were found, with a new form of decoration imitating rope work and are eight leylikes and one lekane. One studs of metal. black-figured kylix has round it, on a level North of the basement area another chamber with the handles, a band of figures. A was opened which contained enamelled plaques seated man is receiving a crown from a from a porcelain mosaic of native work, apparently set in a framework of wood and forming a K&pva£. winged female. Warriors, female figures, Many represent houses and other buildings with and mounted ephebi also appear in the facades of two or three stories, doors, and windows zone, which is filled up with a series of coloured red, perhaps to indicate parchment. They reproduce buildings of wood and plaster construc- pseudo-inscriptions. White is used for the tion, and correspond with, but are not copied from, flesh of the female figures and purple for early Egyptian architecture. parts of the clothing and hair. The vase Below the Palace basements in the olive-press belongs to the Kleinmeister group (second area were chambers with a complete system of half of the sixth century B.C.) and is signed stratification, down to Neolithic pottery ; the finds included fine and varied specimens of Kamaraes SAKONIAES EA>Act>*EN. Cf. Klein, ware, a vase of porcelain and gold, and a clay bowl Vat. mit Meistersign.2 p. 85. The potter's with a gold spray on it. In another early chamber name is very faint, but apparently reads were painted terracotta columns with doves, from a shrine ; an early example of pillar-cult. KavAos iirolrja-ev. Another kylix is signed The exploration of the East-West Corridors was on both sides O OAIXS EPOIESEN ; the completed, and among the finds was a large hoard design represents a quadriga with charioteer of inscribed tablets indicating the use of a decimal and armed warrior. On the other kylikes system of arithmetic ; also a gold pendant in the appear animals, a Siren, two ephebi racing, form of a duck. Extensive operations in the domestic part of the and a design of Herakles, Nessos, and Palace yielded very interesting results. The Queen's Deianeira.3 Megafon was shewn to have been restored and re- Palestrina.—A large mosaic in the occupied in the mature Mycenaean period, and on its north wall was brought to light a fresco of a temple of Fortuna Primigenia, which had lady dancing; an adjoining chamber contained a previously been excavated partially, has portable bath of terracotta, and a private staircase now been further uncovered. Nine frag- was found leading to the thalamos above. A curious mark on most of the blocks in this quarter (a ments of very elegant workmanship have forked distaff) seems to be indicative of the female been found, and on them are represented quarter, or perhaps an emblem of a female deity. various fishes swimming in the sea. The In a secluded room, apparently a treasure- mosaic probably belongs to the time of chamber, were found a gold heart-shaped pendant, Hadrian. The whole may very likely have parts of a bronze casket, and a remarkable series of ivory figures of youths leaping, of marvellous represented the port of Alexandria with its freedom and naturalism. The fresco of the girl- famous Pharos. toreador is now completely restored. In a back A fragmentary inscription found at room of the domestic quarter important discoveries of sealings were made: the subjects were groups Praeneste reads of warriors, daemons, animals, etc. South of the D'MAGXIOIB quarter were found small closets with thick- CTATOEISALT plastered walls, containing pottery of the late DICETE Minoan period with beautiful floral designs,' also some 'flat candlesticks.' It is suggested that it refers to the dictator One of the most remarkable features of the ex- Sulla. The form of the letters would point cavations was the laying bare of a most elaborate to a date early in the first century B.C.4 and advanced system of drainage and sanitary con- F. H. MABSHALL. trivances hardly equalled in modern times. In various parts of the palace interesting finds 3 Notizie degli Scavi, Jan. 1903. TOre made. In the Court of the Sanctuary, a 4 Ibid. Feb. 1903. shrine of double axes, with horns of consecration 424 THE CLASSICAL REVIEW.

and painted terracotta figures of divinities and pottery. Painted larnakes found by Mr. Marshall votaries. In the basement on the south-east, two in 1901 published and discussed. cups with inscriptions painted in dark brown ink, Reports, lists, rules, etc. in a sort of cursive linear script. In the store- rooms of the earlier palace, pottery of a very fine Jahrbuch 4es Arcb. Instltuts, xviii. (1903), fabric like egg-shell china, with bright colours, Heft 2. imitating metal work. It belongs to the best 1. R. Engelmann: The Io-legend. (Plate ; ten Minoan period, and the geometrical decoration is cuts). influenced by Egypt. Two imports from Egypt Shews that up to the time of the appearance of are particularly noteworthy for their early date : the Prometheus Vinctus Io was represented only a» a fragment of a diorite bowl, and a bowl of liparite a cow (as on a vase at Naples); subsequently she (a kind of obsidian unknown in the Aegean), both is either a fioiicepas irapOevos (cf. Snppl. 569 and apparently of the Fourth Dynasty (about 4000- Bacchyl. v. 16, 18) or a cow with horned female 3500 B.c). head (as on a vase at Boston of early Apulian 2. R. S. Conway: Pre - Hellenic Inscriptions of fabric) ; the probable reason of the change was the Praesos. (Two cuts.) necessity for her speaking on the stage. He gives Gives text of a Nd/ios with transliteration and a list of known representations of Io. notes on alphabet; also other fragments throwing 2. H. von Fritze: Greek sacrificial ritual. (13 light on language of Praesos, which seems to be cuts). Indo-European. Also an interesting note on the Explains (with illustrations from gems and coins) -P9OS termination. the terms (rfpecrflarandKOTao-Tpeipeii'in connection 3. H. E. Hall: Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea. with the sacrifice of oxen. For Olympian deities the (Fifteen cuts.) animal was suspended (afyeardai); for Chthonian, Keftiu explained as 'Hinterland' people; not it was pressed down on the ground (icaTaaTpeQetr) Phoenician, but more like Cretans. The Peoples as in the well known Nike types. of the Sea un-Semitic, and apparently from West- 3. H. Schone : Statue of a Roman charioteer in the ern Asia Minor. Vatican. (Two cuts). 4. F. W. Hasluck : Sculptures from Cyzicus. (Three Quotes passages from medical writers to shew plates.) that the fasciae worn by Roman charioteers were to Publishes relief of sixth century, a cnltus-statue prevent injury to the ribs. of Kore Soteira (Hellenistic), a stele, and several Anzeiger.— Obituary notices of F. Hettner and fragments, including au Ionic volute with rosette M. Frankel. Finds in 1902 (Greece, Egypt, in centre. Russia, North Africa, etc.); work of Limes 5. M. N. Tod: Some unpublished ' Catalogi Pater- commission. Work of Archaeological Institute; arum Argentearum.' proceedings of the Berlin Arch. Gesellschaft, and Seven examples in Athens Museum, probably other bodies. Bibliography. from the Acropolis ; interesting lists of trades and industries. American Journal of Archaeology- 2nd Ser. 6. R. C. Bosanquet: Excavations at Praesos. I. Vol. vii (1903), part 2. (Six plates ; 36 cuts.) 1. S. O. Dickerman: Two archaic inscriptions. Tombs and houses excavated, extending from (Four plates). Mycenaean period to Hellenistic Age ; finds of One from Corinth, the other from Cleonae with pottery, painted larnakes, gems, terracottas, and peculiar local alphabet, under influence of Argos. bronzes. 2. F. W. Shipley: Certain sources of corruption in 7. E. S. Forster: Praesos. The Terracottas. (Two Latin MSS. II. plates ; seven cuts.) Discusses errors of omission, confusion of letters Finds chiefly of archaic period (seventh to fifth or words, mistakes in numeral signs and abbrevia- century), including a bust of a god modelled by tions, and corrections of the Codex Puteanus of hand, a series of lions, female figures of Cypriote Livy. type, and plaques with draped men carrying 3. G. F. Moore : Baetylia. offerings. Argues that 0alrv\ot were \l6oi tfi\f>vx<" "i*^ 8. R. C. Bosanquet: Excavations at Petras. (Five the power of motion (e.g. the stone swallowed by cuts). Kronos) ; the application of the word to holy cones Finds of Kamaraes and Mycenaean wares. or pillars was a late and incorrect idea, owing to 9. R. C. Bosanquet: Excavations at Palaikastro I. confusion with Beth-el. (Six plates ; 27 cuts). Bibliography and summaries of archaeological dis- A strictly pre-Hellenic site, with pre-Mycenaean cussions. funeral deposits, Kamaraes ware, and Mycenaean H. B. W.

SUMMARIES OF PERIODICALS.

American Journal of Philology. Vol. xxiv. Religion und KuUus der Riym.tr (Grant Showerman). No. 1. 1903. Reports, Brief Mention, etc. Limitation of Time oy Means of Cases in Epic No. 2. 1903. Sanskrit, E. Washburn Hopkins. The Order of Unpublished Letters of Wilhelm Miiller, James Taft Conditional Thought (I), H. C. Nulting. The Hatfield. The Order of Conditional Thought (II), I.E. Root Selo-, Francis A. Wood. Latin H. C. Nulting. The Imperfect Indicative in Early Etymologies, Edwin W. Fay. Reviews : Wissowa's Latin, Arthur Leslie Wheeler. The Vocative in