Educational Tourism and Nation Building: Cross-Border School Trips in the Carpathian Basin

DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.69.1.5Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Hungarian Geographical Geographical Bulletin Bulletin 69 (2020) 69 2020 (1) 57–71. (1) 57–71.57

Educational tourism and nation building: Cross-border school trips in the Carpathian Basin

Tamara RÁTZ1, Gábor MICHALKÓ2 and Réka KESZEG3

Abstract

Educational travel provides opportunities for participants to explore specific issues in unconventional ways. In Hungary, primary and secondary schools organise annual study trips as part of their curricula. The aim of these trips is to familiarise students with the main sights of the country, and to bring to life national narratives discussed in lessons. Furthermore, these trips often play a key role in students’ socio-psychological development, both as future tourism consumers and as future citizens. Recognising the opportunity to influence students’ worldview and way of thinking during their sensitive teenage years, the Hungarian government has created a national programme to financially support school trips organised to visit minority Hungarian communities living in the neighbouring countries. This paper is based on the content analysis of 256 detailed reports submitted by participants of school trips organised in 2013/14 with the aim to visit Hungarian minority communities in the Carpathian Basin. The analysis focuses on the detailed descriptions of the participants’ personal memories of their experiences, the social construction of the visited destinations, and the influence of their memorable experiences on their sense of national identity. The research disclosed that the trips made to Hungarian territories outside the borders contributed to shaping the national sentiment of the students participating in the programme. The findings suggest that since participation in tourism is an effective means to experience nationhood and national identity, by financially supporting school trips abroad, the state may be able to exert political influence over national consciousness.

Keywords: ethnic tourism, educational trip, national identity, nation building, Carpathian Basin, Hungary, ‘Without Borders!’ project

Introduction Generating and maintaining nationalism with the help of tourism occurs in domestic In the past decades, researchers have revealed and in international tourism as well (Pretes, several aspects of the symbiosis of tourism M. 2003). Through the development of the and politics (e.g. Burns, P. and Novelli, M. tourism industry after World War 2, both 2007). Most of the monographic work was democratic and totalitarian states – with di- economics- (Mosedale, J. 2011), controlling- verse motivations – took part in encouraging (Pender, L. and Sharpley, R. 2005) and de- trips with the objective to strengthen national velopment-oriented (Brien, A. 2011), while identity (Palmer, C. 1999). The establish- among social approaches, several publications ment and expansion of the European Union, have dealt with the role of the state in social on the one hand, have gradually contributed tourism (e.g. La Placa, V. and Corlyon, J. to stronger national identities (McLaren, L. 2014) or the relationship of travel and national 2004), while, on the other hand, have facilitat- identity (Bhandari, K. 2014). ed unrestricted border crossings, based on the

1 Kodolányi János University, 1139 Budapest, Frangepán u. 50–56. Hungary. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Geographical Institute, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, 1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45; Corvinus University of Budapest, 1093 Budapest, Fővám tér 8. Hungary. E-mail: [email protected] 3 Budapest Marriott Hotel, 1052 Budapest, Apáczai Csere János utca 4. Hungary. E-mail: [email protected] 58 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

principle of the free movement of persons laid national identity in the context of educational down in the Treaty of Rome. The integration travel. In addition, it also proposes to contrib- of East Central Europe to the European Union ute to the widening discussion on the rela- revealed the suppressed dreams of countries tionship of tourism and politics, with special in the Carpathian Basin concentrating on consideration to using tourism as a means to strengthening national identity (Young, C. achieve political goals. The objective of the and Light, D. 2001). What was unimaginable study is to discuss, using an exploratory ap- in the former socialist camp strictly controlled proach, the phenomenon of financially sup- by the Soviet Union came true in the European ported school trips organised outside the Union. The EU’s minority policy supports borders with the motivation of reinforcing the establishment of cultural connections be- national identity. The paper reviews the his- tween minority groups and their motherland torical and political antecedents of national in many ways, which also opened the gates identity building, presents the tourism aspects to political initiatives strengthening national of the ‘Without Borders!’ programme, identi- identity in neighbouring countries under the fies the spatial and temporal characteristics auspices of cultural cooperation (Sasse, G. of the trips carried out during the 2013/2014 2008). Tourism represents one aspect of mobil- school year, as well as evaluates the experi- ity among euro-regions, in the framework of ences of the student participants during these which – through the development of cultural trips, with special emphasis on national iden- and heritage attractions – many trips are real- tity, and the social, community-building role ized with the motivation of nation-building. of travel. Based on content analysis of the Similarly, there is a growing body of litera- participating students’ reports, the primary ture focusing on the role and benefits of edu- objective of the study is to determine whether cational travel, partly as a means of connect- the government’s intention to use travel as a ing the theoretical world of academia with means to national identity building is fulfilled the realities of tourist destinations (Tarrant, with the ‘Without Borders!’ programme. M.A. et al. 2011) and to encourage critical reflection on behalf of the students Boluk( , K. and Carnicelli, S. 2015), partly as initia- Theoretical background tives embracing the principles of experiential learning in the forms of study trips and field schools Liang( , K. et al. 2015). However, National identity in the Carpathian Basin – the most authors concentrate either on university geopolitical context students (particularly on medium- and long- term study abroad programmes) (e.g. Juvan, Hungary occupies a special place in the pro- E. and Lesjak, M. 2011; Abubakar, M. et al. cesses of national identity building in the 2014), and on the role of field visits in travel & Carpathian Basin. According to the Trianon tourism, or tourism & hospitality degree pro- Peace Treaty signed in 1920, following World grammes (e.g. Sanders, D. and Armstrong, War 1, two-thirds of the territory of former E.K. 2008; Arcodia, C. and Dickson, C. 2013), historical Hungary, and half of its population or on adults participating in educational ex- were allocated to the neighbouring countries, periences as a form of lifelong learning or leaving approximately 3 million ethnic Hun- as serious leisure (e.g. Pitman, T. et al. 2010; garians outside the new borders (Kovács, Z. Kask, S. 2011), and there is a general gap in 1989; Kocsis, K. and Kocsis-Hodosi, E. 1998). the literature when it comes to elementary or The Trianon Peace Treaty caused a trauma secondary schools’ activities. in the Hungarian society, a deeply rooted The present study tries to fill this gap by feeling of injustice that proved difficult to analysing a Hungarian governmental pro- cope with and resulted in serious political gramme that aims to strengthen adolescents’s consequences (Gerner, K. 2007). Among oth- Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 59

ers, the rising of nationalism and revisionism favourable demographic processes might be led Hungary to participate in World War 2 generated that benefit the Hungarian minori- as an ally of Nazi Germany, and the defeat ties living there (Ilyés, Z. 2006). brought about another downfall. The Paris After the regime change in 1990, the Peace Treaties signed in 1947 restored Hun- strengthening of national identity and the gary’s borders, with a minimal modification, cohesion of the ‘core nation’ – the mother- as laid down in the Trianon Peace Treaty. land and the Hungarian territories outside Between 1947 and 1989, Hungary was a one- the national borders – appeared in a privi- party dictatorial socialist state under the influ- leged position in the rhetoric of the con- ence of the Soviet Union. After 1947, there was servative political parties (A. Gergely, A. no place for condemning the Trianon Peace 2012; Kocsis, K. 2013). After gaining power Treaty or the Paris Peace Treaties, the police in 2010, the current government has realized of the Communist-Socialist party repressed the potential of young people in reinforcing a systematically all nostalgic feelings about sense of national identity that was artificial- the greatness of former historical Hungary. ly suppressed during decades of socialism, In the Eastern Block controlled by the Soviet therefore, they created a programme with the Union the notion of internationalism was pro- aim to bolster the youngest generation’s na- moted, preventing by all means possible the tional identity (Pap, Sz. 2013). The ‘Without emergence of national identities. The regions Borders!’ government programme provides located along state borders, which symbolized financial support for study trips organised national identity, were deliberately underde- by primary and secondary schools to visit veloped, transforming them both economically Hungarian communities living in the neigh- and socially into peripheries (Erőss, Á. and bouring countries. Tátrai, P. 2010). Throughout the decades, the neighbouring states, despite proclaiming the ideology of peaceful coexistence, were trying Educational tourism and identity building to impede cross-border relationships, even between families and relatives. This was achieved Schools play a role in formal and informal ed- not only by making crossing borders more dif- ucation on the one hand (conveying informa- ficult, but also by relocating ethnic minorities tion, in situ deepening of knowledge, forming living along the frontiers across the country. students into environment-conscious, respon- The fate of millions of Hungarian minori- sible citizens), and in socialization (becoming ties trapped outside the motherland follow- tourists, adapting to foreign environments) ing the Trianon Peace Treaty varied greatly. on the other hand (Arcodia, C. and Dickson, Due to migration, assimilation and natural C. 2009). The gap between theory and prac- death, the number of Hungarians living out- tice might be significantly lessened by creat- side the motherland was rapidly decreasing ing experiences and by experience-oriented (Kocsis, K. and Tátrai, P. 2012): in 1989, the teaching outside the classroom (Falk, J. et al. number of Hungarians living outside the 2012). During study trips organised for peer borders of current Hungary only reached student groups, the young participants face 2.3 million. A possible initiative to stop this several challenges and have specific tasks that unfavourable process might be the develop- promote the development of their creativity ment of ethno-tourism in which Hungarians (Horváth, A. 2015). In secondary and tertiary living in the motherland visit Hungarian tourism education, field trips represent an territories outside of the political borders to indispensable form of learning and expand- nurture their national identity. As a result ing one’s practical knowledge (Harris, J. et al. of economic growth in the areas involved in 2012). Trips to foreign countries exponential- such ethno-tourism, due to the spending of ly increase the function of school trips in the visitors and their interest in local heritage, field of education and socialization, and help 60 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

the internationalization of young generations be served by other devices as well, such as (Huang, R. 2013). In case the cultural distance by nurturing the relations of twin-cities, or- is too big between the sending country and the ganizing student exchanges, and offering destination, or when students have insufficient scholarship programmes (Altinay, L. and knowledge about the destination, participants Bowen, D. 2006). Throughout the history, may find it challenging to adapt to the local governments have used countless peaceful circumstances, and the consequent negative solutions which, symbolically, have contrib- experiences may limit the fulfilment of edu- uted to the strengthening of national iden- cational objectives (Klooster, E. et al. 2008). tity politics (Peters, K. 2011). However, the However, if the students’ opinion is positive, examination of cross-border school trips they may soon return to the destination with with the goal of national identity building their relatives or friends, or may repeat the trip represents an under-researched topic in the later in their lives (Frändberg, L. 2010). scientific tourism literature. The protection and presentation of cultural As already argued above, including school heritage as a tourist attraction play a major trips as an active component in an education- role in national identity politics (Morgan, al programme may have a wide range of ob- N. and Pritchard, A. 1998; Pitchford, S. jectives, but these are generally connected to 2008). What stands behind the intensifica- the learning process. Possible forms include tion of daily nationalism is the efforts of linking classroom-acquired knowledge with offsetting European identity – promoted by practical experience, e.g. as school excursions the European Union and its predecessors to historical or literary sites (Ayalon, Y. and –, embodied in the preservation of national Schnell, I. 2014), nature immersion pro- solidarity (Park, H. 2010). Among the in- grammes (Kövecsesné Gősi, V. 2009), or real- struments of nation building widely used in life foreign language practice (Drozdzewski, Europe one can find the cultivation of mother D. 2011). Another important educational tongue symbolizing national affiliation, the benefit of travelling stems from the personal safeguarding of history and heritage based growth and attitudinal changes that the par- both on archaeological evidence and legends, ticipants of field trips or voluntary activities the preservation of the iconography of the undergo as a consequence of their broadened mutual past as well as the promotion of one’s understanding of the visited destination’s re- attachment to the national lands (Palmer, C. alities (Orpett Long, S. et al. 2010), which may 1999; Hollinshead, K. 2009). Identity politics also influence their perceptions of their home is often discussed in the context of centre- environment. And while it may be pointed periphery narratives (Fonseca, F. and Ramos, out that the organisers of trips belonging to R. 2012). In contrast of the cosmopolitan cit- the latter category may have underlying soft ies, the rural areas preserving traditions seem political motives – such as increasing social to embody national values and represent sensibility and awareness of the impacts of common roots (Silva, L. and Leal, J. 2015). tourism, supporting critical thinking, or en- Ethnic tourism has a key place in the suc- couraging responsible consumer behaviour cessful implementation of national identity during and after the trip (Boyle, A. et al. 2015) politics (Yang, L. and Wall, G. 2009). One –, it is rather uncommon to use educational of the tools to maintain the connection be- tourism as a state programme to directly sup- tween the majority nation and national port political objectives. minorities outside the mother country is Although comparisons may be drawn by travelling, which usually takes place under China’s ‘red tourism’ concept – a nationwide the aegis of cultural and heritage tourism, political socialization programme launched in or visiting tourism of friends and relatives 2004 to promote patriotism and identification (VFR) (Irimiás, A. 2013). The goals of nation- with the party-state (Zuo, B. et al. 2017) –, since building related to tourism can, of course, it also gave priority to political goals over eco- Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 61

nomic considerations, a major difference is visited settlements, location of accommo- that the Chinese project focuses primarily on dation, date of arrival and departure. the supply side, i.e. the identification and de- – The second group included data on the velopment of sites associated with communist organisational aspects of the trips: use of heritage and the revolutionary era, was initi- tour operator or individual organisation, ated as a domestic tourism programme, and type of transportation and type of accom- targets the whole population of the country, modation. not only schoolchildren (Xu, K. 2015). – The third group contained qualitative information on the excursions, such as the type and the characteristics of the pro- Methodology grammes, activities organised at each visited site, and the participants’ affective A significant part of school trips belong to the and conative experiences during these pro- sphere of invisible – or hidden or unobserved grammes. – tourism (Michalkó, G. and Rátz, T. 2013; De Summarising the information in the first Cantis, S. et al. 2015). With respect of journeys two categories did not mount any particu- like these, no statistical reporting require- lar methodological challenge, since the ments exist in Hungary. As a consequence, data were recorded in the required form in there is no scientific database available on the submitted reports. In order to examine one-day study visits or multi-day school trips in depth to the participants’ activities and using unregistered accommodation. memorable experiences, inductive content The ‘Without Borders!’ programme of the analysis of the submitted travel diaries was Hungarian government was launched in 2010 employed to identify the key themes. The and is run by the Human Capacities Grant method was tested by analysing 15 reports, Management Office (EMET in Hungarian), initial codes were classified under activity a background institution of the Ministry of and experience categories, and themes were Human Resources. Although EMET has al- developed by expanding, merging or rear- ways imposed strict reporting requirements for ranging these initial categories. schools supported by the ‘Without Borders!’ The present study is based on the reports programme, the conditions have been modified written by th7 grade (13–14-year-old) students during the project’s history. Year 2013/14 was of Hungarian primary schools who partici- the period when the most detailed trip report pated in the ‘Without Borders!’ programme had to be submitted – consisting of a completed during the 2013/2014 school year. After re- form together with a travel diary and photo cording a total number of 256 entries into documentation –, so we selected this year’s sub- our database, the first major challenge was missions (256 reports in total) for our analysis. to identify and standardize the geographi- For processing the reports, the method of cal names given in the forms. All the vis- content analysis was chosen. The website of ited geographical areas are located in the EMET provides detailed guidance for the par- territory of the ‘historic Hungary’ (as the ticipating schools concerning the mandatory Kingdom of Hungary before 1920 is often content and format of trip reports, enabling referred to), thus practically all the visited us to define the range of available information settlements have a traditional Hungarian and to visualise the data structure required name widely used in colloquial speech be- for our project. The available information was sides their official administrative name in categorised into three major groups: the national language of the given country – The first group of data represented in- (e.g. Košice in Slovakia is called Kassa in formation about the visited destinations Hungarian). Although Hungarian speakers as well as the spatial and temporal char- living in the territory of Hungary tend to use acteristics of the journeys: target country, the Hungarian settlement names almost ex- 62 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

clusively (many of them, especially the chil- the neighbouring countries (especially from dren, are not even familiar with the official Romania), and since they could settle down Romanian, Slovakian, Ukrainian etc. names), and integrate into the mainstream society in the trip reports, probably due to their of- easily, their example was followed by subse- ficial character, mixed usage was found. quent waves of friends and relatives. Since the Another difficulty was using the short- Hungarian government intended to preserve ened, conversational forms of geographi- the minority communities outside the borders cal place names instead of the complete (Ablonczy, B. and Bárdi, N. 2010), in doing forms (for instance, using Gyergyó instead so, a so-called ‘status act’ (Act LXII of 2001 on of Gyergyószentmiklós, i.e. Gheorgheni in Hungarians living in neighbouring countries) Romania). In the end, the standardised da- was accepted in 2001 that granted various tabase contains the (historical) Hungarian benefits and assistance (in e.g. employment, as well as the official (administrative) place travel, culture, education, social security or names of the visited settlements and other health care) for those who declared themselves geographical entities. to be of Hungarian nationality and claimed a so-called ‘Hungarian identity card’. Following the accession to the European Union, the trans- Research findings port infrastructure has improved, crossing the borders has become easier, which resulted in Nation-building strategy: the present-day political the increase of VFR tourism. setting In 2003, the World Federation of Hungarians proposed a referendum in order to promote In the years leading up to the fall of the so- the preferential naturalization of Hungarians cialist system in 1989-1990, a significant aspect without Hungarian citizenship. Although in of social and political change was the erosion the referendum held on 5th December 2004 of internationalist ideology and the growing the majority (51.6%) of votes were cast in fa- emphasis on national identity (Csepeli, Gy. vour of granting dual citizenship to ethnic 1991). Solidarity with the fate of the Hungar- Hungarians living in the neighbouring coun- ian minorities living outside the borders, and tries, only 37.5 per cent of the eligible voters strengthening their ties with the motherland participated, thus the motion failed, since it formed the ideological cornerstone of both had to be supported by at least 25 per cent of the party that won the first free elections in the electorate. The failure of the referendum 1990 (the Hungarian Democratic Forum) and and the razor-close results caused shock and the subsequent right-wing and extreme right disappointment among those who felt respon- parties (Bárdi, N. 2008). The political elite – sible for the fate of Hungarian minorities and in cooperation with the World Federation of who stood for the unity of the Hungarian na- Hungarians – supported the social and eco- tion. As an aftermath, the psychological state nomic progress of the Hungarian minority by of the Hungarian minorities and their repre- various means (Székely, I.G. 2019), and travel sentatives was characterized by desperation has become an integral part of a national re- and frustration for a long time. territorialisation process (Feischmidt, M. 2008). Furthermore, the cooperation between twin cities has gradually become more intensive, and The role of the ‘Without Borders!’ programme the position of Hungarian-language higher in achieving nation-building goals education institutions was strengthened in the minority regions (Csete, Ö. et al. 2010). The lessons of the failed referendum encour- In the meantime, due to the higher living aged decision-makers who came to power standards, a considerable number of persons of in 2010 to use more creative measures to Hungarian origin migrated to Hungary from strengthen the sense of national identity in Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 63

the Hungarian society. Since those born after or return to these destinations as adults in World War 2 were socialized in an educa- the future (Csete, Ö. 2011). The Hungarian tional environment where the ‘Trianon issue’ government supported the implementation was suppressed and the ideology of interna- of the programme by funding a certain num- tionalism dominated, generations grew up ber of trips each year: 177 excursions were feeling disinterested in the fate of Hungar- realized in the school year of 2010/2011, and ians living outside the borders. Consider- 393 trips in the school year of 2013/2014. The able change in this general attitude can most present study is based on the analysis of 256 probably be achieved among the youngest journeys made by 7th grade (13-year-old) pri- age groups, students of primary and second- mary school groups in 2013/2014. ary schools, by awakening them to the fact that the Hungarian nation is not limited to those who live in Hungary, that there are The application procedure as a complex orientation many communities outside the borders who tool have preserved their mother tongue, culture and traditions. The most effective way to The tender dossier of the ‘Without Borders!’ reach this goal is through personal experi- programme published in 2013 (BGA-13- ences, so the government decided to support HA-01) specified the countries eligible as and encourage encounters with Hungarians destinations for state-supported school trips living in the territory of the former Kingdom to Hungarian-inhabited areas. The applicants of Hungary in the Carpathian Basin (Csete, could choose all the neighbouring countries Ö. 2011). A journey full of experiences, made but Austria as their destination. The target- together with one’s school community, may ed age group was 13 years-old. However, create long-lasting memories in 13-16 years no other restrictions were applied: the pro- old youth. If the trip focuses on components gramme was open to all applicants from pri- of national identity that were previously vate or public schools, from all around the included in lessons on history, geography, country. Hungarian literature, arts or music, then In the school year of 2013/2014, 256 ex- the participants are more likely to grow up cursions were successfully completed. The as conscientious citizens who feel a certain participating schools represented 155 towns sense of responsibility for the fate of Hungar- or villages in Hungary: 14.8 per cent of the ian minorities outside the borders. participants travelled from Budapest, 18.4 The programme was first announced in per cent from major cities, 44.2 per cent from 2010, with the objective of giving chance to towns and 22.6 per cent from villages. Thus, students of primary (7th grade) and secondary most successful applicants were located in (3rd grade) schools to visit and to get acquaint- cities or towns (77.4%), which generally have ed with Hungarian communities living in the more developed educational institutions Carpathian Basin, in the hope that the person- with more experience or higher capacity in al experiences gained during these trips will procuring external funding. The analysis of be shared with the participants’ friends and the regional distribution of the participat- family, thus reducing the general ignorance ing schools revealed a significant spatial about Hungarian minorities living outside the imbalance within the country: while Central borders. (Resolution 101/2010. (X. 21.) of the Hungary and Transdanubia accounted for Hungarian Parliament introduced the Day of 66–66 successful applications respectively, National Unity, partly with the objective to in Eastern Hungary this figure reached 124. establish and strengthen relations between This result might be explained, one the one Hungarian and trans border youth.) An ad- hand, by the relatively unfavourable finan- ditional aim of the initiative was to encourage cial situation of the students in the economi- students to later revisit these or similar areas, cally less developed Eastern Hungary region 64 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

(they might have been more motivated to The spatial and temporal characteristics of the trips travel abroad within the framework of this programme, due to the lack of alternative op- Despite the fact that the tender dossier speci- tions). On the other hand, the geographical fied Ukraine as a preferred destination, the location, i.e. the proximity and the accessibil- detailed analysis of the trips reveals that the ity of the potential destination areas might majority of the participants avoided Hun- have also influenced the higher involvement gary’s north-eastern neighbour (which might of schools located in Eastern Hungary. have been related to the country’s political An important condition of successful ap- conflict with Russia since March 2014). Ro- plications was to spend at least one night in mania, on the other hand, proved to be the the visited country (making the programme obvious winner of the ‘Without Borders!’ relevant from a tourism point of view). In ad- programme, as 70 per cent of the participat- dition, participants were obliged to organise ing schools chose the country as their des- activities that fulfilled at least one of the fol- tination. Slovakia was ranked second, with lowing criteria: be directly connected to the 22.3 per cent of the trips realised in its ter- students’ schoolwork (1), or have an educa- ritory, followed by Serbia (4.7%), Slovenia tional (2), or cultural focus (3). Furthermore, (2.0%), Croatia and Ukraine (0.4–0.4%, re- the government urged participants to take on spectively). These results are strongly linked various optional assignments that could help to the geographical location of the Hungar- cultivating the relationship with Hungarian ian minority communities living outside minority communities living abroad. The the borders as well as the historic value and programme of each group had to be built the cultural heritage of the visited regions. in three stages: before the trip, the students Practically all (99.2%) the analysed trips took participated in preparatory, motivational place in the second semester of the 2013/2014 activities, while after the excursion, in the school year (8.7% in March, 16.2% in April, evolution stage they discussed their experi- 44.8% in May and 30.3% in June) (Figure 1). ences and shared them with the public (usu- Following the general practice of school ex- ally on their school’s website). The success of cursions, the organizers tended to prefer the an application was significantly influenced month of May as it is near the end of the school by its compliance with the government’s ob- year and is likely to provide optimal weather jectives of nation-building, i.e. by the extent conditions. However, the detailed assessment of planning activities and ceremonies jointly of the departure dates clearly reflects the na- organised with Hungarians living abroad. tion-building objectives of the trips. 86.5 per Although the timing of the trips was not de- cent of the excursions in March were scheduled termined by the tender dossier, certain dates to leave between 12th and 14th March, providing strongly associated with Hungarian national participants with the opportunity to celebrate identity were preferred, such as the Day of the national holiday together with the trans- Hungarian Inventors (13th June), the Day of border Hungarian communities. While April Hungarian Science (3rd November), the Day and May did not show any temporal concen- of Hungarian Culture (22nd January), and the tration, 88.4 per cent of the June trips started following national holidays or remembrance between 1st and 4th June, in order to include days endorsed by the state: the Day of National Unity in the programme. – 6th October (Memorial Day for the Martyrs The spatial analysis of the realised trips in of Arad); two most popular target countries, Romania – 23rd October (Memorial Day of the 1956 (Figure 2, a) and Slovakia (Figure 2, b) shows Revolution); that the range of settlements visited by the – 15th March (Memorial Day of the 1848 participating students is extremely diversified. Revolution); Although we can identify certain concen- – 4th June (Day of National Unity). trations in both countries, the high overall Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 65

80 N

National holiday (15th March) 20

1 4 7 0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7 0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7 0 2 5 8 1 4 7 0 3 6 9 .0 .0 .0 .1 .1 .1 .1 .2 .2 .2 .3 .0 .0 .0 .1 .1 .1 .2 .2 .2 .3 .0 .0 .0 .1 .1 .1 .2 .2 .2 .3 .0 .0 .0 .1 .1 .1 .2 .2 .2 .2 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 Total Slovakia Romania

Fig. 1. Temporal characteristics of the analysed trips by calendar date. Source: Edited by the authors based on data collected by EMET. number of settlements suggests that the strengthen the participants’ national iden- groups made a conscious effort to optimally tity and contributed to nation-building. The use the available funds and to maximise programmes of the excursions generally their experiences. The total number of vis- complied with the project’s objectives, and ited places was 231 in Romania and 115 in thus included various activities that could Slovakia, while the average number of set- increase the value of the applications during tlements visited during one trip reached the review process. Consequently, the trips 11 in Romania and 9 in Slovakia. The most followed a predetermined theme, the infor- popular destinations were major cities and/ mation provided was linked to the school or places with significant cultural, historic curriculum, and the teachers used a variety heritage, such as Oradea/Nagyvárad (visited of pedagogical and methodological tools to by 57.2% of groups travelling to the country), create experiences and deepen the students’ Cluj/Kolozsvár (56.7%) and Miercurea Ciuc/ knowledge acquired during their stay abroad. Csíkszereda (46.1%) in Romania; Rožňava/ The programmes often included joint activi- Rozsnyó (43.9%), Košice/Kassa (40.4%) and ties with local peers as well as initiatives to Bratislava/Pozsony (36.8%) in Slovakia. contribute to the visited community. Sharing celebrations were particularly important elements of certain trips, especially if the dates of Nation-building tourist programmes and the journey coincided with that of a Hungar- experiences ian national holiday or a remembrance day. Considering that national identity is The trips taken within the framework of rooted, on the one hand, in glorious his- the ‘Without Borders!’ programme helped toric events and personalities as well as in 66 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

Fig. 2. Romanian (a) and Slovakian (b) destinations of “Without Borders!” school trips, 2013/2014. Source: Edited and designed by the authors based on data collected by EMET.

past traumas and victims and, on the other had general, broadly defined themes, such hand, in nurturing the mother tongue and as ‘Searching for literary and historic facts in its dialects, preserving literary monuments Transylvania’, ‘Cultural-historic adventures in and material and immaterial cultural tradi- Upper Hungary’, and ‘The relationship of the tions, the thematic design of the trips was natural and the built environment’, in order to also based on these values. Most of the trips comply with the requirements and, at the Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 67

same time, preserve a certain degree of flex- The analysis of the various activities de- ibility in planning the itinerary and the ac- scribed in the trip reports resulted in the fol- tivities. However, many historic and cultural lowing classification of the core components figures4 were also highlighted in the themes: of the students’ memorable experiences: the icons whose lives and activities were strong- conscious appreciation of Hungarian identity ly connected with areas outside the current (A), the excitement of their first trip abroad Hungarian borders. Only a relatively small (B), and the expression of joy of being in a number of trips had an explicitly national community (C). identity-building theme (e.g. ‘Joint celebration A) During the trips, the participants had the of national unity – forming a responsible com- opportunity to experience and to consciously munity’) or an overtly religious theme (e.g. reflect on Hungarian identity on many dif- ‘Exemplary co-existence: religious diversity in ferent occasions. Meeting Hungarians living Transcarpathia’). outside the borders and spending time in a A classification of the activities described Hungarian-speaking environment increased in the trip reports reveals that visiting historic the students’ awareness of a greater national- and cultural sites (such as battlefields, birth- cultural community. This experience was fur- places, cemeteries), sacred places (churches, ther reinforced by following the footsteps and pilgrimage sites), and the frontiers of histori- encountering the heritage of icons and symbols cal Hungary were included in almost every of Hungarian history and culture ‘abroad’. excursion (in 255 out of 256). In addition, “It was a great experience that everybody was meeting Hungarian-speaking peers, joining happy to speak in Hungarian with the children.” classes in the local schools, sharing meals, (HAT/198/2014, trip made from Lepsény to participating in cultural events, singing and Slovakia.) dancing were also essential elements of the B) Most of the participants could also en- programmes (245/256). Forest hiking, climb- joy the excitement of their first tourist expe- ing, caving and walking also had an impor- rience. Some students had never travelled tant role (209/256). The participants also tried before, so for them this trip was the first to find ways to contribute to the local com- step into the world of tourism, while for munity e.g. by gardening, cleaning or giving many others this was their first international gifts (181/256). Doing sports together, espe- journey, and crossing a border and spend- cially playing football, was also reported as ing time abroad were the factors that made a popular activity (119/256), however, joint the excursion truly memorable (during the celebrations with trans-border Hungarians analysed period, Slovakia and Slovenia were were less common (85/256). already members of the Schengen Area, but as the analysis of the trip reports indicates, 4 Among others: Árpád, leader of the Hungarian tribes even crossing an ‘invisible’ border was seen who conquered the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century and founder of the House of Árpád (895–1301); as an adventure by many students). Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary (1040–1095); János Hu- “For most of us this was the first chance to nyadi, general and governor, leading commander leave our country, thus crossing the border was against the Ottoman army (1407–1456); Matthias I, a big experience for us.” (HAT/103/2014, trip a renaissance king and a popular hero of Hungar- made from Gyomaendrőd to Slovakia.) ian folk tales (1443–1490); Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II, leader of the 1703–1711 uprising against the C) All the participants could benefit from Habsburgs (1676–1735); Sándor Petőfi, poet, one of the joy of community life. Casual encoun- the key figures of the 1848–1849 revolution against ters outside the classroom, the birth of new the Habsburgs, who died in the battle of Sighişoara/ friendships or the deepening of existing ones, Segesvár (1823–1849); Kálmán Mikszáth, novelist, participating in shared activities, sports, journalist and politician from Upper Hungary games, meals, social work or giving gifts all (1847–1910); Áron Tamási, Transylvanian novelist (1897–1966); János Bolyai, mathematician, one of the contributed to experiencing positive feelings founders of non-Euclidean geometry (1802–1860). among the students. 68 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

“We were really happy to give gifts to poor with communities living beyond the borders children. They were almost in shock of joy and could only be achieved gradually, through we also felt the same as we saw the light in the education of young generations. Since their eyes.” (HAT/27/2014, trip made from personal experiences may powerfully affect Hódmezővásárhely to Romania.) one’s beliefs and attitudes, organised school The three types of experiences strength- trips offering personal encounters with ened each other in a synergic manner, and to- Hungarians living outside the country were gether led to reinforcing and intensifying the expected to contribute to a stronger sense of students’ sense of national identity. Sharing national cohesion and identity among the fu- them with one’s friends and family as well ture generations, enhancing their adherence as disseminating them in the form of jointly to the government’s political commitment designed websites also helped in creating to minorities. long-lasting impressions and memories. The ‘Without Borders!’ programme was launched by the Hungarian government to give students of public education a chance Conclusions to visit Hungarian territories outside the borders within the framework of state-spon- The end of the socialist regime in 1989–1990 sored school trips. The aims of the project brought about significant changes in the rela- were clearly defined: creation and strength- tionships between the mother nation and the ening of national identity in 7th grade pri- Hungarian communities living outside the mary school students and 3rd grade second- country’s borders. The partly concealed, pre- ary school students. The programme urged dominantly culture- and education-oriented the implementation of activities that directly dialogue of the previous decades was gradu- promoted the awareness of national unity. ally replaced by a publicly voiced intent of Most of the participants of the programme political and legal relations with the mother chose Romania, more precisely Transylvania country. The increasing political engagement as their destination, a region that has the of the Hungarian state with the Hungarian largest population of Hungarian minor- communities located beyond the borders, ity and is rich in Hungarian historical and based on the earlier repressed principles of cultural monuments. The settlements vis- national solidarity and responsibility for the ited during the supported school trips were fate of minorities, included supporting ethnic iconic pilgrimage sites of Hungarian culture. Hungarian political parties in the neighbour- The journeys were scheduled throughout ing countries, encouraging different levels of the spring semester, with a temporal con- autonomy aspirations, assisting the devel- centration around politically and culturally opment of higher education institutions and important dates such as the 15th March na- study programmes in Hungarian language, tional holiday and the 4th June remembrance and granting dual citizenship to persons of day of National Unity. The organised activi- Hungarian origin. ties and the consequent experiences were However, the reception of the govern- considerably pre-determined by the tender ment’s national policy aiming to create a dossier, providing the participants with a trans-border sense of cohesion was ambigu- wide range of opportunities to appreciate ous in the mother country, particularly with national identity. Sharing these experiences regard to the preferential granting of citizen- with their classmates in a foreign country, ship and the subsequent ability of non-resi- and later with their friends, family and the dents to vote in the Hungarian elections. It public, contributed to the development of was thus realised that deeper changes in the memorable experiences. Hungarian population’s inherited attitudes Due to the fact that the educational tour- concerning national identity and kinship ism-related activities of adolescents are a Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71. 69

significantly underrepresented topic in the tems, travel warnings, exchange rate manip- international literature, the findings of this ulations, or providing holiday opportunities paper have contributed to filling an existing for disadvantaged social groups via social gap. Although the analysis of trip reports tourism. However, the political environment submitted in one single year does not al- generally influences the tourism phenome- low us to conclude whether the ‘Without non in an indirect, regulatory manner, based Borders!’ programme is an effective tool in on predominantly economic considerations, achieving long term national policy objec- by limiting the state’s involvement to pro- tives, the results suggest that sharing celebra- viding the necessary framework which, in tions of national holidays and memorial days turn, may affect individuals’ travel behav- as well as visiting settlements related to icon- iour. The intention or actual practice of ide- ic figures of Hungarian culture, science and ological influence on the tourism system is history promoted Hungarian consciousness usually found in societies where consumer among the participants. Whether the trips behaviour is perceived as a moral or politi- made by the investigated school groups into cal act – such as in the former socialist coun- Hungarian territories outside the borders tries –, and the state considers its mission to indeed brought about long term changes in educate its citizens to ensure their ‘correct’ their sense of national identity would require attitudes, behaviour and identity (e.g. in the repeat studies focusing on the same sample. case of pioneer camps, the World Festivals However, this would only be possible with of Youth and Students organised since 1947, the active involvement of both EMET and or the current development of ‘red tourism’ the students in question. Since the original in China). reporting framework was not created with Generally, participation in tourism is con- a follow-up study in mind, a mostly quali- sidered a leisure activity as well as a contri- tative methodology could be used to com- bution to economic development, and the pare, on the one hand, the participants’ indicators of success are e.g. guest nights, post-trip perceptions on the visit’s impact per capita spending or occupancy rates. on their national identity with their current Although many countries seem to promote attitudes and, on the other hand, their levels staycations and domestic tourism as a special of acknowledgement, then and now, of the form of patriotism, these campaigns are also minority communities’ role in the develop- usually built on financial arguments. In the ment of Hungarian culture. Complemented case of the ‘Without Borders!’ programme by a quantitative component to register any however, ideological principles were given further visits following the first study trip priority over economic considerations, and to Hungarian territories outside the borders, the fact that adolescents, an especially sen- a more complex and more accurate picture sible social segment, were involved, made could be created concerning the effectiveness the project particularly relevant for further of national identity development through investigation. As the findings confirmed, school trips. the political influence was indeed observed It has been acknowledged since the early in the preparatory phase of the trips as the ages of scientific tourism research that the itineraries and programmes complied to a tourism system exists in a complex environ- high extent with the project’s requirements, ment and its development is heavily influ- thus making the feeling of national unity a enced by a wide range of factors including crucial element of the students’ memorable politics. The political environment’s impacts tourist experience. may be observed in a variety of shapes in- Acknowledgements: Authors would like to thank cluding, among others, state ownership of the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA) for tourism facilities, national development the financial support of this paper. Project number plans and marketing campaigns, visa sys- OTKA K 100953. 70 Rátz, T. et al.Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (1) 57–71.

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