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The Rhetorical Implications of Clementia in Cicero's Caesarian McNair Scholars Journal Volume 11 | Issue 1 Article 11 2007 The Rhetorical Implications of Clementia in Cicero’s Caesarian Speeches Aaron Rozeboom Grand Valley State University Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair Recommended Citation Rozeboom, Aaron (2007) "The Rhetorical Implications of Clementia in Cicero’s Caesarian Speeches," McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, Article 11. Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol11/iss1/11 Copyright © 2007 by the authors. McNair Scholars Journal is reproduced electronically by ScholarWorks@GVSU. http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/ mcnair?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fmcnair%2Fvol11%2Fiss1%2F11&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages The Rhetorical Implications of Clementia in Cicero’s Caesarian Speeches Abstract Cicero’s Caesarian speeches were deliv- Cicero’s Caesarian speeches were de- ered by Cicero in 46-45 B.C. to Gaius livered in 46-45 B.C. to Caesar after his Julius Caesar after his victories in the victories in the Civil War. Caesar faced Civil War and his acquisition of supreme a number of critical issues as he dealt constitutional and extra-constitutional with the political and social aftermath of powers. Caesar faced a number of critical the years after 49 B.C., including what issues as he dealt with the political and to do with the supporters of his enemies. social aftermath of the wholesale slaugh- Cicero, preeminent orator and a key ter that filled the years after 49 B.C., in- political, was well-placed to speak on cluding what to do with the supporters of behalf of these individuals. Clementia, his enemies. Marcus Tullius Cicero was as an intrinsic theme, impinges upon well-placed to speak on behalf of several social, political, and linguistic spheres of these individuals as they sought clem- and became a nexus for anxieties and ency from Caesar, not only because he manipulation between the senatorial and was the preeminent orator at Rome and plebian orders. This research compares a key political figure (even at this late and contrasts the understanding, pre- stage in his life), but because he and Cae- Aaron Rozeboom sentation, and use of clementia in these sar had negotiated their own tenuous rec- McNair Scholar speeches, in a discussion set within the onciliation. The three speeches have this social, political, and linguistic contexts common goal: to secure pardon for the that lend this word its powerful signifi- offending parties. They are also displays cance. It is clear that clementia becomes of intellectual, thematic, and literary a point of negotiation of power for Cae- brilliance—and rightfully so, with Caesar sar and Cicero alike, the one asserting himself being a masterful author and ora- his political dominance, the other speak- tor in his own right. The speeches thus ing as the social conscience of Rome. stand as a multilayered communication between two of the most accomplished literary artists at the end of the Repub- lic. The Roman concept of clementia (mercy) is, of course, a theme intrinsic to the speeches. Clementia impinges upon social, political, and linguistic spheres, however, and under Caesar’s troubled rule becomes a nexus for anxieties and manipulation between the senatorial and plebian orders. It is my purpose to ana- lyze this theme in these three speeches Peter Anderson, Ph.D. with an eye towards the social, political, Faculty Mentor and linguistic considerations surround- ing it. Here I compare and contrast the understanding, presentation, and use of clementia in these speeches, setting my discussion within the social, politi- cal, and linguistic contexts that lend this word its powerful significance. Research has entailed a close reading of the Latin texts, analysis of political trends and important figures in the period from Sulla to Caesar, lexicographi- cal research using library electronic resources (especially the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae), and a thorough survey GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 83 of relevant secondary source scholarship Rome and another round of bloody pro- to the senate. on both Caesar’s political policies in the scriptions in 82-81 B.C.—this time with It was also in 59 B.C. that Pompey, years between 49 and his death in 44 and the help of Pompey and Crassus in their Crassus, and Caesar formed a political Cicero’s changing role in Roman politics various capacities. friendship and became the so-called “first under the dictator. Materials span the Perhaps out of fear, or perhaps because triumvirate.” Their shaky alliance was range of scholarly resources, from print of Sulla’s Republican values, the senate held together by their mutual dependency materials to electronic databases and legalized all the actions he had carried and a set of shared obligations, which journals. out leading up to November of 82 and aimed to satisfy their individual thirsts Insofar as context lends meaning to without delay set him up as dictator for power. It was something of a client- language, the sociopolitical circum- to restore order to the Republic (Boat- age among patrons, a delicate manifes- stances of the period leading up the wright). He swiftly set out to accomplish tation of Roman amicitia or political speeches are an inherent part of the this goal by, in addition to the proscrip- friendship carrying with it rights and discussion. The Social War between 91 tion list, adding to the number and duties in measured proportions. Pompey and 88 B.C. considerably influenced the power of the senate. By increasing the eventually attached himself closely to the remaining affairs of the Late Republic, influence of the senate and reducing the Senate while Caesar continued to associ- significantly changing the way in which power of the tribunate, Sulla effected a ate himself with the power base of the the fabric of Roman society was woven. significant power-shift in Rome from the Plebian assemblies. The fact that various Italian communities Plebeians to the patricians. When he had As Pompey and Caesar became more had not been granted Roman citizenship accomplished this and restored order, he successful and wealthy, they eventually became a point of stress and rebel groups stepped down from his position of dicta- emerged as the leading forces and their formed against Rome to settle the matter. tor and served one year as consul before dependence on Crassus’ wealth dimin- While these rebel forces were not strong retiring in 78 B.C. His dictatorship ished. Furthermore, when Pompey’s enough to gain the upper hand, they did would later serve as a model by which to marriage to Caesar’s daughter began to manage to persuade Rome to grant them compare Julius Caesar’s use of absolute fail, so did the strength of their political citizenship--but not without considerable power. alliance. Much of the resulting political fighting and bloodshed (Boatwright). The measures enacted by Sulla were controversy centered on how Caesar’s War, to be sure, was not a new or even soon challenged by those who fol- military and political powers should be infrequent circumstance in Rome, but lowed him, and by the time of the rise extended in Gaul and at Rome. These the Social War did introduce Rome to its of Pompey, substantial power had once measures—all of which revolved around first full-scale civil conflict. This factor again been shifted back to the Plebe- Caesar’s continued exercise of power brought change to the social and political ian assemblies from the senate. In the from afar, the legal immunity his position landscape in Rome and foreshadowed meantime, Rome had dealt with a slave offered him, and the political leverage of things to come. revolt, regained the Mediterranean from a loyal, battle-hardened army—strained Another important consequence of rampant pirates, and finally put down the precedents of the constitution. The the Social War was the emergence of the East’s perennial pest, Mithridates. It personal and political conflicts that Sulla as a powerful general and political was during this time that Pompey proved ensued devolved into Civil War on a figure in Rome. Though he was of patri- himself as general, Crassus as a man massive scale. cian blood, his family was no longer an of means, and Cicero as an orator and In January 49 B.C., Caesar crossed influential political force. The Social War statesman—all important figures during the Rubicon in a march on Rome. His gained him a reputation and consider- the dusk of the Republic. wildly successful campaigns in Gaul had able imperium as a result of his remark- By 63 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar was left Caesar with many loyal and indebted able success as a military leader. In 88 also making serious inroads into Rome’s soldiers willing and able to validate his B.C., he was arguably the most powerful political milieu. At the rather young age interests. Pompey, backed by the estab- man in Rome. Due to Sulpicius’ politi- of 37, he bribed his way into the position lished government, opposed Caesar, but cal machinations aimed at securing full of pontifex maximus, an office usually Caesar’s forces shortly drove Pompey citizen rights for the Italians, Sulla lost reserved for high ranking Roman noble- out of Italy and kept driving until they his command against Mithridates in men. This portended not only his future were able to defeat him at Pharsalus in the East to Marius. To regain the post, success but also his style. Like Sulla, he northern Greece in 48 B.C. Caesar was Sulla assembled his loyal troops in an was of patrician but not recently distin- now in a position to negotiate a role as unprecedented march on Rome itself. guished blood.
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