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Nitrogen Excretion in Insects

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Nitrogen Excretion in Insects Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.), Vo!. 97, No. 5, September 1988, pp. 379-415. © Printed in India. Nitrogen excretion in insects RADHA PANT Chemistry Department, AlIahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad, 211 007, India MS received 18 February 1988; revised 24 May 1988 Abstract. As a result of excessive consumption of nitrogen more than necessary for their normal life processes, insects eliminate the excess quantities in one form or the other lest the ensuing toxicity should prove fatal to them. Voiding of several other nitrogenous compounds by insects besides uric acid via one common opening-the rectum, has posed difficulties in determining their nature as true excretory products or fecal nitrogenous waste matter. In the present review article an attempt has been made to present an almost up to date knowledge on the topic based on an intense search of literature which also includes the findings from the author's laboratory. Keywords. Nitrogen excretion; insects; uricotelic pathway; uricolytic pathway; nucleicolytic pathway; de novo synthetic pathway; pterines; pteridines; tryptophanommochrome pathway. 1. Introduction Extensive research has been carried out in the field of nitrogen excretion in insects and quite a few reviews on the subject have also appeared (Wigglesworth 1950; Prosser 1952; Roeder 1953; Craig 1960; Stobbart and Shaw 1974; Bursell 1967; Cochran 1975, 1984). Unfortunately however, many a lacuna still remains unexplored and unexplained leaving several gaps still unbridged. For example, ammonia formation, biogenesis of urea, the mechanism of uric acid/urate transport, the exact mode of uric acid biosynthesis, the operation or otherwise of Krebs­ Henseleit urea cycle and the exact role of several nitrogenous compounds excreted etc., are some glaring posers which still remain unequivocally elucidated. Numerous evidences substantiated with experimental data in the field, are discordant and contradictory. Occurrence of uric acid in insects has been known for more than 150 years (Wigglesworth 1972) and it is now well established that it constitutes about 80% of the excreted nitrogen which substantiates that uric acid is the main nitrogenous excretory substance of most terrestrial insects (Wigglesworth 1953; Terzian et al 1957; Irreverre and Terzian 1959; Hudson et al 1959; Razet 1961). This phenomenon had earlier induced Needham (1950) to term insects in general, as uricotelic. As a matter of fact, the basic concepts of excretory nitrogen metabolism were first established in the 1930s when animals were generally classified on the basis of the nitrogenous components which predominated in their excreta (Campbell 1973). While uricotelism was looked upon as an adaptation of insects to their terrestrial mode of life, the excretion of other toxic nitrogenous end products like ammonia and the extremely water-soluble urea was considered as a result of water shortage (Craig 1960; Stobbart and Shaw 1974). In recent years however, the enormous accumulating data evincing the presence of several other nitrogenous end products in the excreta of a variety of insects other than uric acid, have given a rude shock to the concept of uricotelism and probably necessitate its reassessment and modifications. The detection of allantoin, allantoic acid and/or uric acid in the excreta of several 379 380 Radha Pant insects induced Bursell (1970) to broaden the term uricotelism in insects by including allantoin and allantoic acid along with uric acid or a mixture of any of the 3 compounds due to their biochemical relationship. This concept was further broadened by inclusion of hypoxanthine and xanthine excreted by several organisms due to the absence or modification of xanthine dehydrogenase activity in them (Tamura and Sakate 1975). Additional inclusions of compounds under uricotelism as suggested by Cochran (1975) are, adenosine (Lafont 1974), guanine (Mitlin and Vickers 1964; Descimon 1971)and uric acid riboside (Krzyzanowska and Niemierko 1980). Uric acid on account of its physico-chemical properties has been considered as an almost ideal compound in insect excretory system. In the first place, its sparingly soluble property is well suited to it as an excretory product particularly, in a system where water retention is important. It also contains an appreciably high percentage of nitrogen, is highly oxidized and is capable of being eliminated in a dry pellet form. Although synthesized mainly in the fat body, the process of excretion in insects is carried out by the Malpighian tubule-rectum complex the structure and functions whereof have extensively been reviewed by Cochran (1975), Maddrell (1971, 1977, 1981) and Wessing and Eichelberg (1978). Knowledge regarding the process of excretion and transport mechanism of uric acid is miserably scant. Nevertheless, based on its properties, several modes of their transport have been proposed. Firstly, on account of its ability to form urates, it occurs in. the excretory system as the monosubstituted soluble saltsof Na + or K + (Seegmiller 1969)and gets precipitated as the free acid subsequent to reabsorption of the purine base and water, the site of precipitation being the rectum. In Rhodnius proIixus however, the precipitation of uric acid occurs in the proximal portion of the Malpighian tubule (Wigglesworth 1931). The continuous recycling of base and water through the excretory system gradually results in a large accumulation of uric acid in the rectum of several insects. McNabb and McNabb (1980) have demonstrated that artificial buffered media containing Na + or/and K + are capable of maintaining high level of uric acid solubility for appreciably long periods whereas media containing NHt. Ca2+ or Mg2 + rapidly reduce it to extremely low concentrations (Porter 1963a). The presence of proteins in biological fluids is also known to enhance their solubility limits (Seegmiller 1969) and uric acid is known to form supersaturated solutions in such media. These solutions are quite stable and form even more stable lyophobic colloids (Porter 1963b).Although the transport of these stable colloids via haemolymph may be doubtful, their flocculation involving a sudden change in the pH or ion concentration or contact with urate crystals either in the Malpighian tubule or in the vicinity of its outer membrane, could possibly influence and facilitate the movement of uric acid and urates into the cells of the Malpighian tubule for elimination. Influence of pH on the solubility of uric acid and urates is well known (Porter 1963a,b; McNabb and McNabb 1980). The increase in pH up to 9, increases the solubility of these two metabolites in an artificial medium while its powering reduces their solubility significantly. Haemolymp pH varies in different species of insects but it generally lies between 6·4-6·8 (Wyatt 1961). Although this apparently is not in favour of uric acid transport via haemolymph, it is likely that the surrounding pH gradients facilitate changes favouring the solubility of uric acid and urates. Nitrogen excretion 381 Several investigators believe that urate transport in insects is under hormonal control (Bodenstein 1953; Milburn 1966; Thomas and Nation 1966). Isolation of 3­ ribosyl-uric acid from insect tissues (Heller and Jezewska 1960; Jezewska et al 1967; Tojo and Hirano 1968) suggested this compound to play a transport role. Likewise, protein-bound urates have also been suggested as a means of transport of uric acid in insects (Hopkins and Lofgren 1968; Whitmore and Gilbert 1972; Farrell et al 1975). Thus it becomes quite clear that the insoluble nature of uric acid does not at all stand in the way of its internal transport in the excretory system of insects. At the same time, it is also not certain which particular mechanism they adopt in voiding it. Considerable research has been carried out by several investigators on uric acid excretion in cockroaches and recounting them here with interesting findings will not be out of place. Periplaneta americana although considered for a very long time by numerous authors (Nation and Patton 1961; Srivastava and Gupta 1961; McEnroe 1966; Bursell 1967; Corrigan 1970) as a uricotelic insect, a re-examination by Mullins (1971)and Mullins and Cochran (1972), led them to conclude the case to be different. Thin-layer chromatography and enzymatic spectrophotometry revealed that no uric acid was excreted by them. This was subsequently confirmed by Cochran (1973) on 20 species of cockroaches when even feeding of 91% casein diet did not induce the insects to excrete any uric acid or its rnetabolites allantoin, allantoic acid, urea or any of the other common excretory constituents like the purines, pyrimidines or pteridines. This led them to conclude that this group of cockroaches could not be considered in the classical sense as uricotelic and that they had different modes of dealing with excess dietary nitrogen. P. americana does not excrete uric acid externally but appreciable quantities are synthesized and internally stored. Interestingly, it is also true that with the increase in the dietary nitrogen level, a corresponding increase in internal nitrogen storage also takes place in the form of urates (Haydak 1953; McEnroe 1956; Mullins 1974; Mullins and Cochran 1972, 1974; 1975a,b). During dietary stress under low nitrogen diet this stored uric acid is metabolized probably aided by the fat body symbionts and the nitrogen is utilized by the insects to maintain their nitrogen balance (Donnellan and Kilby 1967; Mullins and Cochran 1975b). Mullins and Cochran
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