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Language Endangerment

Festschrift Series No. 12

In the Series

1. Four Decades in the Study of & Linguistics in : A Festschrift for Kay Williamson, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 872 A4-size paper: 81 chapters) 2. In the Linguistics Paradise: A Festschrift for . Nolue Emenanjo, edited by Ozo- mekuri Ndimele (pp. 642 A4 –size paper, 60 chapters) 3. & Culture in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Okon Essien, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 1002 A4-size paper; 96 chapters). 4. Trends in the Study of Languages & Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Philip A. Nwachukwu, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 701 A4-size paper; 61 chapters) 5. Convergence: English and Nigerian Languages: A Festschrift for Munzali Jibril, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 988 A4-size paper; 73 chapters) 6. Nigerian Languages, Literatures, Culture & Policy Reforms: A Festschrift for Ayo Bamgbose, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 720 A4-size paper; 59 chapters) 7. Critical Issues in the Study of Linguistics, Languages & Literature in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Conrad Max Benedict Brann, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele, I.I.L. Udoh & . Anyanwu (pp. 589 A4-size paper; 35 chapters) 8. Language Policy, Planning & Management in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Ben O. Elugbe, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 934 A4-size paper; 73 chapters) 9. Language Literature & Communication in a Dynamic World: A Festschrift for Chinyere Ohiri-Aniche, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 718 A4-size paper; 62 chapters) 10. Language, Literature & Culture in a Multilingual Society: A Festschrift for Abubakar Rasheed, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele, Mustapha Ahmad and Hafizu Miko Yakasai (pp. 1118 A4-size paper; 77 chapters) 11. Issues in Contemporary African Linguistics: A Festschrift for Ọladele Awobuluyi, edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele, Lendzemo Constatine Yuka and Johnson Folo run oIlori (pp. 579 A4-size paper; 40 chapters) 12. Language Endangerment: Globalisation & the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria - A Festschrift for Appolonia Uzoaku Okwudishu edited by Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (pp. 683 A4-size paper; 51 chapters) 13. Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of African Linguistics: A Festschrift for Ahmed H. Amfani (in prepration)

Language Endangerment: Globalisation & the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria

A Festschrift for Appolonia Uzoaku Okwudishu

Ozo-mekuri Ndimele (Ed.) Professor of Comparative Grammar Dept. of Linguistics & Communication Studies, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

M & J Grand Orbit Communications Ltd.  Port Harcourt

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ISBN: 978-978-54127-2-7

Published by

M & J Grand Orbit Communications Ltd. Port Harcourt, Nigeria

In Collaboration with

The Linguistic Association of Nigeria

Dedication

This book is dedicated to

ALL LOVERS OF LANGUAGE

Preface ______his book is a commemorative volume. It is the 12th edition in the Nigerian Linguists Festschrift Series. So far, we have done a dozen, and therefore, need to congratulate T ourselves on this unprecedented feat. No other subject association in Nigeria has been so productive, not minding the harsh realities of the day and unfair working environment that academics in this part of the globe are confronted with. The majority of the papers here were selected from the presentations at the 27th Annual Conference of the Linguistic Association of Nigerian (CLAN) which was held at the Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria. In this book are also a few papers selected from the much that the LOC of the 26th CLAN which was held at the University of Ibadan could oblige us. The 27th CLAN was held to celebrate the spectacular achievements of another female giant in our field, Professor (Mrs.) Appolonia Uzoaku Okwudishu of the University of , Nigeria. Hence, this book is devoted to her as our own little way to salute her giant strides in her career and to appreciate her immense contributions to the growth of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria. Professor Okwudishu is the foremost female General Secretary of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria – a position she held for two consecutive and marvelously productive tenures. She has held many other administration positions, including serving as the first female Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administration) of her university. The title of this book derives from the theme of the 27th CLAN, which is “Language Endangerment: Globalisation and the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria”. A sizeable number of the papers here address the major theme of the conference, while the balance address various aspects of Nigerian linguistics, languages, communication, and literature. Papers on language endangerment and language revitalisation strategies for safeguarding the vanishing indigenous tongues of Nigeria took a centre stage in the book. We have enjoyed the goodwill of a number of persons and institutions in putting this book together, and therefore, should naturally appreciate those whose contributions readily call to mind. We acknowledge with gratitude the support we received from the Vice-Chancellors and members of the Local Organising Committees of the University of Ibadan and Benue State University, Markudi, for facilitating the hosting of the 26th and 27th CLAN, respectively. The President of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria, Professor (Mrs.) Chinyere Ohiri-Aniche, is also appreciated for ensuring that we received the papers from the 27th CLAN soon after the conference. This effort facilitated our early commencement of the assessment of the papers. That we were able to receive some papers from the LOC of the 26th CLAN, to further enrich the contents of this volume, is as a result of her intervention.

Professor Ozo-mekuri Ndimele Founding Editor [email protected]

Table of Contents

Dedication Preface

1. Language Documentation: A Dependable Linguistic Practice for Minimizing the Effects of Endangerment on Languages in Nigeria 1 -Gideon Sunday Omachonu

2. Language Endangerment: Globalisation and the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria 17 -Aondona Dega

3. Threats to Mother Tongues in Nigeria: Strategies for Revitalisation 29 -Godwin Ona Ode

4. The Use of Nigerian Languages in Radio Broadcasts 39 -Sabi’u Alhaji Garba

5. Applying Systemic-Functional Linguistics to Safeguard Indigenous Genres 57 -C.D.S. Vande-Guma

6. Towards the Preservation of the Gure Language 85 -Iliya Dauda Pikawi

7. Towards the Preservation of the 99 -Grace Caleb Byat & Amos D. Bivan

8. Play Songs and Peer Group Activities as Resources for Revitalising the 107 -Sewuese Veronica Swande & T. Terver Udu

9. Measures to Safeguard the Etulo Language 119 -Esther Shagba

10. The Fate of the in Nigeria in the Cyber Age 129 -Faleke Victoria Ogunnike

11. A Thematic Study of Jean la Fontaine’s Fable & Chinyereude’s Chant: Implications for Minority Languages 139 -Ihechi Obisike Nkoro

viii

12. Translating Scientific Terms into Indigenous Languages: A Case for African Technological Development 147 -Priye Iyalla-Amadi

13. Translating Texts in English into Sleeping Languages: Basic Issues for Consideration 161 -Hosanna Hussaini Wakkai

14. Translation Endangerment: An Appraisal of Barriers 169 -Suleiman Adamu Sarvi

15. Harnessing Linguistic Resources for Effective Translation: A Way of Preserving the Status of a Language 181 -Obioma Bibian Enwere

16. Translating Technical Texts: The Example 193 -Patricia Ngozi Ijioma & Olivia Ezeafulukwe

17. The Igbo Language before, during, and after the Biafra War (1500 to Present) in Nigerian: The Igbo Question 203 -Crescentia Ugwuona

18. Broadcasting in African languages: The Case of the Igbo language 215 -Ndubuisi Ahamefula, Chinenye Okoye & Amarachi Arungwa

19. The Imperatives of Nigerian Languages in Sustainable Development 231 -Aliyu Busa Muhammad

20. Sociopragmatic Significance of ‘Sound and Fury’ in the Nigerian Political Context 239 -Chris Uchenna Agbedo & Ebere Celina Krisagbedo

21. Linguistic Communication Pitfalls 257 -Oreoluwa Abraham Solomon

22. The Use of Shared Knowledge and Symbols in Jukun Proverbs 267 -Upah Butari Nahum

23. Encyclopaedic and Mutual Knowledge as Pragmatic Determiners in Hausa Discourse 281 -Tijjani Shehu Almajir

24. A Pragmatic Analysis of some Selected Political Billboards Advertisement in Nasarawa Metropolis 289 -Adewole Alagbe & Saidu O. Yahaya

ix

25. Aspects of Nonverbal Communication in The Potter’s Wheel 301 -Abdullahi Ahmad & Yusuf Muhammad Nasir

26. Metaphor: A Tool in every Hand 311 -Agnes Ada Okpe

27. Stylistic Peculiarities of Public Speeches 319 -Usman Muhammed Bello

28. A Lexico-Semantic Analysis of the Language of The Forest of God Translated by Gabriel A. Ajadi 329 -Joseph Alagbe & Oladele Raphael Asaolu

29. An Analysis of Linguistic System and Linguistic Context: A Systemic Functional Linguistic Perspective 339 -Saminu Isyaku

30. Orientation as an Ultimate Parameter for the Lexical Signs in the Hausa Sign Language 347 -Ibrahim Garba Gwammaja

31. A Comparative Study of the Rhythm of Fulfulde and Hausa 355 -Ahmadu Shehu

32. Phonological Processes in Verb Inflection in C’lela 367 -Muhammad Ango Aliero & Muhammad Aminu Mode

33. Exploring Polar Syntactic Effects of Verbal Extensions in Basà 379 -Philip Manda Imoh & Isa Gambo

34. Negation Marking in Defaka 399 -Inoma Nsima George Essien

35. Phonological Neutralisation among Nigerian Users of English 411 -Onah Patrick El-kanemi

36. La Pluralisation des Noms en Français et En Fulfulde: Procédés et Marques 421 -Also Mohammed Sale

37. Subject-Complement Agreement in Bassa 441 -Imoh Philip Manda & David Abraham

38. The Structure of the Noun Phrase in English and Kambari 451 -Abubakar Muhammad & Ibrahim Aliyu Dantata

x

39. Rule-Based Machine Translation: An Interface between Formal and Natural Language Syntax 479 -Clement Odoje

40. The Relative Construction and the Wh-question in Edo: Implications for the ESL Learner 491 -M.T. Lamidi & A.T. Akinmurele

41. Head Movement in the Tiv Language 505 -Michael Terhemen Angitso

42. Negation Marking in Omuanwa of Ikwere 527 -Roseline Ihuoma C. Alerechi

43. Focus Constructions in Ò̩ wò̩ n-Ògè 547 -Priscilla Lola Adenuga

44. Contrastive Analysis of Tense and Aspect in English and Abinu 555 -Omotosho Moses Melefa

45. The Effects of Language Contact on the Urhobo 557 -Rose Oro Aziza

46. Affixation in Obolo 585 -Ataisi Emiya Gladday

47. The Linguistic Features of Ideophones in Etulo 593 -Adaobi Ngozi Okoye & Martha Chidimma Egenti

48. On Synonymy in Ìgbuzo̩ ̀-Igbo 601 -Esther Nwakaego Oweleke

49. Semantics and Tone in Esan Lexical Formation 617 -Ikoyo-Eweto Evarista Ofure

50. The Theory of Pro-drop and the Missing Subject in Izon 635 -Ozo-mekuri Ndimele

51. The Pragmatics of Basic Register Tones in Igala 663 -Salem Ochala Ejeba

The Nigerian Linguists Festschrift Series No. 12 2015 (pp. 1-15)

1. Language Documentation: A Dependable Linguistic Practice for Minimizing the Effects of Endangerment on Languages in Nigeria

Gideon Sunday Omachonu, PhD, AvHF University, Keffi, Nigeria [email protected], [email protected] +2348065309796, +2348058421956

1. Introduction The motivation for the present paper was driven by a number of observations, concerns and convictions, namely: First, my personal observation that most researchers on/in Nigerian languages studying especially in tertiary institutions in Nigeria no longer do fieldwork before gathering data anyhow, and by whatever means for analysis and/or description in their M.A./M.ED Dissertations, journal articles and even PhD Theses. Second, the conviction that in terms of the criteria - language development, linguistic documentation and description - most languages in Nigeria are endangered, and that even the so-called fairly highly documented and analyzed Nigerian languages, including the big three - Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba - cannot compete favourably with well-researched European and Asian languages (see also Omachonu, 2012, Heine & Nurse, 2000:5). Third, the fact that extant literature on language endangerment is replete with the following disturbing and/or frightening predictions, such as:

a. A language dies somewhere in the world every two weeks (Emenanjo 2010). b. In the last 500 years, half of the languages of the world have disappeared (Hill 1978). c. ´3000 languages, about half of the 6,528 languages spoken today will fall in disuse by the end of the next century possibly within the next 20 years´. Awake Magazine (April 8, 1999:29) d. Only about ten percent (10%) of the present languages in the world may survive the 21st century to welcome the 22nd century (Kuju 1999). e. ‘… in the next 50-100 years, 90% of will be extinct’ (Egbokhare 2004:6). f. Perhaps, only the top ten languages of the world (Mandarin Chinese, English, Spanish, Hindi, Arabic, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Japanese, and German) are safe languages in the world today (Emenanjo 2010:8)

Fourth, the conviction that a language could become endangered, weakened, become moribund, dies and disappears. And then the concern that when a language is lost, the entire people, their culture and everything that makes them a ‘unique entity’ are lost. A whole civilization is lost (cf. Gippert, Himmelman & Mosel, 2006). Lastly, the conviction that if a language is properly and comprehensively documented, even when it dies and disappears, the records remain; and such records could be used for meaningful linguistic description subsequently.

2 Language Endangerment: Globalization & the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria

Against the backdrop of the above observations, concerns and convictions, the specific objectives of the paper are, among others, to:

a. Briefly examine language endangerment in Nigeria generally and in the north in particular: the degree, the dimensions and the reasons for such endangerment especially the worst-case scenarios. b. Attmept to discuss how practically oriented documentation of Nigerian languages could help minimize the negative effects of endangerment on the languages for the purposes of language development and preservation.

In what follows therefore, for the purposes of orderliness, smooth flow of thought and coherent presentation, the paper is structured, thus: (2.) The Language Situation in Nigeria, (3.) Language Endangerment in Nigeria: meaning, the degree, the dimensions, effects and the reasons for such endangerment especially the worst-case scenarios, (4.) Reversing the Trend: Practical approaches to language documentation as means of minimizing the negative effects of endangerment on Nigerian languages, and (5.) Conclusion and Recommendations.

2. The Language Situation in Nigeria: A Brief Review Nigeria is known for its extreme linguistic diversity with multiplicity of languages whose exact number cannot be given with a high degree of certainty. The various figures given to represent the estimated number of languages spoken in Nigeria include: Tiffen (1968) = 150 languages, Bamgbose (1971) = about 400 languages, Hansford et al. (1976) = 394 languages, Crozier & Blench (1992) = 52O languages, Blench (2011) = 550 languages. As it were, these were mere estimates which in most cases were not based on comprehensive survey and accurate statistics except Hansford et al. (1976) which was based on a comprehensive survey conducted by Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) in Nigeria (see Omachonu 2012:11 for some of the factors responsible for lack of exact/accurate language statistics in Nigeria). As it is, Nigeria alone houses a quarter of Africa’s languages. Of the about 2,035 languages spoken in Africa (representing ⅓ of the world’s languages) (Heine & Nurse eds. 2000) and of the approximately 1050 languages spoken in West Africa, about 550 are spoken in Nigeria (Blench 2011). And of the four language phyla (families) in Africa, with the exception of Khoisan, three are represented in Nigeria, namely: Niger– Congo, Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan. Based on population and relative importance, indigenous Nigerian languages have been categorized into major, minor (main) and/or small group languages (SGLs) with over 400 (80%) classified as SGLs (See Bamgbose 1992). English (the colonial language) remains the official language in Nigeria even long after independence. It is to be noted, however, that in addition to English, French has been recognized as the second official language in Nigeria since 1996 (see Igboanusi & Pütz, 2008). For wider communication and for the purposes of communication across one’s ethnic group, English and Nigerian Pidgin are used. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are, to an extent, used as languages of wider communication since they are used as lingua franca by speakers of other languages in addition to English and Nigerian Pidgin in their respective regions. Whereas Arabic is used in specific contexts of Islamic worship and Quranic pedagogy

Language Documentation 3

(especially in northern Nigeria & some parts of SW states- Oyo, Ogun, and , French has remained a language of international diplomacy with the Francophone neighbouring countries such as Benin, Togo, Cameroon and Niger. In addition to being recognized as a second official language in Nigeria since 1996, French is equally taught in secondary schools and tertiary institutions in Nigeria. At present, especially with UBE provision for French as one of the compulsory subjects, the teaching of French is gaining ground in both primary and nursery schools in Nigeria. The indigenous languages especially the ‘majors’ are, to an extent, used in the field of education as media of instruction and also taught as subjects or studied as courses in some higher institutions especially in the states where the languages are spoken. They are also used in the media. At present, none of the indigenous languages is generally accepted and used as a national language, i.e. as a symbol of the country’s nationality or national identity (partly due to lack of scientific development and standardization to cope with the new functions). Apart from the dominance of English over all the indigenous languages in Nigeria, a continuous source of language conflict is the somewhat suspicious relationship between the major and non-major languages due to the fear of linguistic imperialism and consequently political domination especially as expressed by speakers of small group languages.

3. Language Endangerment in Nigeria: Meaning, the Degree/Dimensions, Effects and the Reasons A language is said to be endangered when a particular speech community finds itself in a situation where its language (the means/medium of all round expression) faces degradation and threat of extinction. In other words, when the survival of a linguistic system or language is threatened and weakened; realistically, it is endangered. UNESCO LVI (cf. Emenanjo 2010:16-17) gave the following international evaluating yardsticks for diagnosing or measuring language endangerment:

a. absolute number of fluent and committed speakers, b. proportion of speakers within the total population, c. shifts in domain of actual use, d. materials for language use and literacy, e. governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies including official status and use, f. interaction and social effects between language attitudes and policies, g. nature, type and quality of language documentation.

In Nigeria, language endangerment is no longer a mere strong possibility but a stark reality. Most languages in Nigeria suffer varying degrees of threats suggested by the use of certain adjectives in the literature: receding, disadvantaged, deprived, disuse, weakened, unsafe, sickly, moribund, dying, disappearing, extinct and dead languages. A critical look at the language endangerment scenarios in Nigeria would reveal the following two broad dimensions to it:

4 Language Endangerment: Globalization & the Fate of Minority Languages in Nigeria

a. Language Endangerment due to small number of speakers, language contacts and languages in competition within bilingual/multilingual milieu (e.g. the presence of a predator). b. Language Endangerment due to lack of scientific development and linguistic description or study of the languages (this includes the nature, type, quantity and quality of language documentation and description, materials for language use and literacy, etc.).

The combine effects of these two dimensions of language endangerment in Nigeria have created room for the following situations of linguistic loss including the worst-case scenarios (to be discussed shortly):

a. Shift to the language of wider communication especially English, Pidgin and/or Hausa (in the North) often as a consequence of settlement in the urban centres (rural-urban migration). b. Shift to the dominant regional language, e.g. Hausa in the North, Yoruba in the West, and Igbo in the South. c. Vocabulary loss without shift: most of the languages in Nigeria suffer this as could be seen in the degree of borrowing from English, Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba.

Therefore, in concrete terms, most Nigerian languages are endangered in more ways than one, namely:

a. No generally accepted literary standard. b. No dictionary and no comprehensive reference grammar. c. Officially, the languages are not taught at primary and secondary school levels, let alone the tertiary. d. There are hardly standard linguistic materials and textbooks for language teaching and learning except dated primers and catechisms or religious instruction books written when most of the languages had no approved orthography. e. There are negligibly few native speaker-linguists with the necessary/required linguistic training with which to advance the study of the languages in terms of documentation and description. f. Indigenous names, numerals and other valuable contents of the languages are fast disappearing. Children and younger people hardly know how to count in the local languages. Even adults, mix up codes with English and/or Hausa when they count money and other objects in the languages. g. Many children of literate/educated Nigerian parents, both at home and abroad, no longer speak the languages and, unfortunately, most of them now bear English names and names from foreign religions alien to Nigeria/Africa.

3.1 Language Endangerment in Northern Nigeria: Worst-Case Scenarios Even as it could be said that language endangerment is a common phenomenon in Nigeria, it appears the threat is more in northern Nigeria. Compelling pieces of evidence abound in the extant literature. For instance, in a list of over 150 Nigerian languages in