Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights Into Code-Switching

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PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF ACADEMIC DISCOURSE: INSIGHTS INTO CODE-SWITCHING

By S. Tehseen Zahra

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES ISLAMABAD March-2018 i

Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into Code-Switching

S. Tehseen Zahra

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

(English Linguistics)

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD

 S. Tehseen Zahra, 2018

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES FACULTY OF LANGUAGES

THESIS AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read the following thesis, examined the defense, are satisfied with the overall exam performance, and recommend the thesis to the Faculty of Languages for acceptance:

Thesis Title: Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into Code Switching

Submitted By: S. Tehseen Zahra Registration #: 392-PhD/Ling/Aug 11 Name of Student

Doctor of Philosophy Degree Name in Full

English Linguistics Name of Discipline

Prof. Dr. Wasima Shehzad ______Name of Research Supervisor Signature of Research Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Safeer Awan ______Name of Dean (FoL) Signature of Dean (FHS)

Maj. Gen. ® Zia Uddin Najam HI(M) ______Name of Rector Signature of Rector

______Date

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CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM

I S. Tehseen Zahra_____

Daughter of Naseem Raza______

Registration # 392-PhD/Ling/Aug 11_

Discipline English (Linguistics)___

Candidate of _Doctor of Philosophy at the National University of Modern Languages do hereby declare that the thesis, Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into Code-Switching submitted by me in partial fulfillment of PhD degree, is my original work, and has not been submitted or published earlier. I also solemnly declare that it shall not, in future, be submitted by me for obtaining any other degree from this or any other university or institution.

I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my thesis at any stage, even after the award of a degree, the work may be cancelled and the degree revoked.

______Signature of Candidate Date

S. Tehseen Zahra Name of Candidate

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe sincere gratitude to my first and foremost inspiration, my mentor and supervisor, Prof. Dr. Wasima Shehzad for her guidance, continuous support and encouragement in writing this dissertation which I shall cherish throughout my life.

I learnt through discussions that helped me to polish my ideas and motivate me to evolve new concepts of corpus studies and academic discourse. I feel indebted to Mr. Akhtar Abbas for arranging discussions in that particular area.

Dr. Saima Shaheen’s and Dr. Qaisar Khan’s thought provoking comments and constructive criticism help me to enhance my skills at different stages of writing this dissertation. I would like to thank them for reading this research and providing valuable suggestions.

My gratefulness to Prof. Dr. Safeer Awan and Prof. Dr. Aysha Sohail for their sincere cooperation in data collection. I would like to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Ummaima Kamran, Mr. Anmol Ahmad, Ms Fizza Farrukh, Ms Humera Fraz and Mr. Ahsan Cheema for helping me from data collection to data transcription and analysis stages. In addition, my friends and colleagues have been important part of this research, without their support, this would not have been possible.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, Mr. Naseem and Ms. Tehzeeb for encouraging me throughout my life to work consistently and with patience and for supporting me spiritually. Although my name appears at the top of this research, this task might not be achieved without consistent support of my heaven, my family. I am thankful to my husband Azhar Raza for sustaining me at every stage of my study and practical life. Yes, I believe that my children are my strengths. They always make me feel that they are proud kids of a philosopher. I wish My strengths, Fatima, Kisa, Raza and Haider to face all the challenges with confidence and dignity.

ABSTRACT

Language use in academic discourse i.e. in classroom sessions and conference presentations is a controversial issue among linguists and academicians as they carry contrasting perspectives regarding use of language in academia. Some linguists believe that code-switching is an essential part of academic discourse while some other suggests that mutual intelligibility may not be possible if the learners switch their language during communication. The variation of the viewpoints creates a niche to explore the use of language in Pakistani classroom sessions and conference presentations. This study explores various purposes of code-switching in academic discourse including elucidation, giving instruction, translation, change/introduce the topic, asking question and building argument. Pakistan is a multi-lingual country and it has rich linguistic diversity where people use provincial and regional languages and medium of instruction in classrooms is a serious concern for academicians. Moreover, the study portrays present situation and describes future implications from students’ perspective. The second main objective of the study is to explore the contextual relevance, quantity of information and perspicuousness in academic discourse (classroom session and conference presentation). To conduct this study thirty classroom sessions and forty conference presentations were recorded and transcribed. Furthermore, this research highlights the issues related to contextual use of language, quantity of information and clarity of expression in academic discourse by giving examples of transcribed data. The findings reveal the purposes of code-switching and contextual uses of language in academic discourse with specific reference to pragmatic ideology. In the light of the findings of the current study I propose Relative Relevance Model of Communication which has potential to explore relevance and relative relevance in classroom sessions and conference presentations especially. Moreover, this model may also be employed on other genres in order to address pragmatic manifestations with special focus on relevance.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

THESIS/DISSERTATION AND DEFENCE APPROVAL FORM------ii CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM------iii PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING ------iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS------v ABSTRACT------vi TABLE OF CONTENT------vi i LIST OF TABLES------xii LIST OF FIGURES------xiv LIST OF GRAPGS------xiv

1 INTRODUCTION------1 1.1 Purpose of the Study------3 1.2 Background of the Study------4 1.3 Statement of Problem ------8 1.4 Research Objectives------9 1.5 Research Questions------9 1.6 Research Frame------10 1.6.1Theoretical Framework------11 1.6.1.1 Grice Cooperative Principle------11 1.6.2.2 Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model of Code-switching------12 1.7 Rationale for Selecting Grice’s Maxims of Speech and Myers Scotton’s 16 Markedness Model------1.8 Delimitation of Study------16 1.9 Significance of the Study------18 1.9 Chapter Breakdown/Thesis Disposition------18 2 LITERATURE REVIEW------19 2.1 Introduction------19 2.2 What is Pragmatics? ------20 2.2.1 Pragmatics and Meaning------23 2.2.3 Functions of Language and Context------23 2.3 Scope of Pragmatics Analysis------23 2.3.1 Societal Perspective------23 2.3.2 Configuration / the Compositional Perspective------24 2.3.3 Relational Viewpoint------25 2.4 Different Areas of Pragmatics------25 2.4.1 Speech Acts------26 2.4.2 Presupposition------27 2.4.3 Conversational Maxims------28 2.5 Cooperative Principle------28 viii

2.5.1 Maxims------28 2.6 Explanation of Intended Meaning------30 2.7 Cognitive Linguistics and Interpretation Of Utterance------31 2.7.1 Cognitive Interpretation and Conversational Maxim------32 2.7.2 Cognitive Elucidation of Gricean Theory of Maxims from------33

Pragmatic Perspective 2.8 Pragmatic Model of Linguistic------34 2.9 Relevance Theory------34 2.10 Pragmatic Marking------35 2.11 Cognitive Aspects of Observance and Non-Observance Of Maxims------35 2.12 Indirectness and Gricean Maxims------41 2.13 Language Contact ------44 2.14 Language Contact And Pragmatics------44 2.15 Linguistic Interference Process And Pragmatics------45 2.16 Code-Switching as an Adaptive Strategy in Pragmatic Context------46 2.16.1 Uses of Language in Classroom------4 6 2.17 Discourse------49 2.20.1 Supremacy of Speech over Writing------50 2.20.2 Planned or unplanned discourse------50 2.18 Discourse Theory------51 2.18.1 Academic Discourse------51 2.19 The Arrangement of Classroom Discourse------52 2.20 Code- Switching------56 2.20.1 Development of Code-Switching------57 2.20.2 Convergence versus Preservation------59 2.20.3 Grammatical Approach to Code–Switching------59 2.21 Factors of Code Switching------60 2.22 Types of Code-switching------61 2.23 The Markedness Theory Of Language Choice------62 2.24 Sequential Analysis of Code-Switching------63 2.25 Social Symbolism of Metaphorical Code-Switching------63 2.26 Difference between Borrowing and Code-Switching------65 2.27 Code-Switching In Bilingual Classrooms------67 2.28 Purposes of Code-Switching in Classroom------69 2.28.1 Clarification of Concept------71 2.28.2 Socialization------72 2.28.3 Translation------72 2.28.4 Fabrication of Grammatical Variation------73 2.28.5 Alternation of Topic------73 2.28.6 Simplification of Expression------73 2.28.7 Teachers Linguistic Competence------73 2.28.8 Cultural Representation------74 2.28.9 Evaluation------74 2.28.10 Repetition------75 ix

2.28.11 Building a Sense of Ownership------75 2.29 Relationship between Pragmatics and Academic Discourse------76 2.30 Language Policy and Education------77 2.31 Linguistic Hybridity------78 2.31.1 Linguistic Hybridity in Classrooms------79 2.32 Summary------80 3 METHODOLOGY------81 3.1 Introduction------81 3.2 Methodology------82 3.3 Theoretical Framework------82 3.4.1 Cooperative Principle------82 3.4.2 Myers-Scotten Markedness Theory of Code Switching------84 3.4 Triangulation------85 3.5 Ethnography of Interaction------85 3.6 Sample Selection------88 3.7 Survey------89 3.7.1 Constructing a Questionnaire------90 3.7.2 Questionnaire Lay out------92 3.7.3 Pilot Study------93 3.7.4 Reliability and Validity of Instrument------94 3.7.5 Data Collection Through Questionnaire------95 3.8 Recording of Material------96 3.8.1Recording of Conferences------98 3.8.2Difficulties in Recording the Data------98 3.8.3 Rationale for Audio and Video Recording ------98 3.9 Data Analysis------99 3.9.1 Analysis of Questionnaires------99 3.9.2 Analysis of Recordings------100 3.9.2.1 Transcription of Recorded Data ------100 3.9.2.2 Recording of Lectures------103 3.9.2.3 Recording of conferences------105 3.10 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis------107 3.13 Delimitation------109 3.14 Ethical Considerations------110 3.15 Summary------110 4 DATA ANALYSIS------111 4.1 Introduction------111 SECTION 1 : Description of Demographic Information------112 4.2 Descriptive Statistic of Demographic Variables------112 4.3 Learners Views about Language of Instruction------118 4.4 Purposes of Code-Switching------119 4.4.1 Elucidation------119 4.4.2 Giving Instructions------122 4.4.3 Translation------123 4.4.4 Change/Introduce the Topic------124 x

4.4.5 Ask Question------125 4.4.6 Build Argument------128 4.4.7 Telling Jokes or Recreation------133 4.4.8 Providing Information------138 4.4.9 Maintaining Relevance------140 4.4.10 Clarifying Difficult Ideas------144 4.5 Students Perception about passing the exam and the Use of Language------147 4.6 Disadvantages of Code-switching------151 4.6.1 Hindrance in English language Learning------151 4.6.2 Hindrance in Creation of New Vocabulary/Lexical Items ------152 4.6.3 Lack of Vocabulary------153 4.6.4 Hinder Fluency------154 4.7 Medium of Instruction in Classrooms------155 4.7.1Mother Language------156 4.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization------157 4.7.3 Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges------158 4.8 Respondents Additional Comments------159 4.9 Code-switching in Conference Presentations------161 4.10 Pragmatic Analysis and Code-switching------165 Section 2

GRICEAN MAXIMS AND ACADEMIC DISCOURSE------168 4.11 Maxim of Relevance------169 4.11.1 Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication------169 4.11.1.1 Logical or Direct Relevance------170 4.11.1.2 Syllogism------170 4.11.1.3 Sequential------171 4.11.2 Relative/ indirect Relevance------171 4.11.1.3 Co relational/Quasi Relational------171 4.11.1.4 Recreational------171 4.11.1.5 Situational------172 4.11.1.6 Dimensions of Relevance------172 4.12 Logical or Direct Relevance in Classroom Sessions------172 4.12.1 Example 1------172 4.12.2 Example 2------174 4.12.3 Example 3------175 4.12.4 Example 4------177 4.12.2 Example 5------179 4.13 Logical or Direct Relevance in Conference Presentation------1 82 4.13.1 Example 6------182 4.13.2 Example 7------184 4.13.3 Example 8------184 4.13.4 Example 9------185 4.13.5 Example 10------186 4.13.6 Example 11------189 xi

4.14 Relative Relevance in Conference Presentations------192 4.14.1 Example 12------192 4.14.2 Example 13------192 4.14.3 Example 14------193 4.15 Relative Relevance in Classroom Sessions------194 4.15.1 Example 15------194 4.15.2 Example 16------195

4.15.3 Example 17------196 4.15.4 Example 18------197 4.15.5 Example 19------198 4.16 Maxim of Quantity------199 4.16.1.1Ideology of Ideal Speaker------201 4.16.2 Ideology of Ideal Speaker and Delivery of Information in Academic 202 Discourse------4.16.3Limitations of Maxim of Quantity------210 4.16.3.1 Measurement of Quantity of Information------211 4.16.3.2 Classroom Activities ------211 4.16.3.3 Need of the Students------212 4.16.3.4 Delivery of Words in Various Contexts------213 4.16.3.5 Limited Presentation Duration in Conference------213 4.17 Maxim of Manner------214 4.17.1 Strategic Use of Lexical Items and Sentences------216 4.17.2 Ease in Expression------216 4.17.3 Use of Ambiguous Words------217 4.17.4 Hedges------218 4.17.5 Indirectness------219 4.17.6 Irony------221 4.18 Conclusion------222 5 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND------227 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary of Results------227 5.2 Findings------229 5.3 Conclusion/s------230 5.3.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication------232 5.4 Limitations of the Study------233 5.5 Recommendations and Implications------235 5.6 Recommendations for Instructors------235 5.7 Recommendations for Presenters------237 5.8 Implication for Further Research------238 REFERENCES------241

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Pattern of language choices (Spanish and English) in classrooms------68 Table 3.1 Reliability of Instrument------94 Table 3.2 Number of Respondents of Survey------95 Table 3.3 Gender Distribution of Respondents------95 Table 3.4 Selected Disciplines for Lecture Recording ------97 Table 3.5 Data Collected Conference Presentations ------98 Table 3.6 Detailed View of Transcribed Data of female Classroom Sessions ---- 103 Table 3.7 Detailed View of Transcribed Data of male Classrooms Sessions ----- 104 Table 3.8 Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’------105 Table 3.9 Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’------106 Table 3.10 Details of presentation of male presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”------106 Table 3.11 Detailed view of presentation of female presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”------107 Table 4.1 Gender wise sample for questionnaires------112 Table 4.2 Age group wise Distribution of sample ------112 Table 4.3 Regional Languages Used as a Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges------114 Table 4.4 Languages Used for Communication with Classmates in Universities------115 Table 4.5 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Teachers in Universities ------115 Table 4.6 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Staff in Universities ------115 Table 4.7 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Family ------115 Table 4.8 Regional Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Classmates, Teachers, Staff and Family ------116 Table 4.9 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 1------117 Table 4.10 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 2------118 Table 4.11 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 3------127 Table 4.12 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 4------132 Table 4.13 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 5------133 Table 4.14 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 7------135 Table 4.15 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 8------136 Table 4.16 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 9------137 Table 4.17 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 13------137 Table 4.18 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 14------140 Table 4.19 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 15------143 xiii

Table 4.20 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 16------144 Table 4.21 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 17------145 Table 4.22 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 18------146 Table 4.23 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 19------146 Table 4.24 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 10------147 Table 4.25 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 11------148 Table 4.26 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 12------148 Table 4.27 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 6------152 Table 4.28 The Translation of Different Words in Urdu Language------153 Table 4.29 Use of Language in Classrooms from Students’ Perspective ------155 Table 4.30 Regional Languages Selected by The Students for the Medium of Instruction in Classrooms------155 Table 4.31 The Detailed Description of Male Instructors------203 Table 4.32 The Detailed Description of Female Instructors------204 Table 4.33 The detailed description of male presenters ------205 Table 4.34 The Detailed Description of Female Presenters In ‘The Literary Present And The Post-Colonial Condition’------206 Table 4.35 The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’------207 Table 4.36 The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference On Linguistics’------208 Table 4.37 WPM o f Male and Female Participants------209 Table 4.38 Total Time, Total Words and WPM of Male And Female Participants------209

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List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Layout of Questionnaire------93 Figure 4.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication------170 Figure 4.2 Overall Lesson plan of Example 3------176 Figure 4.3 Overall Lesson plan of Example 4------178 Figure 4.4 Overview of the Equation Discussed in Example 5------181 Figure 4.5 Overall Lesson plan of Example 10------189 Figure 4.6 Overall Lesson plan of Example 11------191

List of Graphs

Graph 4.1 Use of languages in School------113 Graph 4.2 Use of languages in college ------113 Graph 4.3 Use of language in University------114

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Language use in academic discourse is a bourgeois altercation among linguists and academicians as they carry different points of view regarding use of language in the academia (Lins, 2016). Some linguists believe that code-switching is an essential part of academic discourse as it is an important communal mechanism which sets specific social roles and boundaries of communication and controls social networking from functionalist perspective, while other suggest that mutual intelligibility may not be possible if the learners switch their language during communication (Recanati, 2010). These paradoxical approaches of communication, therefore, create a need to explore the implications of use of language in academic settings. In this regard, linguists (such as Briner and Ward, 2006; Mackay, 2003; & Cooke, 2005) have found pragmatic analysis of considerable value to interpret human discourse articulated in speech form.

Academic discourse refers to the use of language in academia and code-switching, an important aspect of spoken language and is widely discussed by linguists in the light of their research experiences (Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003), can add to the interpretation of human speech and behavior when analyzed pragmatically. Moreover, it is a significant social mechanism which sets specific social roles and boundaries of communication and controls social networking from functionalist perspective. Linguists have studied code- switching from two perspectives: first it supports arguments and develops variability into any grammar; secondly, it brings universal linguistic categories (Heller, 1988). Therefore, addressing code-switching in academic discourse can offer an insight into cognitive and pragmatic implications in the academic milieu.

This pragmatic nexus between academic discourse and code-switching can be explored by considering Grice’s (1976) maxim of relevance. These maxims are also known as cooperative principles which can be exploited to probe relevance, truthfulness,

1 copiousness, uncertainty, and orderliness with regard of nature of any discourse. Hence, there is a need to explore whether Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner are effective in determining the relevance to the topic, quantity of information, clarity of ideas, ambiguity of expression and orderliness in discourse in general and academic discourse in particular. So, the current study attempts to explore the effectiveness of Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner with reference to academic genres having special focus on classroom sessions and conference presentations. These two genres are significant representative of constellation of spoken academic genres as the former belongs to classroom genre colony and the later represents habitus of research genres.

According to Hymes (2009) discourse is not static rather it is related to the social life of human beings and represents individual’s social identity. Similarly, academic discourse ascribes the ways of perceiving and thinking and suggests the use of language in academia. There are different ways to present academic discourse though various genres which mainly are of two kinds i.e. classroom genres and research genres (Hyland, 2009). The former includes class sessions, discussions, lectures, and presentations and the latter comprises of theses/dissertations, synopsis, research articles, patent and conference presentations. The current study focuses on classroom sessions and conference presentations only owing to their optimum representativeness of their respective genre classes.

Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) found code-switching as the integral part of academic discourse. According to them, sometimes teachers motivate first language (L1) use in classroom because the students who use L1 in classrooms can express themselves with confidence which reduces anxiety and can build social solidarity with the other students. Contrary to this, Eldridge (1996) suggested that code-switching is not an effective strategy as mutual intelligibility may not be possible if the learner switches his language during communication with the native speaker of the target language. Sert (2005) added that the repetitive function of code-switching may lead to students’ undesired behaviors. He added further that the students might feel bored and lose their interest in listening to the previous instruction (in the target language). So, the question arises whether the

speakers remain relevant, informative, truthful and intelligible when they code-switch; therefore, this research focuses on a special aspect of language i.e. code-switching which can be a prominent aspect of academic discourse in a multilingual society such as Pakistan. Grice conversational Maxims (1976) and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness theory (1984) were employed as theoretical frameworks for this research. The main focus of the current study is to explore the issues related to code-switching in academic setting including classroom sessions and conference presentations to ascertain whether the speaker through code-switching remains informative, relevant and intelligible. This goal is accomplished by employing Gricean Maxims of relevance, quantity and manner to academic discourse. Besides, the study intends at deliberating on pedagogical implications of code-switching in academic setting.

1.1 Purpose of the Study

In Pakistan, English is taught as a compulsory subject. Urdu is national language of Pakistan and English is official language of Pakistan. Medium of instruction in classrooms is still not defined which leads to an unclear status of languages in educational institutes. In private schools and colleges, English is the preferred medium of instruction while in some government institutes, English and Urdu languages are used as a medium of instruction (Rahman, 2003). In such a situation, code-switching can be observed as an important part of academic discourse. Although, I found many research studies regarding use of language in academic discourse especially classroom discourse in developed countries while I did not find much or detailed studies regarding the use of language in conference presentations. These two genres (classroom discourse and conference presentations) are still unexplored in Pakistani context. Keeping in view the need of the hour, I decided to get an insight regarding the use of language in classrooms and conference presentations without interrupting the natural setting of classrooms and conference presentations. Liebscher & Dailey-O Cain (2005) said that a classroom is a group of people having communicative competence which leads to variability in performance as well. The idea of competence and performance favors the contextual use of language. So this research focuses on the contextual use of language and purposes of code-switching in classrooms and conference presentations.

Martin-Jones (1995) asserted that there is a need to explore various issues regarding code-switching as code-switching in bilingual classrooms is shaped by social factors working in different classrooms. In response, code-switching performs various purposes in any discourse and finally becomes the strategy to achieve certain goals. In Pakistan, inadequate attention is paid to the use of language in academia. Moreover, academic discourse is a broad field of inquiry; hence I delimited my study to use of language in classrooms at postgraduate level and conference presentations of Linguistics and Literature. This research is an effort to highlight various issues regarding language use in academic discourse.

1.2 Background of the Study

In four provinces of Pakistan, different languages are used for communication. Census Report of Pakistan 1998 showed that majority of the speakers used Punjabi language as their mother tongue with 44.15 % of the whole population followed by Pashto with 15.42 %, Sindhi with 14.10 %, and Balochi 3.57 %. The geographical distribution of the speakers shows that the majority of the Punjabi speaking population lives in urban areas of Punjab, Pakistan while the proportion of other languages like Urdu and other regional languages is 26.33. According to ethnologue (2011), Urdu is second language of more than 105 million people. Nonetheless, each group has cultural differences which show the identity of that particular region. Haque (1983) described the regional distribution of languages in the provinces of Pakistan, like regional languages of Punjab are Punjabi, Siraiki, Potohari and Pahari. The population of rural Sindh uses Sindhi, while the population of urban Sindh uses Urdu language and Gujrati is used by some influential minorities. Pashto is one of the influential languages in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, while Hindko is used in one district of Hazara. One of the interesting facts is that multiple languages are used in Balochistan like Balochi, Brahvi, Pashto with some vocabulary items of Siraiki and Punjabi. English is used as a language of instruction in many public and private sector educational institutes of Pakistan, so the contact of English with other languages has increased and this supports the concept of bilingualism. Being national language of Pakistan, Urdu is considered as the language of high prestige

and after English. The use of Urdu with English in educational institutes of Pakistan is quite obvious (Rahman, 2004).

The description of distribution of languages suggests that in different regions of Pakistan, people use three languages: regional languages are used in specific region for the business or domestic conversations, Urdu is used as national language and English is used as an official language of Pakistan. These latter two languages are used for official and educational purposes. Keeping these facts in view, it can be assumed that Pakistani academicians (students, teachers and presenters) speak three languages and in educational institutes and conference presentations two languages are used; English and Urdu. Talat (2002) substantiates this perspective as she states that English is used in a trilingual setting in Pakistan. Moreover, this study delimits itself to code-switching (from English to Urdu and Urdu to English) in academic discourse (classroom sessions and conference presentations). The mother tongue of the students, teachers and presenters is not explored and discussed as a part of this research.

Talat (2002) mentioned that sixty-nine languages are spoken in Pakistan while considerable and widely used languages are not more than fifteen. Furthermore, Urdu is national language of Pakistan and one of the prominent lingua franca which is widely used and understood for the purpose of communication in different regions of Pakistan. Moreover, Qadir (1996) said that Urdu is mother language of the people (minority group) who migrated from India and hold prominent stature in the power hierarchy of those times, in response created a linguistic unity among the people who used Urdu as mother language. Since then Urdu has been used in educational institutes for the purpose of reading and writing as well. So it can be inferred from the above discussion political, social and historical factors brought English to the focus of public attention. The indecisive situation and lack of knowledge in language policy and planning provided English a pivotal status in Pakistan importantly in academic discourse. There can be different factors that support and promote in uplifting the status of English in Pakistan.

Gulzar (2009) informs that during colonial rule of British Empire, English was transplanted in the subcontinent. English language embedded in the bureaucratic mode of communication so it was not possible to change the mainstream system. Since then 5

English has been enjoying a high status and occupying a higher rank in power domain hierarchy. But Rahman (2002), giving a different perspective in this respect, says that English and Urdu, both languages are enjoying high status in Pakistan currently. On the other hand, regional languages have a large number of speakers exercise less importance as their use is restricted to homes and specific community. Urdu and English have occupied a greater space and due to media promotion, these languages are flourishing to a greater extent for public and official use. In addition to that, English and Urdu are taught as compulsory subjects in schools and colleges and are used as a medium of instruction.

Rahman (2002) elaborated that the role of English language cannot be ignored in civil and military bureaucracy; it is playing its role in the domain of power. Abbas (1998) informed that bilingual writing is evident in lower courts and superior courts i.e. high court and Supreme Court. English language is also used in defense forces like Army, Navy and Air force and modules for the training are developed in English language. Although, the use of English as a spoken language is less dominant in offices but still it is flourishing. There is inherent contradiction between Pakistan’s declaration of Urdu as national language of Pakistan and the real policy where English has been declared as official language of Pakistan and considered as the “language of power” (Rahman, 2002).

Gulzar (2009) stated that Pakistan is a multilingual and multicultural society; it is difficult to specify one or two languages as a medium of communication. Rahman (2002) stated that medium of instruction in educational institutes is a problematic issue since independence as the political instability hinders the appropriate decision regarding language of instruction in academia. The situation is rightly described by Pattanayak (1990) that the use of two languages is problematic, three languages are uneconomic and many languages are absurd. Haque (1983) explained the whole situation in two points. Language planning is under the influence of two factors. First factor is the selection of national official language for the purpose of unification and operational efficiency. Urdu language fulfills the criteria of nationalism while the criteria of official efficiency is fulfilled by English as the upper strata i.e. military and bureaucracy are instructed and trained in English language. In response, English occupied the place of official language; the reason may be its strong link with East Pakistan. The constitution (1973) of Pakistan

6 clearly describes the motif of policy planners regarding the use of Urdu language at national and provincial level. The three points of article 251 states that policy planners want to replace English with Urdu language and prefer Urdu as national and official language of Pakistan. Three points of article 251 of Pakistani constitution 1973 are as follows:

1. “The National language of Pakistan is Urdu and, arguments shall be made for it being used for official and other purposes within fifteen years of the commencing day. 2. Subject to clause (1), the English language may be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu. 3. Without prejudice to the status of the national language, a Provincial Assembly may by laws prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and use of a provincial language in addition to the national language.”

Although, it was the part of the article 251 that policy was supposed to be revised after fifteen years of the commencing day of this constitution but Mansoor (2005) said that clauses regarding the use of Urdu as national and official language of Pakistan remained same in all three constitutions of Pakistan. It shows that no attention was paid to the issue of language use so far and English is still enjoying the high status in Pakistan as considered official language of Pakistan. Talat (2002) said that the declaration of English as an official language of Pakistan greatly affected the medium of instruction in Pakistani educational institutes as English speaking upper strata promote the use of English language in educational institutes of Pakistan. The extension period of the use of English as an official language stretched so long that policy makers seemed to forget the social and political realities. Moreover, Talat (2002) said that the significant social factor affecting the status of English and Urdu is vague description of the designing and implementation of medium of instruction in educational institutes.

Article 251 (clause 3) of 1973 constitution shows that the place of regional languages is conditional to the status of national languages and Gulzar (2009) says that promotion of regional languages just proved a lip service in this regard. Through legislation, Sindhi has been declared as a medium of instruction till primary level and 7

more or less, there is no legislation to promote the status of other regional languages in other educational and official spheres of Pakistan. Spolsky (1998) said that language choice as the national language or the medium of instruction is the biggest issue and its importance cannot be negated. Skutnabb-Kangas & Cummins (1976) added that the choice of language in academic discourse plays a significant role; it creates a sense to respect and the values, traditions and culture among participants. Moreover, it makes them feel proud of their language which is associated to their identity, culture and origin. “Determinants of language choice and code-switching in classroom are necessarily more complex than can be legislated by language policy on medium of instruction.” (Merrit et al,1992, pg.12). Developed countries have already devised different models for bilingual education program to address the issues of language use in classrooms.

Rahman (1999) stated that they have English language proficiency as they (military and bureaucracy) have been using in educational institutes and academia. Their educational and interactional policies support the idea of using English language. Canagarajan (1999) opined that English language has a strong background of imposition based on social, political and material situation of various areas and consequently appeared in competition with national languages. Rahman (1999) further added that this fact cannot be ignored that English has been enjoying the elitist status since the beginning of Pakistan and English language cannot be replaced with Urdu language. It is also undeniable that Urdu is second language of the most of the Pakistani speakers and it is serving as a lingua franca in Pakistan. This ambiguity leads to the unclear vision towards the use of language in academia. I believe that this ambiguous situation is raised due to non-implementation of the clause of 251 of 1973 constitutions and unawareness of the causes of rapid spread of English languages in private and government institutes. The statuses of national and regional languages are still ambiguous and unresolved. The background study of emergence and use of languages in Pakistan helps in identifying the problems regarding the use of language in academic discourse within Pakistani situation.

1.3 Statement of Problem

English is language of higher education in Pakistan which also enjoys prestige as de-facto official language of the country. Despite this status of English language in 8

education and official pedestals, Urdu as national language and other regional languages are also used as marked and/or unmarked choices in these settings especially in class rooms of higher educational institutes. Though, all of these inextricably interwoven languages with English language on a priori assumption are conceptualized merely as a socio-linguistic phenomenon focusing on revealing purposes of code-switching, generally, in informal settings. However, epistemological exploration of this phenomenon from the perspective of its cognitive effects within the theoretical underpinnings of pragmatics also needs serious attention of the researchers especially with regard to this practice in more formal settings such as classroom sessions and conference presentations.

1.4 Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are:

1. To explore the purpose(s) of code-switching in classroom sessions and conference presentations 2. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of preferring one language(s) over other in academic discourse (in classrooms and conference presentations) 3. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of relevance in determining the contextual relevance of the language(s) used in classrooms and conference presentations 4. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of quantity in determining the quantity of information delivered through languages used in classrooms and conference presentations 5. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of manner in determining the perspicuousness of language used in classrooms and conference presentations 6. To delineate the contextual use of language in classrooms and conference presentations

1.4 Research Questions

This study focuses on the issues of language use in academic discourse. It is observed that in postgraduate classrooms and conferences, instructors usually use English

and Urdu language in classrooms and conference presentations. Academicians in Pakistani postgraduate classrooms and conference presentations, academicians usually switch the code from one language to another (i.e. English to Urdu and Urdu to English). The current study aims at exploring the purposes of code-switching in academic discourse. For this purpose, the data has been collected from postgraduate classrooms and conference presentations. Grice cooperative principle states four maxims. This study intends at focusing on the relevance, quantity of information, clarity of expressions and with reference to the theory given by Grice. By keeping in view the while Pakistani situation, following research questions are devised to explore the facts.

1. What is/are the purpose/s of code-switching in academic discourse (in classrooms and conference presentations)?

2. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of relevance’ advantageous in determining the relevance of languages used in classroom sessions and conference presentations?

3. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of quantity’ advantageous in determining the quantity of information delivered through languages used in classroom sessions and conference presentations?

4. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of manner’ advantageous in determining the perspicuousness delivered through languages used in classroom sessions and conference presentations?

5. How do the academicians (instructors and presenters) use languages according to the context (with reference to maxim of manner, maxim of relevance and maxim of quantity) in academic discourse?

1.6 Research Frame

This purpose of the study is to analyze academic discourse with the prism of pragmatics. For this purpose, the data was collected from postgraduate classrooms of three universities of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of Modern Languages and Air University, Islamabad and two international conferences were recorded to collect the data. Research was conducted in classrooms that contain fifteen 10

male instructors and fifteen female instructors. Forty presenters of two international conferences were recorded. The recoded data of classrooms and conference presentations was transcribed and further evaluated and analyzed using quantitative and qualitative techniques.

1.6.1 Theoretical Framework

Myers-Scotton’s Markedness model of code-switching (1984) and Grice cooperative principle (1975) used as theoretical framework for this research.

1.6.1.1 Grice Cooperative Principle

Grice (1975) presented “Cooperative Principle” which is elaborated by sub- principles called maxims. The cooperative principle states that during conversation, speaker should make his conversational contribution as required. To elaborate his point of view he presented four maxims, maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of manner and maxim of relevance. This study has been delimited to explore the maxims of quantity, manner and relevance only.

1. Maxim of quantity states that during conversation, speaker should be as informative as required. He should not give any additional information and he should not make his contribution less informative. 2. Maxim of relevance states that speaker should be relevant and he should not deviate from the topic or the discussion and he should speak according to the context/situation. 3. Maxim of manner states that speaker should be brief and orderly and he should avoid obscure and ambiguous expressions.

Non-observance is defined as “the failure to observe the maxims”. Grice (1975) said that the reason of this failure may be “blatant or unostentatious”. Brumark (2006) observed non-observance of Gricean maxims in family dinner table. He said that non- observance also plays a role in communicating meaning as it helps in commenting on and managing and controlling the verbal and non-verbal behavior. Non-observance has been created through different pragmatic tools like humor, irony, sarcasm etc.

Brumark (2006) stated that non-observance is significant in creating specific pragmatic effects of irony or sarcasm and it is usually perceived as irony and humor by the listener as well (Ohlsson, 2003). In highly informal discourse (family dinners), it is used to alleviate or enhance the functions of non-observance. Sperber and Wilson (1998) said that irony refers to “saying something else and meaning something else” and it serves as a pointing device of implied meaning. Pexman and Olineck (2002) said that sarcasm is ruder and malevolent form of irony and even more face threatening than irony. Similarly, jokes are also considered as a form of irony and humor and Giora (1995) said that both irony and humor are the devices to break (non-observe) the maxim of quantity, quality and manner.

1.6.2.2 Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model of Code-switching

Keeping in view of Grice Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), Myers-Scotton Markedness Theory (1984) emerged. Scotton (1998) considered language which a community use as a set of “rights and obligation” (RO sets) and these RO sets depend upon speakers social realization of the use of language and social knowledge. She described the variation of Linguistic choices through this model. According to Scotton (1998) while using language in a discourse, speakers have certain choices and speakers use new codes and these “marked choices are speaker’s strategic use of new code”.

Myers-Scotton pointed out four types of Code-switching under her Markedness model:

1. Code-switching is a sequence of unmarked choices Language is used as unmarked choice due to contextual or situational requirement of conversation. 2. Code-switching itself as the unmarked choice Language is used by bilingual speakers who may be peers as well. 3. Code-switching as a marked choice Expected social or contextual/situational norms are not observed due to Interlocutors’ code-switching from one language to another as marked choice.

4. Code-switching as an exploratory choice Sometimes the choice of code during conversation is not clear in a given situation. Code-switching is merely used to maintain the balance during conversation.

Myers-Scotton (1998) argued that this model is applicable to all languages. She believed that in almost every speech community, there is always more than one way of communication i.e. they use more than one language and sometimes more than one dialect of a language is used. Language use, styles and dialects are related to social groups and contexts in which speakers use language. In a community, not everyone possesses same linguistic competence and performance for a certain language. Markedness is related to the choice of language in a community and Myers-Scotton elaborated that speakers have choices to select the language according to context and these are considered as marked choices to send the intentional messages. Individuals have

the choice to select specific conversational patterns which can exist in their mind to make a convenient conversation process and can be used occasionally.

Myers-Scotton (1998) presented the idea of marked and unmarked language choices. The selection of marked or unmarked choices depends upon the context and their uses adhere to the community of interactants. Markedness model emphasized marked versus unmarked language choices as a theoretical construct to explain language choices in certain contexts based on psychological and social motivations in selecting particular codes in various contexts. According to Myers-Scotton (1998) marked choices adhere to the community norms while unmarked choices do not adhere to the community norms. It is the innate quality of human beings to judge the choice of language as marked and unmarked choices and they focused on social and psychological perspectives of language use.

Rose and Van Dulm (2006) pointed out the functions of unmarked choices as these serve as a linguistic variety and a symbol of identity. Unmarked choices considered as conventional and normal and adhere to the social group ideology as it is believed that it does not carry any extra social meaning. Marked choices communicate extra social meanings and provide extra information, although it comes under the ideology of contextual use of language. According to Markedness Model, speakers have sufficient 13

knowledge about the use of these marked and unmarked choices in any conversation. Speakers make marked or unmarked choices based on the relationship with one another and are well aware of the consequences of these choices. It is assumed that speakers usually make unmarked choices as it is considered as a safer way of communication and it initiates an expected interpersonal relationship. But, a speaker need not to maintain unmarked choices to adhere the social norms of a community, marked choices are also very important and speaker ought to know the effects, potential costs and rewards of marked choices. So, the choice of language depends upon the rewards, benefits and needs of the time and situation (Myers-Scotton, 1993).

The markedness model focuses on the linguistic behavior of speakers when they engage in switching code from one language to another. Myers-Scotton (1993) identified various fields which support this model including sociology, psychology, pragmatics, social anthropology and linguistics anthropology. There are communicative intentions which motivate the speakers to select marked or unmarked choices. Myers-Scotton (1998) states that marked or unmarked choices are intentional and these are made to achieve some goals. The philosophy of cost and need can define the idea of code- switching. The speakers switch their code when they feel that there are more benefits relative to cost invested or code-switching can reward them than using only one language. There is another concept of need as well; code-switching is a way of getting things done and fulfills the communicative purpose. Speakers adopt and adapt the best possible strategy to communicate for specific interaction. For example, the speakers can switch to their L1 to build string arguments and in return to reap the reward and lessen the threat of losing the arguments as code-switching is considered as a floor holding technique.

Myers-Scotton (1993) revealed that communicative competence is the tacit awareness present in the mind of speaker and it is more than the grammatical structures of languages. The Markedness model is based on the markedness metric which gradually becomes the part of the language and plays an important role in communicative competence. This idea enables speakers and hearers to make all the relevant codes a part of language and these codes can be utilized occasionally. The choice of codes depends

upon the specific community where some language choices are preferred over the other. In a community, language choices are analyzed in terms of marked and unmarked choices. Conceptualization is very important to use marked and unmarked choices. The speaker can use from marked to unmarked choices or unmarked to marked choices. Speakers’ choice of language depends upon the context and the use of choice depends upon the exposure of particular language choice in a community.

The main theoretical framework of Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model is supported by Rights and Obligation sets (RO sets). These RO sets depict the norms and behavior and in return the use of language in a community. Myers-Scotton (1998) said that the choice of unmarked RO sets depend upon the context and situation in any interaction. There are some factors which contribute to the selection of these RO sets. These are ethnic group, gender, age, occupation and socioeconomic condition. The markedness model is based on the understanding of the messages send during any interaction and Myers-Scotton (1998) believed that it is not just the decoding of messages; it is rather the extraction of meaning through inference which is the essence of pragmatic ideology of meaning.

Markedness model is explained by Myers-Scotton carried two filters. First filter is called structural constraint which deals the social factors, identity, age, gender, mother language and characteristics of discourse (i.e. setting, purpose, time). Myers-Scotton (1998) believed that these ‘surface discourse structural characteristics’ further identify the structural constraints. These structural constraints help in building different structures and identify which part of language (vocabulary) is important, beneficial and influential. This is called sequential organization in language. There are different kinds of constraints based on these structural constraints. These structural constraints identify speakers’ linguistic repertoire which can be the key factor in determining different discourse strategies. This first filter is helpful in selecting various languages as a language choice for the speakers. The second filter is called Elster Rational choice or Rational Actor’s model, provides the opportunity to the speaker to use these structural constraints to get particular outcome. Speakers consciously deal with the cost benefit analysis and eventually opts the language which can be beneficial for them. Myers-Scotten used this

theory to analyze discourse and said that individuals select the language according to their own temporary benefits; depends upon their own motivation (subjective motivation) and opportunities (objective opportunities). Sometimes speakers use particular language to get their ordinary goals and neglect their prior language choice. So every speaker has marked and unmarked language choices. Myers-Scotten used this model to analyze code- switching in conversation. She believed that researcher can easily identify marked and unmarked choices in any conversation and even speakers can identify marked choices during conversation. These codes or linguistic alternatives have multidimensional work in specific continuum; it can be from the more marked to the more unmarked. The order may vary. Myers-Scotten said that these codes work alternately due to the language contact of two linguistic systems. As a result speakers acquaint the quality to interact in a community and use two language systems which depends upon the priority of the language use in specific context and these codes are socially accepted. Here the example of cost-benefit is very significant where the speakers use specific codes for their own benefits and these codes are socially accepted.

1.7 Rationale for Selecting Grice’s Maxims of Speech and Myers Scotton’s Markedness Model

Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory was emerged in 1984 in a critical and evaluative response to Grice Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975). Both of these theories share epistemological standpoint on the use of language from the perspectives of pragmatics in sociolinguistic milieu. I also feel the same need of establishing nexus between both of these perspectives in academic discourses produced in settings of academic discourse community. Therefore, to explore academic discourse in two settings i.e. classroom sessions and conference presentations of academic discourse community to bring forth an insightful contribution of the current study, the models of Myers Scotton and Grice are selected to discuss underpinnings of code-switching from the lens of pragmatics. Furthermore, as Grice’s cooperative principle deals language with the prism of pragmatic inquiry i.e. contextual use of language, code-switching is an important and unavoidable phenomenon in multilingual cultures like in Pakistan. This phenomenon is also observed as an integral discursive part of academic discourse like classroom sessions

and conference presentations. Keeping multifaceted nature of the phenomenon, this research aims at exploring the purposes related to the use of language in classrooms and conference presentations from inquisitive framework of pragmatics. And Gricean cooperative principle and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory offer robust ontological basis for inquiry of the problem dealt in the current study.

1.8 Delimitation of Study

Keeping in view the limited time and resources, this study is delimited to the following factors:

1. Postgraduate level covers multiple disciplines, so I delimited this study selected disciplines as mentioned in chapter three. As far as conferences are concerned, two international conferences on Linguistics and Literature were recorded and twenty male participants and twenty female presenters were selected randomly for this research. 2. This study focuses on the switching from English to Urdu and Urdu to English as observed that in classrooms and conference presentations, these two languages are used by instructors, students and presenters within the collected data. The term bilingualism is used with the understanding that it does not exclude multilingualism as Calwell & Mansoor (2005) stated that multilingualism cannot be segregated from bilingualism as these are used interchangeably in literature for the knowledge of two languages. He said that multilingualism is the magnified version of bilingualism and both can be used to analyze language through societal and individual perspectives. It is significant to mention that the term bilingualism here is used to refer to the use of two languages i.e. Urdu and English in academic discourse (classrooms and conference presentations). 3. Furthermore, this study is delimited to oral code-switching in academic discourse and written code-switching is not the part of the discussion. So the literature review extracted from different sources is comprised of oral code-switching specifically. 4. Grice (1976) put forward his cooperative principle which is covered by four maxims of quantity, quality, relevance and manner. Due to limited time this study 17

focuses on maxims of quantity, relevance and manner only. Maxim of quality is deals truth value i.e. speaker should make not provide false information and should not say what he/she believes false; it is difficult to evaluate whether someone is telling the truth or not and whether he/she has evidence of what he/she is saying. So, maxim of quality is not included in this study. Moreover, this work has no intention to criticize and compare the teaching and presentation styles of bilingual instructors and presenters i.e. one who code-switches or who do not code-switch in classrooms and presentations.

1.9 Significance of the Study

This study brought into light the utmost important areas of academic discourse i.e. use of language in classrooms at postgraduate level. Pakistan is a multilingual country where speakers use different regional languages while Urdu is national language of Pakistan and English is official language of Pakistan. In this scenario, medium of instruction in academia is the topic of great importance. Code-switching is observed as an important part of academic discourse. So this study is useful in elaborating the purposes of code- switching in academic discourse. Pragmatic inquiry is another feature of this research as I explored the relevance, quantity of information and perspicuousness in academic discourse (classrooms and conference presentations) through practical implication of Grician maxim of relevance, quantity and manner. I believe, this study will be beneficial for both academic discourse community and pragmaticians.

1.10 Chapter Breakdown/Thesis Disposition

This thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter provides the brief introduction to the study. The chapter two reviews the previous literature related to this research and explains theoretical and conceptual frameworks applied and investigated by the scholars previously. The literature review covers the concepts of bilingualism, Gricean maxims and code-switching. Third chapter describes the methodology selected to conduct this research and explain the theoretical framework foregrounding this research. Grice Cooperative principle (1976) and Myers-Scotten Markedness Model (1984) are used as theoretical frameworks and both research techniques; qualitative and

18 quantitative techniques are used to collect and analyze the data. Chapter four and chapter five deal with data and result interpretations. Chapter four deals with the purpose(s) of code-switching in academic discourse and effectiveness of Grice cooperative principle in determining the contextual relevance, the quantity of information and the perspicuousness of the languages used in academic discourse i.e. classrooms and conference presentations. Throughout the chapter four, contextual use of language in classrooms and conference presentations is elaborated with examples. Lastly, chapter five describes the conclusion. This chapter reexamines the research questions and relates it to the results of the study followed by the practical and pedagogical implications of this study. Finally, the summary of findings, the limitations of the study and recommendations are described briefly.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter literature review and conceptual framework are discussed in which I scrutinized relevant literature. It deals three main areas pragmatics, discourse analysis with relevant concepts of academic discourse and code-switching. Taking into account the importance of pragmatics, the purpose of pragmatic analysis, its importance, cooperative principle and its cognitive aspects brought into consideration. After that I reviewed relevant literature of bilingualism, its impact, categories and its use in classrooms. The aim of this study is to explore purposes of language used in academic discourse so a separate section is allocated to discourse which deals discourse, discourse analysis, discourse theory and arrangement of classroom discourse while code-switching, its factors, types, and purposes are discussed in separate section. 2.2 What is Pragmatics?

Biletzki (1996) pointed out two types of definitions of pragmatics; intentional and extensional. To elaborate his point of view, he presented the definitions of pragmatics given by different linguistics like pragmatics is the study of the relationship between sign and observer/interpreter (Morris,1938, p.84), it is the study of “indexical rules” to build a relationship between linguistic form and context (Bates, 1976, p. 3), it creates a relationship between language, its core ideas and its users (Martin, 1971, p. 138), pragmatic analysis develop a theory of relationship between “language structures” and its users(Apostle, 1971, p. 33), it is the scientific study of language use (Haberland and May, 1977, p. 1). On the other hand Anat Biletzki elaborated the examples of extensional point of view as Pragmatics is the study of presupposition, deixis, speech

acts, implicatures and various aspects of discourse analysis (Levinson, 1938, p. 27). In a natural discourse, the basic concern of pragmatics is presupposition, implicatures, illocutionary force and “cotext dependent acceptability” (Gazdar, 1977, p. 2).

Levinson (1983) said that the most recent term of Pragmatics inferable to Charles Morris (1938) as he was studying the relationships among semiotics, syntax and semantics. He related these three most distinctive branches of Linguistics to Pragmatics; as pragmatics is the study of language with specific reference to the interpreter and reveals different signs according to its use in specific context by the speaker. Morris noticed that different interjections, commands and different rhetorical devices are used under specific circumstances by the speakers. These matters are still under consideration by many linguists. He put forward his “Behavioristic theory of semiotic”; in this theory he described different integral forms of semiotics with its psychological, social and biological signs. Today these are specified as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. Carnap put forward his idea if the expressions and meanings of the speaker’s speech are analyzed; we are in the field of semantics and if the chain of expressions is analyzed then it will be syntactic analysis.

Different linguists have defined pragmatics in different ways. Haberland and Mey (1997) have defined it as Pragmatics is the science of language and it is the study of language in action. Yule (1996) said that Pragmatics is one of the integral branches of Linguistics which creates a link between linguistic forms and speakers of those forms. Pragmatics allows the researcher to analyze the implicit and intended meanings, the true and false assumptions of the speaker and hearer, objectives or goals of the speaker and presupposed true or false assumptions of the speaker and hearer. Sometimes it may be a quiet hectic task to analyze and evaluate the reality by keeping in view the sense and mind of the speaker and hearer.

Yule (1996) said that pragmatics is the study of meanings which is the integral part of communication and meanings are inferred by the speakers or writers and interpreted by the listener or reader. The basic concern of pragmatics is to analyze the utterances in specific context rather than utterances only. Yule stated that pragmatics is one of the most interesting level of language as it is helpful in exploring the unsaid which 21

is actually the part of speech or communication. The contextual study of language leads to the choice of language i.e. what is said and what is unsaid and why does the speaker leaves certain arguments for the listener to interpret. According to Yule, it depends upon the relative distance of speaker and the listener. This distance can be physical, social, psychological, or it may be shared experiences. So the distance manages how much ideas are said or unsaid during conversation. Language is a learned behavior and people usually follow almost the same and familiar expression during conversation as in Saudi Arabia People use the expression “All praise to Allah” rather than I am fine in response to the question how are you?(Yule, 1996)

Thomas (1995) informed that in 1980, linguists were concentrating on pragmatics as the study of meaning and meaning in context and these definitions are quite precise and meticulous but nowadays modern linguists are concentrating on the speakers meaning and the interpretation of speech. There are different levels of meanings by which one can explore different layers of meaning. He divided these three levels as abstract meaning, contextual meaning and force. Abstract meaning can be explored through dictionary or any other book of meaning, contextual meanings is a sense conferring process which is undertaken by the observer by keeping in view the whole situation while force is related to the speaker’s intention. In Pragmatic analysis, linguists move from abstract meaning to contextual meaning and then to force. All these three levels are related to the study of meanings of phrases, clauses and even whole sentences.

2.2.1 Pragmatics and Meaning

Khan and Bughio (2012) stated that in latter half of twentieth century pragmatics emerged as a significant branch with a hope that linguistic analysis will pace the steps beyond syntactic analysis because certain connotations and forms cannot be understood in the limited syntactic analysis of sentences. Thus new fields of study like socio linguistic, cognitive linguistic, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and functionalism have cropped up. All these new fields are reciprocal and interlinked and sometimes it is very difficult to discriminate one from the other because of the fact that they all have almost same denominator. Thus, this study deals with classroom discourse with the lens of pragmatics to explore the contextual use of language. 22

Archer, Aijmer and Wichmann (2012) added that in pragmatics, meanings include presumptions and inferences which can be extracted from its structural and literal meaning. For example, a single sentence “it is too hot here” can be a true statement/ statement of fact or it can be a request to open the window or open the fan. So a sentence constitutes two types of meaning, sentence meaning and speakers meaning.

2.2.2 The Functions of Language and Context

No doubt, language performs different functions. Halliday (1970) pointed out three main functions of language as ideational, interpersonal and textual. Ideational function specifies language as a tool to experience and interpret the world while the two later functions are related to the use of language. Interpersonal function is related to the study of language as a mode to express feelings, emotions and attitudes and its effect on the attitudes of the hearer. Textual function identifies the role of language in the construction of text and in building arguments.

Pragmatics opened new vistas to analyze the contextual use of language. The variation in the use of language depends upon the context. We use language to refer to different things depends upon whether we are in office or in home. The linguistic context has a limited approach because its main focus is the use of grammatical structures and it cannot explain the diversified and vast use of language. Pragmatics blessed new spirit to the limited approach by analyzing language with special reference to speaker, hearer and situation. Language is playing its role in shaping identity and clarifying the social role (Archer et al, 2012). So, this study also explores contextual use of language with specific reference to speaker, hearer and situation.

2.3 The Scope of Pragmatics Analysis

Bublitz & Norrick (2011) said that Pragmatics is closely related to the use of language in particular setting rather than to develop any theory or to analyze any data for specific research questions. Bublitz & Norrick (2011) discerned that it is the point of view of the researcher which ascertains or shape the reality rather than any other device. So the introspection and observation are the most important skills which a pargmatician should exhibit. Various archetype of pragmatics conferred diversity to arts, humanities, 23

philosophy, economics, psychology, education, and computer sciences. Bublitz & Norrick (2011) have presented three perspectives of pragmatics which are as follows.

2.3.1 Societal Perspective

The pragmatic analysis conducted by a pragmatician is quite different from linguistic analysis. The pragmatic analysis is connected to the background of the speaker as well and conversation is analyzed implicitly and explicitly. Societal pragmatics examines the social framework of a society which involve in the production and interpretation of speech sound. It depicts that language and social structures are interconnected and the depiction of social status/roles and identities are the heart of societal pragmatic analysis. Speakers try to maintain their status and identities through the ways they deliver messages. So this social dimension of pragmatics introduced it as a separate level of linguistics and most of the linguists recognized it different from semantics (Bublitz & Norrick, 2011).

2.3.2 The Configuration / the Compositional Perspective

Pragmatics in concerned with the analysis of language (spoken or written). Birner and Ward (2006) said that grammar (syntax) is one of the essential parts of pragmatic analysis and different levels of language like phonology, semantics, morphology, and discourse are considered as a part of formal and formal pragmatics. The compositional point of view is basically related to the internal form and construction of language and deals the context and the use of language in an explicit manner. So this compositional perspective is different from the societal perspective as in the compositional perspective tends to focus on the linguistic context and the physical components (speaker and hearer, time and place) are attached to the compositional perspective. The core areas associated to compositional perspective are deixis, reference, presupposition, speech acts, implicatures and discourse markers. So pragmatics differentiates and relates the implicit meanings to the linguistics/structural meaning.

2.3.3 The Relational Viewpoint

Although societal perspective and linguistic perspective have specific frame of investigation in their field as societal perspective explore the social context and issues as key concepts while linguistic perspective investigate the uses of language (linguistic context) and cognitive aspects in a specific context. The relational perspective investigates the relationship between societal and linguistic perspective as both are concerned with the utilization and expression of words in a particular context, venture to form a triangle of form, function and meaning.

The relational perspective examines the speech at two levels, micro level and macro level. At micro level sounds and morphemes are observed while at macro level a holistic orientation is analyzed by in depth study of language at phonological, morphological and syntactic level. The later level does not spotlight the object, it is closely associated with the connectedness of speech with its particular context and how does a speaker tune his speech accordingly. Archer et al (2012) argued that pragmatics is considered as one of the important aspect of linguistic communication including phonetics, semantics, syntax and lexicology.

2.4 Different Areas of Pragmatics

It is important to get an idea about text and context while doing pragmatic analysis. Text refers to both formal and informal conversation and discourse, interviews, articles etc while context maintains and build the structure of the text by implementing formal rules of linguistics, as identified by David Cryatal (1997). Alba Juez (2009) identified seven different components of text as cohesion, coherence, intertextuality, situationality, informativity, intentionality and acceptability. Cohesion and coherence are internal qualities of text while the rest are external qualities. Furthermore, coherence and cohesion are the part of text while the other five are the part of context. Both text and context are the part and parcel of pragmatic analysis and both play its role in the communicative part of an utterance. In terms of discourse text only provide the static sematic meaning of the utterance while context keep in view the people with their

25 specific background, individuality, belief, aims, situation, knowledge and social and cultural identity.

The intensive study of Pragmatics liable the linguists to analyze language pragmatically. Pragmatics covers speech act theory, conversational maxims, presupposition, discourse markers, deixis, politeness principle and different approaches towards language and its use.

2.4.1 Speech Acts

Tsohatzidis (1994) informed that language performs different functions during communication and during conversation these specific acts may be stating, abusing, warning, wishing, promising etc. These acts are labeled as speech acts. J.L Austin (1962, as cited in Searle, 1969) formulated his theory of speech acts and presented three kinds of speech acts: locutionary acts, illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. Austin notified that locutionary acts are certain noises of a particular language which carry meaning and have specific reference. Speaker’s intention plays a vital role in this regard which is displayed by the speaker’s use of language. Language is one of the important methods of intercommunication and it proves itself as the essential part of culture and society. It can be used to persuade, agree, obey, accept, reject, or cheer etc. These all aspects are discussed in perlocutionary act. Perlocutionary acts explore how multiple aims and objectives are achieved through the use of language and how does a language help us to create particular effects on the hearer. The component which are related to the perlocutionary acts are external to the locutionary act while the components which are related to the illocutionary acts are internal to the locutionary acts. Illocutionary acts are also known as illocutionary force and it is related to the social significance of the utterance. Searle (1969) suggested that there will be no communication or there will be communication gap if there is no illocutionary force. Allen identified illocutionary force at two levels; lexical level and grammatical level. The lexical level can be explained through the examples like “I promise you that I will come tomorrow” or “I warn you that I shall punish you”. Words like promise and warn are performative verbs and are usually used to transfer illocutionary force. Present, past and future participles are included in

26 grammatical category like “you go to school”, “you went to school” and “Did you go to school”. In these sentences “go” and “went” give the idea of time.

Moving towards cooperative principle, observance and non-observance of maxims of quantity, relevance and manner is quite ambiguous; when Grice says that speakers non-observe the maxim of relevance, it means that speakers speak but the utterances are not relevant which does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context and meaning, non-observance of maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as informative as required while there is no scale to measure information and it is quite relative, depends upon the hearers; how he/she perceives the given information and maxim of manner states that the speaker should be orderly and brief, should avoid obscure and ambiguous expression. In academic discourse, if the speakers non-observe Grician maxims, there will be no communication. This idea does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of relevance in contex. Hence, this study proposes a wayforward to resolve the issue through a model that describes academic discourses through direct and relative relevance.

2.4.2 Presupposition

Yule (1996) said that Presupposition is one of the important areas of study of pragmatics in which implicit supposition is delivered by the speaker and it is assumed that the hearer already has some idea about that implicit presumption. There are different types of presupposition like lexical, potential, factual, and structural. Potential presupposition is the assumption which is meaningful when it is used in specific context. Existential presupposition is present in possessive cases like your car, his book etc. In factual presupposition, information is treated as fact. For example “everybody knows that he is a thief”. Non factitive presupposition is not considered as a fact e.g. I dreamed that I was in heaven. In structural presupposition some structures are considered as true and relevant to the previous happenings like “when did he go to school?” In this example it is already assumed that someone went to school.

All these aspects of language mentioned above are part of discourse and important to analyze spoken discourses. This study apply conversational maxims on academic

27 discourse i.e. classroom lectures and conference presentation to explore observance and non-observance of language in academic discourse.

2.4.3 Conversational Maxims

Grice (1989) differentiated two types of conversational implicature: generalized and particularized. Generalized conversational implicature do not give importance to context while particularized conversational implicature give importance to context. Grice strived to draw a line between semantics and pragmatics by elaborating the concept of “saying” and “implicating”. He said that the basic concern of semantics is to find “what is said” and it is truth conditional content while pragmatic interests are more wide and explore “what is implicated” and it is non-truth conditional content. (Recanati: 2010) When speakers describe the truth conditions of arbitrary sentences, it is called the semantic level of language analysis and it is related to competence. It is assumed that the study merely at semantic level is not sufficient; there is a need of contextual based analysis. Grice emphasized that it is the intention of the speaker which manifests the meaning of utterance. The study of language with specific reference to the intention of the speakers is pragmatic competence; it is the ability to identify and explain the behavior of people by identifying and explaining their intentions (Recanati, 2010, pg.2). As far as understanding of conversation is concerned, Pfister (2009) said that the speaker should not misguide or confuse the hearer instead he should cooperate and guide the hearer. This presumption clearly explains Grice Cooperative principle.

2.5 Cooperative Principle

Paul Grice (1975) formulated his idea about conversation and presented cooperative principle. He stated that speaker should make his contribution such as is needed and should have specific purpose and direction to deliver the idea to the hearer. Grice idea is applicable to communicative events and conversation. In a natural conversation, speaker wants to deliver the idea. By participating in a conversation speaker may deliver a message whether he is agree, disagree, happy, sad, cooperative, disjoint or helpful etc. speakers implicitly endorse the meaning which he cannot say directly. Yule (1996) added that the essence of Cooperative principle is that the speaker

28 should be cooperative to deliver the idea to the hearer and the mutual cooperation will be helpful during conversation.

2.5.1 Maxims

Conversational maxims are also called the sub principles of cooperative theory. These are also stated as the contribution of the speaker during conversation which is required to communicate the specific idea. Grice elaborated his point of view and put forward four kinds of Maxims. i. The maxim of quantity

Yule (1996) elaborated the maxim of quantity as the information provided by the speaker should as much as required and speaker should not make his contribution more informative than desired or required. Grice (1967) explained it as the speaker should provide the required information to the hearer. It should not be so brief not to deliver the specific idea and it should not be extra or lengthy to distract the attention of the hearer. ii. The maxim of quality

The second maxim of quality covers the truth value during conversation. It restricts the speaker not to provide the untrue or fallacious information and he should not miscommunication or rather should not provide that information which lack sufficient evidence. Yule (1996) and Cruse (2000) have elaborated the idea of the maxim of quality as the speaker should try to make his contribution true and he should not deliver the idea which is deficit in adequate evidence. Cruse (2000) argued that the first idea run side by side with the second idea that the false statement will have inadequate evidence. iii. The maxim of relevance

The third maxim of relevance talks about the relevance of utterances with the context which is under consideration during conversation. It stresses that relevance is the vital part of the conversation which moves the conversation in specific direction. iv. The maxim of manner

Yule (1996) identified the fourth maxim of manner is related to speaker’s perspicuity. He should not use obscure and ambiguous expressions and he should be brief and orderly. Mooney (2004) said that maxim of manner concentrates on the order or organization and brevity. He suggested that the speaker should avoid obscurity in expression and fuzzy sentence construction during conversation.

Attardo (1993) said that sometimes these maxims of cooperative principle are not followed by the speakers in natural conversation on superficial level. This does not mean that the speaker is unaware of them. This flouting may be in action at deeper level. Greenall (2009) explained that the speakers willingly flout the maxims to convey more than what he said. So speaker infers the meanings though unsaid utterance. Grice (1989) argued that the listener infers meaning and in turn give response to the speaker in which speaker is more inclusive. This goal is achieved through conversational implicature. Cooperation is also followed in such assumption or supposition of the listener. So Kelink (2010) said that the implicit meanings are extracted by the speakers keeping in view the context, background, purpose, the type of relationship (between listener and speaker), encyclopedic etc.

Implicatures do not infer the contextual meaning always; sometimes a generalized idea is presented and this is termed as scalar implicature. In scalar implicature, conversation follows a specific scale and pattern such as to present quantity, different words like few, many, all, mostly often etc. Mooney (2004) told that the extensive uses of implicatures designate them as a part and parcel of communication. Implicature is not “what is said”; rather it is the part of what is communicated. Implcatures provide the opportunity to the listener to mere correct, review or reconsider the implicated utterance. Bach (1994) said that there are different points in conversation in which saying one thing may convey a different idea or meaning (intended meaning). It creates a specific pattern and develops the whole argument.

2.6 Explanation of Intended Meaning

Davies (2007) presented his view that many linguists, who worked on cooperative principle and conversational maxims, focus their views on the broader aspect of the

theory of implicature. By the same time, it has widened the scope of pragmatic analysis by analyzing, understanding and interpreting the speaker’s intended meaning and the hearers understanding of the intended meaning in a specific context. The traditional view of Grice is to explore the system of the perception of speakers implicit or possible meaning beyond the superficial and literal meaning and it is base of almost every pragmatic analysis. This does not mean that Grice is solely interested in hearer’s interpretation. Davies explained the cognitive philosophical approach to pragmatics with specific reference to Grice’s philosophy. He said that the basic concern of Grice is “saying and meaning” and Grice examined the speaker in a way that speaker knows that how to transfer the information implicitly and how speakers understand that the implicit meanings have been transferred to the hearer. In spite of the focus of Grice on speakers’ utterance, the observer may be unable to analyze the complexity, ambiguity and the specific purpose or perspective of the speaker.

Levinson (2006) said if we look at the individual level of communication, we found that speakers follow grammatical and cognitive interactional principle rather than interactional and sociocultural principle. Mooney (2004) identified the importance of “what is in the text” and what is the purpose of writing a specific text and how can reader interpret a specific text through Gricean maxims of conversation. Levinson (2000) pointed out different morphological, lexical and syntactic structures that the speaker used and in this research the main focus of Levinson was on generalized conversational implicature.

2.7 Cognitive Linguistics and Interpretation of Utterance

Cognitive linguistics opened the new vistas of pragmatic analysis by providing a cognitive interpretation of speaker’s utterance. Thus the cognitive analysis not only analyzes the utterance at structural level but on contextual level as well by applying particularized conversational implicature. Kleinke (2010) said that it is very advantageous and desirable because there is quite limited and selected work on linguistic and conceptual application of particularized conversational implicature.

2.7.1 Cognitive Interpretation and Conversational Maxim

Kleinke (2010) said that the cognitive approach to conversation and linguistic utterance gives more importance to the speaker. The production and reception (interpretation) of utterances are analyzed with specific connection to the cognitive abilities or potential and psychological phenomenon which depicts the general attitude of the speaker and hearer towards the world and its happenings in a specific context. Langacker (2000) pointed out the natural tendency and inborn capacity to different experiences such as emotions, taste, reactions towards colors, sense of time, focus of attention, direction of attention, or to design themes in terms of pictures. These all abilities vary from person to person. The variability of cognitive and psychological abilities allows the speaker to interpret and perceive the situation and utterance in specific context.

The subjective notion of “construal” is quite relevant to the utterance production in cognitive linguistics. Lagacker (1987) believes that every utterance is the result of construal relationship between speaker and the context or scene. The speaker builds specific situation content viewing different parameters such as scene or context, the specific position selected by the speaker in that context and the variation of the level of abstraction which the speaker uses to describe the whole situation or scene. Langacker (1987) emphasizes the active role of the speaker and active role play and turn taking during conversation. The speaker and hearer build the context and decide their position and at last establish a construal relationship between him and the scene.

No doubt, human cognitive or psychological abilities are used to explain different aspects of communication. Kleinke (2010) suggested that these abilities help them to hold the floor in different contexts, to build specific scenes, to focus and direct the attention of the hearer and to maintain the sense of comparison and association with the context and the hearer. These cognitive abilities are the explanation of the role of the speaker in production of utterances on broader level and the same concept is devised by Grice to explain the speaker’s intention with philosophical and logical pragmatic perspective.

Langackar (1987) said that encyclopedic knowledge is very helpful in production and interpretation of utterance. The encyclopedic background not only represents an individual but the whole speech community as well and may be presented as a cultural model and in that model speaker usually flout maxims to deliver his idea implicitly. Grice’s cooperative principle and theory of maxims may be portrayed as a cultural model from cognitive linguistic perspective.

Grice (1989) pointed out different linguistic structure to explain them as one of the important part of conversation like “to cut long story short” is an example of maxim of quantity, “I believe” is an example of maxim of quality, “by the way” is an example of maxim of manner and “then”, anyway” and however are the example of maxim of manner”. Grice believes that all these linguistic structures are the part of conversation and clarify the importance of cooperative principle and conversational maxims. Cooperative principle and conversational maxims are believed as a cultural model and quite helpful in understanding the implicit meanings in linguistic structures to elaborate pragmatic implication in everyday communication. Levinson (1983) said that if a speaker tries to violate or deviate from conversational maxims, still he follow cooperative principle.

Kleinke (2010) informed that cognitive elucidation deals speaker’s utterance at two levels; micro level and macro level. Micro level deals the single utterance and the speaker’s intention. This is related to general cognitive proposition. Macro level deals the relationship of that utterance with culture. This cognitive aspect helps to elucidate the cooperative principle and conversational maxims at broader level and stays in contact in western culture; provide a space to flout maxims in order to strengthen the idea that conversational maxims are the part and parcel of everyday communication.

2.7.2 Cognitive Elucidation of Gricean Theory of Maxims from Pragmatic Perspective

Different linguists have given different opinions on “saying and meaning”. The basic concern of Levinson (2000) is refinement of cooperative principle and maxims and he stick to the idea of speaker’s intention and speaker’s violation of maxims due to intended meanings. On the other hand Wilson and Sperber have elaborated their concept

33 from hearers’ perspective. They argued that inferential comprehension based upon the principle of relevance which is considered as a general principle of human cognition and cognitive linguistics and that cannot be violated by the speaker deliberately. But it is not considered as true in all contexts because it depends upon the speaker whether he adheres to the statement or not.

Kleinke (2010) identified three important development of Gricean conversational maxim and if we look at broader level, it is one of the most important additions in the field of pragmatics. First important factor is speaker’s point of view, second is association of cognitive process and the understanding of the utterance, third is the development of the concept of pragmatic marking (particularly for generalized conversational implicature).

2.8 Pragmatic Model of Linguistic

Levinson (1983) said that the analysis of speakers’ utterances is solely related to generalized conversational implicature. He presented the pragmatic model of linguistic politeness to elaborate his idea, in which he observed the face model of both; the hearer and the speaker and revised the theory of conversational maxims presented by Grice in 1975. He put forward the idea that speaker and hearer can be handled in generalized conversational implicature. So he rearranged the Gricean principle and concentrated on two maxims of Grice; maxim of quantity and maxim of manner. His views about speaker’s oriented imperatives are more detailed than the hearer’s perspective. He described the speaker’s choices on morphological, syntactic and lexical level and developed a wide variety of generalized conversational implicature. Thus one may assume that according to Levinson, speaker’s speech may be analyzed in term of different kinds of utterances during conversation.

2.9 Relevance Theory

Sperber and Wilson (1995) have identified the importance of cognitive processes and the capacities of hearers in understanding utterances. The theory of Relevance by Wilson and Sperber is one of the important arguments to bridge the gap between

34 cognitive approaches to language or conversation and pragmatics. They have rejected the idea of Gricean maxims and cooperative principle to achieve the required goal. So they replace the Cooperative Principle with Relevance Theory. Principle of Relevance is considered as universal psychological principle and it is quite devoid from cultural norms and expectations. Sperber and Wilson (1995) built the relationship between the contextual effects of an utterance and cognitive process. According to them, speaker has some previous knowledge which is saved in his mind. The speaker or hearer revises his old knowledge and draw new conclusions on the basis of his previous ideas or knowledge. Sperber and Wilson have included two different sub theories in their model. First is proto type theory which claims that frames and script are the part of speaker’s encyclopedic knowledge and also effect on the inferential system of the hearer. The second important aspect is context change according to the mind and mood of the hearer which is controlled by his mind and it is also called conceptual blending theory. So the main focus of Wilson and Sperber in Relevance theory is mostly confined to the hearer’s subjective experiences.

2.10 Pragmatic Marking

The concept of pragmatic marking is very important in the functioning of maxims as it deals the relationship between non default and default with prototypical behavior or prototypical utterance which is considered as a part of communication. In cognitive linguistics, it is believed that the speaker may have some prototypical behavior in his mind and psychologically, he tries to behave prototypically. The concept of “pragmatic marking” is introduced by Horn (1984) and afterwards used by Levinson to elaborate his idea of generalized conversational implicature. Levinson (2000) pointed out that pragmatic marking give the idea that common and every day utterances carry special meanings which go beyond to the superficial or apparent meanings. To explain his point of view, Levinson pointed out three heuristic functions which language performs. First point is what is not said may not be a part of utterance. Second point is if the speaker describes something, it is stereotypically exemplified. Third is the illogical statement is meaningless or does not deliver any idea. Levinson’s heuristics were limited to generalized conversational implicatures and some specific implicature only (maxims of

quantity and manner) while the most diverse aspect of linguistics like particularized conversational implicature and maxims of quality and relevance while later are more context bound. Greenall (2009) also second the idea of pragmatic marking and highlighted the new aspect of Gricean theory as theory of flouting and implicature. The main focus of Greenall was imposed thematic relevance and this type of relevance can be observed when uncommon, unfamiliar and unexpected element occurs in known and familiar environment.

2.11 Cognitive Aspects of Observance and Non-Observance of Maxims

Speakers observe and flout the maxims by using different strategies during conversation and these strategies may relate to cognitive or psychological strategies. In another way these strategies may be helpful in the construction of meaning in a specific context and represent the cultural and cognitive working of groups. Grice (1989) said that pragmatic literature usually focuses on the conventionalized cases and the use of figurative language like irony, metaphor, hyperbole and sometimes intensely/highly conventionalized speech acts are also included in pragmatic analysis. Grice explained this phenomenon with examples like “you are the cream of my coffee” and “nice girls love the sailors” (Grice, 1989, p. 34). Holtgraves (1998) identified different conversational maxims in every day speech.

A: What is your view about my presentation?

B: It is very difficult to give a good presentation. Mother: How were your marks in this semester?

Son: I don’t think teacher evaluates fairly.

Kleinke (2010) discussed the pragmatic literature from cognitive perspective. He collected his data from public internet discussion board BBC-TalK and the Wellington Corpus of New Zealand English. He argued that two cognitive aspects are very important as far as Maxims of quantity is concerned. First is categorization of entities and it can be important or less important for the speakers. Second concept is absorption or specifity. These two concepts are interlinked. He said that when we treat entities, we deal them at

36 two basic levels, subordinate and superordinate level. It depends upon the communicative needs. The basic level is directly related to the cognitive process of the hearer because it can be the direct information provided by the speaker. Kleinke (2010) explained that phenomenon with examples:

A: What pet do you have? B: Yes, I have a bird. This is straight forward information provided by the speaker and hearer can understand it easily.

A: What pet do you have? B: I have a blue crown hanging green parrot/ a rainbow lorikeet. In this example the speaker provide extra information as well and can evoke different questions cognitively in the mind of the hearer and it may provide a chance to the hearer to elaborate his point of view and experience while the former example provide direct information and pet can be dog, cat or rabbit. In subordinate level, speaker provides too less information and sometimes he deliberately doesn’t want to provide sufficient information. Cruse (2000) provided example to elaborate this phenomenon.

A: What will you eat in lunch?

B: Food.

In this example, speaker B do not want to provide the relevant/specific information so the speaker exploits or violates the maxim of quantity and this is called non observance of maxim of quantity. Cruse (2000) said that interpretation of the message is relative. If the speaker A says “he is tall”. The speaker B may assume that the person may have the height of six feet while the hearer C may assume that the person may have height of five feet and eight inches.

Kleinke (2010) said that the maxim of quantity may be related to three major aspects of cognitive processing. First is the sequence or the development of encyclopedic background information, metaphorical decoding or processing, and metonymic interpretation. Coherence and understanding of speaker’s idea depends upon speakers and

37 hearers encyclopedic background knowledge, ideas and beliefs. Sometimes speaker gives clear idea because he has correct estimate of the required data. Cruse (2000) elaborated the same idea with examples:

A: What will you eat in lunch today? B: Irish stew. A: How many books do you need now? B: twenty two. Cruse (2000) elaborated the idea of observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims by identifying the parameters of temperature, quantity, size, fraction and shape. The schema related to the mind of the speaker delivers the idea which may match to the schema of the hearer and in this way idea may be delivered from the speaker to the hearer. Sometimes the broad range of context may deliver a clear idea which is related to previous talk or issue which is understood by the hearer if he will be able to build the connection through his schema.

Maxim of quality is also related to the speaker’s and hearer’s encyclopedic background knowledge. Levinson (1983) said that flouting of maxim of quality usually occurs when there is a rift of understanding between the speaker and the hearer. Secondly he pointed out the difference of belief of the speaker and the hearer. In pragmatic literature this flouting is discussed with specific reference to the figure of speech i.e. irony, metaphor etc. Levinson (2000) believed that metaphor explains the cognitive working of the speakers. Kleinke (2010) observed that the violation of maxim of quality is due to the encyclopedic background knowledge of the speaker. When this background knowledge is arranged in larger chunks and when speaker utter his certain words. These words may be beyond the understanding of the hearer. So misunderstanding may be created because the hearer may be unable to understand the idea of the speaker. The theory of frame and scripts explained how knowledge is organized in the mind of the speaker. Shank and Abelson identified two major classes of knowledge; general knowledge and specific knowledge. Both types of knowledge are concerned to the everyday use of language in less or more standardized situations or context. Both general and specific knowledge is helpful in creating and understanding utterances. Fillmore

(1985, p. 223) identified it as particular frameworks of knowledge and schematization of observation and experience. Knowledge is encoded in brain by the words or through the observation and then decoded when the speaker speaks or use his previous experiences and observations. Kleinke (2010) explained the idea with different examples:

Daughter: who has bought these books? Mom: Dad bought these. Daughter: who has bought these books? Mom: Santa Claus. In these two examples, Kleinke (2010) explained that knowledge is already built in the mind of the speaker and mother may reply by utilizing the previous or encyclopedic knowledge of her daughter. In second example, it seems that speaker may not want to tell the actual buyer of the book.

A: How many books I can buy? B: A million. In this example the answer is not clear. There is exaggeration in it and the Speaker B used hyperbole. This may be misleading for the hearer A or it may simply indicate that the amount of books in not limited. Some devices like metaphor, irony, metonymy, hyperbole etc are used to violate the maxim of quality. Through the use of metaphors, speaker wants to send an implicit idea which is understood by the hearer. Although different metaphors are used in everyday life but goes unnoticed because these metaphors have become the part and parcel of regular communication. Kleinke (2010) pointed out different examples in everyday communication like “foot of the valley”, “head of the department” etc. The use of “fresh metaphors” is becoming a keen interest of pragmaticians. Kleinke (2010) elaborated this concept with examples:

A: Will you please tell me the mood of boss? B: The lion is roaring. What the speaker B said is not obviously true but these metaphorical expressions are used to deliver the implicit idea or this exaggerated expression is used to deliver the sense that the boss is in his worst mood. The understanding and interpretation of the metaphors in spoken language depends upon the encyclopedic background of the hearer. Lakoff 39

(2003) identified some domains in which human beings usually talk; these are age, gender, marital status, education, emotion, cultural and regional affiliation etc. Cohen (1979) discussed when speaker violates the maxim of quality; comprehension depends upon the level of formality and mutual understanding.

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which different words are used for specific things or concepts. The speaker selects the alternative words depending on his background knowledge and context. Kleinke (2010) explained the concept with an example like “the orange juice wants his coffee”. In this example the phrase “the orange juice” refers to the consumer of the orange juice which is expressed as the subject of the sentence.

No doubt, the maxim of relevance is one of the most important maxims discussed by Grice. Winson and Sperber said that it is one of the relevant maxims to analyze the cognitive perspective of the conversation. Grice (1989) said that the speaker hardly flout the maxim of relevance completely, it may happen when speaker completely shift or jump from one topic to another. Kleinke said that relevance depends upon the frame and the window of attention during conversation. Sometimes speaker switches from one topic to another due to certain reasons like he may not want to discuss the specific topic because he is no more interested in that or further discussion may create misunderstanding or ambiguity. Grice (1989) said that switching one topic to another is exception in everyday natural conversation. The speaker may switch from one topic to another because he may not want to discuss the issue further or do not want to poke in politically sensitive topic. He explained the idea with an example.

A: Mrs. Y is an old bag. B: Weather is quite good today. Isn’t it? In flouting of maxim of relevance domain plays a very important part. Langacker (1987) said that a single word may represent different domains like flower can be a thing for gardening, a type of plant, an object for decoration, flowers as present, flower shop or as graphic patterns. By considering the meaning of words and their use according to context shows that in certain context some themes are highlighted through the use of different words while other goes to background because these are less highlighted. 40

The maxim of manner suppose to perform a major function as Grice (1898) said that maxim of manner is not related to what is said; it is related to how it is said. Every person select words during conversation and these stylistic variations depict the style of man. Grice identified maxim of manner as a generator of implicature as open to questions. Violation to maxim of manner is obvious and it is hard to estimate whether this violation is intentionally created by the speaker or it is unintentional.

2.12 Indirectness and Gricean Maxims

Brumark (2006) suggested that the concept of indirectness and the cooperative principle of Grice are two interrelated concepts. Since last two decades the concept of the regularity and universality is under consideration by many linguists. They are concentrating on the situational and socio cultural aspects of the uses of indirectness in daily conversation. Brown and Levinson said that indirectness is related to power and proximity (distance) between addresser and addressee. The indirectness may be related to gender or inequality between male and female. Brown and Levinson (1987) said that the popular presumption that women are more indirect than man is not proved empirically. However Blum-Kulka (1990) researched on indirectness in family and said when women talk to children they are more polite and use syntactically indirect expression than men. Grice (1898) said that indirectness elaborate the concept of non observance of maxims as it requests someone that one should be brief, to the point, relevant, informative and clear during conversation. Rundquists (1992) study on parents (spouses) and kid’s conversation gave the idea that men flout the maxims more frequently than women during family discourse. Men have some special reasons for flouting the maxims like they want to show humorous attitude to the children, show off or to give sarcastic or ironic comments to create a good family environment.

Indirectness is usually perceived as variation in meanings of utterance in a specific situation. Blum-Kulka (1990) explained the concept of indirectness that indirectness arises when speaker’s utterance and sentence meaning can be interpreted in various ways by hearers. So there can be a difference in meaning of not only of speakers, hearers can also be explained from this perspective. He suggested that sometimes what the speaker speaks carries some more meanings than the speaker delivers or says. Such 41 utterances generally cause less or no harm to the hearer as these are not direct and pointed. During conversation when speaker speaks (locutionary act), they sometimes add extra or supplementary illocutionary force to deliver the message. Searle (1969) explained that with an example, “Can you pass me the salt please?” If the salt is available to the addressee or he may pass that, there is no need to question the salt passing ability of the addressee.

Sometimes, meanings are not easy to understand and especially, if one is not the part of conversation or context. Brown and Levinson (1987) have explained that with an example, the child is leaning over the table and father says “you look so cute while sit like that”. In this case the utterance carries semantic indirectness and difficult to understand even by an experienced addressee.

Grice (1975) explained the concept how we can explain and understand the indirect and implicit meanings of conversation. He assumes that people remain very cooperative during conversation. This concept is stated in his Cooperative principle. He explained the concept through his four maxims: of quantity, quality, relevance and manner. These maxims are related to production and interpretation of message. Whenever, speaker remains unsuccessful in observing any one or more maxims, the listener may still interpret the message and can infer the implied or implicit meanings through the situation or context. Grice (1975) named it as conversational implicature.

Indirectness and implication are becoming the part and parcel in every day conversation and one may not denounce the fact. Thomas (1998) stated that there are certain reasons of indirectness and implication such as desire to show one’s language more or less interesting, politeness and to enhance the force and effects of the message. Brumark (2006) explained the first reason as it is used to imply meaning is natural discourse to avoid redundancy by less or no repetition of information which comes across through information, similar background knowledge and contextual clues. If someone is too implicit or too explicit, there is a possibility of violation of maxims of quantity and manner. Brumark (2006) said that the in some contexts explicit utterances may spoil the purpose of utterance. He explained the idea with a famous Swedish joke as one person asked from the second person “would you like to go to woodshed with me?” The second 42

person replied “No, I have to drive the car” It seems interesting and funny rather to say explicitly to drink wine in woodshed. So some jokes are socio-cultural as they are only understood by the people associated with that particular culture.

There are some cases in which speakers pretend that there is no mutual understanding between speaker and listener. For example “A” asks from “B” “How was the school yesterday” and B replied OK. There is probability that speaker may want to report what happened in school and this may not be clear to the hearer. For the hearer B, this question may not be significant or sincere. The minimal response from B shows the mistrust of B about the motif of the question. This may be regarded as the violation of quantity.

The deviances from maxims are not always based upon the difference of background knowledge and lack of mutual understanding of addresser and addressee. Thomas (1998) said that in both; formal and informal communication, social issues are involved. For example in family discourse, this can be due to something internal forces of society. He pointed out three main points to avoid from ambiguity during conversation. Firstly, you should not impose. Secondly, you should give options. Thirdly, you should be friendly with others. By acting upon these principles, interlocutors are able to avoid imposing utterances or reduce them through indirectness by changing the syntax or by using synonyms or alternatives of words.

According to Brown and Levinson (1987), there are different activities which can be helpful in avoiding directness which may be called as “face-threatening act”. The implied meanings carried by the speech is related to illocutionary and perlocutionary force. For example, requests carry emphasis on certain point and utterances are constructed both syntactically and semantically. The contextual and social factors depict the role of addressor and addressee.

There are different uses of indirectness and implication. Thomas (1995) said that the indirect utterances and implications are very useful to enhance and affect the force of the utterance. Jenkins (1985) pointed out that indirect and implicit utterances sometimes evoke the elements of irony and humor. It may use to point out the shortcomings of the

43 people or just to cheer up the conversation according to the context. The irony and jokes which are used implicitly are based on culture and society in that particular context. Specific type of jokes and humor are understood in that specific society. So humor in implicit utterances is culture oriented. Indirect speech and implicit language are used to strengthen the bond between sub groups. This practice is very common among young people.

2.13 Language Contact

Language contact is considered as a peripheral area of Linguistics. It is sometimes glanced as linguistic though and sometimes considered as anecdotal or marginal. The concept of language contact is prevailing in the field of linguistics and giving the scientific qualities to it. Argente and Payrató (2010) have declared three major aspects of language contact studies. First is diachronic study of language. Second is structural point of view and third is sociolinguistic point of view. The concept of structuralism was dominant in the first half of 20th century. After that sociolinguistic got its place. Weinreich (1953) drew the line between the concepts on structuralism and sociolinguistic. He said that language contact starts from a structural account and it got hold in sociocultural background of contact. In the same time period, anthropological linguistic emerged in USA which is considered as the result of ethnography of communication. Psycholinguistics emerged in Europe. At that time the main concern of psycholinguistic was bilingualism and code-switching and was nearly mid twenties of this century. After the development of psycholinguistic, many linguists relate it with the recent growth of neuron linguistic.

2.14 Language Contact and Pragmatics

Argente and Payrato (2010) said that during the last ten decades, pragmatics was not considered as a significant tool to analyze code-switching, bilingualism, multilingualism and eventually language contact. They believed that code-switching is very fruitful in viewing language problems and the contextual use of language. They identified the use of pragmatics at three levels. First level is macro sociolinguistic action of language maintenance and shift. Second level is the exposure and emergence of

44 contact varieties with reference to specific social groups (like L2 varieties, pidgins or creoles). Third is micro sociolinguistic process of interaction or communication in which specific language choices are dominant like code-switching. Argente and Payrato (2010) believed that in this way pragmatics is very helpful in opening the new vistas for the language study, the analysis of linguistic facts and the views, attitudes and values of the speakers. This concept is related to micro socio linguistic processes which leads to macro socio linguistic processes in response to speaker’s choice of language and attitude towards specific language. Like language choice and code-switching shows the use of one language more than the other and this action leads to language shift from the minimal use of one language to the maximal use of the other. This idea was also observed by Verschuren (1987). He concentrated on micro linguistic level and found that it is the constant result of the communicative or interactive activity and based on language choice in code-switching. Argente and Payrato (2010) said that pragmatics aspects and perspectives are very significant in analyzing language contact. It includes many factors of language like its origin of language, uses of language, bilingualism, multilingualism.

2.15 Linguistic Interference Process and Pragmatics

Traditionally, the concept of code-switching and code mixing are included in linguistic interference. Kleinke (2010) said that linguistic interference is a continuous process of language change and in this process different foreign elements become the part of a particular language. These foreign elements become the part of that particular language which is used by the speakers. The reason behind the use of that particular element can be the knowledge of the foreign linguistic items and the linguistic competence of the particular linguistic elements. Sometimes these linguistic items are mixed randomly to create meaningful sentences and produce a logical conversation. Argente and Payrato (2010) believed that interference give strength to language as it plays a vital role in explicitness, functionality and the use of wide resources in the production and understanding of language. Weinreich (1953) said that interference is such a vast field that it scarcely obeys any one rule. In this regard, it can be one of the ideal filed for the pragmatic analysis as it logically deals the social and cognitive elements of language. Interference may be observed as an individual interference or

45 interference in social code used by speakers in a community. He arranged three different factors to depict the use of interference. First is sociocultural values and background of languages. Second is the quality and capacity of the speakers to keep two different traits of languages and the attitudes of speakers towards these languages. Third is the contextual use of languages and the relationship between interlocutors.

Inference starts with borrowing different lexical items and it is usually perceived as language maintenance process and accepted by the people who show resistance to adapt new vocabulary item or language shift. As a result, this code-switching or inference moves from dominant to recessive language. Argente and Payrato (2010) pointed out different functions of inference or code-switching. Inference or code-switching facilitates learning. It can be the cause of the emergence of new language variety. They believed that code-switching is more significant than code borrowing as code borrowing restricts the use of new words for the specific period of time and it does not facilitate the learning of new language.

2.16 Code-Switching as an Adaptive Strategy in Pragmatic Context

Argente and Payrato (2010) said that code-switching is one of the effective tools to convey social meaning and it is a strategy or rhetorical device used in the construction of discourse. The mingling of two languages is automatic, sometimes unintentional and structurally accepted mechanism.

2.16.1 Uses of Language in Classroom

There are various points of views and approaches to language use in classrooms. Grammar translation method of teaching was first introduced in 1783. The proponents of this method were agreed on the limited use of L1. The grammar translation method promoted the use of L1 in classrooms and emphasized that the instructions should be given in L1. The Reform movement and Palmer have voiced the neutral views. The matter of the use of language in classrooms is under consideration by many linguists and it is rather a bone of contention since last two centuries. In this regard the idea of the use of L1 in classrooms cannot be neglected. Cook (2001) said that the use of L1 in classrooms introduced by the proponents of the direct method and talked about the use of 46

L2 in classrooms nearly at the end of the nineteenth century. They raised the question regarding the use of language in classroom i.e. which language should be used in classrooms? and Which language can be beneficial for the learners? This study tries to explore students’ point of view regarding use of language in classrooms.

Turnball (2001) said that previously many linguists advocated the use of the target language but now linguists are in favor of the use of L1 in classrooms. They even believe that the use of L1 is helpful in learning second language. Corder (1983) provided a different point of view and said that learners have already a language system in their minds as they have learned L1 and when the instructor use L2 in classroom, L1 help them to process L2. Heller (1988) researched on bilinguals in French speaking Canadian. She said if you are teaching in ESL classroom to minority learners at the expense of their mother language or first language (L1), you are doing linguistic genocide.

Sridhar (1988) said that the use of more than two languages does not disturb the system of languages. So in bilinguals, each system of language rather supports the other system of language. Learners learn the language according to his need. Macswan (1999) said that the way of instructions play a vital role in understanding the point of view of the instructor. The use of L1 in English learning classroom helps the students to improve their competence in L2. Nunan and Lamb (1996) said that in most of the institutes instructors avoid to use L1 and prohibit the use of L1 for the learners as well which is practically not possible. Dornneyi and Kormos (1998) said that learners use L1 in classroom to compensate their competence and deficiency in L2 or target language. Auer (1995) highlighted the positive impact of L1 in classroom. He identified different uses of L1 in classroom. L1 may use for classroom management, to analyze language, elaborating rules, to discuss inter and intra cultural issues, to give instructions, to explain errors and to check comprehension. Skutnab-Kangas (2000) said that bilingualism has positive impact on students’ language skills and educational development. He believed if children develop their language proficiency in more than one language in very early stage or primary level, they get high proficiency in language understanding as how to use it effectively. Schweers and Hudders (2000) researched in Spanish classrooms to observe the use of two languages by the teachers and students. The results demonstrate that

Spanish should be used with English language. He negated the idea that bilingualism confuses the learners. He rather supported the idea that bilingualism enhances and support cognitive flexibility.

In Pakistan, situation is quite different. It was declared in Pakistani constitution that Urdu will be used as a medium of instruction and will be taught as a compulsory subject till class 12. As far as higher education is concerned, English will be used till that time Urdu material will be developed. Urdu should be opted on priority basis and English should be taught or used as a foreign or second language. Rahman (2002) suggested the language choices in classrooms that English should not be used as a medium of instruction in classrooms and even it should not be taught as a compulsory subject in classrooms. The same suggestion is proposed by UNESCO (1997) that one of the core causes of poor academic record of minority group is the difference of languages of homes in educational institute. Srivastav (1990) second the idea that education should be introduced to children in their mother language. He supported the literacy model for minority children in India. He advocated the idea that curriculum should be introduced in mother language. When the learners got the fundamental skills then curriculum should be transferred to the formal language of literacy. Rahman (2002) argued that only one educational policy should be introduced and all the learners should face the same method of teaching. In Pakistan, two streams (public and private sectors) are working right now. These two streams are working in entirely opposite directions. The private educational systems are following totally English medium systems while the educational policy of public sector is ambiguous. They do not know which system should they opt? Although English is taught as a compulsory subject but the status of English is not clear or finalized by the relevant authorities. In private schools, English is used as a medium of instruction for the sake of learning English as a second language while in public sector schools, it is merely taught as a compulsory subject. Rehman (2002) said that equal opportunities should be provided in both streams of literacy.

Philipson (1996) criticized the monolingual education system which was introduced at primary and secondary school level in earlier British colonies. He viewed that the use of only one language is the basic cause of avoiding and ignoring local

languages. Johanson (2002) identified monolingual fallacy that the speakers start using two languages. The speakers become bilingual and do more and more code-switching. They even replace their first language (L1) with their second language (L2). Even they start using L2 in their daily routine where they used to use their first language. At last L1 is replaced by L2.

Bourne (2001) said that learner’s minority group usually uses their first language covertly to complete their educational tasks in classrooms. They usually explain and share educational ideas in their own language (L1). School administration should embrace which is taking place naturally. This is one of the major causes of language and identity in Pakistani context. Rules should be provided in education policy regarding the use of language in private and public sectors educational institutes. There should be proper maintenance of ethnolinguistic identity in educational policy of Pakistan as it is maintained in other developed countries. It is said when official language is specified in certain culture or community in a particular place that can be a cause of partial or complete alienation from home environment or from education system. Qadir (1996) said when different languages are used in homes and classrooms or offices, two streams of consciousness are created and it is the main cause of the creation of two classes in society. The dominant classes estrange and they marginalized the subordinate class. So that is the cause of stratification as well.

In Pakistan majority of the learners are bilingual and educational policy of Pakistan is not clear as far as the use of language is concerned. Keeping in view the present situation of Pakistan, this research was conducted to explore the purposes of using Urdu and English in Pakistani classrooms from students’ perspective.

2.17 Discourse

The word discourse, according to Encarta Dictionary originated from Latin word “discursus” and its meaning is moving “to and from”. It is related to written and oral communication. Different linguists have defined the term discourse in different ways, some linguists emphasize on its written value while the others argued on its spoken value. In this way, discourse has very wide scope in all the spheres of human life. Crystal (1997)

elaborated the term as the extension of oral speech which is higher than the level of a sentence and it sometimes carries a meaningful and coherent speech like sermon, story or joke. De Beaugrande (1981) evaluated seven different qualities of written and spoken discourse. First is cohesion which is mainly related to the sentence structure that sentence structure should be appropriate to deliver the complete sense. Second is coherence which is related to the logical order of the conversation or speech. It is also known as the top down organization of the text or speech or the logical scheme of communication. Third is intentionality, means message should be delivered intentionally or deliberately. Fourth quality is acceptability; the message should be delivered to the audience and the information should be accepted satisfactorily to the hearers. Fifth quality is informativeness; means some new information should be transferred to the audience so they feel some interest in it. Sixth is situationality; the utterance or speech should be according to the situation or context. Irrelevant speech will not adhere to the mind of the listeners. Seventh is intertextuality which refers to the context or the outside world of the text.

2.17.1 Supremacy of Speech over Writing

Crystal (1997) said that spoken language as one of the significant source of transmitting message and prefers spoken language over written language. Sapir favored that language is auditory and these auditory symbols evoke our responses. On the other hand Bloomfield said that writing is not language in true sense. It is just a way to preserve the spoken language or it is a way to keep the record or audible symbols.

2.17.2 Planned or unplanned discourse

Lindley (2016) said that discourse whether it is spoken or written can be planned (formal) or unplanned (informal). As far as spoken discourse is concerned Chafe identified two types of discourses formal spoken discourse and informal spoken discourse. He elaborated the concept with examples like family dinner table conversation is informal spoken discourse while classroom or academic interaction is formal spoken discourse.

2.18 Discourse Theory

Most of the researchers were interested in division of classroom events and the development of discourse model and theories but this research tried to investigate different issues related to the participant’s interaction in classroom. The main focus is contextual study of academic discourse. For this purpose I recorded classroom sessions viewing two perspectives, emic perspective and etic perspective. Emic perspective is related to the meanings and view point of the participants in the classroom while etic perspective is the study of external, social and psychological perspective of interaction (Buckley, Chapman, Clegg & Gajewska-De Mattos, 2014).

Graham and Beardsley (1986) said that during 60s to 70s, the oral communication was under consideration by many researchers and it was under the strong influence of the branch of language research theory and it is also called as discourse theory. In linguistics, the basic concern of discourse theory was spoken language which is generally above the level of the sentence and particularly related to interaction and verbal exchanges. Mackay (2003) said that in sociolinguistics, discourse reefers to oral communication and the order of utterances between speakers and listeners. Gee (1999) discussed different aspects of communication like the context, contextual use of language, social identity and social relationships. He distinguished different types of discourse with “D” and “d” like “D” refers to the use of language by a member of society in different contexts while “d” refers to written, spoken or signed language or it can be any extension of language to deliver any idea or sense. Gee delivered the idea that meanings are always context dependent and the participants use language in a specific context which depends upon their experiences and perceptions. As Halliday (1985) and Van Lier (1988) said that language use in classrooms depends upon the situation and culture.

Gumperz (1970) considered the students as member of specific communities who have particular social roles and they use language to achieve self-identification and to fulfill their needs. Gee (1996) said that classroom discourse refers to the use of language by specific people in particular classroom that have specific customs, beliefs, and values and they socially harmonize their attitudes during interaction according to the context. So it can be concluded that discourse is more than the knowledge of language. Gutierrez 51

(1993) said the instructors who are teaching the students of different backgrounds should know more than the language of instruction. Because of linguistic diversity learners may belong to different ethnic background and they use different languages. So instructor should use that ways for communication which are feasible for the students or classroom discourse community. These suggestions are applicable in Pakistani education system. Although there are some researchers who have worked on classroom discourse but there is hardly any research which highlights the use of two languages in classrooms and the purpose of the use of these two languages. Considering all the aspects of the uses of language in classrooms, I tried to explore the observance or violation of Gricean maxims in classroom and academic discourse. There are many issues related to language policy in our country and it is very difficult to build and sustain a relationship between social discourse and classroom discourse. As academicians and students use different languages in classrooms and in their homes. If both (academicians and students) have to use English language in classroom, there should be proper exposure to native English language. Gee (1989) suggested that the goal of native English language exposure can be achieved by making them (students) familiar with the native customs and traditions. The instructor should introduce different techniques like role play in English language, use of authentic material (newspapers), watching English dramas etc. These activities may create a bridge between social discourse and academic discourse. Talat (2000) stated that the educationist in Pakistan do not allow proficiency in English like native speakers.

In the following section, I explain that there are many interactional patterns. Moreover there are many issues regarding interactional behavior of the instructors and the learners in bilingual classrooms discourse. After reviewing the vast scope of discourse theory, I elaborate the major concept of classroom organization and different speech patterns in classroom discourse.

2.19 The Arrangement of Classroom Discourse

The classroom discourse provides an opportunity to get the idea about social and cultural aspects. Discourse help to build the relationship between the contributors in the classroom and their ways of experiencing and performing. The notion of discourse or classroom discourse is considered to be closely connected to the social and cultural 52

practices that identify social and cultural differences. So there is a close relationship between the different theories and ideas of discourse and social realities which are applied in specific contexts or classrooms for interaction. This research brings into consideration different discourse patterns and multiethnic participants in classrooms. Potter (1996) elaborated the view point of classroom discourse is a set of interaction in the form of actions and interactions in a particular context in which individuals have their own social practices which effect the construction of meaning. So the construction of meaning in a specific context can be personal or social. Communicative practices in classroom discourse are associated to the production and extraction on meaning in a specific context that is associated to the society and culture of the interactants. Participants opt the strategy of sharing meanings and their shared knowledge helps them in understanding meanings. Potter (1996:96) said if a researcher want to analyze classroom discourse, it is necessary to concentrate on the social practices and the researcher should have idea about “actions and intentions” of the interactants and in this way interactants are not only act as students and teachers but also as a part of certain social groups. So classroom discourse may be explained by keeping an account of many other discourses simultaneously.

Halliday (1978) presented his model and said that language and social actions in a particular situation should be taken as a whole. Language structures determine social structures in a society. Academic discourse is quite different from other kind of social discourse or social interaction.

Sinclair and Brazil (1982) said that there are different ranks in classroom interaction. This rank consists of “lesson”, “transaction”, “exchange”, “move” and “act”. They have defined it as “teaching exchange” which has three different phases, an initiative move, a responding move and a follow up move. Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) said that in classroom interaction (between teacher and a student), this sequence is quite significant. They observed that after responding move, there is follow up move which is feedback from teacher’s side and it is also called evaluation to check students understanding. The feedback move is very important because if reflects students understanding and clarifies the relevant knowledge in lecture. Wells (1998) said that I-R-

F or I-R-E sequence is very important in classroom interaction. This organization model opened the vistas for more ideas as Mehan (1979) argued that students should have some liberty to express their choice (yes or no) and they should have opportunity to express their ideas. Edwards (1976) said that in Sinclair and Coultahrd work, the students play the role of passive respondents. Some researchers (Hammersely, 1990 & Mehan, 1979) have brought the more advanced form of classroom interaction by modifying the role of the students as active participants. Mehan (1982) explored different routines of these interactional phases of these three moves. Van Lier (1998) identified various types of classroom interaction. First type is when teacher does small talk or some private talk and he/she does not control and topic or activity. Second type is when teacher makes an announcement, gives instruction or delivers a lecture and teachers controls topic but does not continues any activity. Third type is when teacher elaborate his point of view with examples and he/she controls both subject matter and activity or subject exercises. Forth type is when students do their activities independently and teacher controls the activity not lecture. Van Lier (1988) paid close attention to Halliday’s (1975) three functions of classroom discourse. Ideational function refers to explanation of the facts, ideas and experiences. Interpersonal faction refers to the use of language which maintains the relationship among people. Textual function refers to clarify, summarize, signal connections and boundaries etc. Little (1990) said that in natural classroom discourse, the interaction between teachers and students are distorted due to teachers’ dominance in classroom environment. Riley said that there should be fluid role in classroom interaction which can be maintained through equal participation in communicating and understanding meanings. Mukhopadhyay and Parhar (2001) called the present lecturing style a ‘tragedy’. He favored active participation of the students and in this way the teacher can monitor student’s comprehension in particular subject. Although Flanders named it as ‘tragedy’ but traditional teaching style is followed by Pakistani teachers in classrooms. Goldenberg (1991) said that in classrooms, teachers usually ask closed ended questions like “what is the capital city of Canada” and they usually avoid open ended questions like “what are your views on quality of television”. Furthermore Goldenberg (1991) said that this kind of method is common in American schools but the instructors

are more frequently using this method of teaching to low income minority children. In Pakistani context, teachers are still following the old traditional techniques of teaching where teacher is dominant in classrooms, instructs the students and delivers the particular information and students usually listen, answer the questions. It is usually assumed that teachers have to deliver the lectures and students have to listen that. In this situation, the interaction in the form of dialogue is very difficult to build and unfortunately, in this situation, there is less participation of students. Martin-Jones (1998) researched on classroom discourse and found that in classroom interactions, between teachers and students exchange their ideas and vocabulary in a regular intricate routinized way. They try to understand each other’s vocabulary and contribution to the interaction. Mehan (1982) believed that mutual synchronization of behavior and performance is still lacking in this interaction. Paulus (1999) analyzed students and teachers interaction in classrooms, stated that the main problem in classrooms are question as too many questions are asked by the teachers which are usually unmodified and time is not sufficient for the appropriate answers. Gulzar (2009) said that teachers in bilingual classrooms used open ended questions to increase their cognitive power or to exercise authority. During the lecture, teachers usually maintain the discipline in classrooms which maintains limited discussion on certain topic. Because of this, the lecture based methods are not recommended. On the other hand, another drawback of this controlled academic discourse is that it lessens students’ cognitive working and provokes cramming. Gulzar (2009) observed that during classroom interaction, teachers’ contribution in interaction is almost double from students’ utterances. Benson (2004) said that the limited contribution of the students is hindrance in improving student’s language skills and confidence. As far as text books are concerned, Qadir (1996) viewed that in Pakistan students usually concentrate on text books or the notes given by the teachers. If someone asks any conceptual question, students usually start pondering on them and try to recapitulate the answers. The text book or notes memorization is emphasized by the teachers. This situation demands attention. Edward (1994) said that in teachers dominated classrooms, the students have less liberty to introduce their ideas. The overall environment of the class remained under control of the teachers.

Cormack, Wignell and Nicholas (1998) stated that some researchers have focused on students’ attitude and attention in teachers directed or teachers dominated classrooms. Brock and Birgit (1998) said that in different classrooms, learners may belong to different cultures and they speak different languages. In this situation the majority of the learners complied with teacher’s point of view. Brooker et al (2005) have commented on the relationship between task and talk. They said that students usually share their knowledge and experiences with the other students who have same beliefs, culture, ethnic background and gender. This mutual understanding also affects students’ interests in any task. On the other hand, Alvermann (1990) observed that sometimes teachers task based work pressurize the students and prohibit the students to utilize their effectual learning strategies. He believed that there is a need of in depth studies of all these issues of classroom. There are many assumptions in this respect and there is a need to explore and resolve different issues in academic discourse. The next section reveals different issues related to code-switching in academic discourse. For this purpose, I have discussed different theories, different issues and different point of views of theorists, linguists and academicians. The detailed review of literature on code-switching will be helpful for me to understand the purpose of code- switching in academic discourse. 2.20 Code- Switching Code-switching occurs when languages come into contact with each other in bilingual or multilingual communities. Code-switching is an important aspect of pragmatic and cognitive analysis. Different researchers have identified and discussed code-switching in different ways. Gumperz (1970) defined code-switching as it is the juxtaposition of two languages in a specific speech event having two different grammatical systems. Ferguson (2016) said that code-switching is one of the important features of bilinguals who alternate between two languages in a linguistic repertoire. Gardener-chloros (2009) and Gardener (2009) identified code-switching is a process in which speaker simply move from one language to another and it is quite different from “language choice” because in “language choice”, one code is selected according to the situation, sociolinguistic context and circumstances. Gardener-Chloros (2009) argued that the conceptual literature on code-switching has been increasing since last thirty years. He

56 identified three core areas in the study of language and research. First is sociolinguistic and ethnographic study of bilingual speech where code-switching is one of the integral parts. Second is pragmatic or discourse analysis where meanings are tied to the speech events and choice of language. Third is grammatical analysis of bilingual speech where sentence structure matters a lot and emphasize on how languages are combined to construct meaning.

Gardener-chloros (2009, p 10) recognized three essential basics of research. Researcher should focus his studies on sociolinguistic and ethnographic studies where code-switching is obvious. The techniques of pragmatic of conversation analysis should be used in which choice of words or the sequence of language depends upon the context.

2.20.1 Development of Code-Switching

The sociolinguistic study shows that three major events have caused a significant impact on the uses of language and speech community. The first of these are Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). In this war many Spanish speakers escaped to British territory as refugees. This served to restrict the use of Spanish as a medium of communication and instruction and paradoxically this effect their attitudes as this led to distrust Spanish state. The second event is shifting of women and children to Gibraltor

In past, the use of two linguistic codes was not under consideration by most of the linguists. The importance of code-switching is increasing day by day whether it is teacher cantered class rooms or learner centered classroom. Martin-Jones (1995) researched on this phenomenon and explored that code-switching plays a vital role in teaching and learning process and teacher-student interaction. The use of two languages in bilingual class show the cultural background and values of the learners and the learners who have same cultural background try to use same language. Teachers and learners usually do code-switching to establish the idea of different types of discourse, to share the shred experiences to communicate the specific idea.

Jacobson (1990) is considered as a pioneer in the study of code-switching variation. His studies focused on English migrants in San Antonio, Texas. He designed a spectrum which shows different “modes” and ranges from Spanish dominant to English

dominant. The change was symmetrical and gradual. He correlated these two different “modes” with age, sex and gender. Backus (1992) studied three generations of Turkish- Dutch bilinguals in the Netherlands. He found that first generations mostly utilized only NPs during conversation. In comparison, the youngest generation mostly do inter and intra sentential code-switching. The youngest generation even constitutes the Dutch matrix language (as used by Myers-Scotton, 1993) in their Turkish constituent with almost the same proportion as Turkish was made the matrix language in Dutch syllabus/constituent. Jacobson (1990) and Backus (1992) research proved that bilingualism is one of the significant factor in developing the factor of code-switching and finally brings the code-switching variation. In both studies, the youngest generation plays their role in adopting the language of the host country through code-switching. The same results are shown by Li Wei in his research. He studied Cantonese -English bilinguals in New Castle and found the element of frequent code-switching in the youngest generation which leads them to English proficiency. On contrary, Berk Seligson (1986) researched the Spanish-Hebrew bilinguals in Jerusalem and found that although there is the difference of bilingual proficiency but code-switching patterns are almost same.

Auer (2002) told that it is observed that, during the last two decades, Linguists took more interests in bilingualism; particularly in code-switching. In a bilingual conversation it is utilized in a meaningful way. Auer (2002) believes that code-switching occurs between two closely related varieties. It was assumed that E.Haugen was the first writer who used the term of code-switching but it has observed that Hans Vogt had already employed this term in 1953 in one of his article while in 1952 Roman Jacobson developed the relationship between language switching and juxtaposition of two phonological systems.

Myers-Scotton (1995) believes that almost all over the world, bilingual speakers do code-switching. Like Hispanics in Texas who switch between Spanish and English in informal conversation, West Africans may use two languages Wolof and French in the same conversation and the dwellers of the Swiss capital of Berne move back and forth from Swiss German and French in their service exchange. Mayer said that this code-

switching is not the cause of language. It can be used in many “stable” bilingual communities. Code-switching is not a tool to get settled in socioeconomic life margins of society in which people use different languages in their homes and business repertoires, the later can be dominant. The people in offices who have same linguistic repertoire often switch their codes.

Li Wei (1998) believed that code-switching emerged from variety of different contexts and it moves from adaptation to deviation and language maintenance to language change and then language shift. So the language sued by a community shows it’s social and cultural and deviation and change.

2.20.2 Convergence versus Preservation

Some linguists believed that language varieties which come close to each other preserve their own characteristics. Thomason (2001) stated that there is no direct relationship between two languages, instead of that each language variety preserve its qualities. Language change can be a different phenomenon. She concluded that language change is a very complex phenomenon. When minority groups come close to majority groups and ratify the features of L2 and become bilingual. For example Greek that was spoken in Asia, minor groups borrowed the features of Turkish language. Thomson evaluated the general rule that majority group adopted the features of minority group rather than vice versa. She elaborated her point of view further and said that usually elite class belonged to minority groups which adapt some features of subordinate or majority group which are larger in number (majority group). Thomson identified that some Turkish have also learned the Greek language and they started using the mixing these two languages.

2.20.3 Grammatical Approach to Code-Switching Gumperz (1970) presented the idea of grammatical categories of code-switching. In 1970s researchers were interested in finding different facts about code-switching and these grammatical categories were not under consideration at that time. The more advanced work presented by Myers-Scotton (1988) and said that during code-switching, one language is dominant and the other language is subordinate. This idea and her theory

is core concern in this research and I have discussed it in detail in later section of literature review. Before getting into the idea of code-switching, it is necessary to get the idea of different types of code-switching. Poplock (1988) and Rao, Wang & Bender (2016) elaborated different types of code-switching. 1. Extra-sentential switching is also called tag switching. Romaine (1989) believed that it is commonly used by monolinguals like it can be the infusion of tags in one language like “he knows, I mean”. 2. Romaine (1989) said that in inter-sentential switching, speakers usually switch at a clause or at a sentence boundary. Inter-sentential switching needs more fluency in both languages and speakers should have idea about the rules of both languages. For example in Urdu/English discourse, speaker said: “you have to do your work, kyn kay hamaray pas class may ziada waqt nhi hota” 3. Romaine (1989) said that intra-sentential codes-witching occurs within a sentence and bilinguals usually use this intra-sentential code-switching. He believed that intrasentential code-switching is the biggest syntactic risk. Hammer (2000) explained the Punjabi-English conversation in Britian which is recorded by Romaine (1989). He gave the example; “kyn kay six,seven hours tay school day vich hi spend karday nay, they are using English all the time” (They are speaking English all the time because they spend most of the time in school)

2.21 Factors of Code-switching

Gardener (2009) reported that there are three types of factors that contribute to code-switching in a particular occurrence.

1. First factor is independence of individual speaker and specific circumstances in which the particular varieties is used and it affects all the individuals in a particular linguistic community as Bordieu (1997) gave his concept of economic and linguistic “market” and Gal (1989) associated it with a particular way of life in which one language may be dominant or the other may be recessive.

2. Second factor is related to the individual as individual may have the competence in different languages and he may use that in different contexts. Similarly, social networks, competence, ideology and attitudes matter a lot in the use of language.

3. Code-switching acts as a conversational appliance in which speaker try to switch from one code to another to form and to build conversation rather than monolingual.

2.22 Types of Code-switching Gumperz (1982) identifies two types of code-switching, situational and metaphorical. Situational code-switching refers to the use of different languages which is related to situation and sometimes participants, setting and the type of task or activity play a vital role. For example, in Sauris, Italy, people use different languages in homes and work places or educational institutes. They used localized German dialect in homes. On the other hand, they used Italian dialect in church, workplace and educational institutes. I also found the same situation where learners use regional languages in their homes or in informal situation while they use Urdu and English in formal situation or in classrooms. Bonvillain (1993) said that many bilingual speakers use the code of prestigious language in order to demonstrate that they have sufficient knowledge of that prestigious language. The use of these specific codes show that they are educated and have high level as far as stratification is concerned. He exemplified that idea with an example like “education system hi asa ha” (Education system is like that). Now a days, this is a common fashion that people deliberately use the language of prestigious code to distinguish them from other people. Nishimura (1995) studied Japanese-English code-switching in second generation Canadians and found those individuals’ code switched in order to demonstrate individuality and group, ethnic and generation identity. Sometimes individuals code switch to create special effects. Gumperz (1982) identified this type of code-switching as metaphorical code-switching. He considered metaphorical code-switching a way to maintain the interpersonal relationships. Li Wei (1994) identified two studies which are closely related to Gumperz metaphorical code-switching. First is Myers-Scotton’s

Markedness theory and second is sequential analysis of language alternation by Auer (1991). 2.23 The Markedness Theory of Language Choice: Myers-Scotton presented this theory in 1986. She (1986) said that both bilinguals and multilingual speakers follow congenital or inborn theory of socially relevant markedness and indexicality. They use different languages and they have language choices. They usually follow normative framework and they do not limit their language choices in interpersonal communication. The basic concern of markedness theory is communication which administers and guides the speakers to choose the vocabulary items of their speech. For this purpose, Scotten put forward his ideas in the form of rights and obligation. Myers-Scotton (1995) suggested that there are four different reasons and rather ambitions for code-switching during conversation as far as markedness model of language choice are concerned. Firstly, code-switching develops a series of unmarked choices where speakers use different codes during conversation. At last these codes become unmarked or the part of language for the bilingual or multilingual speakers. Secondly, these unmarked choices show the social identities of the speakers associated with these codes. Therefore, the speakers show their proficiency in respective languages to give rise simultaneous identities. Thirdly, there is situation when speakers use marked choices when he wants to show partial or complete separation from unmarked rights and obligations and he talked about change in society and the social practices of people. Fourthly, code-switching can be exploratory choice for the speakers when he/she wants to precede his interaction with the novel participants or speakers want to get information about the participants. Myers-Scotton (1992) believed that speakers code switch to show solidarity with the other participants. She explained this phenomenon with an example of clerk and customer in Nairobi. The unmarked choice for then was swahii. In the beginning, the customer spoke unmarked swahii and later he switched to Luo as Luo was their common or shared indigenous and ethnic language. They felt easy while conversing in Luo. The use of Luo showed the social solidarity with the clerk and the customer also demanded some extra help from clerk.

Carol Myers-Scotton’s markedness model is based on code-switching motivations and application in daily life. He pointed out that speakers use the language that clearly gives them and marks them the set of rights and obligation and if the speakers do not find any set of rights and obligation and they have no clear and unmarked language choice, they use other languages and eventually practice code-switching. To explore the purposes of code-switching, I used Myer Scotten’s markedness model as yard stick. Marked and unmarked choices are important features of code- switching and analysed it with refence to pragmatics i.e how do speakers do code- switching in various situations. 2.24 Sequential Analysis of Code-Switching As far as micro interactional perspective is concerned, Auer (1988) carried out sequential analysis of code-switching and it is context based study. Auer proposed that instead of investigating the linguistic choices of the speakers, there is a need to investigate the contextual cues in which speakers perform code-switching. Gumperz (1982) introduced the term of contextualization which is closely associated to the use of linguistic and non-linguistic activities which are conducted in different contexts. Gumperz (1982) named these cues as contextualization cues. Auer (1988) said that the functions and meanings of code-switching can be interpreted through the sequential analysis of language choice. He distinguished discourse related and participant related code-switching as discourse related code- switching is associated to the sequence of events while participant related code-switching is associated to the speaker’s competence and performance in one or the other languages. However, Auer said that the contrast between the two terms is not clear cut. He believed that the study of code-switching requires contextualization cues which is studied according to the context. The meanings of contextualization cues are conveyed through the proper sequence of events or interaction and cannot be discussed and elaborated without the conversational context. 2.25 Social Symbolism of Metaphorical Code-Switching Gumperz (1982) distinguished between ‘we code’ and ‘they code’ to identify the social symbolism of metaphorical code-switching. ‘We code’ is related to ethnically specific minority language which is used usually in informal conversation. Sometimes,

majority use specific code during conversation and it usually becomes the part of formal conversation and it is stiffer than ‘we code’. The ‘we code’ refers to group informal communication. Romaine (1995) elaborated his point of view with Punjabi-English code- switching as “asi angrezi sikhi ay tay why can’t they learn” (We learnt English so why can’t they learn). In this example, the speaker wants to say that Punjabi speakers need to learn English but they don’t need to learn their own language (Punjabi). In this example, speaker switches from Punjabi to English language, he draws a boundary between ‘them’ and ‘us’. Speakers in Pakistani society are usually multilingual and the speakers who belong to the rural areas usually use different languages in groups that are referred to group code (we code). Indeed Pakistani classrooms are not free from the use of different codes. Students’ code-switch in classrooms and use their regional languages in classrooms usually in informal situation. The next sub section briefly deals the continuum of code mixing and code- switching because the focus of this study is to investigate the purpose/s of code-switching at postgraduate level. Romaine (1995) said that code-switching, mixing and borrowing is one of the integral phenomenon of language contact and different researchers have used that in different ways which makes the comparison across studies tough. Kamwangamalu (1992) said that the juxtaposition of languages can be divided into code-switching and code mixing. Grosjean (1982) said that alternation of language of juxtaposition of language is across sentence boundaries are recognized as code-switching while language alternation within a sentence is known as code borrowing. Hammers and Blanc (1989) said that it is possible to observe code mixing and code-switching simultaneously while code mixing is embedded in code-switching but not vice a versa. Clyne (1969) and Kachru (1978) said that there is no absolute distinction between code-switching and code-mixing because there are many examples which can be listed in either category of code mixing or code-switching. For example in Urdu, there are many words which are borrowed from English language and even they are used in by uneducated people like mobile, biscuit, cookies, chip etc. and with the passage of time , these words become the essential part of that language. When these words are used consistently in language, they start maintaining their phonological and morphological

64 characteristics in that language. Hammers and Blanc (1989) try to distinguish between code mixing and code-switching. They said that code borrowing is related to lexical items and their quality is that they may be assimilated or not completely well assimilated while code-switching ranges from lexical level to sentence level and it is well assimilated. Code mixing and code borrowing is considered to be associated to the lack of lexical items and code mixing compensates that deficiency. In the next section I tried to distinguish code borrowing from code-switching. The main focus of this research is to analyze code-switching in academic discourse. Although, the teachers have used many expressions in their speech in which code borrowing was evident, I have not analyzed these utterances because these are not the part of research objectives. 2.26 Difference between Borrowing and Code-Switching It is important to differentiate between borrowing and code-switching. The major difference between borrowing and code-switching is that, borrowing has L1 history (diachronic aspect). Some lexical items are used by bilinguals initially and later on monolinguals even recognize them as a part of their language. This aspect is discussed by Weinreich, Labov and Herzog (1986, as cited in Vaughn-Cooke 2005) and they named it as ‘transition problem’. Language development is a continuous process and in this diachronic process, no one can estimate, at what time a particular lexical item borrowed by users in any recipient language. Poplock (1989) believed that in urban context the language change or borrowing is very quick and this aspect creates a difficulty in analyzing language variation synchronically. There are two different groups; one group was with Poplock (1989), who argued that borrowing or loaning lexical items from comparatively larger parts of switches in any language. Many other researchers like Myers-Scotton (1998) and Bentahila and Davies (1983) said that the difference between these two processes does not create hindrance in analyzing bilingual speech. Furthermore, the former group of researchers named one lexical item addition as insertion and multiple words addition in certain language as alternation. Poplock (1989) and her followers said that borrowing and code-switching based on different mechanism. She identified three standards to find the role of non-native language in bilingual utterance. These are phonological, morphological and syntactically

put together in base language. Scotten (1988) rejected the idea as the base of distinguishing borrowing and code-switching as she considered them the part of same continuum. She said that there is no need of categorical distinction. She suggested the idea of frequency which links the borrowed lexicon with the recipient language. She disagreed with the idea that lexical items are borrowed to fill the gaps in language. She said that all the words are not borrowed to be the part of certain language to fill the gaps in recipient language. Furthermore, she proposed two types of borrowing, cultural borrowing and core borrowing. Cultural borrowing are those lexical items which fill the gaps in recipient language while recipient language has no words substitute for those particular lexical item while core borrowing are the lexical items with duplicate elements as these words are already present in the recipient language but still they are used in that recipient language. In this way Myers-Scotton presented borrowing and code-switching as a continuum and view code-switching as to loan language items in particular language. She did not view code-switching and borrowing as two distinct procedures like Poplock and her followers. Gumperz (1982) and Kamwangamalu (1992) said that borrowing is third form of language alternation. It is one of the important strategies utilized by both bilinguals and monolinguals. At last these borrowed lexical items or phrases become the part of the second language and get merge into it. Gumperz (1982) defined borrowing as the insertion of single word or idiomatic phrases from one variety to the other variety. Brice, Rose-Berry and Macikibin (2001) said that borrowing is one of the important tools to fill the gaps and maintains the vocabulary of certain language. For example Spanish vanquishers did not have any word for hurricanes in their language and when they faced hurricanes, they borrowed the word from Mayans and incorporated it into Spanish. The process of borrowing may be followed by both, monolinguals and bilinguals. Pfaff (1979) emphasized that code-switching must be distinguished from borrowing carefully while Hill- Hill said that it is very difficult to separate the concept of code- switching with borrowing. He believed that practically it is very difficult to analyze the causes of both separately. Eastman (1992) said that it is difficult to analyze the social, cultural and cognitive aspects of code-switching and borrowing from separate perspective and especially if we want to analyze the process of language contact.

This section shows ideas of different linguists on code-switching and code borrowing. The next section is specified for the functions and purpose of code-switching in classrooms as the purpose of this research is to explore the functions of code-switching at postgraduate level. 2.27 Code-Switching in Bilingual Classrooms Murray and Barnett (1999) said that code-switching is one of the important aspects of bilingualism and the process of code-switching is common and quite normal. The alternative use of two languages (code-switching) demands organized, cognitive and linguistic manipulation of two languages and these languages work simultaneously. Valdes (1978) identifies three preconditions for language alternation during communication. First is both (speaker and hearer) should be bilingual. Second is both (speaker and hearer) should be the member of the same speech community or both should know the rules that govern two languages. Third is both (speaker and hearer) should have the linguistic resources to use the codes of two languages in a certain community. Brice (2000) stated that the communication solely in English language can be a barrier in understanding the main idea of the subject as English is used as the main subject or as a medium of instruction in classrooms. Gulzar (2009) stated that in Pakistan English is taught as a major subject in classrooms and also used as a medium of instruction in institutes. Macswan (1999) said that students usually do code-switching because they have less proficiency in certain language and they are unable to use the code of certain language completely. So they use the chunks of two languages and named as semilinguals. This research is conducted in bilingual postgraduate classrooms and the population of this research is considered as proficient and productive and they are allowed to use the language which they naturally use in classrooms. Valde (1978) researched bilingual classrooms and said that in Spanish classrooms, instructors use Spanish as a medium of instruction while English is used as a classroom control startegy. Zentella (1981: 119) conducted her ethnographic study on Puerto Rican learners and instructors in bilingual classrooms and observed different language pattern at one third-grade and at one-sixth grade.

Table 2.1: Pattern of language choices (Spanish and English) in classrooms Selection of Teacher’s initiation mode Students Teacher’s evaluation Language pattern of communication response language Use same language to Spanish Spanish Spanish respond English English English Instructor follow the Spanish English Spanish students English Spanish English Instructor opts the Spanish English Code-switching learner’s choice English Spanish Code-switching

Cook (2001) introduced new perspective of code-switching in second language teaching. He instructed the students to switch at particular and predetermined places and they used two languages alternatingly at that point. There is an activity of role play as well in which students played the role of teachers. Cook said that this approach makes the teaching more communicative and more interactive. Code-switching is one of the significant strategies in teaching and instructors should code-switch at different points and situations like elaborating difficult and new concepts, when students feel distracted, during revisions and when instructor wants to appreciate them. He suggested that code- switching is an effective strategy in bilingual classrooms as it is acceptable way of communication and bilingualism is not only a way to give confidence to the learners; it also facilitates the students learning process. Cook (2001) said that speakers code-switch in different situations like when he wants to show solidarity, to find the solution of certain problem or wants to prove social respect. He suggested that it is also very helpful in learning second language. He stated that language mixing is best observed and understood in classroom environment. He suggested if teacher would use one language in classroom, then he will have to instruct the students twice because sometimes students are unable to understand in second language. Secondly language choice based upon subjects and it is very difficult to estimate which language should be used to teach particular subject. Jacobson (1990) suggested that instructors should use inter-sentential code-switching, rather than intra- sentential code-switching because if the teacher use longer patches of first language, students will not learn the second language effectively. Jacobson named it as New Concurrent Approach (NCA). In language policy, educationists should clarify the percentage of code-switching in classrooms. The teachers and the students should maintain that percentage accordingly.

Hammink (2000) said that code-switching brings diversity in communication. Osanai McLaughlin (1991) also emphasized the communicative and metaphorical purposes of code-switching. He said that code-switching has a great semantic power to emphasize the meanings. It enhances communication skills just by adding great semantic power. Hammink (2000) identified different stages and advantages of code-switching. He said that during communication, speakers extend their code-switching strategies from interaction to rhetorical. There is a gradual development and trained learners can identify that easily. Valdes (1978) researched on classroom discourse and said that for the teachers the understanding of code-switching is very important. He explored the classrooms where students used both English and Spanish during code-switching. He said that little work has been done on habitual code-switching between two languages in their communities. Zentella (1981) observed that sometimes code-switching is least accepted phenomenon by the teachers. Most of the teachers are unable to understand the actual phenomenon of code-switching as there is no proper guidelines for the teachers. Gulzar (2009) commented that researchers are not able to understand language procedure and unable to formulate the lesson plan accordingly. He said that it is necessary for the teachers and educators to understand and elaborate the uses of different aspects of language like code-switching in classrooms. Levi et al (1989) said that code-switching or language alternation is quite conspicuous and unavoidable. Regrettably, most of the educators and professionals are unable to understand the phenomenon of code-switching. This argument is applicable in Pakistan as well that code-switching is unavoidable in Pakistani classrooms. In Pakistan, teachers are using both (English and Urdu) languages and it becomes so difficult to identify which language is matrix language and which language is embedded language. 2.28 Purposes of Code-Switching in Classroom As one of the important aspect of classroom communication, codes-witching has many pedagogical purposes. Martin –Jones (1995) said that when two languages are used in classroom, it depicts two cultures. Sometimes, students and teachers belong to same background, so they code-switch to show solidarity to one another. She said that learners and teachers do code-switch in their daily conversation and the contrast between two

69 codes is one of the remarkable strategies in meaning making. As code-switching is one of the remarkable strategies to delineate the types of discourse like to prepare for the lesson and start of the lesson, to move from general to specific topic and to move from classroom management conversation to delivering lecture. She said that this type of code- switching is common in classrooms where teachers deliver long lectures and the duration of teacher’s talk is comparatively long. Martin-Jones named it as discourse related code- switching. Martin-Jones (2003) said that participant related code-switching is observable in classrooms as students and instructors belong to different communicative repertoires and their language abilities are different. She believed that in this situation, participant related code-switching is one of the important tool to manage teaching and learning. It is observed in classrooms that teachers asked questions in one language which is an official medium of instruction while students replied in other language which can be his/her mother language. She said that that teacher should decide which type of discourse is feasible for the students and with the passage of time a conversational routine will built and students will not feel reluctant in answering in desired language. Ludi (2003) said that the purpose of code-switching in classrooms is to decrease the interactional stumbling blocks which are evident in beginners’ speech. Nzwanga (2000) conducted his research in French classrooms at Ohio State University. She recorded the data, transcribed it and analyzed that as researchers did in conversation analysis. She identified the code-switching in formal and informal situations and elaborated different functions of code-switching in formal situation like introducing topics, elaborating ideas; practicing etc. she said that code-switching plays an important role in communicative and academic/learning environment. Auer assembled different purposes of code-switching in classrooms as identified and complied by different researchers. First is reported speech, secondly, it is used to change the prospect of the participants, thirdly, it is used in reiterations where the basic purpose is to clear the point of view, to emphasize and to attract the attention of the learners. Code-switching plays its role in teaching and learning process. The variation of code-switching depends upon the context and topic of conversation. Baker (2011) identified twelve functions of code-switching by keeping in view the sociolinguistic perspective. For this purpose he analyzed bilinguals. He said the some utilities are

applicable in classroom environment as well. Baker identified that code-switching is used to stress on a specific point, to substitute a word, to express the specific concept which has no word substitute in other language, to emphasize a request, to simplify and explain the specific idea, to demonstrate the identity, to show friendly behavior, to get relax, to create humor and sometimes speaker code-switch when he wants to introduce or explain the specific topic. Chen (2015) observed the reasons of word substitute in Hong Kong schools and found that the main reasons of code-switching was that there was no tool of direct translation from English to Cantonese and Cantonese to English. Moreover he found that the teachers switched code to ease the students and to add humor to relax the students.

Auer (2002) said that it is impossible to assemble the functions of code-switching because code-switching perform unlimited functions. In this following section, eleven functions of code-switching are discussed with specific reference to classroom discourse.

2.28.1 Clarification of Concept Gulzar (2009) said that code-switching is used to clarify the concepts. He observed diploma TEFL classrooms and explored that instructors switched their code 104 times to clarify the idea and 48 times to emphasize. He viewed that the numbers of code- switching clarify that it is the main source to deliver the idea. Auer (1998) suggest that teachers code-switch when they found the word which is unfamiliar foe the students and the instructor may have doubt that the learners will not be able to get the idea of the required word in target language. In this study, instructors are vigilant to clarify the ideas while some linguists believe that code-switching is perceived as poor or weak language strategy. Lin (1996, as cited in Hirth 1998) said that code-switching is a hindrance in conveying message because it delivers more than what the speaker want to say or it conveys a different message which can be away from speaker’s or writer’s view. An extensive body of linguistic study suggested the importance of code- switching. Cook researched in second language learning class rooms and found that code- switching in bilingual environment is quite natural. In his study he found that learners prefer code- switching and bilingualism in classroom environment. Probyn (2010) researched the teacher’s behavior and found that many teachers do code-switching to

achieve particular communicative goals. Rollnick and Rutherford (1996) researcher on science classrooms and found that code-switching is one of the powerful mean of explaining and exploring the ideas. He found that without code-switching, some students are even unable to deliver their ideas. Researcher said that use of code-switching in classrooms is a “legitimate strategy” (Cook 2001, p 105) and it does not disturb and disrupt during conversation. So it still creates the opportunity for language development. Ferguson (2003) said that code- switching occurs in many countries, so it has deep roots in its own construction and these attitudes and capabilities are difficult to change.

2.28.2 Socialization Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that code-switching plays two functions; affective function and socializing function. They suppose that people use one language with the other language in a vernacular style and it is affective function of language. The teachers switched from English to Urdu language to express their emotions while sometimes teachers switch from one language to another to convey the feelings of pleasure and displeasure. 2.28.3 Translation Teachers usually switch their code to elucidate the vital message and he/she wants to explain some idea or certain vocabulary item, grammar, important terms and main idea. It also improves the comprehension of the students and sustains the students focus. Krashen and Terrel (1988) said that instructors use one language and after sometimes they switch to the other language just to clarify the idea. When this occur, students usually do not pay attention to teachers target language rather they shift their attention to their own/native language. Moreover, in this way instructors do not pay attention to the use of realia, or other audio visual aid. Atkinson (1987) said that the excessive use of translation is not beneficial for the learners as it increases the dependency of the students in particular language and they assumed that ideas will not be clear if it will not be translated. In this way instructors and the students fail to notice the distinctions between forms, semantic uniformity and pragmatic dimensions. There should not be habitual practice of translating the idea in one language to another because it makes the lecture boring and monotonous.

2.28.4 Fabrication of Grammatical Variation Heller (1988) argued that code-switching can be studied through two perspectives. First, code-switching is used to create variation in grammar and support ones ideas and arguments. Secondly, it is effective to identify linguistic universal. Code- switching is one of the ways to create and evaluate the link between social phenomenon and linguistic variation rather than in monolingual setting. Auer (1998) said that code- switching is closely associated to the information theory, bilingualism and structural phonology.

2.28.5 Alternation of Topic Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1993) said that the occurrence of code- switching while the teachers want to switch their topic. Instructors usually code switch when they want to instruct the students about a specific task. This code-switching may be due to the higher level of proficiency in one language. Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) presented two reasons of code-switching. Firstly, the message is so important that the instructor do not want to lose the essence of that particular message. Secondly, the instructor wants to get the attention of the attention of the learners. 2.28.6 Simplification of Expression While elucidating certain topic or difficult terms, instructors usually switch their code. Auer (1998) said that instructor usually code-switch when he is unable to find substitute of that particular word in that particular language. Martin-Jones (1988) said that code-switching is observed while introducing and checking new vocabulary items, introducing new terms and accelerate learning. 2.28.7 Teachers Linguistic Competence Brice (2000) explored the purpose of code-switching. He said that most of the teachers are bilinguals and sometimes they cannot recall the words in their target language especially in specific situation. He observed that some intra-sentential occurrences belong to this category. This category also represent Pakistani situation as well where teachers are usually bilingual and even multilingual. Most of the teachers can speak Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi, Siraiki, Brahvi, and Pushto other than English language. Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that linguistic insecurity is also the reason of code-switching that may be most comfortable for the speakers in classrooms. They said 73

that it is one of the most complicated issues in classroom interaction because it can shatter the confidence of students in the teachers’ proficiency in target/foreign language. Crystal (1997) said that of the possible reason of code-switching in classrooms is speakers are unable to express their ideas in one language so they switch their code from one language to another to compensate their deficiency. 2.28.8 Cultural Representation Wong (2000) found out that speakers sometimes code-switch because they lack vocabulary items in target language. This idea reflects different nature of various languages and exemplifies global cultural variation. Wong’s idea is quite relevant to Pakistani situation as in Urdu language, there is a distinction of gender, generation and seniority as there are different words to call different relatives in Urdu language (chacha, Mamo, khala etc) while in English language, speakers allocate one word to different relatives (uncle, aunt) Auer (2002) considered code-witching as a part of conversation as it is alternative use of two or more languages in a conversation and if a person has full understanding of a culture and social knowledge of society, he can understand the purposes of code- switching in a better way. Auer said that macro sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching do not deal code-switching as a complete language change and choice or the purpose of complete absence of code-switching and many macro sociolinguists researchers give importance to the social meanings of conversation or the absence of codes-witching in any occurrence.

Gumperz (1969, as cited in Gardener, 2009) narrated that code-switching occurred when one linguistic group came into contact to the other. The minority linguistic group starts using the language of the majority linguistic group and to communicate their ideas they started mixing the language under hasty social change. In this situation one language get prominence and with a passage of time community shapes itself as a bilingual community in which speakers can use both languages.

2.28.9 Evaluation Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that the main reason of code- switching is to make the utterance understandable to the students. Gumperz (1982)

pointed out the reiteration function of code-switching to check students understanding in particular subject. 2.28.10 Repetition Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that code-switching may be partial or full can be used to add some information but most frequently used to repeat the previous idea. Elridge (1996) asserted that messages are transmitted in target language and these are not comprehensible for the students then these particular messages are reinforced, emphasized, repeat and clarified. 2.28.11 Building a Sense of Ownership Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that the socializing functions of code-switching are affiliated to affective functions. For example, sometimes sparkers use the addressees’ first language to show solidarity and friendship with that person. It is conspicuous that the teacher wants to be friendly with the students and wishes students’ positive attitude towards their work. However, code-switching is closely related to humor and irony from teacher’s side. Crystal (1997) further elaborated the point of view that code-switching create a special type of harmony among people. This rapport building quality of code-switching is observed when two participants use same code during conversation and it may also be used to exclude other participants who don’t speak and understand that particular language. This type of code-switching is observed in this research. This section highlights different purposes of code-switching as identified by different researchers. It performs different functions in classrooms like repetition, evaluation, cultural representation etc. Elridge (1998, as cited in Sert, 2005) catalogued four different purposes of code-switching equivalence, conflict control, repetition and floor holding/getting confidence. Equivalency is a policy opts by the speaker to create balance in speech. Speakers usually code-switch when they try to find the substitute of specific lexicon in speaker’s first language to create equivalency or balance. Secondly, code-switching is a strategy to hold floor. When speaker lacks sufficient vocabulary, he usually code switch to maintain his confidence and fluency in speech. The third function is reiteration; it is the repetition of message. First of all, the message is delivered in target language and after that it is repeated in first language just to emphasize. Elridge observed

that the repetition in first language is also desirable by the students as well and they usually reply in first language to show that they have understood the message. Fourth purpose is conflict control. Sometimes, meanings are not clear in target language, so speakers usually code-switch to clarify the meaning.

2.29 Relationship between Pragmatics and Academic Discourse

Discourse studies generally cater language in use through various theoretical lenses of linguistics including semantics, syntax and pragmatics. The intended meanings which are situated in certain context are major sites of exploration for discourse analysts in the field of pragmatics. These sites may vary from speech community to discourse community. The sites of speech community are centre of attention of sociolinguists and discourse community is mainly exploratory enterprise for experts of pragmatics. These experts such as Paltridge (2012) identified the relationship between pragmatics and discursive conventions of academic discourse community.

Pragmatics mainly is the contextual study of written and spoken discourses. Context here refers to three aspects: social situation in which discourses take place; the relationship of utterances with the context; and situation and background knowledge of interlocutors. These three aspects of language have strong association with discourse analysis. Moreover, pragmatics is concerned with the theoretical prospects of cooperative principle that primarily deals discourses as a function/participation of interlocutors having shared interests, impetus and purposes. These features provide a compact and concrete share to discourse, rather prevent it from disconnected and random series of events. This idea of cooperative principle comprising of four maxims, (Quantity, Quality, Relevance & Manner proposed by Grice (1975) lead several intellectual discursive deliberations with discourse analysts from various fields of discourse studies including academic discourse. Recent study of Abdi et al. (2010) has established this nexus between academic discourse and pragmatics by exploring employment of cooperative principle on written academic i.e. research articles.

However, Grice (1975) proposed these maxims to show that spoken discourses do not fit into the category of either formal or informal analysis. He introduced the concept

of implicature to explicate the relationship of pragmatics and discourse analysis. The abstraction of implicature focused on the meaning making process in discourses i.e. meaning making and interpreting is complicated process as it cannot be extracted through literal analysis of words. Hence the importance of context cannot be negated. Keeping in view the importance of contextual use of language, this study also relies on pragmatic inquiry of spoken academic discourse.

Kasper (2010) investigated the longer chunks of utterances to analyse pragmatics or meaning making process. He concluded that meanings are co-constructed by the interlocutors and highly contextual. So, the understanding of meanings requires specificity of atmosphere and the nature of the collaborative ventures of interlocutors. This study explores the contextual use of language in academic discourse using Grician cooperative principle. Academic discourse deems to explore the uses of language in academy and code-switching (from English to Urdu and Urdu to English) is important part of academic discourse in Pakistan. Thus this research initially identifies the contextual uses/purposes of code-switching. Moreover, this study deals with Grice maxims of relevance, quantity and manner in determining relevance, perspicuousness and clarity of information in academic discourse.

2.30 Language Policy and Education

Shohamy (2012) said that language education policy is a tool to construct de facto language exercises and practices in educational institutes. In centralized system, these policies are used for language manipulation like which language or languages should be used in institutes as a medium of instruction, what kind of words, sentences or utterances should be used in classrooms and whether the usage of this kind of language is acceptable or not. Shohamy said that educational staff works on that policy without questioning its appropriateness, authenticity, quality, feasibility and relevance for the prosperous learning. Lin (1996) Stated that code-switching in institutes is a normative based approach rather than research based. Aijmer and Simon (2003) conducted his research on the relationship of code-switching and language policy. He invited students and teachers to re-evaluate the role of code-switching in classrooms interaction and concluded that the

strategy of code-switching should be used systematically and strategically to get the desired results.

Alenezi et al (2012) have conducted an exploratory research on student’s language attitude. They observed students strong preference to use Arabic and English language in classroom as a medium of instruction. The data collected throughout the research process support the use of code-switching. The majority of the students believe that there should be no code-switching in classroom because monolingual class room environment will be helpful in improving their language proficiency. On the other hand, a vast majority of the students believe that code-switching is helpful in comprehension and sharpen their learning abilities. Students believe that code-switching does not weaken their L1. Alenezi and his fellows found that most of the students agreed that code- switching may weaken their L2.

2.31 Linguistic Hybridity

The concept of hybridity is not new. It is generally covers the difficulties in translation due to difference in culture and use of language. In this way linguistic hybridity has a close connection with academic discourse where in classrooms and conference presentations, instructors, students and presenters sometimes discuss and consider their local culture, festivals and rituals. Hybridity exists at multiple levels of learning environments. The classroom, for example, is constitutive of multiple and connected activity systems, that is, it is polycontextual. We have termed these varied social spaces, or activity systems, the official and unofficial spaces of learning contexts. Although these spaces also are characterized by their various and often oppositional discourses and social practices, they are also mutually constitutive and transformative. In all cases, these tensions in activity rupture the normative practice, and new hybrid activities emerge. However, some classroom communities resist the transformation, whereas others opportunistically view these emergent activities as potentially fruitful contexts of development. We have conceptualized these improvisations as Third Spaces and argue that these learning zones are promoted and sustained by hybrid language and schooling practices that bridge home and school.

2.31.1 Linguistic Hybridity in Classrooms

Research conducted in Spanish classrooms shows how conflict and deiversity became a catalyst to change in teaching style, individual learning and curricular change. Learning context and hybrid culture actively mined in the ways the teacher and children consciously and strategically utilized their own linguistic repertoires and created new contexts of development; these hybrid language practices fostered language and literacy development. These hybrid language practices, however, were neither disconnected nor random. Instead, these practices were intimately connected texts, strategically used, and were the outcome of a hybrid activity system in which home and school were consciously bridged. Similar to practices represented in the work on Funds of Knowledge (Moll, 1998), “the local practices, knowledge, and beliefs of both the local community and of the classroom and school community were brought to bear in everyday classroom practices knowledge, and beliefs of both the local community and of the classroom and school community were brought to bear in everyday classroom practices”.

Acceptance and use of diverse, alternative texts and codes, ways of participating, sharing expertise, and mediating literacy learning were part of the normative practice of this community of learners (Rogoff, 1994). Diversity, in this context, was a resource. As we will illustrate shortly, even unauthorized side talk, movement, and spontaneous interaction and collaboration, were unproblematic and redefined as part of the normative practice in this community. In other words, this particular classroom community was flexible and open to student behaviours that in other learning contexts might be considered inappropriate or forms of counter script. Talk, interaction, reading, writing, and sharing in a variety of codes and registers here were considered the means to productive learning. Moreover, the teacher and the children placed a high value on respecting the language, social practices, and beliefs of the classroom community and its individual members. Classroom learning activities included teacher mini-lectures, reading and writing texts, and classroom discussion of topics generated by both teacher and students.

Although, many researches have been conducted on language used by instructors in classrooms but there is a need to expolore the purposes of code-switcing in Pakistani post-graduate classrooms through the prism of pragmatics. Summary The review of related literature affirms that research in the field of academic discourse is intricate and full of ramification both at micro and macro level notably in underdeveloped countries like Pakistan. As pragmatics is the study of language in specific context and instructors use language structures according to context. This research is carried out to explore the use of language is academic discourse. For this purpose Gricean Maims have been applied on academic discourse (See section 2.5). Academic discourse refers to the utilization of language in academy. It is a dynamic and intricate process which involve in encoding and decoding of message and speakers use various expressions according to context (See section 2.30). Language choice is one of the principal issues of academic discourse. Speakers (teachers and students) usually switch their code during conversation. This alternative use of language needs orderly cognitive and linguistic manipulation of two languages. There can be different purposes of code-switching such as explanation, socialization, translation, simplification of expression etc.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals methodological issues and the purposes of selecting particular research methodology. The purpose of this research is to explore the purposes of code- switching through the prism of pragmatic inquiry. Qualitative and quantitative research paradigms were selected to explore the purposes of code-switching in the context of classrooms and conference presentations. Drisko (2005) identified research methodology as a road map for the readers to clarify the concepts regarding collection and analysis of data in particular research. This chapter is divided into different parts which elaborate research methods in linguistics and selection of methods in data collection and data analysis.

The vastness of the linguistics has opened many vistas of understanding language from various perspectives (Anderson et al.2005) and researchers select different methods for data collection and data analysis and the most prominent paradigms selected by the researchers are qualitative and quantitative (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The selection of this mixed methods helped the researchers to explore and verify their results (Tashkori and Teddlie, 2010). The data was collected for this research by utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods through recording of classrooms and conferences and questionnaires respectively. This data triangulation and methodological triangulation (see 3.4) is significant in data collection and data analysis (Deniz 1970, as cited in Litosseliti, 2010) and in this study data triangulation and methodological triangulation was utilized to get the balanced and clear picture of the contextual analysis of academic discourse. I found survey method and audio/video recording as the best suited tools for data collection; as questionnaires are significant to collect the data from larger population (Fraenkela and Wallen, 2000) and audio/video recordings are the best source to keep the

record of world natural instances and help in thick description of series of events (Geertz, 2002). The transcription of data, although was very tedious and tiring during data analysis but I found it quite helpful in analyzing and describing the data. Transcription of data has been used to reveal the different instances of conversation (Bird, 2005) and repeated listening provide me the facility to analyze different relevant themes of academic discourse.

3.2 Methodology

Most of the activities observed in classrooms were in the form of dialogues. Thus, keeping in view the research questions, the methodological approaches were selected. In order to explore the relevant issues, two research methodologies (qualitative and quantitative i.e. mixed method) were joined together. Ethnography of interaction was used as a major tool of investigation to collect the data, audio and video recordings and survey method in the form of questionnaires are used are used for data collection. Qualitative analysis was based on recordings and participant observation while quantitative analysis based on questionnaires. Handcook (2001) advocated the use of quantitative and qualitative methods as the research should be carried on with the ‘rationalistic’ and ‘naturalistic’ paradigms. Moreover, Bryman (2012) said that the use of more than one method is helpful in getting the complete and clear picture in ethnographic study. Hence, this study utilized both quantitative and qualitative research paradigms.

3.3 Theoretical Framework

Grice cooperative principle (1975) and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory (1984) are used as theoretical framework for this research.

3.3.1 Cooperative Principle

Grice (1975) presented certain assumptions regarding conversation which is known as cooperative principle. The basic assumption is when we converse with others, we try to facilitate or rather cooperate with others to create meaningful utterances for the convenience of listeners. Grice stated that the speaker should make his contribution during conversation as it is required and it should be accepted for the understanding of

utterances. In other words we can say that conversational contribution should be productive and meaningful. In some situations, speakers may be uncooperative. According to Grice, there may be different reasons for uncooperativeness like the speakers do not want to give the proper reply to particular interrogation, speakers do not want to show his/her emotions or may be speakers hate someone. The understatement that the cooperative principle stated comprise of two postulates. Firstly, sometimes speech errors go unnoticed and the speaker tries and listener himself try to draw meanings or give benefit of doubt. Secondly, sometimes the statement is not true, ridiculous or random. The listener draws meaning and one can find the relevant idea from certain excerpt.

The assumption that the speaker cooperates in imparting meaning to any conversation provides a basis to Grice to formulate his cooperative principle (Pfitser, 2009). The Cooperative Principle is subdivided into Conversational maxims. The first maxim is of Quantity which states that Speaker’s contribution to conversation should be as informative as required in particular context. In other words, it should not be less or more than the understanding of the hearer and it should not distract the attention of the listener. (Grice, 1967) The second maxim is of Quality which states that Speaker should remain truthful and he should not say such statements which lack adequate evidence. The third maxim is Relevance or Relation which states that Speaker should be relevant. Relevance is very important to go on conversation in particular direction. The fourth maxim is of Manner which states that Speaker should not use obscure expression and he should be comprehensible and intelligible. He should avoid unnecessary garrulity and copiousness. His speech should be in specific order which is understood by the hearer. Sometimes speakers do not follow these maxims during conversation and it is called flouting of Maxims (Mooney, A, 2004).

Sometimes, speakers do not adhere to the conversational rules in natural conversation on surface level and it is called flouting of maxims. It does not mean that the speaker is unaware of the fact that s/he is not following certain patterns in conversation. So, it is assumed that at deeper level the speaker is aware of the fact that he/she is wishfully flouting the conversation maxims to confer more than what is said and

this is called conversational implicature (Grice, 1989). The intended meanings can be extracted through shared cultural belief, background knowledge and context (Brehney et al, 2006). Most of the times conversation occurred in a defined period of time and in specific context and it is understandable for the listeners.

3.3.2 Myers-Scotton Markedness Theory of Code-switching

Myers-Scotton Markedness Theory has emerged in1984. Markedness theory views language from its contextual use and interpret code-switching in any discourse pragmatically and this model is considered one of important models of ‘social and pragmatic code-switching’ (Langman, 2001). It is believed that code-switching on one hand is related to social identities while on the other hand; it is related to contextual use of language. The focus of this study is contextual analysis of academic discourse. Myers- Scotton’s (1991, 2000) said that language which a specific discourse community uses the sets of rights and obligations (RO). She explained different linguistic choices through this model. The rights and obligation (RO sets) depend upon speakers’ knowledge and social awareness. While using language in any discourse/context, speakers have certain choices; these marked choices are speakers’ strategic/purposive use of new code. The speakers can utilize language to acquire certain aims. It is believed that in classrooms/formal situations, instructors/practitioners avoid code-switching, in these cases; code-switching can be unmarked while in playgrounds/informal situations, it can be marked.

Myers-Scotton markedness model of code-switching is very significant in identifying the meaning of code-switching and the use of different codes in a particular society (Luna & Peracchio 2005). Language choices play important role in meaning making in interpersonal communication. One postulate of markedness model is that human beings are innately indulged in the exploitation of codes in the use of language. The use of different codes of language during communication serves as an index for others to perceive their (speaker’s) self and create the perception to build right and obligation for others (Myers-Scotton, 1993). Speakers follow specific patters of rights and obligation to transfer the message and built a balance between rights and obligation for the understanding of the listener and it is purely contextual. Speaker selects different

84 codes which are appropriate for the listener’s understanding which are associated to the speech events as well (Myer-Scotton, 1991).

3.4 Triangulation

Litosseliti (2010) said that data triangulation is one of the key features of any research design. Data triangulation and methodological triangulation are considered as the functional terms in research design as former refers to the use of more than one method in data collection while the latter refers to the use of more than one method in research design. Deniz (1970 as cited in Litosseliti in 2010) elaborated the distinction between inter method and intra method triangulation; the former refers to the use of different aspects of the same method while later refers to the use of use of two methods which may be contrastive. More recently, Bryman (2006, as cited in Litosseliti in 2010) said that this term refers to the confluence or convergence of findings and association or corroboration of research results. Moreover this point of view generates the idea that the use of different data sets fabricates the same results and as a result allows the researcher to interpret the result confidently. Litosseliti (2010) said that the use of mixed methodologies escort to the same result, hence, closely associated to the concept of credibility of research findings or result. Czura (2014) suggested that triangulation is one of the most effective strategies to explore different issues related to classroom discourse due to diversified background of the teachers and students and the versatility in research design leads to the authenticity of the research.

3.5 Ethnography of Interaction

Hymes (2001) coined the term ethnography of speaking and latter on it is amended as ethnography of interaction or ethnography of communication. He argued that the best way to analyze the language is its use and most of the times the analysis of linguistic competence is important than the communicative competence. Speakers of any language code-switch during conversation, that may not be correct as far as linguistic competence is concerned but it is representative of any culture and the use of language in that particular culture or it can be socio-contextual use of language. Johnstone & Marcellino (2010) believed that ethnography of communication is related to the use of

85 language by the speakers and how he/she learns the particular use of language in any context. So, ethnography is a type of inquiry which is helpful in exploring how natives/participants behave in particular situation and how they decipher their own behavior.

Communication does not occur in vacuum, it needs specific context, as Hymes (2001) believed. When speech styles are analyzed, there are different dimensions of analysis which entails purpose, intention, context and setting which collectively make the whole meanings of particular conversation. Since the last two decades, ethnography of communication is under consideration in many fields like linguistics, sociology, psychology and education because all these disciplines are closely related to human attitudes and behaviors. This research is an effort to explore the interpretation of the interactional attitude of teachers and students in classrooms and the use of language of the participants in conference. Greene and Wallet (1981, in Qadir 1996) used ethnographic observation and favored particular strategy applied to any academic settings, it means to explore what is occurring in that academic setting, why/how is it occurring and what are the possible intentions of the speakers in any context.

This research was conducted in natural environment as Johnson (1992) proposed that the main concern of ethnographic studies is to give qualitative interpretation of the instances which are observed in naturalistic environment without the manipulation of the researcher. Hymes (2001) said that utterances are futile without macro social context and set of relationships. Keeping in view the approach of Hymes, I have recorded the data to observe and evaluate the contextual use of language in academic discourse. For this purpose thirty postgraduate classroom sessions and 40 conference presentations were audio and video recorded. Johnstone and Marcellino (2010) said while recording the particular data, there is a need to draw ethnographic reports which may be helpful in analyzing the data and it demands observation. The objective of this research is to explore the flouting and observance of Gricean maxims and what are the possible reasons of flouting or observance. The second main objective is to explore the purpose of code- switching in academic discourse. I found the concept of triangulation the best suited approach for data collection and analysis. As Van Lier (1988) suggested that a wide

range of methods and techniques should be used while conducting ethnographic classroom research.

Hymes (2001) believed that ethnographers should keep in mind the speech situation, speech acts and speech events. For Hymes, speech situation means context (like party, classrooms, wedding ceremony etc.), speech events exist within speech like the use of particular language expression in marriage ceremony while speech acts are related to individual utterances which is the minimal unit of analysis for ethnographers. There are two points of views about classroom discourse; Heap (1988) called it as instruction sequence and Mehan (1982) called it as interactional sequence. During this study, I found that Mehan’s point of view is quite relevant. Mehan (1982) believed that ethnographic studies provide the relevant data about the skills and attitudes of the speakers in particular context. Furthermore, he said that communication does not occur just through single sentence, rather it occurs through speech acts and utterances in particular context. As far as classroom discourse is concerned, I focused on the communication between teachers and students.

Martin-Jones (2003) said if the ethnographer has observed classrooms, the validity and functionality of the data can be tested through the responses of the participants who are the part of that research. If the observation matches to the responses of the participants, the research will have high degree of validity. Mehan (1982) seconded Martin Jones (2003) as ethnographic methodology is very useful in conducting academic based research.

Hymes (2001) suggested that ethnography of communication provides solid and strong reason for rooted and enacted in discourse. Ethnographers explore through different strategy like settings, context, goals and modes of communication and the theory or idea which is used to interpret the whole theme. Thus, for this research, ethnography of communication was selected to collect and interpret data. Mehan (1982) suggested that in ethnographic research, the data collected through recordings or transcripts means that the collected data is in concrete form and findings may be applicable to educational institutes that may be helpful in building the difference in teaching methodologies. Current study dissects the behaviors and attitudes of teachers,

students (in classrooms) and presenters (in conferences) towards code-switching. Furthermore, this study explores the observance and nonobservance of Gricean maxims in academic discourse. Van Lier (1988) said that most of the researchers are reluctant in conducting the research in classrooms as they considered the data collected in classrooms is messy and vague. Nonetheless, he suggested that the research conducted on academic discourse is valuable source to bring a constructive change in academia and teaching methodology.

3.6 Sample Selection

This research aims to explore different issues related to code-switching and flouting and observance of Gricean maxims in academic discourse. This study has been conducted at postgraduate level of Quaid-i-Azam University, Air University and National University of Modern Languages. Questionnaires have been distributed among students of postgraduate departments of the said universities to collect responses through simple random sampling and each individual has equal chances of being selected. Jha (2008) said that random sampling is significant in reducing errors and biases. Thirty classrooms have been audio/video recorded and two international conference have been recorded which are organized by Islamic International University and Azad Jamu and Kashmir University.

The data was recorded in natural environment. Thus, the methodological approaches selected in this research are used to analyze different approaches and behavior during interaction which is closely related to the observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims and purpose of code-switching. This is contextual study of academic discourse which centers upon the use of language/codes in particular situations in classrooms and conference. In order to explore the relevant issues, I used two methods; qualitative and quantitative. Ethnography of speaking was also used to conduct ethnographic observation and recordings. Survey research was conducted through questionnaires. So, qualitative analysis was undertaken in this study through recording and quantitative analysis was conducted through questionnaires. Quantitative method was utilized to analyze questionnaires and it was the best source to get a large number of responses verified and authenticated while qualitative analysis was helpful when there is

a need to analyze context and purposes of code-switching in particular situation especially in bilingual classrooms and conference presentations.

3.7 Survey

VanderStoep and Johnson (2008) said that there are four methods for getting survey information mail survey, personal interviews, telephone interviews, and questionnaire and internet survey. There are different research designs. It can be cross sectional, longitudinal and successive independent research design. In the cross sectional design, one or more than one sample can be drawn from the population in the specific period of time. Cross sectional survey creates the opportunity for the researcher to identify the qualities of any population in a given period of time and the correlations are studied by keeping in view the qualities and information provided by the participants. In successive independent sample design, a chain of cross-sectional survey is conducted by the researcher in different periods of time. There are two major points as far as successive independent sample design is concerned. Firstly, the samples are not dependent and similar questions are inquired from each group of sample. Secondly, multiple samples are selected from same population and the researcher can compare the results of the participants of different samples. This design is appropriate when the concern of the researcher is to measure the attitudes of the participants of population with the passage of time. In the longitudinal design, the same sample is analyzed and observed with the passage of time to evaluate the changes in their behavior. This design is significant in attitude measurement when the researcher wants to measure the changes in attitude with the passage of time. In this study, cross sectional research design is used because I found it more suitable for this research as it has specification of time and there is no issue of the availability of the participants because samples are drawn from the population once.

In this study, survey was conducted to explore the information from students related to language use in classrooms, homes and educational institutes. Litosseliti (2010) believed that survey is one of the important tools to analyze the thoughts and behaviors of the respondents. It evaluates different qualities of the population and this information of qualities serve as variables. In this research, I collected the data from predetermined sample through cross sectional survey. Hence, I collected the data without manipulating

the study environment. This is the study or evaluation of facts in a specific period of time like diachronic study. It is very helpful in evaluating the universality and prevalence of the outcomes of the study. As far as quantitative analysis is concerned, it is very helpful in finding the frequency of certain behaviors. To get the responses from the students, a questionnaire was designed which was comprised of open ended and closed ended questions. Fraenkela and Wallen (2000) explicated that survey research is one of the widely used techniques by educational researchers. Survey through questionnaires created the possibility for the researcher to collect the data from large sample regarding particular topic or issue. In this study quantitative study is based on questionnaires. Furthermore, the questionnaire was designed according to the area and objectives which are under consideration. Survey is very helpful in getting and dealing the profile of large population. I scrutinized all the prerequisites of the survey to extract the transparent results of the survey. So, I conducted the pilot study to explore whether the questions are fulfilling the required purpose or not. Litosseliti (2010) proposed that in questionnaires, statements should be straight forward and free from terminologies and jargons because the respondents may not be able to understand the difficult terminology. While designing questionnaire, I kept in mind to use easy and comprehensible language. Oppnheim (1992) said that the analytic relational surveys are beneficial to evaluate facts and comparing variables. He believed that it is quite scientific because its functioning is same as the experiment in a laboratory as it is used to explore certain hypothesis and to find the answers of specific research questions. The results seem to be more towards finding association, enumeration and explanations rather than representativeness and explanation. It is more likely to answer ‘how’, ‘how many’ and ‘how often’.

3.7.1 Constructing a Questionnaire

Shaughnessy & Zechmeister (1985) argured that construction of questionnaire which results in valid and reliable response is one of the core concerns of the questionnaire. They suggested five steps for designing questionnaire:

1. While designing a questionnaire, the researcher should be clear about the goals of the questionnaire. This step needs concentration and it results in determining the

nature of the questions to be incorporated in questionnaire and fruitful in getting the valid findings. 2. The questionnaires can be used when the researcher found that there is no other strategy suitable for collecting data and can design first draft of the questionnaire. The language of the questionnaire should be according to the level of understanding of the participants and the questions should be properly arranged. Two questions related to the same issue may be asked to confirm the information. 3. It is necessary to re-examine and review the questionnaire because questions that seem unambiguous and simple may be ambiguous and slanted to

others/participants. Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1985) believed that questionnaire should be reviewed by the experts who have the same area of expertise or who have knowledge of survey research which is researcher’s concerned research. 4. One of the most significant steps in the development of questionnaire is pretest or pilot study. A pretest or pilot study involves administering the questionnaire on a small group of sample from the required population who are involved in the final administration of the survey. The responses got through the pilot study are helpful in evaluating the questionnaire, whether it is applicable to get the reliable results from the required sample or not. 5. After pretesting or pilot study, it is necessary to edit the questionnaire if it does not fulfill the criterion of the research. Researchers can change vocabulary, rephrasing the instructions, addition of questions or even cut short some questions for the convenience of the research participants. 6. The questionnaires should be distributed by getting prior permission from the participants. Researcher should inform the participants that anonymity and secrecy will be maintained and this data will be used for the research purpose only.

Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1985) said that questionnaire is a helpful technique if researcher found no other way to get the required data. I followed the above given steps while designing and administering the questionnaire.

3.7.2 Questionnaire Lay out

Pollak and Wales (1981) said that questionnaire is one of the most frequently used techniques for data collection in survey research. It is one of the beneficial ways to collect the responses from a large number of participants. I designed the questionnaire by keeping in view my research objectives. Pollak and Wales (1981) believed that demographic variables are one of the most important type of variables analyzed frequently through survey research. Demographic information is used to illustrate the qualities of the participants in any research. The measurement of demographic information depends upon the objectives and goals of the study. Considering the criterion of designing the questionnaire, I divided questionnaire into three sections and the number of total questions is twenty seven. First section is related to demographic information (age, gender) and education like medium of instruction at different levels like school, college, university and home, having five questions. The second section is comprised of nineteen questions. In this section likert scale is used to explore the frequency/intensity of agreement or disagreements as it accelerates from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Five options like strongly disagree, disagree, do not know/neutral, agree, strongly agree are given in questionnaires. Different abbreviations like SD, DA, DK, AG and SA are used in place of strongly disagree, disagree, do not know/neutral, agree, strongly agree respectively. Allen and Seaman (2007) said that Likert scale introduced in 1932 and after that it got the form of five bipolar responses that used to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement in any study which ranges from least to most. It is used to quantify or measure any statement i.e. how much the respondents agree or disagree, accept or reject, believe true or false for any statement. Allen and Seaman (2007) said that there should be at least five categories to measure the responses of the respondents. In section B, first thirteen questions are related to the purposes of code-switching while last four questions are related to the observance of violence of Gricean Maxims. Section three comprised of two open ended questions.

Figure 3.1: Layout of Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

a. Demographic information a. Code switching and a. Use of language in understanding of course classrooms. b. Use of language in school, b. Purpose of Code switching college and university. c. Observance or non- b. Additional comment. Observance of Gricean maxims while switching from one (open ended questions) c. Use of language language to another with classmates,

3.7.3 Pilot Study

Initially Pilot study was conducted in two sections of Natural Sciences in Quaid-i- Azam University. Polit, Beck and Hungler (2006) said that pilot study is initial and small scale version for the composition and preparation of the leading study. Baker (1999) pointed out that pilot study is often considered as pretest to check the comprehension, validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The intention of the pilot study is to:

1. Check the comprehension of the instruction to the participants. 2. Evaluate the difficulty level of the vocabulary and content used in the questions. 3. Determine the pros and cones of the questions. 4. Check the validity and reliability of each question.

In pilot study, the focus of the question number four was to find the language used in school only. In section two, questions regarding Gricean Maxims were not asked. It was noticed that some participants left the questionnaire half-filled or slightly unfilled. As a result of this pilot study, some changes were made in this initially designed questionnaire after discussing with the supervisor and consulting some of the research

participants. The following changes were made in the questionnaire to carry out the study:

1. Instructions are rephrased. 2. Some questions, regarding the information about the use of language and the flouting or observance of Gricean maxims are added in section two and three respectively to the questionnaire. 3. Some questions are revised. 4. Proper Strategy adopted to get back the filled questionnaire.

3.7.4 Reliability and Validity of Instrument

The questionnaires were initially distributed among fifty students of the department of Natural Sciences and the department of Linguistics. I found the reliability coefficient by using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) and reliability coefficient, cronbach alpha was calculated as 71 percent. The frequencies and correlations of all questions in the questionnaire were found and SPSS revealed that the constructed questions in the questionnaire were highly correlated. Hence the reliability of the constructed questionnaire was ensured and the instrument was reliable for this particular study. Thorndike and Hagen (1971, as cited in Haynie, 1994) said that the reliability coefficient ranges to 70 is within the range of effectiveness of the research instrument.

Table 3.1: Reliability of Instrument Instrument No of items Reliability Questionnaire 27 71

The preliminary draft of the questionnaire was submitted to the supervisor. She recommended some changes. The questions in the instrument was authenticated and validated by the team of three experts who have sufficient expertise in my field of study. Hence, I made all the changes suggested by my research supervisor and experts.

3.7.5 Data Collection through Questionnaire

The questionnaires were distributed among the postgraduate students of different departments of Quaid-i-Azam University, NUML and Air University. Following table gives the complete picture of data collected through survey.

Table 3.2: Number of Respondents of Survey Name of institute Number of Respondents Quaid-i-Azam University 100 Students National University of Modern Languages 50 Students Air University 50 Students Total 200

The questionnaires were distributed in the same departments where classroom lecture sessions were recorded. Hundred questionnaires were filled by females and hundred questionnaires by male participants. Following table give the complete idea of gender distribution in this study.

Table 3.3: Gender Distribution of Respondents Gender Frequency Percentage Male 100 50% Female 100 50% Total 200 100%

3.7.6 Rationale for Sample Selection

The universities selected for data collection have different number of Post-graduate programs with different enrolled strength of the students. Therefore, maintaining the equal amount of collected data through questionnaires from each university was less likely to be ensured. Hence, due to various number of programs offered and different number of enrolled students, I was able to arrange data based on 200 questionnaires from three universities consisting of 100, 50 and 50 questionnaires from Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of Modern Languages (NUML) and Air University respectively. However, gender balance was maintained to ensure holistic and equal representativeness of data as this approach of ensuring representativeness increases validity and reliability of the results found in a study. And 30 classroom sessions (10 from each university) were recorded from three selected universities. Moreover, gender

balance was maintained with equal number of participants, 5 male and 5 female teachers, from each university.

3.7.7 Supervision of Participants in Filling/Solving Questionnaire

It was one of the principal duties of the researcher to supervise and administer the questionnaire distribution in her presence to avoid any hindrance or communication gap. As it was noted in pilot study that some participants were not interested in answering the questions and they left the questionnaires half or partially filled. To avoid inconvenience later, I visited postgraduate sections of Quaid-i-Azam University, Air University and NUML and helped out the participants in answering the questions. To visit the classes, I took permission letter from my parent university (NUML) and showed to the instructors of the relevant sections and questionnaires were filled by the participants (students).

3.8 Recording of Material

Ethnographic research spotlights the linguistic and social behaviors in naturally occurring settings. Geertz (2002) said that the research conducted in natural settings provides the opportunity to the researcher for ‘thick description’ and provides detailed, analytical and interpretive account of particular community. He said that the ethnographic study creates a bridge between the emic perspective (culturally specific schema utilized by the community understudy) and etic perspective (theoretical frameworks, ideas and categories devised by the researchers according to their study). Lectures were recorded from postgraduate departments of Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of Modern Languages and Air University. Ten lectures were recorded from each university; for this purpose five male and five female instructors were selected through convenience sampling to record the lectures. I used both audio recording and video recordings in this study. Twenty-five lectures were audio recorded and five lectures were audio recorded. The data was collected from different disciplines of three universities. Following table shows the disciplines selected for classroom session recording.

Table 3.4: Selected Disciplines for Lecture Recording Name of institute Discipline Quaid-i-Azam University Chemistry, Computer Sciences, Physics, Linguistics National University of Modern Languages Education, English (Linguistics and Literature) Air University Physics, English, Masters in Business Administration

I felt that video recording was significant than audio recording because it not only gives the idea about gestures, postures, clothing and proxemics but also helps in understanding the utterance if the voice is not clear. Video as well as audio recordings provide heavy and observable amount of information. Beebe and Takahash (1989) said that the strategy to audio and video recording data is significant than notes taking. As, the researcher just writes the gist of the conversation while taking notes because of the memory constraints and the speed of spoken language is quite fast than the writing ability of the researchers. I found another advantage of audio and video recording that it is permanent that can be listened repeatedly by rewinding it. Erickson (1992) said that recordings provide the opportunity to the researchers to ponder, concentrate and rethink on the data before drawing the conclusion, thus it helps in avoiding the premature explanation and analysis of the data.

I used ethnographic approach to conduct this research because linguistic behaviors are evaluated through context or the situation of the utterance and explained in terms of their surroundings and culture. Viewing this point, DuFon, (2002) considered ethnographic approach as holistic approach. Asch (1992) said that ethnographic study requires in depth and intensive fieldwork of the researchers. Consequently, they get familiar and friendly with the participants and s/he can easily evaluate the variation among participants or community members and find out the facts and figures of that community for accuracy. Sevigny (1981) said that it needs triangulated inquiry and the collection of data in naturalistic environment by using different data collection techniques like questionnaires, participant observation, audio and video recording, interviews etc. In this study, I used mixed method approach; quantitative approach through questionnaires and qualitative approach through recordings.

3.8.1 Recording of Conferences

The data was collected from two international conferences; one is organized by International Islamic University on 14-16 November, 2014. It was a three day conference on “The Literary Present and Postcolonial Condition” The second International conference was organized in Kashmir. It was a two day conference organized on 15-16 November, 2013 and named as “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics” forty sessions (twenty male and twenty female) were randomly selected to use in this study. Ten male and ten female presenters were selected from each conference. Following table gives detailed view of data collected from conferences.

Table 3.5: Data Collected Conference Presentations Conference Male Presenters Female Presenters The Literary Present and Postcolonial Condition 10 10 First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics 10 10 Total 20 20

3.8.2 Difficulties in Recording the Data

The recording of data was one of the difficult and hectic tasks for me. The classroom data has been recorded with the continuous effort of three months and for conferences recordings, I consulted organizers of the conferences. Video camera and audio recorder were used for video and audio recording respectively. The instructors of the concerned departments granted me permission to record the lectures. Most of the times, I visited the relevant departments and instructors did not allow me to record the data and asked me to come some other day. When I approached them next day, they usually refused me to record the lectures. Some instructors said that their mentors are not allowing them for recording while the others were so hesitant to cooperate. Then I assured them that the recorded data will be used for the research purpose only, and then they allowed recording of the data.

3.8.3 Rationale for Audio and Video Recording

It is more appropriate to have video recordings as data of the research within the domain of discourse studies. Such recordings not only help to interpret the data accurately but the data recorded in video forms may also be instrumental in gauging extent of appropriacy

in interpretation of discourse with nexus of supplementary suprasegmental features. However, getting data in video recorded form is always not so easy owing to various concerns of the participants. These concerns might include their reluctance in showing their identities; fear of information recorded to be shared; and concern over unethical use of the video recordings. Therefore, in case of classroom sessions, due to lack of consent of the participants, I was able to collect only 5 video recordings leaving the reset of 25 in audio form. On the contrary, all the conference presentations were arranged in video form. The recordings of these presentations were contributed by the conference organizers being competent authorities.

3.9 Data Analysis

I identified the facts and categorized it according to the research questions and the purpose of the research. Facts regarding the purposes, advantages and disadvantages of code-switching in classrooms and conference have been identified. Observance and nonobservance of Gricean maxims have been identified and contextually analyzed.

3.9.1 Analysis of Questionnaires

I distributed the questionnaires among students in different classes from February, 2014 to May, 2014. The entire survey was conducted in four months. For this study, I selected two hundred participants of postgraduate level from Quaid-e-Azam University, National University of Modern Languages and Air University through convenience sampling. The analysis was conducted through the software SPSS. I entered the data in SPSS sheet. The analysis was presented in the form of charts and tables. The statistical method was helpful in arranging and analyzing data quantitatively. Finally, following quantitative results were evaluated by using Statistical techniques. Data was entered in SPSS by giving them different codes. After data entry procedure, following statistical procedures were conducted according to the nature and purpose of the research.

1. Relative Frequency Distribution: This method was used to find the frequency or percentage of the respondents for different responses. The use of frequency was very helpful in finding different facts about code-switching and the flouting or observance of Gricean Maxims in class rooms.

2. Comparative Study: Variables have been selected from demographic information for further comparative study. Comparative Study is beneficial in determining the relationship of different variables and responses.

The statistical results were very significantly verified further by extracting different examples from the recorded and transcribed data.

It was found that most of the participants did not return the questionnaires. 280 questionnaires have been distributed and I got 232 filled questionnaires. 25 questionnaires were not filled correctly and respondents left some questions unanswered. So, analysis was conducted through 200 properly filled questionnaires.

3.9.2 Analysis of Recordings

Audio and video recordings were not only significant in collecting data but these were also helpful in analyzing different aspects of language in academic discourse. Heap (1988) said that data collecting devices are very important in conducting any research and recoding of data serves as estrangement device in any research. The significance of this method cannot be negated for both description and analysis. I also found it purposeful especially to validate data during analysis because I was able to listen the recordings again and again to get into the particular situation and without recordings there are chances that the researcher can be misled by supposition and inference. I found the recorded material very significant in analyzing the contextual use of language as recordings provide me the immediate opportunity of deep insight into different instances.

3.9.2.1 Transcription of Recorded Data

In Linguistics, transcription is symbolic and systematic representation of language or utterances. Pirie (1996) said that the recorded material may be transcribed for in depth study and it can be presented to others if they disagree or oppose with the researcher. I transcribed the data and it was further used to support the arguments and examples were extracted to elaborate the point of view. The transcribed data was helpful in triangulating the questionnaires’ results as well as I built a relationship between different responses of the questionnaires and the recorded material. In academic disciplines, transcription has

100 become the essential part of qualitative research, especially in discourse analysis, phonetics and sociolinguistics. Initially, I used “dragon software” for data transcription. This software is speaker dependent as it identifies the voice of single speaker and transcribes the voice of that speaker. It does not transcribe the voice of multiple speakers. I used this software to transcribe three lectures as I found it difficult to use it. In recorded data the instructors used both English and Urdu language. This software transcribed English language correctly while does not suitable for the transcription of Urdu language. So, I manually typed the data which was a very tough and tedious task during this study.

Bird (2005) said that recorded data transcription is one of the important parts in qualitative analysis. This activity is designed to deal and unpack the data meanings of naturally occurring speech in all discipline. Transcription is a useful tool to convert original spoken language into written text to analyze and interpret different instances of data. Matheson (2007) said that data transcription reveals different facts to the researcher when he listens to the recorded data repeatedly and carefully. Furthermore, listening to the recorded data provides the opportunity to the researcher to get familiar with the data and he/she can easily find different and relevant themes from the recording.

Ochs (1988) described the ways of transcribing the data. The researcher should pen down the date of recording to retrieve the data. He/she should use some pseudonyms for the names of the participants as he/she is not supposed to disclose the identity of the participants. Ochs believed that the researcher should use different symbols to show different verbal activities like intonation pattern, silence, laugh, inaudibility, repetition etc. to builds reader’s understanding and enhance interest. If the conversation is in the form of turn taking, the researcher should mention it in dialogue form.

Oliver et al (2005) believed that in transcribing the data, many grammatical mistakes are left uncorrected because it can give the natural touch to the transcribed data and reader can easily understand the naturalistic behavior of the research participants. Uncorrected grammatical mistakes can be beneficial to analyze certain relevant themes from discourse/conversation.

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Bird (2005) said that communicating talking data means transcribing and interpreting the spoken data in a sound manner. He described two types of transcription, naturalism and denaturalism. Naturalism suggests that every bit of conversation should be transcribed in detail while denaturalism suggests removing idiosyncratic elements of speech like pauses, fillers, and other paralinguistic features. Bird (2005) believed that it is not necessary to include every bit of conversation in transcription. It may vary according to the purpose and demand of the research. These two methods of transcription are used to describe certain aspects of language. He claimed that in transcribed data, there are grammatical mistakes which are left uncorrected. He believed that it can be helpful in meaning making and exploring the implicit/ hidden meanings. In this way language seems quite natural. Bird said that in this way transcribed data goes beyond the level of standardization and the researcher got a fair chance of analyzing the data. On the other hand researcher should be vigilant and careful in analyzing the data through extraction of meaning and revelation through the interpretive intent.

Myer (2004) proposed that transcription techniques that spoken data can be transcribed by using various orthographic symbols. Linked expressions, partially uttered words, repetitions, unintelligible speech can be represented through various symbols. He suggested that the names of the speakers should be changed to sustain the anonymity of the speakers. Furthermore, he proposed that researchers can design their own transcription parameters in compliance with the standard conventions of transcription. Therefore, by considering Myer’s principle of transcription, I designed parameters based on nature of the data analyzed in this study. I used following symbols to describe different features of spoken language in the recorded data.

Use of symbols in Transcription

 T Teacher  S Student  ….. Silence  /L/ Laugh  /i/ Inaudible  /r/ Repetition  Times New Roman Words uttered in English language

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 Bold letters Words uttered in Urdu language  MP Male participant of Conference  FM Female participant of Conference  […...] Utterance in parenthesis show that actually it is uttered in English-Urdu language and it is translated in English Language for the understanding of English reader

3.9.2.2 Recording of Lectures

Fifteen female classroom sessions were recorded. Seven lectures were video recorded while eight lectures were audio recorded as some teachers were hesitant for video recording. For female classrooms, almost 755 minutes were recorded and 61507 words were transcribed. The variation of recorded time was due to the performance of activities in classrooms. Lectures on different topics were delivered by the female instructors and different activities were performed accordingly.

Table 3.6: Detailed View of Transcribed Data of female Classroom Sessions Lecture Instructor Duration Transcribed Mode of No words Recording 1 F1 1:2:30 5477 Audio 2 F2 50 minutes 2205 Video 3 F3 1:3:00 6240 Audio 4 F4 01:07:15 6264 Audio 5 F5 40 minutes 2635 Video 6 F6 38 minutes 2834 Video 7 F7 50 minutes 3332 Audio 8 F8 50 minutes 1657 Audio 9 F9 49 minutes 5586 Audio 10 F10 1:3:21 4782 Audio 11 F11 58:3:00 4692 Audio 12 F12 51:40:00 3242 Audio 13 F13 57:4:30 4678 Audio 14 F14 55:23:00 4612 Audio 15 F15 34:28:00 3265 Audio

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Lectures on different topics were recorded like ‘process of articulation’, ‘speaking’, ‘lexical semantics and word relations’, ‘vapor pressure’, ‘speaking drills’ (practice), ‘discourse markers’, ‘punctuation’, ‘paragraph writing’, ‘organic chemistry’, ‘fractional distillation apparatus’, ‘theme of perfection in human life’, ‘behaviorism’, ‘java scripts’, ‘relativity theory’ and ‘quantum mechanics’ respectively. Table 3.6 describes the duration of classroom and total words transcribed for each female instructor.

Table 3.7: Detailed View of Transcribed Data of male Classrooms Sessions Lecture No Instructor Duration Transcribed Mode of words Recording 1 M1 1:03:38 4239 Video 2 M2 44:41 3046 Audio 3 M3 45:34 5416 Audio 4 M4 51:57 7298 Audio 5 M5 51:53 3768 Audio 6 M6 50:54 3388 Audio 7 M7 54:08 3514 Audio 8 M8 50:01 3175 Audio 9 M9 40:39 4145 Audio 10 M10 43:01 2739 Audio 11 M11 43:11 3172 Audio 12 M12 44:26 4352 Audio 13 M13 1:04:01 4232 Video 14 M14 59:38 3842 Audio 15 M15 57:10 4256 Audio

Similarly fifteen male classroom sessions were recorded. Not only female instructors, some male instructors were hesitant in facing video camera and they preferred audio recording. For male instructors, 765 minutes were recorded and transcribed and total words transcribed were 64834. Different instructors brought different topics under discussion like ‘classical mechanics’, ‘root test and arithmetic ratio’, ‘business plan or organizational plan’, ‘ethical and moral doctrine’, ‘integral test

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for infinite series’, ‘ranking and faculty of different universities’, ‘electrical field and magnetic field’, ‘internal energy and expansion’, ‘flow of current’, ‘law of reflection’, ‘Taylor series’, ‘language varieties’, ‘numerical on time line and cost utilization’ and ‘cognitive linguistics’ respectively. Table 3.7 gives the brief overview of the recorded and transcribed data.

3.10.2.3 Recording of conferences

Two conferences were video recorded. For this research, 40 presenters were selected. Ten male participants and ten female participants were selected from ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ organized by Islamic International University on 14-16 November, 2014. The recorded data reveals variety of themes presented in the conference.

Table 3.8: Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ Presenter Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation MP1 16:23 Video MP2 14:44 Video MP3 12:07 Video MP4 20 Video MP5 13 Video MP6 16 Video MP7 15:13 Video MP8 10 Video MP9 18 Video MP10 10:51 Video

The total duration of the recording of female participants in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ was almost 139 minutes. Ten male and ten female participants were selected from “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”.

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Table 3.9: Details of presentations by female presenters in the conference titled, ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ Presenter Duration (in minutes) Mode of Presentation FP1 15:41 Video FP2 10 Video FP3 21 Video FP4 14:38 Video FP5 10 Video FP6 12:38 Video FP7 14:47 Video FP8 16:50 Video FP9 12:27 Video FP10 11 Video Table 3.10: Details of presentation of male presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics” Presenters Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation MP11 19:39 Video MP12 20 Video MP13 16:04 Video MP14 28 Video MP15 10 Video MP16 22 Video MP17 21 Video MP18 16:51 Video MP19 19 Video MP20 12 Video

The total duration of the recording of female presenters in ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ is 163 minutes and 42 seconds.

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Table 3.11: Detailed view of presentation of female presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics” Presenters Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation FM11 15:31 Video FM12 17:13 Video FM13 24 Video FM14 10 Video FM15 10 Video FM16 10 Video FM17 30 Video FM18 26 Video FM19 11 Video FM20 10 Video

3.10 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

Jha (2008) pointed out that qualitative data provides the detailed description of surroundings, contexts, behaviors, attitudes, experiences and thoughts which is extracted from any records, transcriptions, case history and documents while quantitative analysis is beneficial for finding the frequencies and the differences in frequency by using statistical approach. Patton said that quantitative research is also known as hypothesis testing research. Jha (2008) said that these statistical tests are significant in exploring the appropriateness to confirm or counter the research hypothesis and this procedure is deductive and considered as scientifically proved. He believed that qualitative and quantitative research methods are the two opposites of continuum, as the former is related the empirical data analysis while later is related to statistical data analysis. He presented the idea of interactive continuum, in which researchers can utilized both methods for precision and accuracy. Although, this mixed method approach is not new, Moulay (1970, as cited in Jha 2008) suggested that multiple-perspective research is the soul of modern scientific and empirical research.

The transcribed data reveal all the activities and interactions in the classroom and conference. The second step of data analysis inference from the recorded and transcribed data. During this stage, themes were developed and extracted further from the transcribed

107 data. Inferences were developed about the participants (teachers and students) of postgraduate classrooms and the presenters of the conferences. The analysis of questionnaire was very helpful in deducing and supporting facts. The analysis was distributed thematically as chapter no 4 deals different issues regarding code-switching like the purposes of code-switching and flouting and observance of Gricean Maxims while switching code from one language to another. Moreover, this chapter deals with the authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in exploring the relevance (speaker should remain relevant), appropriate contribution of information in a given context (in classrooms and conference presentation), sequence of information and clarity or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse. Examples were extracted from the transcribed data. Although code-switching and observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims are the most recurrent themes of this study; beside this, the study focuses on the attitudes and behaviors of the academicians towards the use of language. I tried to explore and understand the interactional behavior of the participants. Spindler and Spindler (1987) said that taking the natives’ is quite significant in exploring their attitudes and cultural knowledge. This cultural knowledge can help the researcher at the phase of data analysis to explore and explain the hidden behaviors. I tried to explore the interactional behaviors of the participants in natural environment. The main focus of this study was the analysis of contextual use of language in academic discourse with the natural flow of language use in classrooms and conference. This study was conducted in bilingual context and the focus of this study is contextual use of language in academic discourse. The use of language in academic discourse is not treated as separate sentences; rather it is treated as speech acts and speech events.

During analysis, I explored the contextual use of code-switching. The instructors were mostly using two languages, English and Urdu. In some lectures Urdu was dominant while in others English was dominant. In some lectures, it was difficult for me to find the dominance of any language because the instructor was continuously moving back and forth in the use of these two languages. (English and Urdu) I read the transcription repeatedly to find the purpose of code-switching and sometimes I consulted the audio and video recording again and again to clarify the idea. Chapter four is related to the analysis of questionnaire. Beside this, it is related to the purpose of code-switching

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in academic discourse. The responses of the participants collected through questionnaires were discussed with reference to recorded data. The open ended questions of the questionnaire were significant in data analysis as the detailed answers of most of the participants reveal the purpose, advantages and disadvantages of the use of particular language in academic discourse. Some students reveal their problems of language proficiency and language use in classrooms. Chapter 4 also reveals the purposes/context of observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims in academic discourse. Grice presented the cooperative principal which focuses on the maxim of quality, maxim of quantity, maxim of manner and maxim of relevance. Thus, this research used Grice cooperative principal and Myer-Scotten’s Markedness Model as a yardstick to analyze the contextual use of language with reference to code-switching in academic discourse.

3.11 Delimitation

As I found limited time and resources, I delimited my study on the following factors:

1. Only spoken academic discourse (classrooms and conferences) was researched and evaluated. 2. This study is broad in its scope but it is very difficult to work on every aspect of language. So, this study focuses on selected purposes of code-switching and its advantages and disadvantages. 3. English to Urdu and Urdu to English code-switching is brought into consideration for this study. 4. Grice (1976) put forward his cooperative principle which is covered by four maxims of quantity, quality, relevance and manner. Due to limited time this study focuses on maxims of quantity, relevance and manner only. Maxim of quality is deals truth value i.e. speaker should make not provide false information and should not say what he/she believes false; it is difficult to evaluate whether someone is telling the truth or not and whether he/she has evidence of what he/she is saying. So, maxim of quality is not included in this study. Moreover, this work has no intention to criticize and compare the teaching style of bilingual instructors

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and presenters i.e. one who code-switches or who do not code-switch in classrooms and presentations. 5. Only post-graduate students and Conference presenters (Linguistics and Literature) were selected for this study. 6. Data was collected through questionnaires and recordings, as I found these methods as the most suitable tool for data collection

3.12 Ethical Considerations

I took prior permission from the participants for recording of lectures. Some participants were willing to record their lectures while others were quite hesitant in classrooms recording. I showed them permission letter which I obtained from my parent university to collect data and the approved copy of my research proposal. I assured them that I shall maintain their anonymity and shall not disclose their identity. Furthermore, I persuade them that this research will not harm their professional and social life in any way. Afterwards, they were willing for recording the data. Some participants were not agree for video recording; so their lectures were audio recorded. Some participants who were initially agree for their lecture recordings but afterwards they refused me. I did not pressurize them for recording. I convinced the students to give unbiased responses. The data of conference presentations was collected from conference organizers and I assured them that these video recordings will be used for research purpose only. They cooperated and provided me video recording of conferences.

3.13 Summary

This chapter provides the detailed philosophical background of the methods selected and the appropriateness of the methods according to the purpose and objectives of this study. Furthermore, this chapter provides overall plan of the research, techniques of data collection, data transcription and data analysis. This research is blend of qualitative and quantitative methods to provide authentic and valid findings. Overall, this chapter reveals the process of data collection, process of data transcription and data analysis in detail.

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CHAPTER 4

Data Analysis

4.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the results of the data collected through questionnaires and recordings. Statistical techniques were used to represent the findings in the form of tables and graphs. The data collected through questionnaires was analyzed through SPSS software. The frequencies of the responses given by the students are authenticated by giving the examples from the recorded (audio/video) and transcribed data of classroom sessions. In each question, students indicated their level of agreement or disagreement with the given statements related to language attitudes. Scores of each question ranges from 1 to 5, with lower values indicate the level of disagreement. Furthermore, the authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in exploring the relevance, contribution of appropriate information in a given context, sequence of information and clarity or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse are explored in this chapter. More specifically this study focuses on maxim of relevance, maxim of quantity and maxim of manner. For the convenience of the readers, this chapter is divided into two sections. The first section focuses on the purpose, advantages and disadvantages of code- switching in classrooms and conference presentations while the second section pertains to the pragmatic inquiry of academic discourse with specific reference to Gricean Cooperative principle.

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Section 1

Description of Demographic Information

4.2 Descriptive Statistic of Demographic Variables

For this study, hundred male and hundred female participants (students) filled the questionnaires from three different universities of Islamabad. Fifteen male and fifteen female classrooms were recorded (audio/video).

Table 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of Sample Gender Frequency Percentage Male 100 50 Female 100 50 Total 200 100

162 participants were from 19-25 years age group, 38 participants were from 26- 35 years age group. Table 4.2 shows the age, frequency and percentage of the sample selected for this research.

Table 4.2: Age group wise Distribution of sample Age Frequency Percentage 19-25 years 162 81 26-35 years 38 19 Total 200 100 I collected data from three different universities where students from different areas of Pakistan were enrolled. When they were questioned, “In what language(s) have you been mostly taught in your school, college and university?” I got various frequencies about Urdu, English and both (Urdu and English). Moreover, most of the students added different regional languages which are used as a medium of instruction in their schools, colleges and universities.

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Graph 4.1: Languages Used in Schools

68.9 70

Percent 30 14.7 16.3 20

0 English Urdu English & Urdu

Graph 4.1 indicates that majority of students (68.9%) were mostly taught in both English and Urdu languages in their schools, 14.7% students were taught in English and 16.3% were taught in Urdu. Graph 4.2 shows that majority (79.3%) of the students was taught in English and Urdu language in the college while 13.5% were taught in English and 7.3% in Urdu.

Graph 4.2: Languages Used by Students in Colleges

Percentage

13.5 7.3

English Urdu English & Urdu

79.3

Graph 4.3 indicates that majority (72%) of students were taught in English and Urdu language in the universities while 26% students were taught in English and only 2% in Urdu.

Graph 4.3: Languages Used by Students in University 113

72 80

40 26 Percent 30

20 2 10

0 English Urdu English & Urdu

It is clear from the above description that most of the instructors use two languages (English and Urdu) as a medium of instruction in school, college and universities. It shows that code-switching is quiet prevalent in Pakistani classrooms. Interestingly, some students mentioned that instructors use regional languages as well as a medium of instruction. Table 4.3 gives the detailed picture of the percentage and the frequency of the regional languages used by instructors as a medium of instruction in schools and colleges.

Table 4.3: Regional Languages Used as a Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges

Other Languages Frequency Percentage Pashto 2 12.5

Punjabi 2 12.5

Sindhi 8 50.0

Arabic 2 12.5 Brushaski 2 12.5

Question number 5 deals with the use of languages with classmates, teachers and family. It is quite clear from the responses of question number 5 that the languages used by the students in classrooms are quite different from the languages used to converse with family, classmates, teachers and staff. Table 4.4 shows that majority of respondents used Urdu language for communication with their classmates while 4.7% respondents used English language and 26.5% used both English and Urdu.

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Table 4.4: Languages Used for Communication with Classmates in Universities

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 8 4.7

Urdu 117 68.8

English & Urdu 45 26.5

Table 4.5 indicates that majority of the students use both English and Urdu (62.5 %) while some students used Urdu (25%) and the others use English (12.5%).

Table 4.5: Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Teachers in Universities

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 24 12.5

Urdu 48 25.0

English & Urdu 120 62.5

Table 4.6 demonstrates that majority (74.9%) of the respondents commonly used Urdu language for communication with their staff while 4.4% used English and 20.8% used both English and Urdu languages for communication.

Table 4.6: Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Staff in Universities

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 8 4.4

Urdu 137 74.9

English & Urdu 38 20.8

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Table 4.7 shows that respondents mainly used Urdu language for communication with their family while some respondents (7.9 %) used English and 19.2% used both English and Urdu. Table 4.7: Language Commonly Used for Communication with Family

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 14 7.9

Urdu 129 72.9

English & Urdu 34 19.2

The responses of question number 5 reveals that some participants use regional languages with their family as well as classmates as later either shared same regional language or understood each other’s regional language. The details of the use of regional languages are quite clear from Table 4.8. The results indicate that most of the participants used Punjabi to converse with their friends and family. On the other hand some participants used Pashto, Sinbhi, Balochi, Siaiki, Hindko, Chitrali and Persian. The results of the study indicates that the use of regional languages depends upon the residential region of the respondents like the respondents who belong to different areas of Punjab usually use Punjabi and Siraiki, the respondents who belong to Sindh usually use Sindhi and the respondents who were from Northern areas of Pakistan use Chitrali (Chitral) and Brushiski (Gilgit and Baltistan).

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Table 4.8: Regional Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Classmates, Teachers, Staff and Family

Regional languages Frequency Percentage

Pashto 14 17.9

Punjabi 22 28.2

Sindhi 10 12.8

Balochi 6 7.7

Saraiki 16 20.5

Hindko 2 2.6

Chitrali 2 2.6

Brushaski 4 5.1

Persian 2 2.6

The results clearly indicate that all the languages are important and used as a medium of communication. In Pakistan, students use different languages to converse with different people as most of the students’ communicate with teachers in Urdu and English while they use only Urdu to communicate with friends. On the other hand, they use regional languages in their homes. This study focuses on the use of English and Urdu languages in academic discourse.

4.3 Students Views about Language of Instruction

Five likert scale was used to get the response from the participants. The first thirteen statements were related to the use of language and code-switching in classrooms and rest of the statements focused on the Gricean maxims. All statements were analyzed and their frequency, percentage and mean score were calculated. The results of the questionnaires explicate the significance of the code-switching in classrooms. The results of the statements of the questionnaires are authenticated with the transcribed data of the recording. The first and second question is related to the use of language in classroom.

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Table 4.9 indicates that 29 % respondents agreed and 50 % students strongly agreed with the statement while 8 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents was agreed that learning the course in more than one (English and Urdu) language is beneficial for me; While, 5% of the respondents don’t know. Mean score is 4.05.

Table 4.9: Distribution of respondents according to Statement 1

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Learning the course in Strongly Disagree 16 8 more than one Disagree 16 8 (English and Urdu) language is beneficial Don’t know 10 5 4.05 for me. Agree 58 29

Strongly Agree 100 50

Table 4.9 indicates that 32 % respondents agreed and 30 % strongly agreed, while 64 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed that Learning the course in one language makes it easy for me to understand. However, 5% of the sample doesn’t know. Mean score is 3.53.

Table 4.10: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 2

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Learning the course Strongly Disagree 60 30 in one language Disagree 54 27 makes it easy for me to understand. Don’t know 10 5 3.53

Agree 64 32

Strongly Agree 12 6

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The results of the first two statements show that students prefer English and Urdu as a medium of instruction in classrooms. The description of the first two responses leads us to find different purposes of code-switching in postgraduate classrooms as most of the postgraduate students agree that instructors should use more than one language as a medium of communication in classrooms.

4.4 Purposes of Code-Switching

I found that code-switching performs various functions in postgraduate classrooms. This research concentrates on ten different functions of code-switching. Different examples are extracted from the transcribed data and explained with the contextual use of two languages (English and Urdu). Most of the times teachers remain unaware of the importance and functions of code-switching in classrooms and they switch their code from one language to another unintentionally. Instructors’ switch their code from one language to another according to the context. In Pakistan, two languages are used as a medium of instruction in universities. Hence, the focus of this research is to find contextual functions/purposes of code-switching. Examples were extracted from the transcribed data to elaborate contextual switching in classroom sessions. In this research, ten various functions of code-switching that I frequently observed in the transcribed data are identified and explained with the prism of pragmatics.

4.4.1 Elucidation

Instructors clarify the ideas while they switch their code from one language to another. Majority of the students use two languages in classrooms as a medium of instruction and they feel that learning the course in more than one language is beneficial for them. This study explores the contextual use of code-switching from one language to another.

In the following example the instructor delivered a lecture on vaporization (Chemistry). When the student asked question, she switched her code to Urdu to reply the query. I found that there is less code-switching when the instructor explained the relevant idea/topic during the lecture. Following example shows that the instructors used Urdu language to explain the concepts for the convenience of the students. 119

T: “But A—this is less volatile and it will start condensing here and this will fall back and the other liquid will pass away. This is more volatile and this process continuous and the liquid in which this distillation flask it become richer in and the less volatile. A ki concentration yaha increase hoti jaye gi aur gradually ye process continue hoga [the concentration of A will increase at this point and this process will continue gradually] B would be –/i/--. So this is the sactionating flask sactional distillation flask”

S: “madam volatile kia hay?”[Madam, what is volatile?]

T: “volatile wohote hai jo asaani se vapours me change ho jai. Jaisey is me ye volatile hainna ye asaani se vapours me change hojati he na ye to 78 pe to ye saari ki saari vapours ban jati hay. Us se pehley bi ye ziada vapour banati he.[Volatile means the substance which can be converted to vapors easily, like this substance which can be converted to vapors easily at the degree of 78 or even before this temperature.] ”

In second example the instructor delivered the lecture on “theory of speaking” by Delhyms, she explained the relevant ideas by using two languages (English and Urdu). I observed that the instructor explained the major concepts in English language, later she realized that the students could not understand the main idea of the topic. The intention of the sinstructor is to elucidate tye major points.

“So that is related to the series of events. As in the very beginning I have told you that this is the topic of speaking, is kay baad jab may apna lecture end karon gi tu may ye nhi kahon gi kay hum speaking ka topic dobara parhen gay. Look beginning tu beginning may rahey gi or end phir end may hi rahay ga. [There is proper start and end in every piece of conversation, for example I will not announce the topic like “speaking” at the end of the lecture. I shall announce the topic in the beginning of every lecture]”

In classrooms code-switching is a tool to explain different home tasks assigned by the instructor. In third example, the instructor elucidated about the assignment. One of the

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students asked about the topic and the word limit. She explained the details using two languages (English and Urdu).

T:“Aisay he thori hota hai ke usay bus likh dete hain, usko explain bhi toh karna hota hai. Three thousand words aaram se ban jayenge, main bata doongi kaisay banainge [It is not the way to write; you need to explain every point and it will be nearly three thousand words. I shall tell you how to write”]. Don’t worry about it. Alright, now they are giving you the concept of verb. For this, componential analysis, we have looked at the nouns actually. When they said a human or we said boy, man, girl or woman or male female. Now they are giving you some idea about the verb. That how verbs can be different in their meaning in some sense; again we are talking about sense. They are giving the concept of the word ‘go’. G O go. Which means jana?”

I observed that the instructors who taught English Language or any other functional courses of English did less code-switching than the instructors who taught pure Sciences and Arts subjects. The instructor of English subject wanted to elaborate the meaning of apparently to her class and she said “Quite honestly you are looking pretty today; this is a sincere suggestion or comment on anyone. Alright, the next one is apparently, apparently ka meaning kya hai? That is visible that is something which is zahiri tor per [What is the meaning of apparently? It means visible or apparent.”] The instructors intend to explain the relative meaning of certain idea, as the instructor said that the meanings of a single word can be different for everyone. She gave the idea of relativity of meaning like she said “Not even society, it varies from person to person. What is normal for you might be abnormal for me. I mean in any in some cases, normal ka jo concept hai. Jis tarah hum keh rahay hain ke do /i/ mere liye barray bannay ki definition kuch aur hai. [Everyone has different perspective and meaning of words like the concept of elder/senior is different for everyone]. You know, so that is the difference of the concept /i/”

The data reveals, often the instructor elucidated his/her idea through power point slides on multimedia. In the following example the instructor elucidated the idea of tap and flap by showing different positions of mouth in PowerPoint slides.

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“Ok now we discuss the difference between tap and flap. When you say /r/ what is happening? You see this is the roof of the tongue and this is how the contact is taking place ooper and then this. When you say, I don’t know whether you would be able to pronounce it or not. It’s an English allophone, they use it instead of /t/ most of the time for example letter le’er instead of saying letter yani prolongable contact kay bjae angraiz kahtay hain le’er right got it? [It’s an English allophone; you might have heard that English pronounces some words with silent /t/ sound]. to kya ho raha hai basically kay jo alveolar stop tha which was prolong able us ko wo replace kis say kar rahay hain? with a flap aur flap say kya ho raha hai? its momentary matlab us ka contact wohe alveolar hai it’s a very slight and weak sound.[so what are we doing? The prolonged alveolar stop is replaced by flap and it is because of momentary contact with alveolar].”

4.4.2 Giving Instructions

Through the close analysis of the recorded data, I observed that instructors code- switched to instruct the students as they felt that it would be easy for them to understand the instructions. In the given example the instructor asked the students to mark their attendance on attendance sheet. She instructed the student to sign the attendance sheet, she switched her code from English to Urdu; as she said “Attendance sheet pay ap log is page pay sign kar lo [Please sign attendance sheet and mark your attendance]”. OK. Do you have any idea about speaking?”

The instructors code-switched to instruct the student to change the seating arrangement; she noticed that it might be difficult for the student to see the writing board from that place; as she said “Please come a bit forward. Akbar yahan a jain [Come here Akbar], board is not visible from that place”

In the following example, the instructor elaborated the idea of essay writing. She instructed the students to move from major to minor details. Furthermore, she asked the students to arrange the details in logical order. She switched her code from English to Urdu language during this event. Here, the intention of the instructor is to instruct the students appropriately in essay writing. In her own words:

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“Things to keep in mind of writing descriptive essay are, give plenty of questions, concrete details involving all the five senses so that the reader can utilize the thing being described. Give all the detail first and then build on impression around them. Theek hay [Right].. pehlay major points btana hay us kay baad minor or sub points discuss karnay ahn [First of all you will describe some major details and after that you will write some minor details]”. Present the detail in such a way that the reader is interested in reading without stopping from beginning to end. Give logical pattern to the details important and broader details come from the minor one. Hmmm.. What is this? What is this point? Why? Why we need to talk about the major ideas first and then the minor ideas. It’s normal.”

4.4.3 Translation

Instructors often translate from English to Urdu language for the convenience of the students. In the following example the instructor told the meaning of particular word in different contexts. She switched to Urdu language to confirm from the students about the clarity of the ideas under discussion. In the following example, she translated from English to Urdu as different words carry different meanings when they are translated into Urdu language.

“That the same verb and the same concept ‘go’ in English has its three different kinds of manifestations or different meanings in terms of its sense. Right? Number one, it can be positional. Positional means it can be used in the sense of the position, jagah ka [position].”

Similarly, the instructors translated when liked to emphasize. In the following example, she explained the theme in English language. Initially, she gave the example in English language; then repeated it in Urdu language. Although the students of postgraduate level can understand the sentence like “he went crazy”, the translation in Urdu language may be for emphasis on that particular idea.

“We will discuss Urdu examples also. And number three “go” comes in some of identification sense, where it does not mean positional or even possessional but it has some sense of identification. For example, Max went from being a rational gentleman to

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being a stark demoniac. Jaise aap kehte hain [as you said] he got, he went crazy. Wo pagal hogaya [He went crazy].”

4.4.4 Changing/Introducing the Topic

Topic shift and introducing new topic which may be difficult for the students is another reason of code-switching. For example, in the beginning of lecture, the instructor was discussing the idea of attitudes and motivation. After giving the basic ideas with examples, she moved to another topic “attention” and said “Aur koi cheez. Ap ke jo habits hoti hen, jis cheez se ap familiar hen jis se ap familiar nhe hen, wo b effect kr skta ha. Acha ab jo hum topic start kren gay, wo ha, ‘Attention’[There are different factors which affect your attention i.e familiarity. Now we shall discuss the topic of ‘attention’ in detail].”

In the following example, the instructor is delivering her lecture on essay writing; during the lecture, one student ask the question “whether the punctuation will be the part of the exam or not”. The instructor replied and again started teaching essay writing.

“Nai bachay [No my boy] punctuation was not included our in our amm… Course outline. OK! Ye diagram dekhain [Look at this diagram now], please look at this diagram that you have in your…That is on page number 50. And you can see the diagram tells us this… this actually talks about different units of an essay. A formal essay structure and the first part, first unit is introductory paragraph in which you have thesis statement so topics and u might well… this is this is actually a… basically the diagram is about an argumentative essay right but we are talking about any essay general structure of the essay right? OK then you have body, first you have introductory paragraph then you have body.”

In the following example, initially, the instructor talked about listening. She asked from the students about the clarity of idea. When she completed her idea of speaking, she further moved to the idea of symbols in language, she switched her code from English to Urdu while shifting her topic from speaking to symbols.

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“T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der bad ap bolo gay na [Once you will be listener while the other time you will be speaker]. You will take the place of a speaker. Theek hay [right]. That is a role play kay kabhi ap listener ho gay kabhi speaker ho gay [So this a kind of role play, at one time you will be listener and the other time you will be listener]. The idea of speaking is clear now? Ok. What is speaking? Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ Ok [If you want to ask question, you can ask]. Now move towards symbol. Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha ap un ko use karo gay na [Symbols are saved in your mind and you can use these symbols according to situation/context]. Question pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay teacher is teaching and you are standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay ga kay may poch lon kay kia may ander ajaon? [The situation is you are standing near the classroom door and you want to ask for permission to enter the room, you will ask from teacher to come in and utilize he symbols which are saved in your mind].”

All the above mentioned examples reveal that instructors switch their code from one language to another when they intend to change the topic or introduce some new topics.

4.4.5 Asking Question

Instructors switched their code when they intended to make the question comprehensible for the students. In the following example, the students were unable to reply the question when the instructor asks them in English language. In the following example, the instructor explained the idea of “proximity and understanding” in an interactive classroom.

T: “Aur proximity me kia hota ha? [What is the effect of proximity?]”

S: “Ziada achi understanding ho gi [Less distance may create good understanding]”

T: “Acha distance kitna hona chahyay? [What is appropriate distance between listener and speaker?]”

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S1: “Ma’am moderate distance hona chahyay [Madam, distance should be moderate]”. (The instructor approved the answer by nodding her head and repeated the answer)

T: “Na itna close ho k ap us ko achay tariqay se perceive na kr sken or na he itna ziada distance hona chahyay k ap ko bilkul b us cheez k features na nazr ayen. Is k ilawa koi cheez? [Less distance may hinder the process of perception or more distance may create a blurred idea about the picture.”

In the following example, the instructor explained the contextual meanings of different verbs of Urdu language. She elaborated the idea with example “karna [do]”. The instructor explained her point of view in Urdu and English language and the students participated using both English and Urdu languages during discussion.

T: “Toh ab iss ‘done’ ko hum kya kahainge? Ye bhi concrete hai naa? Duniya ke saray verbs yahan teen manifestations to nahin honge naa. [So, what is the meaning of “done” here? Is this concrete? All the verbs do not carry three manifestations.]”

S: “Zaruri hai ke sab verbs positional, possessional aur identificational he hon. [Is this necessary that all the verbs should be positional, possessional or identificational? ”

T: “No, no! That is what I am saying. That’s why I am giving you the example of do. It has emotional, abstract and concrete meanings. Ye concrete word hai [This is a concrete word]. You’re done.”

S: “Ma’am inn teeno main se kis main ayega ye? [In which category, we can place this word?”

T: “Ye concrete hai. Concrete verb hai. /r/ Do ka hum ne kaha hai naa concrete form, abstract form and emotional form. [This is concrete as we have said about “do” that it has concrete form, abstract form and emotional form].”

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Different examples from the transcribed data reveal that the use of two languages (English and Urdu) is helpful in understanding and clarifying the concepts. Code- switching for the convenience of students, brings clarity to the vision and students are able to ask the question, if they feel difficulty in understanding the complicated concepts. The results of question 3 reveal that 44% participants disagree and 24 % participants are strongly disagree with the statement that “it confuses me when the instructor switches from one language to another” while 12 % agree and 14% strongly agree. Mean score of this statement is 2.48. It can be inferred from the statistical results that majority of the participants agree that code-switching is helpful in clarifying the difficult concepts

Table 4.11: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 3

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

It confuses me Strongly Disagree 48 24 when the teacher Disagree 88 44 switches from one

language to another. Don’t know 12 6 2.48

Agree 24 12

Strongly Agree 28 14

Often, the instructors delivered the whole lecture in English language but they switched their code from English to Urdu when they intend to enquire from students about the understanding of topic. For example, the instructor described the relationship between volume and Pressure in Physics classrooms session. To enquire about the understanding of students, he switched his code to Urdu language and used the

expression “theek hai [right]” and “samajh aa rahi hay is baat ki [everybody can understand me?]"

T: “The volume will by a volume V1. Theek Hai [Right]”The volume decreases and the pressure will increase. Now what will happen? Some of the great molecules they will pass through this porous step and will come into this region. When the gaseous molecules come in this region the piston, this will make the piston on the right hand side to move in

127 this direction. You know! And this is the volume V2. This is the volume V1 and this is the volume V2 by which the piston moves towards the right hand side. Now again the pressure P1 and P2 they will attain their original value, the pressure P1 and P2 will attain their original value. Why? Because, you increase the pressure on this side but some of the molecules leave this side on the tube and when they enter into this side. And when the pressure increased over here, the piston moves in the backward direction. And when it goes in the backward direction the pressure P2 once again is at hand, real hand. Samjh aa rai hai iss baat ki [Everybody can understand the concept?]”

4.4.6 Building Argument

Code-switching plays a vital role in building the argument. The recorded data reveals that students and teachers exchange their ideas in interactive classrooms. In first example the instructor is teaching punctuation, she read from the book and asked the students to punctuate it; the students punctuate and then an argument started whether the answer is wrong or right.

“T: for instance, “My sister wants food again the day when California becomes an island”

T: mam comma (,) “day” sa pahly ay ga ! day k bad ay ga mam [We can place comma before the word day]

T: when California becomes an island is that an independent clause?

S: yes!

T: this is not an independent clause! Come on there is when! So whenever there is when after these subordinating conjunctions coming they are dependent clauses not independent clauses.

S: mam ya ghalat b tu ho sakta ha,, ya likha uno na lika hua hana k errors and…… [Madam, that may be wrong.. as its mentioned here that errors and ….]

T: so you have to eliminate that.

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S: mam ya ghalat………. [Madam, it may be wrong]

T: I don’t think so, for me this could b a right sentence or if we are put the semicolon aware so that must be for instant sa pahlay! [We can place semicolon before, ‘for instant’]

Ok,,, for instant sa pahlay because we are to join independent clauses [Ok before for instant because we are joining two independent clauses]”

In another example, the instructor talked on speaking and listening. She explained the whole process of speaking and listening. During lecture, one student connected the process of speaking and listening to understanding. An argument built between the teacher and students. It is worth noticing that students can build the argument easily when they use both languages (English and Urdu) because code-switching is helpful in communicating ideas. Furthermore, it seems an important floor holding strategy, especially when students lack vocabulary.

“T: Look, language is one of the important aspects of socio linguistics./r/ ….. the theoretical background of speaking … theoretical background… or the theory of speaking is given by Dell Hymes /r/ one of the important aspect of sociolinguistics by Delhymes.

T: Mam, kis nay?[ Madam, who has given the concept?]

T: Dell Hymes. Ok, now what is speaking? Basically, when you read and when you listen, you encode certain messages and when you speak you decode that message. Theek hay [Right]. Kuch symbols hotay han which are saved in your mind and when you speak in certain situation, you decode that message. Jo synmols hotay han ap kay mind may, jab ap kisi specific situation may enter hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un symbols ko use kartay ho. So that is speaking. [some symbols are saved in our mind and use them in different situations. This is called speaking.]

T: Mam phir ye understanding kay liay bi tu use ho saktay han. [Madam, these (symbols) can be used for understanding as well]

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T: understanding? Or kis chez ki understanding? [Understanding? Od what?]

T: Mam may tu us may sun raha ho ga or understand kar raha hon ga? [I will be listening and understanding as well]

T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der baa dap bolo gay na. You will take the place of a speaker. Theek hay. That is a role play kay kabhi ap listener ho gay kabhi speaker ho gay. [At one time, you will be listening but after some time, you will speak as well and you will take the place of speaker. Right. This is role play, at one time you will be listener while the other time you will be speaker.] The idea of speaking is clear now? Ok. What is speaking?

T: Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ [Do you want to ask any question?]

T: Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha nap un ko use karo gay na. Question pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay teacher is teaching and you are standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay ga kay may poch lon kay kia may ander ajaon? [Yes, these symbols are saved in your mind.When you want to ask some questions, you use these symbols. You may use these symbols for permission from your instructor to enter the class like May I come in?] So what you will do? You will utilize those symbols which are saved in your mind.

In another example, the instructor gave detailed description of Organizational plan. He discussed the process and significance of organizational plan. He told the students about the contribution of partners, top managers and their profile. While he was dealing with the process of developing organizational plan; students raised different questions and gave their points of view. In this example, the instructor was proficient in English language while students seemed less proficient.

“T: It could be or it could not be. I want to know the structures of the organization. I want to know the partners of the organization. If there is partnership then I want to know the overall terms and then I want to know, Who are the top managers? And what is their profile? These are the basic things which you are giving me and

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providing me in any organizational plan. They you would also any succession plan that you may have. If you have partnership deeds /i/ you have to write the duties of the principals/r/ or you have to write the duties in accordance with the partnership. You have to write name of the partners.

S: Ye kon si deal ho gi? [Which deal is this?]

T: Sorry, ye partnership deal ho gi.[Sorry, this will be partnership deal.]

S: Is kay liay affidavit bi chahiye ho ga? [Affidavit will be needed for that.]

T: Nhi, [No] affidavit is something else. Affidavit is the document that says that I hereby give this information voluntarily or I solemnly say that the information that is provided is true information.

S: Sir, deed kia hay [Sir. What is deed?]

T: Deed is an agreement, which be between one to many and one to one and it is recognized by …

S: Sir is ka page number day den gay? [Sir, is it necessary to give its page number?]

T: han is ka page number day den gay or sath ho us ki copy bi laga den gay. Original deed nhi lagatay. [Yes, we have to give its page number and there is a need to attach its copy as well.] Kindly I would also advise you to look at meda website. Meda website has some business plan. They are not actually complete business plan. But they give you an idea of what kind of business plan you are going to make. There are three kinds of business plan which are somewhat equivalent to…. /i/

S: Us website may kia dia ho ga? /i/ [Could you please tell us the material of website?]

T: lekin unho nay kia kia hay [But, what they have done].. for certain businesses what they have done is, they have made a pre-feasibility strategy. All you have to

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do is, you have to go to that website, or is tarha kay jo chootay chootay businesses han, they have given the pre-feasibility strategy di hui hay [for minor business, they have given feasibility strategy].

I found many examples of building the argument while switching the code from one language to another. Here, I explained it with three examples. It is clear from the above examples that code-switching can be an effective strategy to hold floor and to build the confidence. I observed that the comfort level of students is high when they are allowed to ask the questions while switching their code from one language to another. Statements number 4, 5 and 6 are related to the proficiency of English language. Statement number four of questionnaire is that “the use of English with any other language weakens my English”

Table 4.12: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 4

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Mixing of English Strongly Disagree 26 13 and any other Disagree 82 41 language results in

weak English. Don’t know 10 5 2.92

Agree 46 23

Strongly Agree 36 18

Table 4.12 indicates that 23 percent respondents agreed, while 41 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed that Mixing of English and any other language results in weak English. However, 5% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.92.

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Table 4.13: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 5

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Mixing of Strongly Disagree 28 14 English and Disagree 86 43 mother tongue

weakens my Don’t know 28 14 2.69 English. Agree 36 18

Strongly Agree 22 11

Table 4.13 indicates that 18 percent respondents agreed, while 43 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed that Mixing of English and mother tongue weakens my English. However, 14% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.69.

The data reveals that students belong to different areas of Pakistan and they speak different regional languages or Urdu in home but the use of mother language and regional language is less evident in recorded data of classrooms. The results of statement 4 and statement 5 of questionnaire reveal that majority of the students agreed that the use of mother language and any other language do not hinder their progress in English language.

4.4.7 Telling Jokes or Recreation

The recorded data reveals the prominence of code-switching in some instances of telling jokes or enjoying any previous incidents for recreation. I observed that during the class of one hour, students get bored of the discussions/topic and instructor told them any joke and previous incident to increase students’ interests. Meanwhile, students started giving their response in that discussion and instructors started teaching again. When I went for recording the lectures, the instructors were hesitant. After having a way with words, some of them agreed. Interestingly, when I started lecture recording, the instructor told their students not to make a noise today as somebody is going to record this lecture; 133 he said “Ye device hay jis ka matlab hay k aj ap logon nay ziada shorn hi dalna. Ziada mazak nhi karna ye record ho ra hay (L) [This is recorder and it means you will not make a noise a lot. You will not make fun because this lecture is being recorded].

Contextual code-switching from one language to another is quite prevalent in classroom sessions, the instructor asked the students to tell the most embarrassing moment of their lives. Different students shared their life experiences, one girl shared the incident “Ma’am first time in my life I was travelled to Karachi by air,I don’t know well about plane and uhh the washroom system of the plane then I uhh uhh and then I walked with my brothers and when I came back from ahh I said that lota nahi tha![There was no ewer]/L/”and the rest of the class started laughing. Household works are usually related to women as they have to take care of their home and family. In a classroom, the instructor was teaching about attention span and multi-tasking nature of human beings. Most of the students gave example from their daily life; meanwhile a three naughty student (male) started giving the example of women as they worked in their homes and said:

S1: “Mam ye (women) washing kartay huay sochti hank ay jharo bi lagana hay [Madam, when women wash clothes, they think that they will have to mop the house]”

S2: “Mam piyaz kattay huay sochti han kay may nay koi or kaam b karna hay [While cutting onions, they think that they will have to do another task.]”

S3: “Mam cooking kartay huay sochti han kay kitna kaam baki hay [While cooking food, they think how much work has left now?]” /L/

On the other hand the instructor gave the relevant example which is not biased and said “jab ap commentary sunrahay hotay han or at the same time you study as well then your attention does not remain focused on one thing kabhi ap commentary suntay ho or kabhi reading kartay hao [Suppose you are listening commentary and at the same time you are studying as well, your attention does not remain focused on same task, it actually shift from one task to another.]”

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Here the intention of the speaker is to refresh the students after studying a new topic. Although, the instructors select the strategy of telling jokes and provide the opportunity to tell the jokes but I did not find any evidence of disrespect by students in classroom. It is clear from the results of the statement number 7, 8 and 9.

Table 4.14: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 7

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

I respect the instructor Strongly Disagree 26 13 more when he/she teach Disagree 62 31 in English.

Don’t know 24 12 3.13

Agree 36 18

Strongly Agree 52 26

The results manifests that majority of the respondents were disagreed that they respect the instructor because of the use of English language in classrooms. Mean score is 3.13.

I noticed another instance where the instructor discuss the past event of trip at the end of the lecture in an informal way and the students told different stories of their enjoyment and pleasure in a light mood.

T: “han bohat enjoy kia. Meray pas tu khair wo tha hi nhi lekin ap logon kay sath bohat enjoy kia. Bohat enjoy kia us din. [I enjoyed with you a lot]”

S: “Mam bataein na ap nay kia? [Madam, tell us, did you enjoy?]”

T: “Yes you have missed. We have enjoyed a lot.”

S: “Mam ham bi wahan thay. [Madam, we were also there]”

T: “Ap bethay kahan han. Ap tu havaon may uray han. [You were not there, actually you were flying in the air.]”

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S: “mam enjoy karnay kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy]”

T: “unhain pata tha ka ap ja rahay han. Unhain pata tha ka ap seat pay beth kay ja rahay han yeh tu nhi pata tha kay hawaon may urrr kay ja rahay han.” [Your parents know that you are going but they do not know what you were doing there] /i/

S: “mam enjoyment kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy.]”

T: “Theek hay, lekin apni safety ka bhi khayal rakhna chahiye.[Fine, but you should take care of yourself]”

S: “mam mosam bhi acha tha us din. [Madam, weather was very pleasant that day.]”

I observed that the students who belonged to same region used same regional language for conversation. I noticed the students who talked to one another in Brushiski, Punjabi and Siraiki. But the instructor used only Urdu and English to teach and converse.

Table 4.15: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 8

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

I respect the Strongly Disagree 32 16.2 instructor more Disagree 76 38.4 when he/she teaches in my mother Don’t know 22 11.1 2.84 tongue. Agree 28 14.1

Strongly Agree 40 20.2

Table 4.15 shows that 14.1 percent respondents agreed, while 38.4 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed that they respect the instructor more when he/she teaches in their mother tongue. However, 11.1% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.84.

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Table 4.16: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 9

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

I respect the Strongly Disagree 18 9 instructor more Disagree 32 16 when he/she teaches in Urdu and English Don’t know 14 7 3.69 both. Agree 66 33

Strongly Agree 70 35

Table 4.16 indicates that 33 percent respondents agreed, while 16 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that they respect the instructor more when he/she teaches in Urdu and English both. However, 7% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.69.

Table 4.17 indicates that 34 percent respondents agreed, while 11 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that The instructor provides adequate evidence (facts) when he/she switches from one language to another. However, 15% of the sample doesn’t know. Mean score was 3.71.

Table 4.17: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 13

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor Strongly Disagree 16 8 provides adequate Disagree 22 11 evidence (facts) when he/she Don’t know 30 15 3.71 switches from Agree 68 34 one language to another. Strongly Agree 64 32

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4.4.8 Providing Information (Information Provision)

I found many instances in which the instructors switched their code to Urdu when they intend to provide information explaining through examples. The instructors relate their personal life experiences as an example to make the concept/idea clear to the students. For instance, the instructor gave the idea of ‘clue’ to her students. She explained the idea with real life experience and said “haan indirect baat ko clue kehtay han like ap ki kuch baten implicit hoti han. Indirect hoti han jo sirf ap ko hi pata hoti han ya ap kay dost ko pata hoti han. Agar wo ap ko kisi gathering may kuch kehta hay tu sirf ap ko hi samajh aay gi. Baki logon ko samajh nhi aay gi. So that is a clue for you. Theek hay na. for example may kehti hon tu ap ko hi samajh aay gi, baki logon ko samajh nhi aay gi. Is that clear. Ya is ko explain Karen. [Yes, ” Different words like “Ok”, “theek hay na [Right]” are used to check the understanding of the students for that particular concept. In another example, the instructor is giving the information about the “genre”, she explained that with an example and to confirm that the students have no difficulty to get into that particular idea; she used the sentence “is it (idea) clear?

T: “That is a type of reading. If you are reading a story that is a separate genre. If you are talking about a novel, that is a separate genre. Tu ye generic information hoti hay. [So this is generic information] Is that clear?”

In this example, the instructor taught about the contextual use of vocabulary items in Urdu. She explained the idea by giving the example of “chali gai [possession/give/go]”. In Urdu, this word is used in different manifestation and instructor explained these manifestation with examples as she said “Now, if you take the same concept in Urdu. Ye jaiydaad uske betay ko chali gayi.[The property has been given to him] What manifestation is this? Possessional! Wo Islamabad se Lahore chala gaya.[She went from Islamabad to Lahore]. Positional! Uska dimagh chala gaya. [He has gone mad] What should be that?

S: Haan. Jaise hum kehte hain naa uski akal ghaas charne chali gayi hai. [Yes, as we say, he has gone mad/ his wisdom has gone.]

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T: Very good! So we are using the word chali gayi (Urdu word), yeah? So that is basically physically nae chali gayi, position to uski change nae hui, akal hai toh idhar he, magar, phir chali gayi [in this example, he did not change his position actually], you know. Aapki identity ya aapki personality ka aik difference hai.[This is the difference of your identity and personality] Acha chalo lets use nazar. [Ok, Let’s see nazar] Okay, what is this when you say uski nazar chali gayi. [He has gone blind]

S: Ya Light chali gayi. [There is no light]

T: Yes, light chali gayi. [Light has gone./ There is no light] What is this?

S: Uski awaz chali gayi. [He has lost his voice]

T: Uski awaz chali gayi. [He has lost his voice] These are also identificational. Because we identify something which is absent now. Laikin uss jo hai wo aik he banda nae hai naa wo buhat se sense hai. [The simple pronoun ‘he’ does not identify any specific person] And same is true for Light is gone.

Explanation with example is one of the important techniques to clarify the concepts of the students. The instructors used white boards or multimedia to explain the concept. In the given example, the instructor taught “alternating theory”. He explained different ideas relevant to that theory by giving examples on white board. He was writing (on white board) and speaking (to explain the diagram that he drew on white board) simultaneously and this technique is mostly used by science teachers during explanation of ideas or any problem solving activity.

“ Ye example ko ap dekh lain. Ab agar is may P, agar is theory may two raise to P, three raise to P… agar is tarha ki ho. Agar P ki value lay li jay half tu ye kia ho jay ga, one one by two, phir minus three by two square root ga. /i/ agar P ki value lay li jay three by two tu phir one ki value bi ho gi three by two. Minus one raise to three by two and so on. Is tarha ki theory ho gi. May ye kehna cha raha honk ay agar ham is ko absolute lay len gay or is kay baad jo hamen theory milay gi, one raise to 3 by two ho gi.”

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The analysis of statement number 14 reveals that most of the students agreed that the instructors provide sufficient information when they switch from one language to another (English to Urdu or Urdu to English). Table 4.18 indicates the frequency distribution and percentage that 33 percent respondents agreed, while 15 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents, were agreed that the instructors provide sufficient information (explanation) when he/she switches from one language to another. However, 12% of the sample selects the option “don’t know”. Mean score was 3.66.

Table 4.18: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 14

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor provides Strongly Disagree 16 8 sufficient information Disagree 30 15 (explanation) when

he/she switches from one Don’t know 24 12 3.66 language to another. Agree 66 33

Strongly Agree 64 32

4.4.9 Maintaining Relevance

In classrooms, I observed that the instructors and students mostly remain relevant when they switch their code from one language to another. Although, I found some examples which show that the instructors sometimes did not remain relevant to the topic they are teaching but they remained relevant to the context. Here, I shall mention some examples in which the instructors remained relevant. In the given example, the instructor is teaching the manner and place of articulation of different sounds. She introduced different types of sound and their manner and place of articulation. I shall mention just one example as she talked about labiodental sound and gave the relevant example.

T: “Labiodental, so what do we mean by labiodentals, the contact of, yes I told you that you have to specify the power of the tongue. So labiodental is usually

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with the… is it tongue or lips? Ya its lips so its lip and which? Upper lip and teeth and which teeth upper or lower? Ya its upper teeth and lower lip. Ye dekhain.. is tarha…ye dekhain position of tongue [Labiodental, so what do you mean by Labiodental, yes (responding to students) here we need to specify the power of tongue. So labiodentals are usually related to the movement of tongue and lips. Yes its lips, so which lip? Yes its upper teeth and lower lip. Look, like this (pointing towards figure) so this will be the position of tongue]” Cant you just speak and find what I mean why you don’t recall your memory. Think of a sound which you produce from the labiodental place and produce it and see that these are the features”.

In another example, the instructor is fluent in both languages. He provided information about “Organizational plan”; he gave the example of board of studies who are the resource persons to advice about the scheme of studies and the utility of resource persons in other business projects. He further explained the role of board of studies in any university. He said:

T: “jesay may nay kaha kay board of studies hotay han. Un say hum mashwara kartay han kay jo hum nay scheme of studies banai hay ham nay. [As I told you that there are board of studies, we consult them regarding scheme of studies] There are number of examples. Acha ye jo hotay han they serve as lobbyiost. [So they serve as lobbyist] For example I want to reserve energy `for Pakistan. So I invite some resource person who can become the member of my organization and would serve as a project champion and political lobbyist. He will talk to those people who are in power and will encourage people to get into that business to provide services for that renewable energy. Right. Tu logon kay apnay agenda ho saktay han interest ho saktay han lekin jab ham board of studies ki baat kartay han tu in order to make it transparent and more appealing, we invite people from different organizations. Or han university ka jo board of studies hota hay us may dosri universities kay log bhi bethtay han. [People may have their agenda and interests and when we talk about board of studies, in order to make it more transparent and appealing, we invite people from different

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organizations and yes, the board of studies in universities invite different people from different universities to make it more transparent.]”

The intention of the instructors in classroom discourse is to maintain relevance. In another example, the instructor brought into consideration the topic of about ethics and morality. He explained that morality exists in society and in the mind and heart of every individual and if we follow the moral doctrine of the ethics and morality, this world will be the best place to live and we can resolve our problems in a better way. Furthermore, he explained; although we have sufficient knowledge about ethics and morality but we do not follow the pattern of virtue and this is the biggest problem of this globe. Meanwhile, a student raised a question and built the argument that if we follow the moral doctrine, we do not get the immediate benefits and most of the times people attracted towards the immediate benefits. I found that the instructor was not good in English language while he spoke Urdu fluently; that’s why he explained most of the concepts in Urdu language while on certain points he switched his code to English language to explain his point of view. I observed that the participants who are fluent in English language, they seldom switched their code to Urdu language while the participants who are less fluent in English language, frequently switched their code to Urdu language. Although the instructors frequently switched their code from one language to another but they remained relevant to the context.

T: “Daikhain jb ethics aur morality ki baat hoti hai to) its not all about giving something to your mind or your heart (ap is say agay aik bahas bhe hai is hawalay say suntay hain na ap aksar ya baat kay morality ki jo standing hai society main) its taken as good (ache cheez le jati hai na laykin phir bhe maximum log morality pay kyu nahe atay sachaai peace ap kay jitney bhe moralities hain ethics hain society main kya waja hai agar to ap ki society absolute morality pay hai to ap ko problems nai honay chahiain nai honay chahiain? Ache baat hai(repetition) ache baat hai to is ko practice kyu nai kiya jata?) this is one of the biggest question (kay ap kya ap kay zahan main kya cheez ati hai laykin morality to ache baat hai is main koi ap ko ittifak hai is cheez say to phir kyu is ko practice nai kia jata agar practice kia jata hai to ap ki society main jo violence hai jo problem hain jitney bhe society main

142 state kay domestic aur personal issues jo ap ko aa rahay hain to kya waja hai ka yap morality ko cherish bhe kartay hain morality ko acha bhe samajtay hain to ya to ap morality ko practice nai kartay aur agar ap practice nai kartay) that is another problem(ka yap acha samajnay kay bawajood morality ko practice nai kartay kya factor ho saktay hain? [Look, when we talk about ethics and morality, it’s not all about giving something to your mind and heart. This is a debate, you must have heard. Most of the people in our society do not follow morality. If your society will be on absolute morality, you will face fewer problems. Ok, why do people not practice morality in our society? If people will follow morality, there will be less violence in society. My question is if you feel that morality is good for society then why you don’t practice that in society. This is the major problem. What are the factors, according to your point of view?]”

S: “sir agar hum morality pay focus karain gay to is ka hamain immediate faida nai hota long term baat hai to log jo hain wo immediate faiday ki taraf jatay hain for example long term main kya hota hai baad main nation ko ya kisi aur ko faida ho ga to wo immediate cheez ki taraf ghour kartay hain). [Sir, if we follow morality, we do not get immediate benefits. People talk about immediate benefits. If a nation will follow some rules, people focus on immediate benefits.]”

Table 4.19: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 15

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor Strongly Disagree 10 5 remains relevant Disagree 32 16 when he/she

switchers from one Don’t know 28 14 3.63 language to another. Agree 82 41

Strongly Agree 48 24

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Table 4.19 indicates that 41 percent respondents agreed, while 16 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed. The instructors remain relevant when he/she switchers from one language to another. However, 14% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.63.

4.4.10 Clarifying Difficult Ideas

Table 4.20: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 16

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor is Strongly Disagree 8 4 quite clear when Disagree 14 7 he/she delivers

his/her idea in Urdu. Don’t know 16 8 4.09

Agree 76 38

Strongly Agree 86 43

Table 4.20 indicates that 38 percent respondents agreed, while 7 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that the instructor is quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in Urdu. However, 8% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 4.09. This statement relates to fourth maxim of manner which states that speaker should not use obscure expression and he should be comprehensible and intelligible for students.

Table 4.21 indicates that 36 percent respondents agreed, while 9 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that the instructor is quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in Urdu and English both. However, 7% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 4.15. This statement is related to fourth maxim of manner which states that speaker should not use obscure expression and he should use the language which should be comprehensible and intelligible to students. The comparative analysis of statement number 16 and 17 shows that percentage of strongly agreed option of statement 17 is higher than statement 16

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which shows students attitude towards the use of language as they feel that the instructor remains quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in both languages.

Table 4.21: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 17

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor is Strongly Disagree 4 2 quite clear when Disagree 18 9 he/she delivers

his/her idea in Urdu Don’t know 14 7 4.15 and English both. Agree 72 36

Strongly Agree 92 46

I observed the instance when the instructor was using English language in classroom, the students asked him/her to use Urdu language as they were unable to understand the concept. After elaborating the point of view in English language, the instructor explained his ideas in Urdu and English language and no student objected.

T: “We are talking about the Taylor series and Taylor series is written like this. /i/ and C is taken constant between any A and X. When we replace X by V ,we will get another form of the Taylor series and its /i/ f derivative of A plus A minus B minus A plus 1 upon /i/ f plus 1 derivative plus C. This form is given in page 85. Here is the remainder theorem. We can estimate the errors through this remainder theorem. This term is also known as the remainder of the series and this is written by Rn. In general we can write F of X as PnX plus RnX where P and X is a polynomial of degree X and this contains X plus 1 terms starting from F of A to this term ambstrum. This is a polynomial of degree N and Rn of X is a remainder 5X RnX is equal to X by A over n+1 /r/ per cube plus F derivative X. This part is called remainder and this is a polynomial.”

S: “Sir, Please Urdu may bata den samajh nhi a rahi. [Sir, could you please explain it in Urdu language, I cannot understand the concept?]”

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I observe that the students remain more interactive with the instructors when they switch their code from one language to another so code-switching play its role in building interactive classrooms.

Table 4.22: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 18

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor Strongly Disagree 10 5 remains brief and to the point when he Disagree 28 14 switches between Don’t know 22 11 3.77 Urdu and English. Agree 78 39

Strongly Agree 62 31

Table 4.22 indicates that 39 percent respondents agreed, while 14 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that the instructors remained brief and to the point when they switch between Urdu and English. However, 11% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.77.

Table 4.23: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 19

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

The instructor Strongly Disagree 10 5 remains orderly Disagree 18 9 when he/she switches between Don’t know 30 15 3.75 Urdu and English. Agree 96 48

Strongly Agree 46 23

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Table 4.23 indicates that majority (48 percent respondents agreed and 23 percent strongly agree) with the statement that the instructor remains orderly when he/she switchers between Urdu and English. However, 15% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.75.

4.5 Students Perception about passing the exam and the Use of Language

Statement number 10, 11 and 12 are related to the responses of students regarding the use of language in classrooms to pass the exam.

Table 4.24 Distributions of Responses According to Statement 10

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Learning the course Strongly Disagree 18 9 in Urdu or any Disagree 52 26 other regional language increases Don’t know 22 11 3.35 my chances of passing the exam. Agree 58 29

Strongly Agree 50 25

Table 4.24 indicates that 29 percent respondents agreed, while 26 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that Learning the course in Urdu or any other regional language increases their chances of passing the exam. However, 11% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.35.

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Table 4.25: Distribution of Responses according to Statement 11

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Learning the course Strongly Disagree 8 4 in English increases Disagree 42 21 my chances of passing the exam. Don’t know 24 12 3.6

Agree 74 37

Strongly Agree 52 26

Table 4.25 indicates that 37 percent respondents agreed, while 21 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that Learning the course in English increases their chances of passing the exam. However, 12% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.6.

Table 4.26: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 12

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Learning the course Strongly Disagree 6 3 in English and Urdu Disagree 18 9 increases my

chances of passing Don’t know 20 10 3.95 the exam. Agree 92 46

Strongly Agree 64 32

Table 4.26 indicates that 46 percent respondents agreed, while 9 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that Learning the course in English and Urdu increases my chances of passing the exam. However, 10% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.95.

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It is found through the comparative analysis of the statement numbers 10, 11 and 12 that the level of agreement on the use of English and Urdu (statement 12) is high i.e. 46% as most of the students are agree that the course should be taught in both English and Urdu languages and it will increase their chances of passing the exams while the level of agreement of statement numbers 11 and 10 is lesser i.e. 37 % and 29 % respectively. I observed that English and Urdu languages are frequently used in classrooms at postgraduate level. I could not find any incident in which the instructors use any other language to instruct the students. Moreover, instructors initially explained their ideas in English language while repeat them again in Urdu language for the convenience of the students. In the following example, the instructor explained the nature of light. During the session, he found that the concept was difficult for the students then he switched his code from English to Urdu.

T: “Yesterday, we started our lecture of the ideas of Newton and I explained you with example that sometimes light behave as particles and sometimes as wave. Einstien said that when you throw light on certain metal particles, then electron knocked out and Einstein named it as “Law of Reflection”. This idea is closely related to two types of relfection, specular and diffuse.”

S: “Sir, samajh nhi aya… [Sir, I can’t understand that]”

T: “acha Hum ne Newton se shuru kia tha Newton k particle model se us k baad Hygiens peg aye thy kis trah kuch mamlon mai light as a particle behave krti hai aur kis trh kuch mamlon mai as a wave behave krti hai aur mera point yeh tha k light is light depend yeh krta hai k kis experiment mai aap use kr rae hn kiun k jb wave se dekha gaya tha tou photoelectric effect explain nai ho raha tha aur interference jo hai wo particle se explain nai ho rai thi Young’s experiment double slit experiment tou photoelectric afeect ko explain kia tha Einstein ne us ne kaha th k jb aap light ko throw krty hn kisi metal pe tou us metal ka aik work function hota hai jb ap ki enrgy jo ap provide krtyhn us k work function se ziada hoti hai tou electron jo hai wo knockout ho jata hai us k baad mai chala gya tha agr ap ko yad ho tou main ae kaha tha there exist law of reflection” light jb kisi object pe prti hai tou reflect ho k wapis aati hai ya reflect ho k kisi angle pe jati hai aur us mae mai ne 149

2 trah ki reflection ka zikr kia tha aik thi specular reflection aur aik thi diffusive reflection.Specular yeh thi jis mai light aa k parti hai aur mai ne kaha tha k hum specular reflection ki baat krn gy jis mai angle of incident over angle of reflection. [OK. Yesterday, we have started with the model presented by Newton’s particle model. After that we have discussed Hygen’s model where I elaborated how did light behave as a particle or when it behaves as a wave. So my point is to explore that point. When we tried to search that through wave, it does not explain photoelectric effect. Young has explained photoelectric effect through his double-slit experiment. Newton said that when you throw light on some metal, you actually knockout electron and it is work function. I also told you about the law of reflection. When light fall on some object, it came back through reflection. There are two types of reflection, one is diffusive reflection and the other is specular reflection. We have discussed diffusive reflection, now we shall talk about specular reflection which makes its angel of incident over angle of reflection.]”

In the second example, the instructor talked about the uses of language. He started his lecture by defining “dialect” and connected it to the use of language; further, he explained different uses of language and relate it to sociolect, regional dialect and ethnolect. The instructor explained the idea using both English and Urdu languages for the convenience of the students.

T: “The most important thing which we shall discuss today is variation in language. This term is related to some region or class. The language which is related to specific social class is sociolect and the language varies …. Ummm from region to region that is regional dialect. There are different types of languages which are used by different religious groups called ethnolect. Ok theek hay?”

S: Sir Definition is not clear?”

T: “acha, when we see kay different log different languages use kartay han tu ham un ko different tareekay say identify kar saktay han; society kay lehaz say, region kay lehaz say ya phir ethnicity kay lehaz say. If we shall identify that particular language according to region, this is regional dialect. Agar us ko social class kay lehaz say identify kia, tu ye phir sociolect ho ga. Or agar ethnic group kay

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lehaz say identify kia tu phir ethnolect ho ga. Ok. Now I shall explain that with different examples jesay…. [When we say that different people speak different languages and we can differentiate them in a different way like according to society, region or ethnicity. If we identify them according to region, this is regional dialect. If we classify them according to society, it is called sociolect and if we classify them according to some ethnic group, it is called ethnolect. Now I shall explain it with different examples.]”

4.6 Disadvantages of Code-switching

There are multiple points of views presented by the participants regarding code- switching and the use of language in classrooms. Keeping in view the collected data, this section bring forth some disadvantages of code-switching.

4.6.1 Hindrance in English language Learning

A significant quantity of participants found code-switching useful while some participants said that it is a hindrance in learning and understanding English. Code- switching is the use of two linguistic systems alternatingly, as Gumperz said (1972). I proposed that while code-switching, our brain works on two different grammatical systems and require more attention. Similarly, hearer also needs attention as he/she has to focus on two grammatical systems to understand the meanings. The sentence structure of Urdu is “Subject-object-verb while in English, sentence structure is “Subject-verb- object”. When we mix these two languages, we follow the grammatical rules of English and Urdu language; during this process our brain needs energy and attention. But with the passage of time, students get used to these two grammatical systems and they can understand the instructors easily if they switch their code between two languages i.e. English and Urdu; even they started using these two languages frequently in classrooms.

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Table 4.27: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 6

Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score

Mixing of mother Strongly Disagree 18 9 language and Disagree 66 33 English language

strengthens my Don’t know 36 18 3.05 English language. Agree 48 24

Strongly Agree 32 16

Table 4.27 indicates that 24 percent respondents agreed, while 33 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed that Mixing of mother language and English language strengthens my English language. However, 18% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.05.

4.6.2 Hindrance in Creation of New Vocabulary/Lexical Items

I observed that some words are difficult to pronounce in Urdu language and these Urdu vocabulary items are difficult to use in classrooms as the textbooks that are used in postgraduate classrooms are not translated in Urdu language. These textbooks are published in English language. I extracted different words from the collected data and there are some words in transcribed data which are difficult to pronounce in Urdu language.

Some words are either difficult to pronounce in Urdu language or well established in English, so instructors switch their code from Urdu to English. Some instructors even do not know the Urdu translation of some lexical items, so they use these words in English language.

Some English words have no translation in Urdu language so they are used in its original form like electron, proton, neutron etc. I observed that translation loses the true essence of meanings in language. It is found that two different words show same

152 meanings in Urdu language while in English language they show entirely different لاصتا meanings as the meaning of the words “coherence” and “cohesion” in Urdu are

That’s why the instructors use English words to clarify the meanings to . ٬یگتسویپ and the students.

Table 4.28: Translation of Different Words in Urdu Language

English Language Urdu Language

ﭼﻤﮑﺪار اور وﺳﺮت ﻋﮑﺎﺳﯽ specular and diffuse reflection

ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﮐﮯ ﮢﯿﺴﭧ Ratio test

رﯾﺎﺿﯽ ﻧﻈﺮﯾہ arithmetic theory

ﺑﺮﻗﯽ ﻣﻘﻨﺎطﯿﺴﯽ ﺗﻌﯿﻨﺎﺗﯿﻮں electromagnetic induction

ؤﺷﻤﭙﺪرﯾﮕﮑﯽ Thermodynamics

یعون ترارح Enthalpy

ﺗَ ِﻘﻄﯿﺐ ﭘَﯿﺪا Polarization

ﺻﻮﺗﯿﺎت Phonetics

ﻗﻮاﻋﺪی ﺻﻮﺗﯿﺎت Phonology

4.6.3 Lack of Vocabulary

Every language has vocabulary items matches to their culture as well. In Pakistan, Muslims celebrated Eid-ul-Adha and Eid-ul-Fitar. On Eid-ul-Adha, they slaughtered different animals and donated the skins of animals. As in the following example, the instructors talked about Eid-ul-Azha, the alternate of the word “qurbani ki khalen” is not present in English language.

“We sacrifice animals for Allah and distribute meat among different poor Muslims and give qurbani ki khalen to different mosques”

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4.6.4 Hinder Fluency

The data reveals that the use of solely English language may hinder fluency. So, instructors and students switch their code from one language to another. The instructor delivered the lecture of Physics on “Internal Energy”. Meanwhile, student asked about the increase and decrease in internal energy in English language and then again consulted the instructor in Urdu language. It seems that the students and instructor know the use of English language at the level of discourse but they switch their code from English to Urdu which may hinder the fluency during lectures.

T: “Here we see that change in internal energy is equal to the work done that this – W. You see it. Okay. Now… S: “ haan? [yes] ..... internal energy? It will increase or decrease? Zada ho gi ya kam nahi? [will increase it (internal energy) increase or decrease?” T: “Internal energy zada nai hai internal energy will decrease[internal energy will not increase,it will decrease.] Now you will see because we are going to derive this equation so you will see that what happens to the latest one. Yeh toh just app ko yeh batana hai [you just need to tell] that what is the form of the first law of thermodynamics when there is no heat exchange between the system and surroundings. Okay. So when there is no heat exchange between the system and surroundings that is the process of the adiabatic then this delta E equals to –W. Delta E is equal to –W means that work is done on the cost of decrease in the internal energy.”

4.7 Issues Related to Medium of Instruction

Section C of questionnaire comprised of two open ended questions. The purpose of first question is to explore the students choice of language as a medium of instruction in classrooms to explore the reason to select one language as a medium of instruction. Second question is specified for additional comments. Students raised some other issues like nationalism, mother language, regional language, modernization, medium of instruction in schools and colleges etc. So this section consists of various aspects raised by the students related to the use of language in classroom session. I tried to identify and discuss some issues regarding the use of language in classrooms.

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4.7.1 Medium of Instruction in Classrooms

This Section is consisted of the views of students’ regarding medium of instruction in educational institutes. The students were given four options; they could select Urdu, English, Urdu and English or they can write the language of their own choice. Table 4.29 shows the distribution of responses on the use of language from students’ perspective.

Table 4.29: Use of Language in Classrooms from Students’ Perspective

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 28 15.4

Urdu 10 5.5

English & Urdu 144 79.1

The results revealed that 79.1 % students agreed to use Urdu and English both in classrooms while 28 % and 10% students agreed to use only English and Urdu language respectively. The findings suggest the strong agreement of the students on the use of English and Urdu language in classrooms. Beside this, some students gave the option of Pashto, Panjabi and Sindhi; the percentage of those students is given below in Table 4.30.

Table 4.30: Regional Languages Selected by the Students for the Medium of Instruction in Classrooms

Languages Frequency Percentage

English 28 15.4

Urdu 10 5.5

English & Urdu 144 79.1

Table 4.30 presents the overview of the selected options. From 200 respondents, 8 students preferred Pashto, 8 students preferred Punjabi while only 2 students preferred Sindhi. The responses of question 2 of section C deals with the reasons of the selection of

155 languages as a medium of instruction. The next question of section C of the questionnaire was to ask the reason for selecting the particular language of instruction. Different students have given different reasons for their choice. There are some reasons

4.7.1 Mother Language

Multilingualism is one of the important aspects of Pakistani culture. In Pakistan, people use their mother languages to converse in homes so some students suggest that the instructors should use mother tongue as a medium of instruction in classrooms. In Pakistani universities, students come from different backgrounds and places and there is variation in the use of their mother language as in Quaid-i-Azam University, the registered students belong to various regions of Pakistan. Instructors could not speak all the regional languages, so they usually use English and Urdu as medium of instruction in universities.

During this study, I came across to different participants and different languages were used in their schools and colleges as a medium of instruction like Pashto, Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Saraiki, Hindko, Chitrali, Balti, Arabic, Brushaski and Persian. One student, Junaid who belonged to rural Sindh where Sindhi language is taught as a compulsory subject suggested,

“My mother tongue is Sindhi and it is easy for me to understand in Sindhi.”

Similarly the students who belonged to different areas of Pakistan suggested that the medium of instruction should be their regional language as one student who belonged to Toba Tek Singh (Punjab) said,“I like to study in Punjabi language as it is my mother language.” Another student who belonged to Multan said,“Urdu is my mother language and I can understand in Urdu easily.” Hence, some students gave importance to their mother language as a medium of instruction. Another student who belonged to Der (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) said, “I want to study in Pashto language as the things which are learnt in mother language will never forget.”

I observed, although the mother language of some instructors is not Urdu yet they use Urdu and English as a medium of instruction. Although Mr. A Khan belonged to

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Lower Der (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and his mother language is Pashto and Miss U K belonged to Multan and her mother language is Siraiki but they used Urdu and English language in classroom. Mr. A Khan taught Physics and Miss U K taught English; Mr. A.Khan switched his code from English to Urdu and Urdu to English more frequently Miss U.K who taught in English (Linguistic) department. So language choice depends upon the background of the instructor as well.

4.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization

Tellefson and Tsui (2003) reported, “Since the last three decades, language policy is one of the core concerns of medium of instruction policy and it has a substantial impact on students learning and attaining learning objectives”. In educational institutes, most of the work is done through verbal interaction; so the medium of instruction is most of the time verbal interaction among students or between students or instructor. I found that some students feel privileged when they use national language to converse in classrooms and they are eager that Urdu language should be used by the instructors as a medium of instruction in classrooms as one participant said that, “As Urdu is our national language and we can get the concept in this language easily.” Another participant said, “Urdu is our national language and we should feel proud of using Urdu language in classrooms.”

Rahman (1997) informed that five indigenous languages are spoken in Pakistan; Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Siraiki and Pashto. English is used in the domain of power in Pakistan. He discussed his point of view from post partition perspective when Britishers were in power while English educated Anglicised elites were British supporters; agreed to select English language as a medium of instruction in educational institutes and Urdu language was considered as vernacular. Today, we are under the influence of this distribution of language and distinctions are drawn on the basis of the use of language. In upper class modernized society, the use of English language is considered as a status symbol and in most of the private schools of Pakistan, teachers and students are not allowed to speak Urdu language. On the contrary, Urdu is used in most of the government schools of Pakistan and Sindhi is used in different areas of Sindh while less attention is paid to other regional languages. The difference in language use in various institutes of Pakistan has established the attitude of students towards the use of language 157

in classrooms. As S said, “Both languages are important English is an international language and Urdu is national language so students should understand both languages.” Another participant, Umar said, “Urdu is a national language and English is an official language of Pakistan so both are necessary.”

Students viewed English language as a need of modern age and by the same time they were also inclined towards the love of mother language and national language. Twelve participants said that English is an international language and Urdu is our national language, so we should use these two languages in classrooms. W said: “Both languages are important because English is need of modern times and Urdu is my mother language and national language so I can understand well in both languages.”

4.7.3 Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges

In Pakistan, the most of the private schools use English language as medium of instruction while in some government schools, the medium of instruction is Urdu, Urdu and English or even some regional language. The variations in the use of language as a medium of instruction at school level open a new dimension of arguments. Four participants said, “We are ignoring our regional languages in our universities. Instructors should use some regional languages as a medium of instruction”

Rahman (1999) mentioned that since Pakistan’s creation, we are trying to nourish Urdu language at the expense of English language but later remained the language of elite class. In some schools and colleges, English is used as a medium of instruction while in others Urdu, English and Urdu or some regional languages are used. So, the students come to the University, they get different environment where the instructors use English or English and Urdu as a language of instruction. In this research, the students were asked about the medium of instruction; some of them responded that regional and national languages should be used as a medium of instruction because in our schools and colleges,

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instructors use Urdu and regional language like Punjabi, Siraiki, Pashto, Brushki etc. to explain some concepts. One student who belonged to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa said,

“In our schools, initially we use regional language for the convenience of the students because students can understand in a better way in their regional language and after that English should be introduced other than regional language”

4.8 Respondents Additional Comment

The last question was specified for students’ additional comment. If students want to share any idea regarding use of language in educational setting, they can share their points of view. Different students share different issues regarding language use in classrooms. The variety of the comments show that the use of language is classrooms is highly controversial issue in Pakistan.

Language use should be according to the subjects or topics. For example, if the instructors teach Islamiat and Pakistan Studies, they use Urdu language. Some students believe that Urdu should be used to clarify the concepts. As Ahtasham said: “The subjects of Islamiat and Social Studies should be in Urdu language and even the subject of English should be explain in Urdu language”

In schools, colleges and specifically at university level, courses are taught in English language and books are also available in English language. Although, course books/reading materials are available in English language, still students request their instructors to explain various concepts in Urdu language. As AH said, “Exact definitions should be provided in English language while the concept should be explained in Urdu language.”

Contrary to this, some students’ emphasized the use of English language as they thought English is an international language and our whole syllabus is designed in English language. As Alia said, “In our education system, books are written in English language, so instructor should use English language. In the beginning, the learners will feel difficulty in understanding the meaning but soon they will used to hear English language in classrooms and feel comfortable.”

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When the instructor use two languages in classrooms, students do more effort in understanding the language and the use of two languages simultaneously means students have to put some extra effort to get into the systems of two languages. For example, both English and Urdu languages have different construction at almost all the levels of language use. So students swing between these two languages and feel difficulty in understanding the concepts. As A said that, “The mingling of two languages means the complete failure in understanding the concepts. Only one language should be used whether it is English or Urdu.”

Since last ten years, students are studying the same course and the main focus of the course is reading and writing and no attention is paid to listening and speaking. Although in some private schools of Pakistan, instructors pay proper attention to speaking and listening while in government schools no attention is paid to these skills. As Naila said, “Our education system should work on English to improve students English in schools and colleges. Same syllabus is taught from class 5 to F.Sc; no works is done on speaking and reading skills which is the main reason of student’s failure in university examination. High school should not only include exercises of Grammar like narrations, tenses or active and passive voice. There should be productive exercises on speaking and reading skills.”

One participant thought that English can improve the spoken English language and instructors and students should use solely English language in classrooms. He said, "The use of English language solely can improve my spoken and written English.” One more participant like English language and said “I prefer to learn in English language as it is interesting and its accent is so effective.”

The language use in classrooms is a controversial issue as some other students emphasized the use of national language (Urdu) in classrooms. As one student said, “all languages of the world are useful but one should not leave one’s root which stick to his national language” while some other students said that we should use regional language with English language in classrooms. Amir said, “The combination of Punjabi and English is wonderful. The idea will be clearer if the instructor will use these two languages.” 160

The use of solely Urdu language will not hamper our studies, one student suggested; rather it will sharpen our understanding power. Government should develop and revise the courses like Chinese and Germans use their own language as a medium of instruction and developed their own courses even at higher level. Salma said: “As far as language learning process is concerned, both languages are important. Both languages are good and the use of Urdu language will not hamper our studies as well as our cognitive process. Some concepts are easy to understand in Urdu language and Urdu is more flexible language. Chinese and Germans make progress by using their own languages, why not we? We should also design our syllabus accordingly.”

Students found the questionnaire interesting as one student said, “I like questionnaire because it is brief and interesting”. Open ended questions are beneficial because they allow the opportunity to the respondent to share some other views related to the topic of inquiry.

4.9 Code-switching in Conference Presentation

I observed that conference presentations are more formal than classroom teaching. The contexts of conference presentation are quite different. In international conferences, the presenters have to consume twenty minutes while classroom sessions are the series of interconnected topics which run through the whole semester (six months). In this period, students develop understanding with the instructor. They discuss their problems, give opinions, ask frequent questions or share their everyday life events and often, the instructors share information or experiences which is not relevant to his topic; for example the instructor told his students about the conference presentations in different universities and said: “Thanky you…../ Toh. So I was telling about the universities where people participated in that conference from the university of Sargodha, Sargodha and university of Gujjrat , Hazara university Mansehra , KPK University Karak which is present in Khyber Pakhtoonkhaw, Punjab University of Lahore and last oh of course GC university Lohare and Gomal University D.I Khan, Dera Ismail Khan. Yes of course people of all these universities participated on that conference that was three days before enterprise.”

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In conference presentations, audience might not know that particular presenter personally or they may be colleagues so they use more formal language for communication. The collected from international conferences consisted of research based presentations where methodology, findings and conclusions were key parts of presentations. During conference presentations, silence is already achieved and the presenters can present without disruption while in classrooms, teachers have to maintain the discipline and decorum. He used the expression like, “May I have your attention please” or “please khamoosh ho jain [keep silent please], I shall send you out of the class”. The organization of content in conference presentation and classrooms lectures are very different. The general outline of conference presentations are introduction, purpose, literature review (very brief), analysis, findings, suggestions. In classrooms, instructors erratically start by giving the reference of the previous class e.g “In previous class, Pichlay lecture may hum nay ratio test or root test ko parha. Ratio test kab use hota hay? Ap batain [In previous class, we studied ratio test and root test. When will we use ratio test?]”. In Physics classroom session, the instructor referred back to his previous lecture, he said “In the last lecture we have gone through the integral test for infinite series. It was the rule to change the infinite series for its convergence. Now you can see in the comparison that the infinite series when it converges.”

While teaching in classrooms, learning objectives are already decided and instructors are advised to follow course outline and students may ask questions which are relevant to their area. During conference presentations, although different presenters presented their topic of research but the audience asked the questions which is not relevant to that particular context.

During conference presentations, the instructor reveal interesting facts ask some question or reveal statistics to catch the attention of the audience. For example, while presenting on “Gender Based Study of English Language Learning Beliefs and Strategies of Pakistani College Students”, she started from preconceived notion about beliefs followed by introduction, methodology and results. In methodology, she told that the data has been collected from four different colleges of Islamabad from 419 students; 159 were males and 260 were females. She used both qualitative and quantitative approach and

162 interesting facts are revealed though qualitative and quantitative analysis. Almost the same techniques are followed by the other presenters, the beginning was by raising questions, telling interesting facts, previous knowledge/preconceived notion etc followed by methodology, analysis and conclusion/suggestions.

In classrooms, the background knowledge of students is almost same, that is why the instructors devise the course accordingly while in conference presentation, the background knowledge of the audience may vary and they ask the questions which can be diverse. In classrooms, there is continuous repetition of thoughts or idea, if needed while in conference presenters seldom repeat any idea. It may be due to the evaluation procedure which is followed in many universities. Students are so concerned about their marks or grades and they frequently ask questions during lecture. For conference, time is specified for question-answer sessions.

Conference presenters usually review and preview in the beginning or at the end of their presentation. Instructors want to summarize each sub section or sub idea of the lecture. In recorded data I found presenters using these words like, “to conclude”, “findings suggest”, “today, I told you”, “I can summarize”. In classrooms, the instructors usually review the lecture and tell the next topic of discussion.

During lecture recoding, I noticed that notes taking are quite common in classrooms while during presentation, audience listen and respond. As far as interactive activities are concerned, in conference, these activities are rare while in classrooms, instructors use these activities frequently; to break the monotony of the lectures or to check students understanding. The instructors designed the questions (to check students’ response) before the commencement of the classes. I observed that in conference presentations, questions were asked at the end of the presentation while in classrooms, students ask questions during lectures when they felt difficulty in understanding the concepts.

Delivery skills are important for both conference presentation and classrooms lectures. I observed that the delivery of lecture is different from conference presentation. In conference presentations, I recorded thirty presenters and they all used multimedia to

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present their papers while among the thirty recorded classrooms, only three instructors use multimedia during lectures while twenty seven instructors use while board and activity/worksheets or books during lectures.

It is clear from the above discussion that the setting, delivery and materials, general organization/structure and context of classrooms and conference presentations are different, so the uses of language also vary. Although, instructors maintain formal environment in classrooms but the formality level of conference presentation is higher than classrooms lectures. Presenters use more formal and to the point language during conference presentation and I found a few instances of code-switching in conference presentation. During conference presentations presenters use some words of Urdu language because they cannot be replaced. For example, “Ramadan” (name of Islamic month) is used in one presentation to tell some religious concepts of the Muslims. The names of different books like “Lehaf” work of Ismat Chughtai, “Khana” by Ahamag Nadeem Qasmi, and “Thanda Gosht” Saadat Hassan Manto are used by the presenters as these were the part of their presentation. Some words represent different concepts which are prevalent in Pakistani society while they cannot be translated in English language for example one words “ghairat”. In some areas of Pakistan, women are considered to belong to men’s (can be her brother, father or any relative) honor (izzat) and if women commit any bad deed (related to the customs of society), they are supposed to spoil then image of that man. Although, the word honor is used to elaborate the meaning of “izzat” but the word (honor) cannot signify the meanings of “izzat”. One presenter who talked about Allama Iqbal as great thinker and poet, linked his philosophy to Ibn-e-Arabi who was religious scholar and presented his idea of “wahdata-ul-vajood” which means “unity of existence”. The idea of “wahdata-ul-vajood” could be explained in English language as well, but the writer might intend to explain the concept in Urdu language to maintain the true essence of the concept. it will lose all the spice and essence of the original word. The concept of “wahdata-ul-vajood” is still an issue of controversy among different Muslim scholars. During question-answer session, one attendee raised the issue that in Urdu language Allama Iqbal and some other writers use the word “mujahid” but nowadays it is used in negative connotations by Britishers and Americans. Furthermore, he said that Iqbal did not know that in future, the Mulims will face so much criticism on 164

this word. Similarly, one more participant used the word, “ukaab”/ “shaheen” (eagle), in English language is simply a bird while in Urdu language, it signifies young generation.

Most of the participants in the conference belong to Pakistan and they can understand Urdu language so the speakers do not feel hesitation in using Urdu language. The presenter explained the idea of Karl Marx and Allama Iqbal and he read the verses of Allama Iqbal in Urdu language. In his words, “This paper deals to mere poetry, poetry for me is mere a universe and that universe has its own grammar and own vocabulary and has its own logic and symbolism. One of the greatest thing about poetry is that it generates multiplicity of meaning and that is why the people who called fundamentalist in Islam, they draw messages out of Iqbal but even though who are on the other side crude mark, they draw messages out of Iqbal and indeed Iqbal has said about Carl Marx that is poetically very very profound, (he recited verses of Iqbal)

ye ilmo hikmat ki mohra bazi ye behso takrar ki numaish nahi hai duniya ko ab gawara purane afkar ki numaish teri kitaboon may aay hakeem-e-muash rakha hi kia hay akhir khutool-e-khamdar ki numaish, muresh-o-khamdaar ki numaish”

In two instances, they switch their codes to explain or answer the questions while in classrooms instructors and students switch their codes frequently. The purposes of code-switching classrooms are described in detail in previous section of this chapter.

4.10 Pragmatic Analysis and Code-Switching

Pragmatics is the study of “indexical rules” to build a relationship between linguistic form and context (Bates, 1976, p. 3), it creates a relationship between language, its core ideas and its users (Martin, 1971, p. 138), pragmatic analysis develop a theory of relationship between “language structures” and its users (Apostle, 1971, p. 33), Hence, it is the scientific study of language use (Haberland and May, 1977, p. 1). In a multilingual society, code-switching is an integral part of spoken discourses. Similarly in Pakistan, code-switching is essential part of academic discourse, as instructors, academic practitioners and conference presenters switch their code from one language to another in

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various contexts. So, this study reveals the purposes of code-switching in various contexts.

Myer Scotton described two filters in her Mrekedness model (1986) of code- switching. First filter is called structural constraint which deals with the social factors, identity, age, gender, mother language and characteristics of discourse (i.e. setting, purpose, time). The pragmatic analysis is also connected to the background of the speakers as societal pragmatics examines the social framework of a society which involve in the production and interpretation of speech sound. Language and social structures are interconnected and the depiction of social status/roles and identities are the heart of societal pragmatic analysis. Speakers try to maintain their status and identities through the ways they deliver messages (Bublitz & Norrick, 2011). Myers-Scotton (1998) elaborated that these ‘surface discourse structural characteristics’ to further identify the structural constraints. These structural constraints help in building different structures and identify which part of language (vocabulary) is important, beneficial and influential. This is called sequential organization in language. There are different kinds of constraints based on these structural constraints. These structural constraints identify speakers’ linguistic repertoire which can be the key factor in determining different discourse strategies. In this study, I discussed purposes of the patterns of code-switching (English to Urdu and Urdu to Englsih) in classroom sessions which may be identified as a discourse strategy in various contexts. Furthermore, the first filter prosed by Myer Scotton is helpful in selecting various languages as a language choice for the speakers.

Myer-Scotton capsulated the second filter called Elster Rational choice or Rational Actor’s model that provides the opportunity to the speaker to use these structural constraints to get particular outcome. Speakers consciously deal with the cost-benefit analysis and eventually opts the language which can be beneficial for them. Myers- Scotten used this theory to analyze discourse and said that individuals select the language according to their own temporary benefits; depends upon their own motivation (subjective motivation) and opportunities (objective opportunities). Speakers use specific language to get their ordinary goals and neglect their prior language choice. So every speaker has marked and unmarked language choices. These marked and unmarked

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choices fully support the idea of pragmatic use of language where code-switching may be identified as pragmatic switching as speakers (instructors and presenters) switch their code from one language to another according to the context. Myers-Scotten used this model to analyze code-switching in conversation. She believed that researcher can easily identify marked and unmarked choices in any conversation. These codes or linguistic alternatives have multidimensional work in specific continuum; it can be from the more marked to the more unmarked. The order may vary. Myers-Scotton said that these codes work alternately due to the language contact of two linguistic systems. As a result speakers acquaint the quality to interact in a community and use two language systems which depends upon the priority of the language use in specific context and these codes are socially accepted. Here the example of cost-benefit is very significant where the speakers use specific codes for their own benefits and these codes are socially accepted.

This research aims at exploring various issues regarding use of language in academic discourse. The findings show that research participants use different languages in their homes, schools, colleges and universities. The most frequently used languages in classrooms are English and Urdu. Although some students said that some regional languages should be used as a medium of instruction, a few said that English language should be used in classrooms while majority responded that both English and Urdu languages should be used as a medium of instruction in classrooms. As far as structural constraints are concerned, students background and their previous medium of instruction (in schools and college) matters as some students who use English and Urdu as a medium of instruction; favor English and Urdu languages as a medium of instruction at university level as well. Some students who belong to some rural areas of Punjab, Sindh and KPK want to use regional languages as a medium of instruction. So, I observed that most of the times instructor use both languages English and Urdu in classrooms. In different classrooms, either English and Urdu languages are occasionally used as an unmarked choice. For example in English language/Linguistics or some science subjects, English is used as a marked choice while in Ethics and Morality, Pakistan studies and in some arts subjects, English is used as unmarked choice. In science subjects, definitions or different terms are explained in English language while concepts are explained in Urdu language. The underlying facts of using these two languages may be the importance/superiority of 167

these two languages in Pakistan, as English is an international language and courses are available in English language while Urdu is national language, so most of the students believe that these two languages should be opt as a medium of instruction. (For detail see section 7.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization). On the other hand if we analyze Scotten’s view cost and benefits, the use of these two languages (English and Urdu) may be beneficial for the learners and instructors. As far as conference presentations are concerned, English is used as marked choice in all presentations and Urdu is used as an unmarked choice as most of the participants use English language frequently and occasionally switch their code to Urdu language. In conference, switching from English to Urdu is mainly because the speakers do not find any appropriate vocabulary items to explain the concept in English language.

Yule (1996) postulated that pragmatics is the integral part of communication as meanings are created through discourses and interpreted by the listeners or readers on the basis of context. The basic concern of pragmatics is to analyze the utterances in specific context rather than utterances only. Thus, this study explored the purposes of code- switching and various dimensions of language use (like relevance, quantity of information, clarity) in academic discourse (classroom sessions and conference presentations).

Section 2 GRICEAN MAXIMS

Language performs various functions; some of these are identified in academic discourse and explained in previous sections of this chapter. Language is in a continuous flux; It carries meanings, meanings vary according to the context/situation and one cannot assume that words which are used in particular context are irrelevant or does not provide any information rather meaning making and meaning perception are quite complicated process, they are context and individual dependent. Grice has given two extremes of every aspect in his philosophy of maxims (relevance, manner and quantity). This chapter explore the authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in

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exploring the relevance (speaker should remain relevant), appropriate contribution of information in a given context (in classrooms and conference presentation), sequence of information and clarity or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse. More specifically this chapter deals three maxims given by Grice; maxim of relevance, maxim of quantity and maxim of manner.

4.11 Maxim of Relevance

The proposed maxim of relevance of Grice suggests that speaker should remain relevant. He believed that speakers’ abrupt change or shift of topic may cause the non- observance of Gricean maxim of relevance but I feel that in academic discourse instructors, presenters and students cannot be irrelevant and their ideas and utterances are quite relevant to that particular situation and it is the part of the development of ideas which help in drawing certain conclusion. To support my claim, I proposed a model named as “Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication”

4.11.1 Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication

Classroom communication is crude altercation among the instructors follow traditional and non- traditional teaching systems in classrooms. Apart from this, instructors follow certain sequence while delivering the lectures; they may follow inductive, deductive or relational sequence. This may be called Classroom sequential communication system. Deductive sequence moves from generalized idea to specific examples or activities, inductive sequence moves from some activities and examples to certain rules while relational sequence relates the previous ideas to the present ideas. In one course, long and detailed topics are not covered in a single discussion so instructors covered these topics in two or more than two lectures and before commencing the lecture, they relate previous idea to the present class to create a relation or link. This is relational sequence. By adapting different strategies instructors create relevance among different ideas. Grice put forward his idea of observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims. I believe that in academic discourse, instructors, presenters and students do not non- observe the maxim of relevance; rather the situation favors the idea of relative relevance. Relevance may be “logical or direct” and “relative or indirect”. Following diagram

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explain the idea of relevance and its subdivision. I assume that relevance can be logical/direct and relative and indirect. Logical relevance may further be divided into and syllogism and sequential and relative/indirect relevance may be divided into co relational, recreational and situational.

Relevance

Logical/direct Relative/indirect

Syllogism Sequential

Co relational Recreational Situational

Figure 4.1: Relative Relevance Model of Communication

4.11.1.1 Logical or Direct Relevance

Logical or direct relevance is related to the relationship of straight, objective, analytical, scientific and explicit utterances to the situation. These utterances show the direct link to the situation and it demands less effort for understanding from (every) listeners as no hidden or implicit ideas are proposed in these utterances.

4.11.1.2 Syllogism

In Greek, syllogism is a type of logical arguments that are drawn from deductive reasoning, and logical arguments to deduce conclusion. When Syllogism imply on academic discourse which favors that the explanation/detailed description of ideas are

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structurally and thematically identical or arranged, in the deductive sequence. The listener can easily deduce the meanings because ideas are explained through explicit reasoning, argumentation and sagacity.

4.11.1.3 Sequential

Ideas are arranged in a sequence, they move gradually from easy to difficult or instructors provide the base of the detailed topic and gradually move to the more difficult concepts and these sequential concepts are interlinked. It may be the traditional logical sequence as followed in conference presentations and it is generally expected and predetermined ideology of the listeners/audience that the sequence of presentation of research work is introduction (need and purpose of research), literature review, Methodology (Research framework, sample, population etc), Analysis/Findings followed by conclusion.

4.11.2 Relative/ indirect Relevance

Ideas are presented in utterances are not linked directly to the particular discussion or topic (in classrooms or conference) but these particular utterances are contextually connected.

4.11.1.3 Co relational/Quasi Relational

This shows the interdependence of two variables, two objects or two ideas which may be explained through examples. In addition, ideas show no link to the relevant topic but they fit into the pragmatic ideology of relevance. Comparison (Elaborating similarities and elucidating differences) and contrast (describing differences), I assume that both are the part of relevance as these are the strategy of describing the things/ideas in relation to each other and one thing or idea is dependent to another for its description.

4.11.1.4 Recreational

Humor, irony, telling jokes or stories etc serve as a recreation in classrooms. If the duration of the class is long, the instructors share some jokes or, students create the element of fun to break the monotonous routine of the conversation or it can be a strategy

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to enhance the interest of the students to keep them active. The humor created in any situation (classrooms) is relevant to that situation.

4.11.1.5 Situational

Discourse is not static. It is the combination of various ideas which can be related to the social identity, aesthetics and social life of human beings. So every individual behave and react in a different way in particular situation. These behaviors depend upon the individuals own perception of life and this individuality leads to use different expressions in any discourse.

4.11.1.6 Dimensions of Relevance

There are different dimensions of relevance which may be brought into consideration in any discourse. These dimensions are societal, religious and content. Societal aspects cover the culture, traditions, language use in everyday life and customs of society. Different religious dimensions are covered in religious aspects while content covers the topic under discussion. The topics may be related to Science (Physics, Biology, computer sciences etc) or Arts (English, Urdu, Islamiat etc.)

4.12 Logical or Direct Relevance in Classroom Sessions

Instructors frequently use the expressions which are directly related to the idea and meanings are quite clear and explicit. In the following example, the instructor discussed the topics of articulation which are covered in IPA. Students are quite clear as they are interacting and replying the relevant answers.

4.12.1 Example 1

“T: Those sounds we will cover in IPA separately right? So right now we are talking about places of articulation. We will just discuss the sounds which are familiar to us and we are going to talk about the pulmonic places of articulation of pulmonic sounds only. Do you remember I told you that in IPA first we deal with pulmonic and then non- pulmonic and then double articulation and vowels. Okay, let’s quickly review how many types without looking at your handouts I just want to know what you have done in your..

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I mean how much time you have given to phonetics. Yes, how many places of articulation?”

S: “Eleven”

T: “eleven? Yes. Can anybody name them?...any one place of articulation. Out of eleven can you recall any one.”

S: “Labiodental”

T: “Labiodental, so what do we mean by labiodentals, the contact of, yes I told you that you have to specify the power of the tongue. So labiodental is usually with the…. is it tongue or lips?

S: “Lips”

T: “Yes its lips so its lip and which? Upper lip and teeth and which teeth upper or lower? Yes its upper teeth and lower lip. Can’t you just speak and find it I mean why don’t you recall your memory. Think of a sound which you produce from the labiodental place and produce it and see that who are that (creatures).Yes your name?”

It is clear from the above example that the ideas are structurally and thematically identical i.e. the instructor explained her points with examples throughout the lecture. Initially, the instructor showed the particular symbol to the students and after that there is a picture description and she explained the specific sound through her jaw movement

In another example, the instructor lecturede on “speaking”, to elaborate the process of speaking, initially she gave the thematic description that there are different symbols which are saved in our mind and these symbols can be utilized when we need them. The thematic descriptions evoke different questions which may be answered through examples.

“Ok, now what is speaking? Basically, when you read and when you listen, you encode certain messages and when you speak you decode that message. Theek hay. Kuch symbols hotay han which are saved in your mind and when you speak in certain situation, you decode that message. Jo symbols hotay ha nap kay mind may, jab ap

173 kisi specific situation may enter hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un symbols ko use kartay ho. [Right, some symbols are saved in your mid and you use that in specific situation] So that is speaking.”

4.12.2 Example 2

Similarly, during the teaching of science subjects, the instructors gave the background of the study, proved it through different experiments, or often they applied various formulae to derive equations. As in scientific academic discourse, hypothesis/statements are proved through experiments or with the help of formulae and a previous research, in this situation, classroom session seems more authentic and relevant. The idea is clear from the following example. The instructor worked on a problem solving activity. She taught the calculation of vapor pressure of water and the sugar solution by applying formula. The idea is clear through following example.

“T: Now consider this case five point six seven grams of glucose is C six H twelve O six. This dissolved in twenty five point two grams of water. Now vapor pressure of water is twenty three point eight millimeter of mercury that is PA not. This is the vapor pressure of pure water so you can calculate delta p .Lowering in vapor pressure is PA not into delta XP. Mole fraction of the solution PA not is twenty three point eight and then you convert this into mole fraction. So this comes out to be zero point two two.Ye ap ne khudkarnahy. [you will do it on your own] Is pe mole fractions bananihain. [you have to make mole fraction] Pechay examples hain mole fractions bananyki. [you can consult mole fractions] So this you had to do yourself. You convert this into moles divided by the molecular weight and then the moles of water and divide the number of the moles of glucose by the total number of moles. Aik Is k moles ho jain gay aik is K moles ho jain gay [you can make mole in this way] and then you add up the number of moles and divide the moles of this by the total number of moles. So this comes out to b zero point two, two moles and then the lowering is zero point five to four millimeter of mercury. This is the change in vapor pressure. So if the initial vapor pressure was this then the vapor pressure of the solution will be twenty three point eight minus zero point five to four. Almost thirty three point two five. Istarha se ye a jaega. [you can do it like

174 that] So you see then you dissolve sugar in water then the vapor pressure of water vapor decreases.

We calculate the pressure. PA0 is 75mm. PB0 toluene is 22mm.Therefore this is 0.7 and this is 0.3.These are two g zero point zero three four millimeter of mercury. This is the step you had to do yourself. mm of mercury. This is the unit of pressure .mm of mercury is the unit of pressure. Let’s take another example. You mix benzene with toluene.

T: Benzene with toluene. This is the mole fraction. In this case you can see that you are not changing the mole fraction. Therefore the pressure would be the same. Now solvents two liquids which are mix together. Since you can find out PA this is 75xo.5. PB this is 22x0.3.This comes out to be 53mm of mercury.”

4.12.3 Example 3

In another example, the instructor talked about business plan. He discussed different relevant areas of the topic in a sequence. These areas are interlinked and the organization of the lecture showed that different perspectives are interlinked and sequenced in a way that the later and former ideas are interdependent i.e. the listener could not get the idea if he does not know the previous idea. The overall lesson plan is as follows:

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Business plan

Organizational plan

Content of organizational plan

Partners of organization

kinds of deals, affidavit, identification of Deals partners and principle stake holders or

Frame Overall Business plan Explanation with examples

Managerial skills Management team expectation of organizer

Types of partner: general, Issues related to partnerships and partners Creation of law diseased, silent

Explanation of different terns:

wakf, Sole proprietorship

Explanation of different issues with examples

Figure 4.2: Overall Lesson plan of Example 3

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Initially, the instructor started his lecture by saying “I want to discuss the portion of your business plan that is organizational plan.” He explained the content of organizational plan and the whole lecture based on what he said initially; “I want you to cover different things. Number one, what is the form of ownership? What is the structure of your organization? That is to say how it is structured? Who is the director? And what is the patch level management? The basic rational of providing these details are, the people who are investing in this venture would like to know, who are the people?” He further explained the patterns of organization, said that “the pattern of organization cover the top managers, deals, overall terms and conditions and give and take of organization.” He interlinked and elaborated all the given points and focused on deals by describing different kinds of deals, affidavit, identification of partners and principle stake holders or customers. He elaborated his listeners, how they can frame overall business plan and said “You try to basify your management team that it becomes a syllable point in terms of how you frame your overall business plan? Right.” Afterwards, he moved towards the expectations of management team with specific reference to the managerial skills of the organizer. All the above mentioned facts and figures led him to make an opinion about the “creation of law” which covers types of partners; Types of partner: general, diseased, silent and Issues related to partnerships and partners. The relevant terms like “wakf”, “sole proprietorship” are explained in detail. The lecture ended by elaborating different themes and ideas with examples.

4.12.4 Example 4

In interactive classrooms, I found the instructors usually raise questions to get the responses from the students. The following example reveals that the purpose of the lecture is to give the idea about writing paragraph. The interactive teaching strategy is adopted by the instructor as the lecture start with a question “what is paragraph” and various students responded it as one student said that a paragraph revolves around a main idea. Another student responded that “A paragraph is a group of related sentences, and… it’s… all about the summary of the topic”. One female student compared paragraph with essay as she said: Paragraph (writing) is precise as compared to an essay; in essay, we deal with so many concepts altogether but in a paragraph (writing), we are concerned

177 about a main idea and we are… just about… the go… ummm… precise thing and the most highlight… highlighted thing, but in an essay, we tells about all things that could... and many others.” After getting the response from the students, instructor elaborated her point of view and finally told her opinion about paragraph writing; “as we have already talked about the paragraph, paragraph writing is a series of sentences, developing the topic, okay. Aaa… well, generally...we have talked about the main idea or the main theme, it moves around one main theme or one main idea, right!” Following diagram illustrate overall lesson plan of this lecture.

What is paragraph?

Link between sentences

Maintain chronological order Comparison and contrast Thematic and structural unity

Develop coherent ideas

Use of transitional words

What is Essay?

Example of descriptive essay

Figure 4.3: Overall Lesson plan of Example 4

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The instructor explained the idea of writing a paragraph with specific reference to thematic unity. In her words, “Well as we were talking about main idea and main theme its moves around one main idea and one theme. Its surrounds only about taking main idea and also develops the idea and finally conclude the idea and above all these sentences in that paragraph they are related and linked. Ok well there are two kinds of unity of paragraph. One is thematic unity. What is thematic unity? It’s written on one idea, main theme. Second is structural unity .What is structural unity of paragraph?” She raised the question of structural unity and students responded. The idea of thematic and structural unity was maintained through chronological order of coherent ideas, comparison and contrast. The instructor created the link between the development of the coherent ideas and the use of the transitional words. Although this lecture was bout the introduction to paragraph writing but at the end, instructor gave the brief introduction to essay writing. While giving the introduction to essay writing, the instructor again opted the strategy of inquiring from the students “what is essay? So Waseem will tell me about

essay.". The student replied, “an essay is a collection of paragraphs basically pointing the main idea or the main subject” the instructor appreciated the student, “well …good, collection of ideas” This strategy of appreciation is used by the instructors to increase students participation. At the end, the instructor gave the example of descriptive essays. This example shows that lecture is properly arranged and sequenced and various concepts are embedded and linked with the main idea which made this lecture a complete whole.

4.12.2 Example 5

Instructors follow specific sequences during lecture to communicate specific themes. I found many examples (from the subjects’ related to natural sciences) where instructor initially elaborated the main idea, relevant concepts and formulae (related to the topic). In Mathematics classroom session, one female instructor proved the idea by practically applying various themes and formulae. I did not share the whole lecture here as it is comprised of nearly six thousand words. For the convenience of reader, I describe the part of the lecture. The instructor talked about “internal energy and enthalpy”. Initially she elaborated the students’ different concept regarding internal energy,

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enthalpy, isothermal conditions, constant isothermal expansion internal energy etc. While deriving the equation she told the students:

“So under isothermal condition ∆E=0, because temperature keep constant when ∆E=o then the first law of thermodynamic reduces to the form that q = PDV or you can write that W = Ed because work is done at the cost of this heat supplied so W – Ed. How we get this equation. We get this equation because work is product of change in pressure and change in volume. Change in pressure that is p – dp and this is the change in volume because this is work of expansion, product of P and V. So here volume changes the dv = V2 – V1 so we can write the expression like this or you can write W = pdv – dpdv or this is the product of two infinitesimals. It is the product of two infinitesimals, therefore, it is neglected. Being the product of two infinitesimals the last term is neglected. Do you understand because see if you multiply 0.1 with 0.1 you will get 0.01, so this infinitesimal? It is a very very small quantity. Very very small number multiplied by very very small number will give you a very very very small number. Therefore, this is neglected and we get net expression to be equal to w=pdv. So you see w=pdv expansion is the product of change in pressure and change in volume. This change in pressure p – dp, this dv, so we rearrange like this w=pdv – dpdv. This product of two infinitesimals, this is neglected and we get this expression w=pdv.”

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After that, she derived the whole equation:

From the general gas equation

We know that,

Pv=nRT(for n mole of an ideal gas)

Or p=nRT/V

Therefore,it will give

W=pwv

Puttingthe value of P in equation….(1)

W=nrt(dv)/v

We get

W=nrtdv/v

Now subjected to integration between the limit v1 and v2

V1 volume before expansion

V2 voume after expansion

So, w=nrt

And the integration of dv/v is log v natural log v

And we have the unit v1 and v2 initialo unit and final unit.

W=nrt log (v1v2)

Now w=nrt log v1 –log v2

W=nrt log(v2/v1)

Volume is inversely proportional to pressure.

Therefore, W=NRT log (p1/p2)

Or w=2.3 nrt log(v2/v1)

Or w=2.3nrt log (p1/p2)

This is maximum work

Figure 4.4: Overview of the Equation Discussed in Example 5

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4.13 Logical or Direct Relevance in Conference Presentations

I observed that the organization of conference presentations are different classrooms lectures. Presentations are comparatively short and do not provide the minor details while classroom lectures are series of topics and these topics are interlinked and provide minor to major details. Instructors know the audience and they teach according to the level of the students while in presentations, presenters usually do not know the audience. Presenters’ concepts are compact, precise and ideas are tightly packed and these are irrespective of the listeners’ previous knowledge while classroom lecture sessions provide the detailed description of minor to major issues. I observed that in classrooms, instructors provide various activities related to the topic while after presentations there are question-answer session of 5-10 minutes. The presentation cannot be repetitive in nature while in classrooms, if the students are unable to get the ideas, instructors may repeat the previously described concepts for students’ understanding. Although, classroom lectures and presentations are part of formal communication but the formality level in presentations is higher than classrooms lectures. I found in conference presentations, logical arguments are presented to extract the meanings. Unlike classrooms lectures, it is assumed by the presenters that listeners had sufficient background knowledge and presenters did not explain various terms like “American hegemony”, “panoptical narrative”, “diasporic youth”.

4.13.1 Example 6

The sequences of conference presentations are introduction, description of review literature, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion/suggestions. In conference presentations, presenters usually start their presentation by describing some interesting story, statistical overview or introduction of the topic to catch the attention of the reader; after using the above described techniques, they relate them to the particular theme or topic. I found the prominence of the element of syllogism as the concepts are linked to the main idea and there is a deductive sequence, although the description is not detailed as in classrooms lectures. For example one female presenter who started her presentation by describing an incident and afterwards she related that incident with the theme of racism and new racism. In her own words: 182

P: “I would like to start my presentation with a story and I hope Mr. Naseem will give me one minute extra for that. The story is about a Yamani Muslim, Ahmad Hassan and the time was 1942 when the Second World War raised. Yamani Muslim, Ahmad Hassan, he appeared in United States District court in Michigan and his petition was on Nationalization and that is for nationality and it was 1942….remember the time and his petition was denied because the judge who was well versed in American Nationalization because he knows that this law is for the people who come under the whiteness and surely that whiteness was whiteness by law. Now when he denied the petition to Hassan, and he wrote the decision and it was long three paged decision. I only quote few lines from his decision, and then we will start our discussion. What he wrote, he said, Arabs are not white persons within the meaning of nationality act. Then he further explained, apart from the dark skin of the Arab, it is well-known that they are the part of Muhammadan world and the wide gulf separate their culture from that of predominantly Christian people of Europe. Therefore it cannot be expected that as a class, they would readily intermarry with our population and be assimilated into our civilization. Thus ladies and gentleman, for him religion determines the race. So this idea of racism in American history and we have been talking about racism against African and all others but in the wake of nine eleven and new concept emerge out of this racism which we say neo-racism. Now what make it new racism and how it is different from racism? From racism to new racism, the culture of otherness, concept of new racism, area of decolonization, racism without race. The traditional idea of race based on biological characteristics, blood and color. People have different biological hereditary characteristics and they are marginalized on the basis of that but in the wake of nine eleven, it was not the blood or biological characteristics but it was the religion and cultural identity based on religion. That actually created a different race, racial difference and cultural other. So this new racism is culturalist and differentialist.”

The story telling in the start of presentation is effective tool in catching the attention of the listener. Moreover, some concepts and incidents related to racism are described by the presenter. Hence, it is presupposed by the presenter that the audience already knew these concepts and incidents like American Nationalization, racism to new

183 racism, the culture of otherness, concept of new racism, area of decolonization and racism without race.

4.13.2 Example 7

Presenters start their presentation directly without wasting their time. They tell the purpose of presentation followed by the relevance of the topic to the particular theme or they related their ideas to some other writer. In the following example, the speaker described the purpose of the research, focus of the research, methodology, and theoretical approach. The description was so brief that she described these in very short time of one minute. Later she presented detailed idea of her research paper. In her words:

“I will be talking about few short stories and essays… and artistic representation from Granta 112. The focus of my presentation is performance versus politics in contemporary essays, short stories from Granta 112. For this purpose, I selected some images as well. I am sorry; I can’t show the images right now. I focused on how Pakistani Diaspora artists and writers resist the political pressure which surrounds them. The idea is clarified through different themes and symbols and art they presented. Secondly photo graphic images and paintings… important part of the issue of this journal. I would like to start with the theoretical approach presented in research article “Enactments of Power; The Politics of Performance Space”. He writes that community learnt and passed its games moral codes and aesthetic judgments through narratives dances and theatre, rituals, music games and sports. With the emergence of the state, the writers and state not only become rivals while articulating the laws, moral or formal. That regulate life and society but also rivals in determining manner and circumstances of their delivery, now this is my basic focus.”

4.13.3 Example 8

Different writers from same time periods or different time periods bring different themes into considerations and these themes are interrelated. One male presenter gave the examples of different writers who discussed the same theme. Furthermore, he criticized the different critics for not appreciating the relevant writer for the creation of real picture of the society. He said that writer tries to explain the reality of life; people do not admire

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him because they don’t want to face the reality or they do not want to bring the reality into consideration. He not only created the relevance among the themes of various writers but he also created the relevance between the theme/description of various writer and the society; as he informed, “Work like ‘Lehaf’ … work of Ismat Chughtai, Khana by Ahamag Nadeem Qasmi, and Thanda Gosht” by Manto with the notoriously shocking appeal for the readers, strengthen the appeal of realism, that has already been established by Ahmad Ali. Ahmad Ali, First book ‘Angaray’ i.e ‘Burning Coal’ was in his own words, a brave word adolescent book. This collection was criticized and banned by the Government. From Manto to Moiuddin, let me come to the conclusion. From Manto to Moinuddin, there is the story of silent men who overlook the compromises that women make. This idea of Realism slaps down popular “ghairat narratives of the society”. Critics of social realist figures have been blaming this figure that they are lusty for cheap popularity but the harshest socialist Saadat Hassan Manto tolerateed more sufferings than reward in his short life. This ultimate truth bring balance and positive change in society”

4.13.4 Example 9

In another example, conference participant presented the theme of Allama Iqbal. He created a logical relevance of themes with the ideas of some other writers like Ghazali, Ibn-e-Arabi etc. In the creation of this relation, he identified different themes which were related to mystical and philosophical ideology. The relationship of these two ideologies helped him in building the logical sequence. As he said:

“The most famous critique of Ghazali comes from the deconstruction of religious thoughts, there is one turn in Ghazali’s thought and I think that it is two year period, and between Ghazali last four or five years, he withdraws himself from public debates, and he comes back, his approach is no longer theological explication mode, he is more mystical and he becomes more philosophical, and he starts then theorizing in the pattern of Arabi, and the question of love. …Right and that strain, Iqbal Criticized in reconstruction of religious thoughts. Now Ibn-e- Fhmia is most famous for his Aljawabus Sahi that is his enticement for the concept of trinity and the concept of Wahdat-ul-wajood, in which Ibn- e-Fehmia argued that creation and creator cannot be won… Right and the reason that they cannot be won is the creation is in flux and they cannot be won at the moment. The 185

creation would engulf the creator itself. It’s like if you believe that the God is static itself.. Right and you attribute certain attributes of GOD. Then you cannot have wahdat- ul-wajood, Right … you see these are the people that Iqbal chooses as philosophical influences.”

4.13.5 Example 10

This example shows the sequential link of the various parts of the presentation. The topic of the presentation was “Recent Trends in Pakistani Protest Songs; A Critical Discourse Analysis”. The presentation initiated by describing the background of the study that “however, when it comes to Pakistan’s protest songs on electronic media, in a sense it shows the emergence of new media … on social media. It has also entered into an exciting phase because of social and political up heaven in the country.” while elaborating the background of the study, presenter emerged the idea of “media and new social media”, she said that “when I collected the data, I found that the youth is involved. Media, politics and youth, they have mainly one domain.. that is power. Or somehow interconnected due to power.” The purpose of her study was to explore the link between media and society, as she said “Power of media has inspired many different disciplines like Linguistics, Semiotics, pragmatics and discourse studies of course. Media affects hoe we learn to interact with others and how we interact with the world. It is not only reflected through the media but also shaped through the media. This is two way process, our identities are shaped through the media and media is changing because of us. So this is what we will be talking about.” Furthermore, she elaborated the aim of study as “this is one of the recent trends in Pakistan. Focusing on the recent trends in Pakistani protest songs from the linguistic and semiotic perspective and how these songs linguistically and semiotically create meanings at the level of text, discursive practices and structure.” She set the criteria for data collection and said “Now criteria of my data collection, wo kia cheez hay jiska may nay analysis kia. Jesa kay may nay shoro may hi kaha kay may nay data collect kia from political songs [As I already told you in beginning that I collected my data from political songs] which termed as sociopolitical songs. This is genre of protest songs. I have taken the data from the turn of the decades i.e. 2012 how I have selected so the idea is popularity...number of viewers on youtube. Two lac was the

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minimum number that I have because during the last two years, there is a very big political upheaval.” (The researchers selected four songs keeping in view the frequency of viewers of the songs on Youtube during the years 2011 to 2012). After describing the process of data collection, she elaborated the research framework for her research and stated “ye char songs han, in ko ham dekhain gay, critical discourse analysis ko apply Karen gay. Or dekhain gay k how the meanings are being created through all that. [These are four songs; we shall see and apply critical discourse analysis. We shall see how meanings are created?] So we have this Fairclough model of critical discourse analysis 1989 and 1994 and semiotic framework of Berger. I have combined these two frameworks”. I found that the presenter spent less time on describing literature review as she herself said, “bohat ziada time nahi guzaron gi literature review may bus thora hi time lon gi, ham jab bhi baat kartay han. [I shall not spend much time in describing literature review] Whenever we use the term critical, whenever the word critical comes, it is related to power, it donated and it denotes both power. Whenever we talk about critical discourse analysis, it is related to power or power relations, power of youth, power of media and power of politics, three things that I have already told you. Wohi teen dimensions jo may nay ap ko batai thi..Lekin aj jo ham dekhain gay verbal and visual both.” [I have already told you three dimensions but now we shall use two dimensions verbal and visual.] After brief literature review, she elaborated the analysis of collected data and proposed “we would look at three things us ka text k uskay text may kia hay, uski description ko dekhain gay kay us may kia hay. We look at the processing analysis … iski interpretation kay us may kia hay. Third level is the social analysis level kay us may kia hay.. we would explain with relation to the society. Wohi cheez hay jo Fairclough nay is diagram ki form may di hay. [We shall look at three things; First is what is in that particular text of songs? How the songs have been presented? And third is its social analysis.] The song is Aalo Anday by Begairat Brigade. The song was not released on television, the singers themselves said that they tried to negotiate but there was apprehension that it was censored very heavily so it was not released on social media. Remember we are looking at it critically …. Critical Discourse Analysis. I shall pick some aspects from text, then I show you kay ye hy text may? [I shall show you the text.] The presenter further raised some questions in the mind of the

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audience to develop/enhance the interest and curiosity of the audience; she said “… is ganay kay baray may meray zehan kuch sawal han jesay [I have some questions in my mind regarding this song.] what is the place of production? Could this text be produced earlier than this? Is this simple a popular music song? Or how could this discourse be produces outside Pakistan anywhere else? What contextual factors involved in the production and interpretation of this song? Two way relationships someone is producing and we are looking at it. Finally I will be explaining with reference to the society.” She further explained the data through various images extracted from the video of the songs as she said “see the images, ye dekhain lagta hay koi news channel hay jahan news chalai ja rahi hay. This is the part of the song, har cheez emergency bana di gai hay. Har cheez critical bana kay dekhai jati hay. [Look, this is looking like some news channel where news is being announced. Everything is portrayed as if there is some kind of emergency.] Look at the pictures how the meanings are created. Ye sab images han song may dollars kay, pounds kay, pesay kay … ye dekhain yahan pay likha hua hay kay baghair peson kay meri file pass kara do. [The images of dollars, pounds and money are show in this video. Look, it is written over here to forward my file without money.] All the texts tell the story. By the way agar kisi nay song dekha ho tu ye likha hua tha “Shehzad Roy nay gana gaya, kisi ko samajh nhi aya. Aagay.. aagay.. Angelina Jolie Pakistan ai tab un ko samajh may aya. [By the way, if somebody has seen the song, it is written over there that Shehzad Roy has sung that song, nobody could understand that. When Angelena Jolie came to Pakistan then they were able to understand.] Again irony and satire, which is linked.” At the end, presenter gave the conclusion and finally findings of her presentation and added “Institutionalized practices of songs are being changing. Jesay Faiz Ahmad Faiz kay ganay han. Satire, pehlay bi tha, irony pehlay bi thi, nothing new in this. Crude humour hay, jesay bilkul third class, low class logon wala. Rap add kia hua hay. Text clips ham atay han, us kay baad abusive language bohat ziada use hui hay. [There are some songs of Faiz Ahmad Faiz, these are very good. The techniques of satire and irony are utilized in old times as well but trends are changing now like this is crude humor of third class people. Rap has been added. There are text clips and there is excessive use of abusive language.]”

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The overall plan of presentation is as follows:

Background of Research

What is media and Social Media

Media Discourse Introduction to the Study Aims of Current Research

Criteria of Data Collection

Research Framework

Literature Review

Analysis Explanation through Examples

Conclusion

Figure 4.5: Overall Lesson plan of Example 5

The presenter followed proper formal presentation plan. The ideas are logically arranged and supported with visual images and examples from the data. It is not presupposed by the presenter that the attendees were already familiar with the song, so she played a little part of the song for the audience.

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4.13.6 Example 11

The presentation started with the brief introduction of the presenter, followed by introduction and purpose of the study. To create the interest of the audience, the presenter said “We are going to start our presentation today and it is slightly different from the other topics of today. It is related to the different levels of language as we just gone through. It will take you back either you have taught at O-Level., junior level school, sorry secondary level school. It will take you back there and if you have no teaching experience of that particular level, it will take you back to your school time. All right...” while introducing the core idea of her research, she elaborated her research question as “Are Activities Involving cognitive under skills responsible for facilitating for effective reading skills in learners. The basic focus is high cognitive skills here.” she further pointed out the reviewed literature briefly which stated “cognitive development and “ways to improve understanding” like “understanding that can be improved through word-meaning activities, reading aloud, facts description etc.” The presenter’s point of view is “When you give them (students) questions even low in nature, there will be points where there will be full stop there… Right. Critical thinking will stop at that position. Now if you give them high nature problems like you giving them facts, you give them situations, you bring the surrounding(into consideration), there is a feel of environment, then they critically think and they will solve that and there will no limit to it.” She further described research methodology which stated that population and sample and method of data collection: “Sample was 34 students. They were from semi-government and private sector…. Right you know they were just randomly picked. There were six teachers of the same level. The students were from class 8. The teachers were those who teach these students. The tool which we selected was a passage selected from Dawn magazine.”(Comprehension passage is designed further which was given to the students as an activity to solve)As it is traditional pattern of research based presentations that results are at the end, so in this presentation, the presenter presented the results and recommendations at the end: “Result was The students of semi government sector. all of them started asking questions like how should I solve that? Should we try to find the answers from the given passage? Are we supposed to pick it up from the text and write as it is? This is basically related to the concepts which the teachers are not giving to their 190

students. That is freedom to work. Every step is like they take ungli pakro or chalao [At every step, they do spoon feeding]. It’s very simple thing like they just have to read and answer the questions. Thanks God for the private sector that their students are doing these activities. I am not saying that these are best best schools. The six questions were given to the students and they move from very low cognitive skills to very high cognitive skills. Result were surprisingly that both private and semi government students just picked the answers from the passage without any change and wrote that. The sentence is long, they wrote the whole sentence. They did not skip the end wala part till the full stop. [They did not skip last part.] They did not understand the question.” The proposed recommendations were “teachers are focusing on reading, vocabulary building, writing but the result oriented part is missing. The activities should be based on “silent reading, jigsaw reading, difficult words drills and framing questions” and instructor should keep in mind the aspect of cognitive development. The overall presentation plan is as follows:

Introduction of presenter

Introduction To Study What is understanding?

Literature Review Cognitive Development

Methodology

Findings/Results and recommendations

Figure 4.6: Overall Lesson plan of Example 6

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4.14 Relative Relevance in Conference Presentations

Although, the conference presenters most of the times follow logical or direct relevance (according to Grice observe the maxim of relevance) but I found some instances which report indirect or relative relevance. To explain the idea of relative/indirect relevance, I extracted various examples from the transcribed data which reveal various incidences relevant to the ideology of relative relevance. In conference presentations, I found instances of co-relational and situational relevance but recreational relevance is rare. First example illustrates situational relative relevance while second and third examples illustrate co relational relevance.

4.14.1 Example 12

Time management is no doubt a skill. Limited time was allocated to the presenters to present that may be ranged from fifteen to twenty minutes. Sometimes, presenters were unable to manage their time and looked worried during the presentation, I observed that some presenters asked how much time is left? Or often, the facilitator warned them that they have short time now. For example, one participant asked, “I hope that I am not transgressing the time limit” and facilitator replied “No” and Presenter said “Ok, Ok/l/”. In another instance, the facilitator reminded the participant about limited time of presentation and she responded “Oops I got just five minutes left and I have to discuss my entire paper.” These temporary interruptions are not the part of presentation; so, I believe that this is not the non-observance of relevance rather it is relative relevance because it fits into the pragmatic ideology of relevance. Furthermore, I feel that these interruptions divert the attention of the listeners and even participant felt uncomfortable when he/she realized that he/she has short time.

4.14.2 Example 13

Conference presentations are followed by question-answers sessions. Sometimes, observers ask the questions which have no direct link to the presentation. For example, in question-answer session, one attendee ask from the presenter “Iqbal did not know while raising his voice about Mujahidins that he will have to face the Britishers as we are facing now a days with different connotations, what is your view about this idea”. Although the 192

question did not have any direct link with the idea presented in presentation but listener /attendee felt that the presenter has sufficient knowledge about the ideology of Allama Iqbal, so he raised the question. The response of the presenter was not direct. As the attendee was asking about the views related to “mujahideen” while the presenter recite another verse of Iqbal which is related to the beauty of women that this universe if beautiful (colorful) due to women. Furthermore, he told the qualities of text and said, “Wajood-e-zan say hay tasveer-e-kainaat may rang then women is just an object. But he has the power to say something more than that. Text are instrumental, I mean we instrumentalize text; for politics and for our poetics.” In the same discussion one more attendee asked from the presenter, “As a critic, Where would you place Iqbal, I mean he is modern, postmodern, post postmodern?” Again, instead of replying directly, initially he praised the question and said that “students are studying him (Allama Iqbal) in Germany and his western education polished his (presenter) skills. He further said that Iqbal is a modern subject for him. The phrase “for him” shows that he is not quite sure about the statement because he has not provided any adequate reference/evidence of his statement.

4.14.3 Example 14

Conference presentations are based on research conducted by various participants, they cannot say directly that one thing or idea is opposite or similar to the other. To identify the similarity or difference or to extract meanings they need to justify that with example. Initially, he described the ideology of Allama Iqbal in detail. While he wanted to deliver the idea that Iqbal has the thoughts quite similar to Ghazali and Ibn-e-Fehmia, he did not say that directly; rather described the ideology of both Ibn-e-Fehmia and Ghazali and then related it by giving the ideology of both. Hence, it is presupposed by the presenter that the attendees might not be familiar with the ideologies of Ghazali, Ibn-e- Fehmia and Allama Iqbal, so he described their ideologies in detail. As one presenter said that “the most famous critique of Ghazali comes from the deconstruction of religious thoughts, there is one turn in Ghazali’s thought and I think that it is two year period, and between Ghazali last four or five years, he withdraws himself from public debates, and he comes back, his approach is no longer theological explication mode, he is more mystical

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and he becomes more philosophical, and he starts then theorizing in the pattern of Arabi, and the question of love. …Right and that strain, Iqbal criticized in reconstruction of religious thoughts. Now Ibn-e- Fhmia is most famous for his Aljawabus Sahi that is his enticement for the concept of trinity and the concept of Wahdat-ul-wajood, in which Ibn- e-Fehmia argued that creation and creator cannot be won… Right and the reason that they cannot be won is the creation is in flux and they cannot be won at the moment. The creation would engulf the creator itself. It’s like if you believe that the God is static itself.. Right and you attribute certain attributes of GOD. Then you cannot have wahdat- ul-wajood, Right … you see these are the people that Iqbal chooses as philosophical influences, both at the end of the day want.

4.15 Relative Relevance in Classroom Sessions

I have divided relative relevance in three parts co-relational, recreational and situational. I could not any incident of recreational aspect of relative relevance in conference presentations but there are some instances of relative relevance. There can be various reasons for that like one instructor taught during the whole semester of six months and students got familiarity with that particular instructor so the high level of familiarity lessen the level of formality while in conference presentations, presenters usually do not know the audience so the low level of familiarity leads to high level of formality and the aspect of relative relevance from recreational and occasional perspective is relatively low in conference presentations.

4.15.1 Example 15

In the following example the instructor was asking to look at various websites to resolve their task. Initially he tried to find that particular website through computer but unable to open that. Then he asked for a smart phone from a guy to explore the specific site, the guy was hesitant and the instructor said you look a bit confused as there can be some fallacious or personal message appear in your smart phone and in that situation the rest of the class started laughing. The conversation between instructor and students is as follows:

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“I want you to look at those studies that will give you an idea how to make your own business plan? Acha. [OK] Who has the copy of that business plan to which I am talking about? Ok. Let’s look at the organizational plan. Now I want to do is, first is the form of ownership which we are going to discuss now. We are going to do different forms of ownership and what type of ownership that you will have? Is may koi ghalat message tu nhi a jay ga? [I hope, I shall not receive any wrong message in that] Is liay ghabraay huay han./L/”

S: “nhi nhi Sir. Asi koi baat nhi. [No sir, it’s not like that] /L/”

4.15.2 Example 16

The instructor discussed the topic of paragraph writing. She told that there was a logical sequence in paragraph writing like how to boil an egg; you have to follow some order otherwise the idea will not be clear to the students. She further talked about Zubaida Aapa who is public figure in Pakistan and famous for telling home remedies (nuskhay) and cooking. Most of the youngsters make fun of her when the instructor mentioned her name and said that she (Zubaida Aapa) knew everything, the reset of the class started laughing. Hence, the instructor presupposed that the students already knew about the public figure, Zubaida Apa. Although talking about Zubaida Apa is nothing to do with paragraph writing but it seems that the instructor wanted to break the monotonous routine of the class. In her own words:

“What is the third point? Interest to read story book. But this will not happen when you will read chemistry book or other. How many of you have interest to read chemistry book like novel or story book? Ok, that picks of another kind of experience ok right logically from beginning to end. Well this is when you are writing about some event for describing. For example, if you are asking to write paragraph to boil an egg what will you do? You need to have that you know the logical order, that comes at end of process here you are describing the process ok so you need to have that orders …. Logical orders. Zubaidaapa is talking about everything if you listen carefully you don’t need any doctor, she is known to talk about everything ok coming back to lesson girls and boys using active verbs help the reader to visualize.”

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In the same classroom, the instructor was going to tell the joke to the students but soon realized that the presence of the researcher and said to the students that she would tell them some other day.

In another lecture the instructor initially told the students that they were not supposed to make a noise as this lecture would be recorded and in response, students laughed; as he said, “Ye device hay jis ka matlab hay k aj ap logon nay ziada shor nhi dalna. Ziada mazak nhi karna ye record ho ra hay” ( L)

S: Sir, phir lecture kesay ho ga. [Sir, How will you carry on this lecture?] /L

The former example is related to recreational relative relevance and the latter is related to situational relative relevance. Although, these given examples show that these are not the part of lecture as such but these are the part and parcel of that particular context and fit into the thematic ideology of context in pragmatics.

4.15.3 Example 17

In another example, the instructor delivered the lecture on Speaking and various models of speaking. At the end of the class, she started discussing the previous trip to Thandyani with the students as they spent very good time there. I judged through the conversation that some students hired a car while some students availed university transport to go to trip. The conversation between the students and the teacher is as follows:

S: Mam ham bi wahan thay. [Madam, we were also there]

T: Ap bethay kahan han. Ap tu havaon may uray han. [You were not there, actually you were flying in the air.]

S: mam enjoy karnay kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy]

T: abi ap kay parents ko pata nhi hay ka wahan kia kuch kartay rehtay han. [Your parents know that you are going but they do not know what you were doing there]

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S: un ko bataya tha mam. [We told them Mam]

T: ka yap log is tarha wapas ain gay. [That you will behave like that at picnic.]

S: unhain pata tha kay ham ja rahay han. [They know we are going]

T: unhain pata tha ka yap ja rahay han. Unhain pata tha ka ap seat pay beth kay ja rahay han yeh tu nhi pata tha kay hawaon may urrr kay ja rahay han. /i/ [They know that you are going but they donot know what you did there?]

S: mam enjoyment kay liay gay thay. [Mam, we went there to enjoy]

T: Theek hay, lekin apni safety ka bhi khayal rakhna chahiye. .[Fine, but you should take care of yourself]

S: mam mosam bhi acha tha us din. [Madam, weather was very pleasant that day.]

T: ji mosam tu wesay aj bhi acha hay. [Yes, Weather is awesome today as well. Aj bi mosam hay trip ka. [Even today, weather is good that you can arrange trip.] Next time, be careful about your safety. Take care. Allah Hafiz. See you in next class.

4.15.4 Example 18

In another example, the instructor asked the students to write the most embarrassing moment of your life. Different students wrote different incidents. Similarly, one student described the incident which was hilarious and the rest of the class started laughing. The incident described by the student is as follows:

“Ma’am first time in my life I was travelled to Karachi by air,I don’t know well about plane and uhh the washroom system of the plane then I uhh uhh and then I walked with my brothers and when I came back from ahh I said that “lota nahi tha! [There was no lota there]”

I found that the incident shared by the student in the class is funny and linked to the topic as well. Moreover, it bursted the whole class into laughter but the incident is quite relevant to the context and task of the class.

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4.15.5 Example 19

I observed that occasionally, the instructor explained the whole concept in English language while some students are unable to understand that particular concept and asked the instructor to explain in Urdu language. In the following example, the instructor explained the concept of one subject of social sciences. Although the instructor said that the concept will be easy for you but the students were unable to understand that and asked to elucidate that in Urdu language.

T: “There is no condition between this condition and this condition. This is the investigation of convergence in the neighborhood of infinity and this one is saying that our series are with positive terms only. There is no relationship between those conditions. Don’t confuse. This test will remind some questions from your midterm exam so it will be interesting for you.”

S: “Sir please in Urdu, Concept samajh nhi aya. [Sir, could you please explain this concept in Urdu?”

In another example, the instructor is instructing about essay writing. In an interactive classroom, she asked various questions about essay writing and connected it to paragraph writing. During the discussion, one student asked whether the punctuation will be included in exam or not. Although, it was not related to the topic which was under discussion but she replied to the students and it fits into the pragmatic ideology of context. In her own words:

Teacher: so waseem will tell me about Essay?

Waseem: An essay is a collection of paragraphs basically pointing the maid idea or the main subject.

Teacher: well …good, collection of ideas ….

Teacher: Moving on …from here yes Arousa what is the meaning of essay. Please class listen to what she is trying to say….! Yes?

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Arousa: An essay is a group of many paragraphs having main idea related to a particular subject and comprising of basic ideas.

Teacher: Good …very good .Arousa!

Teacher: OK. What is the page of the…

Students: 48 I can’t find…. What is the page number bacho [Students/kids]?

Student: Punctuation naikrni?

Teacher: G?

Student: Punctuation?

Another student: (48) (48)

Teacher: Nai bachay [No son] punctuation was not included in our exam… Course outline. OK! So please look at this diagram that you have in your…That is on page number 50. And you can see the diagram tells us this… this actually talks about different units of an essay. A formal essay structure and the first part, first unit is introductory paragraph in which you have thesis statement so topics and you might…well… this is /r/ actually a… basically the diagram is about an argumentative essay right but we are talking about any essay, general structure of the essay right? OK

Instructors and students mostly use Urdu and English in classrooms. When students were asked about the relevance of instructors in classrooms; 40 % students were agree and 24 % were strongly agree that the instructor remain relevant in classroom. The results show that 64% students were agree that the instructor remain relevant (to the topic or context) in classrooms.

4.16 Maxim of Quantity

Grice’s maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as informative as required and he should not contribute more information than required. In Cooperative principle, Grice stated two extremes of observance and non-observance of maxim of quantity but he did not propose any criteria to measure the quantity of information delivered by the 199

speakers. Hence, there are two known approaches to analyze quantity of information. First, it can be calculated through the number of words uttered by the speakers in given time period.

However, testifying the required number of words let us say per minute may depend on one and/or several linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. For instance linguistic factors such as speaker’s linguistic competence and competency on the topic spoken on might contribute significantly in articulation of rate words per minute. But how much rate of word per minute is required to be spoken mainly depend on some extra-linguistic factors such as genre, audience and context especially.

Genre is a major determiner of uttering required number of words, for example, word limited is usually expected in case of performing written genres such as research articles, book reviews, and essays. Such constraints of limiting rate of words on spoken genres are generally imposed by allocating total time instead of words of speech/talk to the speaker.

In addition to genre, the second extra-linguistic factor which determines the required quantity is purely based on amount of information anticipated by the audience. The speaker needs to consider expectations, level and response of the audience in order to decide about rate of words to be spoken. Depending on these manifestations of audience it may desire to listen more in less words and vice versa.

Besides genre and audience, it is context which plays major role in determining articulation of required number of words within particular situation. When human beings interact with each other, they share contextual information explicitly and/or implicitly while exchanging idea with certain purpose of achieving communicative goals. This sharing of contextual information may occur at different level of context including linguistic, situational and cultural which are better catered through different theories of pragmatics. These theories help understanding different manifestations of context in deciphering the intended meanings of interlocutors. Firstly, linguistic context refers to the context within discourse like coherence and cohesion in speech. Secondly, situational context decode language used in a specific environment/situation, time and territory.

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Finally, cultural context deals with pragmatics of linguistic codes to the epoch, culture and custom of speakers. Hence, the contextual use of language appears to be significant feature of academic discourse where speakers (teachers and presenters) display their linguistic performance according to the context. For instance, teachers utter words during classroom sessions according to the need of the students in that specific atmosphere. This atmosphere is, furthermore, affected by various generic constraints such as content to be taught, personal beliefs of teachers and students, institutional norms and intended goal to be achieved through these classroom sessions. Hence, in sum, these are the various factors related to context are most likely to affect rate of words produced by the speakers. These factors at time may determine the actual requirement of quantity of words to be uttered, for example, the same factor let us say content to be taught may be affected by some other factor such as institutional norms which would result into saying more words on the topic and vice versa.

Similar to discussion made in previous paragraphs on factors affecting quantity of words to be uttered by the speaker, in conference presentations too these factors, to the noticeable extent, affect rate of number of words to be spoken by the presenters. Moreover, contrary to the expectation of the audience of classroom session, it is presupposed by the presenters that listeners already have some idea about the topic of presentations; hence, more information is conveyed in less words in this genre. However, establishing an absolute yardstick of rate of words seems hard to establish for this genre too.

For quantitative analysis, Lisa B Marshall (2013), Brizendine (2006) and Miller (2006) projected the idea of ideal speakers that concentrates on the ideal delivery of words uttered by the speakers per minute. So, this section encompasses the analysis of maxim of quantity at two levels. Firstly, quantity of words uttered by the speakers and secondly, contextual analysis of transcribed data.

4.16.1 Ideology of Ideal Speaker

Lisa B Marshall (2013) has pointed out that an ideal speaker can utter 110 to 150 words per minute during formal conversation. Natural informal speech may results in

201 utterance of the more rapid words. In a situation when speakers are in a hurry and they intend to deliver a very important message, then they utter words quickly. Hence, the WPM will be higher than in normal formal conversation. Furthermore, she said that there is a cultural and personal aspect as well which may affect the delivery of words per minutes. Brizendine (2006) said that WPM uttered by females is nearly 250 while males WPM are 125. Having a look at the psychological perspective of speech Miller (2006) said that the faster speaker of 195 WPM is more convincing and persuasive than the speaker with 102 WPM in counter-attitudinal conversation. Binnenpoorte (2005) recorded fifty speeches of male participants and fifty eight females and concluded. They concluded that Male participants contributed 223 WPM while female participants contributed 220 WPM with pauses while without pauses 266 WPM for females and 274 WPM for males. In this case WPM of males is higher than females.

4.16.2 Ideology of Ideal Speaker and Delivery of Information in Academic Discourse

Keeping in view the idea of ideal speaker, the quantity of the information delivered is analyzed. I calculated the words per minute (WPM) as notified by Lisa B Marshal, Binnenpoorte and Brizendine. The following formula will be employed to calculate the words per minute.

Words per minute = Total words spoken Total time consumed I recorded the data of fifteen male instructors. The detailed description of duration of class, total words uttered by the male instructors in the class and words spoken per minute for male participants is presented in the table 4.31.

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Table 4.31: The Detailed Description of Male Instructors

Male Instructor Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by Words per minute instructor) (approximately) M1 1:03:38 4239 67 words M2 44:41 3100 70 words M3 45:34 5100 111 words M4 51:57 7110 139 words M5 51:53 3450 66 words M6 50:54 3388 58 words M7 54:08 3310 61 words M8 50:01 3075 62 words M9 40:39 4010 102 words M10 43:01 3388 78 words M11 43:11 2700 62 words M12 44:26 4210 96 words M13 1:04:01 4198 65 words M14 59:38 3810 65 words M15 57:10 4200 73 words Total 765 minutes 58288 1175

The above table shows the complete picture of the words spoken per minute by male instructor. The highest frequency of words uttered by the male participant in classroom is 111 words per minute and lowest frequency is 58 words per minute. If we see the criteria of Lisa B Marshal, only two speakers fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker. Binnenpoorte (2005) said that males contributed 223 WPM. If I compare the results of recorded and transcribed data, there is no participants uttered 223 WPM. The total range of uttered words lies from 58 to 139 words. From quantitative perspective only two speakers fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker as far as Lisa B Marshall’s point of view is concerned and no participant fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker, if I analyze it from Binnenpoorte’s and Brizendine’s point of view.

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Table 4.32: The Detailed Description of Female Instructors Female Instructors Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by Words per minute instructor) (approximately) F1 1:2:30 5360 87 words F2 50 minutes 2105 42 words F3 1:3:00 6038 96 words F4 01:07:15 6124 92 words F5 40 minutes 2345 59 words F6 38 minutes 2790 74 words F7 50 minutes 3232 65 words F8 50 minutes 1610 33 words F9 49 minutes 5586 114 words F10 1:3:21 4681 74 words F11 58:3:00 4590 80 words F12 51:40:00 3220 63 words F13 57:4:30 4510 79 words F14 55:23:00 4410 80 words F15 34:28:00 3100 91 words Total 755 minutes 69704 1129

Table 4.32 shows the words uttered by female participants per minute with complete description of time and total words uttered during the whole lectures. It is observed that only one participant satisfies the criteria of Lisa B Marshall and no female participant observe the criteria of spoken words presented by Binnenpoorte. The total range of uttered words lies from 33 to 114 words. Total recorded data of female classrooms is 755 minutes and total words uttered by the instructors are 69704. The data was collected from two international conferences; ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ and ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’. The detailed description of time and total words spoken per minute by the male presenters in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is described in detail in the following table.

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Table 4.33: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters Male Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by Words per minute Presenter) (approximately) MP1 16:23 2277 139 MP 2 14:44 2239 152 MP 3 12:07 1720 142 MP 4 20 3020 151 MP 5 13 1794 138 MP 6 16 1888 118 MP 7 15:13 2115 139 MP 8 10 1510 151 MP 9 18 2808 156 MP 10 10:51 1562 144 Total 148 minutes 20933 1430

It is clear from the above description that all the participants fulfill the criteria of Lisa B Marshall (110 to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females uttered nearly 250 WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows that male participants are somehow near to the described idea of words while female participants uttered less word than described by Brizendine. The presented data shows that no participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest frequency of WPM of male participants in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is 159 and lowest frequency of WPM is 112. The conference presentations of ten female participants have been extracted from ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ for analysis. The detailed description of time, total words spoken by each female participant and total words spoken per minute by ten female presenters in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is as follows:

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Table 4.34: The Detailed Description of Female Presenters in ‘The Literary Present And The Post- Colonial Condition’ Female Presenters Time Consumed/m Total Words (uttered by Words per minute presenter) (approximately) FP1 15:41 2804 188 FP2 10 1580 158 FP3 21 2327 110 FP4 14:38 2128 149 FP5 10 1420 142 FP6 12:38 1819 144 FP7 14:47 2483 168 FP8 16:50 2541 151 FP9 12:27 1377 110 FP10 11 1661 151 Total 139 minutes 30749 2227

The above table demonstrates that all the participants fulfill the criteria of Lisa B Marshall (110 to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females uttered nearly 250 WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows that male participants are somehow near to the described idea of words while female participants uttered less word than described by Brizendine. The presented data shows that no participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest frequency of WPM of female participants in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is 188 and lowest frequency of WPM is 110. The conference presentations of ten male Presenters have been extracted from ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ for analysis. The detailed description of time, total words spoken by each male participant and total words spoken per minute by ten male presenters in ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ is presented in Table 5.35.

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Table 4.35: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference On Linguistics’ Male Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by Words per minute presenter) (approximately) MP11 19:39 2338 119 MP12 20 2620 131 MP13 16:04 2281 142 MP14 28 3892 139 MP15 10 1520 152 MP16 22 2860 130 MP17 21 2541 121 MP18 16:51 1853 110 MP19 19 2888 152 MP20 12 1656 138 Total 183 minutes and 30 24449 1334 seconds

The data shows that all the presenters satisfy the criteria of Lisa B Marshall (110 to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females uttered nearly 250 WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows that male participants are somehow near to the described idea of words described by Brizendine. The presented data shows that no participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest words per minute frequency (WPM) of male participants in ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ was152 and lowest frequency (WPM) was 110. Similarly conference presentations of ten female Presenters have been extracted from ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ for this research. The detailed description of time, total words spoken by each female participant and total words spoken per minute by these presenters in ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ is described in table 4.36.

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Table 4.36: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference On Linguistics’ Female Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by Words per minute presenter) (approximately) FM11 15:31 2296 148 FM12 17:13 2272 132 FM13 24 3792 158 FM14 10 1520 152 FM15 10 1640 164 FM16 10 1490 149 FM17 30 4320 144 FM18 26 4212 162 FM19 11 1573 143 FM20 10 1580 158 Total 163:44 24695 1510

The quantitative analyses of conference presentations show that most of the male and female presenters follow the criteria of ideal speaker as far as words per minute are concerned. Almost all the presenters follow the criteria of ideal speaker with respect to the WPM given by Lisa B Marshall and Brizendine but do not follow the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest frequency of WPM of male instructors in classrooms is 111 and the lowest frequency of WPM is 58. The highest frequency of WPM of female participants in classrooms is 114 and lowest frequency is 33. The lowest frequency of WPM of female instructors in classrooms is comparatively low than male instructors. The highest frequency of WPM of male participants in conference is 159 and lowest frequency is 112. On the other hand, the highest frequency of WPM of female participants in conference is 188 and lowest frequency is 110. I found that WPM of female presenters is high in classrooms and conference presentations while lowest frequency of WPM of male presenters is high in classrooms and conference. Table 5.7 clarifies the whole picture on WPM of male and female participants.

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Table 4.37: WPM of Male and Female Participants Type Gender Highest Frequency Lowest Frequency WPM WPM Classrooms Male 111 58 Classrooms Female 114 33 Conference Male 159 112 Conference Female 188 110

The total time of lecture recording of male instructors is 765 minutes and total words uttered during this time were 58288 while the total time of lecture recording of female instructors was 755 minutes and total words uttered during this time are 69704. The total time of conference recording of male presenters was 331 minutes and total words uttered during this time are 49144 while the total time of lecture recording of female instructors is 302 minutes and total words uttered during this time were 55444. The results show that the frequency of total words per minute uttered by female participants is relatively high in classrooms and conference i.e. 92 WPM in classrooms and 183 WPM in conference presentations than male participants who have 76 WPM in classrooms and 148 words per minute in conference presentation. Table 4.38 gives the complete picture of total time, total words and WPM.

Table 4.38: Total Time, Total Words and WPM of Male and Female Participants Type Gender Total Time(in Total Words Total WPM minutes) Classrooms Male 765 58288 76 Classrooms Female 755 69704 92 Conference Male 331 49144 148 Conference Female 302 55444 183

The statistical results of the recorded data shows that both male and female instructors do not fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker presented by Lisa B Marshall, Brizendine and Binnenpoorte. As far as conference presentations are concerned, male presenters fulfill the criteria of Liza B Marshall while female presenters speak more than the criteria of ideal speaker. As far Brizendine ideology of ideal speaker is concerned

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(250 WPM for females and 125 WPM for males), male presenters speak more than the described criteria while female participants speak less than the described criteria while no participant fulfill the criteria of Binnenpoorte (223 WPM for male and 220 WPM for females) I observed that in classrooms, majority of the instructors use English and Urdu languages in classrooms. When the students were asked about the clarity of concepts and orderliness of ideas, majority of the students agree that the instructors remain orderly and avoid obscurity of expressions in classrooms as 38 % students were agree and 43 % students were strongly agree that the instructors remain clear (avoid obscurity of expression) in classrooms and 39 % students were agree and 31 % were strongly agree that the instructor remain brief and to the point in classrooms. 4.16.3 Limitations of Maxim of Quantity For maxim of quantity, Grice has given two main postulates. First is “make your contribution as informative as is required during conversation” and second is “do not make your contribution more informative than required.” The philosophy of ideal speaker allows the speaker to speak given amount of words (as presented by Lisa B Marshall, Brizendine and Binnepoorte). Suppose i. A has said a statement B ii. There is an expression C which is more informative than B. iii. But the given word limit (WPM) strategy to measure ideal speakers behavior does not allow him to speak more than the limit because this may not adhere to the standard of ideal speaker. There can be a possibility if the speaker observe the maxim of quantity, he may flout the maxim of relevance because the speaker may not be possible to deliver the idea in a given word limit. iv. The use of less words (WPM) may mean that the speaker wants to avoid a breach; not to deliver extra information and the use of more words (WPM) may mean that the speaker wants to breach; make his/her contribution as informative as required and he should not exceed from the given word limit. But practically, it is not possible for the speakers to count the words at the spot in a given situation.

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4.16.3.1 Measurement of Quantity of Information I feel that it is not possible to measure the quantity of information deliver by the speakers. It is relative and based on individual experiences. One sentence may fulfill the criterion of quantity for one person; there is a possibility that it may not fulfill the criteria for the other person. As far as postgraduate classrooms are concerned, syllabus/ course outlines are already designed and approved by HEC and instructors teach according to the given course outlines. They have to cover the given syllabus in a specific period of time. They cannot teach any extra topics or cannot give the information which is not required to the students. it is found that in almost all classrooms, instructors are found to use two languages (English and Urdu) in classrooms and when they were asked through questionnaires (question no 14) that “The instructor provides sufficient information (explanation) when he/she switches from one language to another”; 32 % students were agree and 33 % were strongly agree to the statement and it is explained in detail with examples in previous sections. 4.16.3.2 Classroom Activities I found various reasons of less use of words in classroom sessions. In classrooms, instructors conduct activities like taking tests, pair work or group activities. Moreover, they use white board (to write) or use power point slides while speaking. It may be possible, when your brain works on two kinds of activities, the speaking speed may lessen. In most of the recorded lectures of males and females instructors, I found that they use white board to explain various concepts. The instructors may ask the students to do various tasks in classrooms like reading handouts or they may take a test. During that time, the instructors remain silent and they play the role of an observer. Hence, they utter comparatively less words in that time period. In the following example, the instructor asked the students to sit in groups to discuss about essay writing. I observed that during this period, although the students discussed but the instructor uttered only few words i.e. twenty two words per minute. It does not mean that the instructor is not providing sufficient information or she is not an ideal speaker. It proves the contextual use of fewer words in that particular situation. “T: Using our previous knowledge about this particular writing now I will ask you what an essay is. Okay you can discuss this with me but first of all discuss it in your

211 group. Umar come here and sit with this group. (Meanwhile the class began discussing with each other.) After sometime,

Teacher: ok I think all of you have discussed .Now who will tell me the definition of an essay. One of students raised her hand)”

4.16.3.3 Need of the Students Instructors speak according to the need of the students. In interactive classrooms, instructors give opportunity to the students to share their ideas and their words delivery/minute may be low. In some other situations when students ask questions from the instructors, the WPM uttered by the instructors may be high. In the following example, the instructor delivered a talk on “speaking skills”; during the session, the students asked a question from the instructor. While instructor was replying, her WPM delivery is comparatively high i.e. 109 WPM than the previous situation. “T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der baa dap bolo gay na. You will take the place of a speaker. Theek hay. That is a role play kay kabhi ap listener ho gay kabhi speaker ho gay. [At one time, you will be listening but after some time, you will speak as well and you will take the place of speaker. Right. This is role play, at one time you will be listener while the other time you will be speaker.] The idea of speaking is clear now? Ok. What is speaking?

S: Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ [Do you want to ask any question?]

T: Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha nap un ko use karo gay na. Question pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay teacher is teaching and you are standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay ga kay may poch lon kay kia may ander ajaon? [Yes, these symbols are saved in your mind. When you want to ask some questions, you use these symbols. You may use these symbols for permission from your instructor to enter the class like May I come in?]

So what you will do? You will utilize those symbols which are saved in your mind.”

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4.16.3.4 Delivery of Words in Various Contexts The use of words in certain situation is context dependent. The speaker cannot count the number of words in a given period of time. As far as the concept of quantity of information is concerned, it is relative i.e. its concept varies from person to person. I observed that the classrooms, there can be back and forth movement from formal to less informal. In formal situation like delivering a lecture on particular topic, the delivery of words is relatively low than the words uttered on less informal situation like telling jokes or sharing previous events. In a situation, the instructor is discussing the previous trip; the delivery of words in that less informal situation is high i.e. 121 WPM than teaching in formal situation.

4.16.3.5 Limited Presentation Duration in Conference In conference presentations, the criterion of word delivery is quite different as the situation is highly formal and the delivery of words is high as compared to the formal and less informal situation of classrooms. I found that limited time was given to each presenter (10 to 20 minutes) and they have to deliver the idea of whole research paper i.e. introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis and conclusion in that limited time. They intended to describe the whole idea in that limited time so their uttered words frequency is comparatively high than classrooms. I found it difficult for the presenters to deliver the whole research paper in 10 to 15 minutes. When the presenters were intimated about less time, they got confused or tried to wind up their presentation in that limited time and uttered the words in comparatively high rate. The statistical results show that the delivery of WPM of male and female presenters is comparatively high i.e. 148 WPM for male and 183WPM for females than the delivery of WPM by male and female instructors in classrooms i.e. 76 WPM for males and 92 WPM for females. I found that in conference presentations, the presenters elaborate appropriate information in a proper sequence as describe earlier in the section of maxim of relevance. The presenters cut delivered brief presentation. One presenter said that she will not describe literature review in detail because of the shortage of time. She gave brief description of the term critical discourse analysis. In her own words:

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“bohat ziada time nahi guzaron gi literature review may bus thora hi time lon gi, ham jab bgi baat kartay han. [I shall not spend much time in describing literature review] Whenever we use the term critical, whenever the word critical comes, it is related to power, it donated and it denotes both power. Whenever we talk about critical discourse analysis, it is related to power or power relations, power of youth, power of media and power of politics, three things that I have already told you.” I found that in conferences there are thematic divisions of various topics and the listeners who are interested in any field can attend that particular session. Furthermore, sometimes conference presenters discussed diverse topics and broad ideas; they presupposed that listeners have sufficient knowledge about these concepts. Hence, they do not describe minute details of the topic. Moreover, if attendee found any difficulty in understanding the relevant themes, they can ask questions at the end of each session. Grice talked about the contribution of speaker that “speakers should be as informative as required” but I feel that “speaker should be as explanatory and informative as accordant and compatible with the current conversation” During exchange of dialogue and delivering information, context plays a key role. The use of less words or less information suits to the particular situation while on the other hand, often, the use of more words and some extra information create the equilibrium in utterances. The collected data shows that in academic discourse, academicians (instructors and presenters) follow fixed patterns of conversation/utterance which suit to their topic. If they feel, they need to deliver more information or they need to speak more words, they utter accordingly. The use of more words does not mean that the speaker (instructor, presenters) is more informative than required; rather he/she repeats the previous idea for the understanding of the listener (students, participants). Grice (1961) himself said that “one should not make a weaker statement rather than a stronger one unless there is a good reason for doing so” 4.17 Maxim of Manner For maxim of manner, Grice said: i. Speaker should be perspicuous. ii. Speaker should be brief and orderly. iii. Speaker should avoid the obscurity of expression.

214 iv. Speaker should not be ambiguous. I found that Gricean maxims are interrelated and one concept supports the other. Speaker should be brief (maxim of manner) means that he should not give more information than required (maxim of quantity). The idea of conciseness, briefness and the use of words in classrooms and conference with reference to ideal speaker are discussed in detail under the heading of Maxim of quantity. Grice said that the speaker should remain relevant during conversation (Maxim of relevance) and when he/she remains relevant, he/ she will remain orderly as well (maxim of manner), otherwise, the speaker will not remain comprehensible to the listener. So this point is already discussed in Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication (in Logical/direct relevance) proposed by me. The rest of the postulates like speaker should be perspicuous and he/she should avoid the ambiguity of expression and obscurity. Ambiguity or obscurity is created when the speaker use difficult lexical items or difficult expressions. I observed, when the students are not sure about the meaning of words or idea, he/she raise questions and the instructors answer these questions at the spot. During conference presentations, listeners/observers do not interrupt during the session rather they extract the contextual meaning of the words and ask questions on ideas, ideology, methods, analysis, results and findings. In conference presentations, observers raise questions because they are not convinced with the idea of the presenter or they want to build the argument with the presenter while in classrooms questions are asked because they faced difficulty in understanding the concept. So, the observers can agree or contradict with the presenter. Moreover, for the maxim of manner as well, I shall not use the term observance and non- observance or flouting of maxim of manner because I believe that these terms are not applicable in academic discourse. Although instructors use difficult lexical items or expressions (sentences) but afterwards they explain these (difficult lexical items or expressions) to the students, otherwise they (instructors) try to remain perspicuous. During conference presentations, themes of the presentations are already given in the booklet, Attendees may attend the conference presentations either, they have sufficient background knowledge or they want look into particular theme. So it is pre supposed by the presenters that observers have sufficient background knowledge and they (presenters) do not give the minor details of the topic.

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4.17.1 Strategic Use of Lexical Items and Sentences

From the transcribed data, I found that most of the times, instructors remain brief and orderly but usually they do code-switching (from English to Urdu and Urdu to English), use ambiguous words, ironical expressions, and indirect expressions but It does not mean that listeners/students are unable to understand them (according to Grice, this is non-observance of maxim of manner) because in a given situation/context, these expressions/lexical items are meaningful and follow the pragmatic ideology of meaning in context.

4.17.2 Ease in Expression

In classrooms, instructors use easy language for the convenience of the students and usually, they use Urdu language for the ease in understanding of expressions. In the following example, the instructor lectured on Speaking. To confirm, whether the given idea is clear to the students or not, she used the expressions “theek hay” and “right”. In her own words:

“Ok. Today we shall discuss, what is speaking? Basically, when you read and when you listen, you encode certain messages and when you speak you decode that message. Theek hay. Kuch symbols hotay han which are saved in your mind and when you speak in certain situation, you decode that message. Jo symbols hotay ha ap kay mind may, jab ap kisi specific situation may enter hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un symbols ko use kartay ho. So that is speaking. Right.”

The next example is extracted from conference presentation. The topic of presentation was based on critical discourse analysis of Pakistani songs. The presenter wanted to tell the criteria of the songs selected for analysis. The expressions are very lucid and clear. Although, it is found that presenter has sound proficiency in English language, yet she switched her code from English to Urdu language. There is a possibility that she wanted to attract the attention of the listeners by creating familiar/easy expressions for them.

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“Now criteria of my data collection, wo kia cheez hay jiska may nay analysis kia. Jesa kay may nay shoro may hi kha kay may nay data collect kia from political songs which termed as sociopolitical songs [The question is How did I collect my data? I collected my data from political songs which are termed as sociopolitical songs.] This is genre of protest songs. I have taken the data from the turn of the decades i.e. of 2012 how I have selected so, the idea is popularity. ..Number of viewers on youtube. Two lac was the minimum number that I have because during the last two years, there is a very big political upheaval. I selected four songs keeping in view the popularity criteria. Two songs were selected from 2011 and two from 2012”

4.17.3 Use of Ambiguous Words

Some lexical items are the part of scientific vocabulary and these lexical items do not fit into the context of describing various aspects of language. For example X-ray, ultrasonic examination, stylistic gymnastic etc. In the following example the presenter wanted to describe that Manto (Urdu writer) conducted in depth study of the post- independence era of Muslims of Sub-Continent and he used the expressions:

“Manto in his Urdu short fiction X-Rays most part in post-independence body whereas Daniyal Mueenuddin in his recently published short stories with the title “In others Rooms, In Other Wonders” gives a kind of Ultrasonic examination of predominantly contemporary Pakistani society. “

In another example, the presenter wanted to explain the extravagant use of stylistic devices by modern Pakistani writers. She said, “Most of the modern Pakistani writers who are writing in English language, element of stylistic gymnastic and flowery expressions are the dominant features of their writing style.”

Although the lexical items “X-ray”, “ultrasonic examination” and “stylistic gymnastic” are not usually used to describe the various aspects of language but no one asked the question related to the use of these words during question-answer session. It seems that the observers were quite mature to understand the expressions or they drew the contextual meanings of the statements and uses of these lexical items fulfilled the criteria of communicative intention of the speaker.

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In another example, the presenter explored the notion of self and others in Bapsi Sidhva’s writings. She used various words which are not understood by a common man but the contextual meanings may be understood by the observer like “problematize”, “desanctified”, “multifaceted hegemonic structure”, “homogeneous monolith community” and “Gynocriticism”, In her own words:

“this paper explore the paradigm of post-colonial studies that have problematize and desanctified the notion of self and other, us and them, center and margin, the very notion of others who exist on the other side of the gender culture and racial boundaries, have put under the scrutiny by the writers like Bapsi Sidhva, who turned their gays inward and look at the multifaceted hegemonic structure that exist in so called homogeneous monolith community, occupying all margins. The notion of others as lack the object essentialize the image of self has been utilized in this context to contemplate the image of self has been utilized to contemplate the presence of others in the same sisterly communities. The notion of community is tightly closed to the other Gynocriticism that show the essential attributes of care, nurture, selfless devotion united resistance to oppression based ethos of motherhood an sisterhood , nurturing the realm of maternal instead of paternal. Gynocriticism is related to the law of mother, not with the law of father. The creation of this maternal domain is directly opposing the paternal domain, the law of the father.”

4.17.4 Hedges

I found that presenters and instructors use hedges during presentations (question- answer session) and classrooms). Hasselgreen (2004) identified eight hedges which are mostly used by speaker in her collected data; these are “I think”, “like”, “sort/kind of”, “a bit”, “just”, “or something”, “not really” and “everything/that/stuff/things. Wilamova (2005) stated that hedges weakens the statement and the use of hedges create negative polite discourse while Neary-Sundquist (2013) said that hedges play significant role in interpersonal communication and create equilibrium in conversation by moderating the force of utterance and by creating the certainty in its content. I shall explore the effects of using hedges in classrooms and conference presentations.

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The end of the conference presentation is usually followed by question-answer session. During question answer session, one observer asked question from the presenter “As a critic, Where would you place Iqbal, I mean he is modern, postmodern, post postmodern?” the presenter replied:

“That’s a very good, that is a very very good question. I think Iqbal is a modern subject, after all he has been read in Germany. He is prominent figure from quite some time. You cannot construct Iqbal without his western education. I am not saying that it enriched him but gave him an understanding at philosophical level where the west was. I mean, if you read reconstruction, those are the series of six lectures and I think these are the most current, I mean even he is quoting the theory of relativity which has been just make it public about three years ago. So for me Iqbal is a modern subject, there is no doubt about it, but in terms of his politics and poetics I consider him a form of modernity, where modernity is opted as certain aspects of it and then he tried to cut it diagonally across it to give it a different view which is embedded in the understanding of Islam.”

In this example, the presenter has used “I think” (two times), “quite some time”, “I mean”, “just” and “so for me”. In this example, the presenter used hedges to show that it is his own point of view. He remained orderly and did not use ambiguous expressions.

4.17.5 Indirectness

Tsuda (1993) identified that indirectness is common in formal speech. I found some instances of indirectness in classroom and conference presentations. Although the speaker did not use the direct expressions but the idea is clear. The instructor was going to start her class but some students were making a noise. She said, “do not make a noise, otherwise I shall send you out of the class.” The instructor did not specify any student. She indirectly asked the whole class to remain silent and the students who were speaking, turned to silent. In her own words:

“Please turn on the lights. Tomorrow is the quiz. We have a class tomorrow or day after tomorrow? So that will be, your quiz will be on lexical semantics and only on word relations. And, it should be only word relations or meaning of…different types of meaning as well? Only word relations! So, only one topic quiz on one topic of lexical

219 relation of words where we have discussed five relations. Yes that one topic will be your quiz. (noise) do not make a noise, otherwise I shall send you out of the class. No! Lexical relations only. Lexical relations those five relations that we have discussed and then after that we had discussed different types of meaning and then… Urooj, Umar please… You should have your own ball pen…And then we discussed about different further concepts about meaning like they said that there is a reference and then for reference, every reference we have a reference, and for every reference we make some sense, right?”

In another instance, the instructor is talking about Zubaida Aapa who is a public figure and famous for her cooking and home remedies (nuskhay). Although, she was teaching about paragraph writing but to break the monotonous routine of the class, she talked about Zubaida Apa while the rest of the class started laughing. In her own words:

“What is the third point? Interest to read story book. But this will not happen when you will read chemistry book or other. How many of you have interest to read chemistry book like novel or story book? Ok, that picks of another kind of experience ok right logically from beginning to end. Well this is when you are writing about some event for describing. For example, if you are asking to write paragraph to boil an egg what will you do? You need to have that you know the logical order, that comes at end of process here you are describing the process ok so you need to have that have that orders …. Logical orders. Zubaidaapa is talking about everything if you listen carefully you don’t need any doctor, she is known to talk about everything /L/ ok coming back to lesson girls and boys using active verbs help the reader to visualize.”

In another instance, the presenter was going to start her presentation. She wanted to add an incident before commencing her presentation; apparently the incident has no direct link with the topic. In her own words:

“The story is about a Yamni Muslim, Ahmad Hassan and the time was 1942 when the Second World War raised. Yamani Muslim, Ahmad Hassan, he appeared in United States District court in Michigan and his petition was on Nationalization and that is for nationality and it was 1942….remember the time and his petition was denied because the judge who was well versed in American Nationalization because he knows that this law is

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for the people who come under the whiteness and surely that whiteness was whiteness by law. Now when he denied the petition to Hassan, and he wrote the decision and it was long three paged decision. I only quote few lines from his decision, and then we will start our discussion. What he wrote, he said, Arabs are not white persons within the meaning of nationality act. Then he further explained, apart from the dark skin of the Arab, it is well-known that they are the part of Muhammadan world and the wide gulf separate their culture from that of predominantly Christian people of Europe. Therefore it cannot be expected that as a class, they would readily intermarry with our population and be assimilated into our civilization. Thus ladies and gentleman, for him religion determines the race. So this idea of racism in American history and we have been talking about racism against African and all others but in the wake of nine eleven and new concept emerge out of this racism which we say neo-racism. Now what make it new racism and how it is different from racism. From racism to new racism, the culture of otherness, concept of new racism, area of decolonization, racism without race. The traditional idea of race based on biological characteristics, blood and color. People have different biological hereditary characteristics and they are marginalized on the basis of that but in the wake of nine eleven, it was not the blood or biological characteristics but it was the religion and cultural identity based on religion. That actually created a different race, racial difference and cultural other. So this new racism is culturalist and differentialist.”

4.17.6 Irony

I found some instances in which the instructors use ironical expressions. I shall elaborate it with two examples. The student came late in class and asked instructor to enter in class. The instructor instead of replying commented that he is the most punctual student of the class. In her own words

T: “The most punctual student of this class. You always come late to attend the class”

S: “Sorry Mam”

The first sentence is ironical and it carries double meaning. The surface meaning is student is punctual while the underlying meaning is student is not punctual. I found that

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the use of intonation and the context in particular situation is very important in communicating the meanings in a given situation.

In another example, the instructor is talking about the trip after finishing her lecture. The context of the discussion is that students went Thandyani with their instructor. The students enjoyed a lot and the instructor said “on the day of trip, you were not on earth, you were in air, flying”. This statement has two different meanings; explicit meaning is he is flying in air and the implicit meaning is he enjoyed a lot.

4.18 Summary

Different participants use different languages in their home like pushto, punjabi, sindhi, Arabic, Brushki and Urdu while most of the students were taught in English and Urdu language at their school level (79.3%) and at university level (72%). Languages used in educational settings are different from the languages used in home. In educational setting, more than one language is used as a medium of instruction and the statistical analysis shows that most of the participants believe that learning in more than one language is beneficial for them. On the other hand, most of the participants (32 % agree and 30 % strongly agree) agreed with the statement that learning the course in one language makes the course easy to understand. The statistics shows the participants believe that code-switching is beneficial for them and in our educational settings; two languages; English and Urdu are used frequently. So different functions of code- switching like elucidation, giving instruction, translation, change/introduce any topic, asking question, responding questions, building argument, explanation with examples and telling jokes for recreation are explored in this study. The quantitative rating of the students in favor of the use of two languages is very high and through recorded (audio/video) data, it is clear that most of the instructors and students use both English and Urdu languages in classrooms. The frequent use of these two languages in classrooms shows that most of the instructors believe that the use of these two languages in educational setting make the things comprehensible for the students.

The questionnaire highlights the students’ perception about the uses of language in classrooms and their chances of passing the exams. Most of the students believe that

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the use of two languages increase their chances of passing the exams. It supports the previous part of this research where I identified different function of code-switching in classrooms. Students were also asked to share their views regarding the use of language in classrooms; the results show that large number of participants (46% agreed) consider that the combination of Urdu and English is best as a medium of instruction because the use of these two languages will increase their chances of passing the exams while 37% participants were agree on the use of English language as a medium of instruction and 29% participants agree on using Urdu or any other regional language as a medium of instruction.

Furthermore, this research explores the observance or non-observance of Gricean Maxims when the students and instructors switch their code from one language to another in classroom setting. Statement no 13 of the questionnaire refers to maxim of quality which focuses on the adequate evidence and true statements from the part of teacher in classroom and the statistics show that majority of the students (33 % agree and 32 %strongly agree) believe that the instructor provides adequate evidence when they deliver lectures in both languages (English and Urdu). They remained true and do not provide false information. Statement number 14 deals with maxim of quantity that was related to the contribution of information on the part of instructor. Most of the students (33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) believe that instructors provide sufficient information when they switch their code from one language to another. Statement number 15 is related to the relevance of lecture. Most of the participants (41%agree and 24% strongly agree) that the instructors remain relevant when they switch their code from one language to another. Statements number 16 to 20 is related to the maxim of manner. Statements number 16 and 17 are related to the clarity of ideas and its relevance to the use of language; the comparative study of statement number 16 and 17 shows that the participants felt that the instructors remain more relevant to the topic when they use two languages (Urdu and English) in classrooms. By the same time participants consider that considerable number of instructors remain brief, to the point (39 %agree and 31%strongly agree) and orderly (48 % agree and 23 % strongly agree) when they switch their language from one language to another. Although some participants hold an opinion that the instructors do not follow the Grician Maxims when they switch their code from 223

one language to another but majority of the participants believe that the instructors observe Gricean Maxims when they switch their code from one language to another. The contexts of observance and non-observance are discussed in detail in chapter number 5.

Section C comprised of two open ended questions. First question is related to their choice and reason of their choice of language use in classrooms. Although some participants believe that regional language, Urdu and English should be used in classrooms but majority of the participants of the view that English and Urdu (code- switching) should be used to clarify the concepts in classrooms. I observed the patriotic feelings of our youth as some of them emphasized the use of Urdu language in classrooms while others aim to excel at international level, they argued that English should be used as a medium of instruction because English is an international language and our course books are in English language. On the other hand, the love of the region motivates some of the students to select regional language as a medium of instruction. The results show that the participants agree on the use of two languages i.e. Urdu and English in classrooms. The statistical results of the questionnaires show that students highly recommend the use of English and Urdu language in classrooms as a medium of instruction. This idea is authenticated through the recorded (video and audio) data that most of the instructors use English and Urdu language and do code-switching (English and Urdu language and Urdu to English) and students feel quite comfortable with their language use in classrooms.

I observe that in classrooms, there is to and fro movement from formal to less informal while in conference presentations, the communication remain highly formal to formal; the reason is most of the times the presenters meet observer first time and they do not know each other before. Every presenter is allowed to speak for the limited time frame in which he has to deliver the whole idea like introduction, literature review, methodology while in classrooms if the students feel that the topic is difficult, it may precede two to three lectures. After presentation, there is question-answer session while during classroom lectures; students may ask questions during the lectures. Code- switching (from Urdu –English and English-Urdu) is quite common in classrooms while in conference presentations code-switching is infrequent. There are various purposes of

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code-switching in conference presentations like some words in Urdu language cannot be replaced as these words have no translation so presenters use the words of in their actual form like “ghairat”. Proper nouns like the names of the novels are spoken in its actual form (Urdu language) like “Lehaf” work of Ismat Chughtai. The names of some religious concepts are delivered in its actual from (Urdu language) like “wahdata-ul-vajood”. Presenters elaborate some actual piece of poetry like Urdu which he/she does not translate in English language. I found that code-switching is less frequent among conference presentations as compared to classroom sessions and it is evident from the results as well. In Pakistani classrooms, two languages (Urdu and English) are used as a medium of instruction. In English language/linguistics classrooms, English language is used as a marked choice while in some subjects of arts like Pakistan Studies and Islamiat, English language is used as unmarked choice. Urdu is used as a marked choice in the subjects of Arts while English is used as unmarked choice. This idea leads towards the contextual use of language. Instructors and presenters use language according to the context. When speakers switch their code from one language to another, it depends upon the context. So I called it “pragmatic switching”.

Language performs various functions and utterances or even one word can carry different meanings in different situations. J L Austin (1962) presented his theory of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary speech acts. Locutionary acts are related to the construction of meaning from speakers’ point of view. Illocutionary acts are related to the pragmatic illocutionary force which gives importance to utterance in a specific situation, thus highlights socio-verbal links/actions. Perlocutionary acts are related to the effects of utterances on listeners. Moving towards Grice ideology of observance and non- observance of maxims of quantity, relevance and manner is quite ambiguous; when he says that speakers non-observe the maxim of relevance, it means that speakers speak but the utterances are not relevant which does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context and meaning, non-observance of maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as informative as required while there is no scale to measure information and it is quite relative, depends upon the hearers; how he/she perceives the given information and maxim of manner states that the speaker should be orderly and brief, should avoid obscure and ambiguous expression. To elaborate the ideology of relevance in any 225 context, I proposed a model of “Relative Relevance Model of Communication” which highlighted the importance of meaning in language in a given context with specific reference to speakers and hearers. It can be inferred from the data that the instructors and presenters remain orderly and brief and in conference presentations if observers find any ambiguous expressions, they extract the contextual meanings of the utterance as recorded data shows that they did not ask any question regarding ambiguous expressions. On the other hand, if students find any difficulty in understanding the expressions, they can ask repeatedly and in this case the instructor may speak more words but it does not mean that he/she is giving more information than required (according to Grice, non-observance of maxim of quantity). In nutshell, Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner (with specific reference to Grecian ideology) are not applicable to academic discourse.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is divided into three parts. First part relates to the re-examining of research question and its correspondence with the analysis and results. The second part consists of various theoretical and practical implications of this research. Third part deals with the pedagogical implications and conclusions.

5.1 Summary of Results

The collected data shows that most of the students were taught in English and Urdu in their schools and colleges. Referring to this research, 68.9 % students in schools, 79.3% students in college and 72 % students in university were taught in English as well as Urdu. Although students reported English, Urdu and other regional languages were also used as a medium of instruction but the percentage of the use of English and Urdu in educational institutes is comparatively higher than the other languages. The response of the students’ show that they use English and Urdu languages in formal situation of classrooms as well as communication with instructors while Urdu language is used to converse with friends, classmates, family and university staff. Some students added some other languages to converse to their family and friends like Punjabi, Pashto, and Brushaski. The results show the prevalence of Urdu and English language in classrooms, so there is a need and desire to explore the purpose of switching English and Urdu languages in classrooms. Various purposes of code-switching (From English to Urdu, Urdu to English) have been explored and discussed with examples in chapter no 4. Although code-switching performs various functions in classrooms but I delimited my study to 7 functions; elucidating, giving instructions, translating, changing/introducing the topic, asking questions, building arguments and telling jokes/recreation. Most of the students believe that studying the course in more than one language is beneficial for 227

them. The results of the statement 1 of section B of questionnaire shows that 29% agree and 56% strongly agree with the statement. The results demonstrate that most of the participants believed that they can understand in a better way if they are taught in more than one language. The results of the part B statement 2 of questionnaire show that 32 % students are agree and 30 % students are strongly agree with the statement. Code- switching or the use of two languages is helpful in clarifying the concepts as majority of the students disagreed (44% disagree and 24 %strongly disagree) with the point of view that students got confused when the instructor switched from one language to another. When students were questioned about strengthening of English language; most of the students disagreed (41% disagree and 13% strongly disagree) with the statement that “mixing of English and any other language results in weak English” which means that code-switching may either results in increasing the proficiency of English language or the previous knowledge will remain consistent. Similarly, the results of statement number 5 shows that the use of English language with mother tongue in classrooms does not affect the English language proficiency as majority of the students (43 % disagree and 14 % disagree) were disagreed with the statement that mixing of English and mother tongue weakens my English. The results of statements number 7, 8 and 9 and the transcribed data reveals that students respect the instructors and the feeling of respect does not depend upon the use of language (English or Urdu) in classrooms. When the students were questioned about the use of language and the chances of passing the exams; the results of statement numbers 10, 11 and 12 show that students prefer the use of English and Urdu languages rather than any regional language or solely English language as they believed that learning the course in English and Urdu may increase their chances of passing the exams. Statements numbers thirteen to nineteen are related to Grecian maxims. The results of the statements number 14 shows that the instructors provide sufficient information when he/ she switches his/her code from one language to another as majority (33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) and it is also proved with the examples extracted from the transcribed data. Majority of the participants (41 % agree and 24 % strongly agree) agreed that the instructors remain relevant when he/she switches from one language to another and it is authenticated from the transcribed data as well, as the instructors remain relevant to the topic and context in classrooms. The theory of relative

228 relevance proves the importance of utterances in context and utterances are always meaningful in particular context according to the pragmatic ideology of context. Moreover, the collected data reveal that the instructors and conference presenters remain relevant, to the point, clear and organized in relevant context of classrooms and conference presentations.

5.2 Findings

Instructors switch their code from English to Urdu to elucidate the points which are difficult for the students to understand in English language. The elucidation of various ideas are explained with examples in chapter no 4. Instructors switch their code to instruct the students like to change their seating arrangement, to solve some activity and to sign the attendance sheet. Sometimes instructors tend to emphasize upon some idea or they want to translate the idea for the better understanding of the students. Translation, sometimes use to elaborate the examples in two languages like instructors want to give the idea of “position” and further said “jaga ka”; same word can carry different meanings and it depends upon the context in which particular words are used. The above mentioned example (“position”) clarifies the idea. I found that students feel comfortable when they ask questions in Urdu language or use both English and Urdu language. Most of the students agreed that the use of more than one language does not confuse them. The analysis through transcribed data reveals that code-switching plays a vital role to clarify the concept. The responses of the students reveal that students feel themselves in comfort zone when they switch their code from one language to another; that’s why the instructors use the strategy to use both languages in delivering the information in classrooms. Code-switching is considered as one of the important floor holding technique and it is used to build argument. As Urdu is national language of Pakistan and its use in everyday life is quite evident from the results of section A of questionnaires so students feel comfortable when they speak and listen in both languages. When the question of fluency was brought into consideration, majority of the students disagreed (41 % disagree and 13 % strongly disagree) that mixing of English and any other language results in weak English and when the students were asked that mixing of English and mother tongue weakens their English; most of the students were disagreed with the statement (43

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% disagree and 14 % strongly disagree). Moreover, the students gave their positive consent when they were that learning the course in English and Urdu increases my chances of passing the exam. In a nutshell, various purposes/functions of code-switching are explored and supported by the examples extracted from the transcribed data. Although, there can be many functions or purposes of code-switching but I delimited my study to ten functions that I frequently found in the collected data.

Relevance, quantity of information and the clarity of ideas deliver by instructors in classrooms have been explored through the questionnaire. Most of the students (41% agree and 24 % strongly agree) believed that the instructors remain relevant when they switch their code from one language to another. Although the information is an abstract idea and it cannot be measured but I questioned from the students about the quantity of information delivered by the instructors when they switch their code from one language to another; most of the students believed (33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) that the instructor provide sufficient information when he/she switches code from one language to another. Similarly, the response of most of the students remains positive when they were asked about the clarity of ideas (36 % agree and 46 % strongly agree), orderliness (48 % agree and 23 % strongly agree) and briefness (39 % agree and 31 % strongly agree). I found that instructors (students as well) switch their code from on language to another while s/he remains relevant, orderly, brief, to the point and provide sufficient information. It means they (instructors) use the language/expressions according to the context and it confirms the idea when they switch from one language to another, it depends upon the context (of classroom) as well. Hence, I believed when instructors switch their code from one language to another, it is contextual and I called it, “pragmatic switching” rather than code-switching because of contextual switching from one language to another use in classrooms.

5.3 Conclusion

A notable number of students were agreed on the utility of code-switching in classrooms but I observed that the switching of code can be disadvantageous.

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Some students responded that in classrooms, English language should be opted as a medium of instruction as it is an international language and most of the learning material (syllabus) is compiled in English language while some students said that Urdu should be used as a medium of instruction because it is our national language while majority of the students said that both languages should be used and instructors should give the importance to both languages. I found variation in the use of language in schools and colleges like some students studied in English medium private schools where medium of instruction is English, some students who studied in government schools where medium of instruction is Urdu or Urdu and English and a few students studied in government school where some regional languages (Punjab, Pashto, and Sindhi) are used as a medium of instruction. So, the diverse background of the students is very helpful in the generalization of results where majority of the students were agreed on the use of English and Urdu as a medium of instruction and through the recorded data, I found the wide prevalence of the use of English and Urdu, both in classrooms.

Conference presentations and classroom lectures are two different genres and both genres come under the heading of academic discourse. Conference presentations are formal than classroom lectures. It was observed that in classrooms, there is to and fro movement from formal to less informal while in conference presentations, the communication remain highly formal to formal; the reason is most of the times the presenters meet observer first time and they do not know each other before. Every presenter is supposed to deliver the whole idea like introduction, literature review, methodology while in classroom sessions if the students feel that the topic is difficult, it may precede two to three lectures. After presentation, there is question-answer session while during classroom lectures; students may ask questions during the lectures. Code- switching (from Urdu to English and English to Urdu) is quite common in classrooms while in conference presentations, code-switching is infrequent.

I found that code-switching is less frequent among conference presentations as compared to classrooms and it is evident from the results given in chapter no 4. Mayer Scottons Markedness model (1984) of code-switching is applied to explore the functions/purposes of code-switching in academic discourse. She proposed ‘surface

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discourse structural characteristics’ to explore the uses of language particularly specific language choices in specific context. This model seems some connection with Elster’s Rational choice model. He said that speaker rationally analyze the situation like cost- benefit i.e. if he/she utter some expressions in particular situation, there can be some benefits of the utterances. Mayer Scotton said that marked and unmarked choices can be identified according to the use of language. In Pakistani classrooms, two languages (Urdu and English) are used. In English language/linguistics classrooms, English language is used as a marked choice while in some subjects of arts like Pakistan Studies and Islamiat, English language is used as unmarked choice. On the other hand, keeping in view the results of majority of students, Urdu is used as a marked choice in the subjects of Arts while English is used as unmarked choice. This idea leads towards the contextual use of language. I found the in academic discourse language is used according to the context. When speakers switch their code from one language to another, it depends upon the context. So I called it “pragmatic switching”

5.3.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication

Grice (1976) proposed two extremes of these maxims, observance and nonobservance. Observance means that the instructors should remain relevant to the topic while nonobservance mean that the instructors should not deviate from the topic. I found that instructors/speakers remain relevant. Sometimes, the instructors do not talk about that particular topic which is under discussion in class earlier and started conversation on any other topic but it does not mean that he/she is irrelevant, rather s/he remains relevant in that particular context. I believe that the contribution of every speaker is according to the context and s/he remains relevant in that particular context. So, I found that Grecian maxim of relevance is not effective in determining the relevance in classroom sessions and conference presentations.

Keeping in view the philosophy of relevance, I devised my own model “Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication”. I divided this model into two parts, direct/logical relevance and indirect/relative relevance. Direct relevance is related to straight, objective, analytical, scientific and explicit utterances a particular situation. In this research, I discussed direct relevance with two perspectives, Syllogism and 232

Sequential while indirect relevance is revealed with three perspectives co- relational/quasi-relational, recreational and situational. The results with the examples are explained in chapter no 4. I found that the instructors/speakers remain relevant and there is no concept of non-observance because speaker/instructor cannot be irrelevant. I found that Grice maxim of relevance is not an effective strategy to determine relevance in academic discourse (classrooms and conference presentations).

The results show that very few instructors fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker while most of the conference presenters fulfill the criteria of the proposed idea of ideal speaker. But majority of students (may be considered as observer in bilingual classrooms) were agree that the instructors remain relevant to the topic when they switch their code from one language to another. The ideology of quantity of information (as presented by Grice) does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context. The results reveal that speakers/instructors should be as explanatory and informative as compatible to the context/situation of the conversation. Moreover, the quantity of information is abstract and it cannot be measured and the requirement may vary from person to person.

Grice’s maxim of manner states that speakers should be perspicuous. He should remain brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity of expressions. Obscurity/ambiguity of expression is created when speaker use difficult lexical items. In classrooms, I observed that instructors seldom use difficult vocabulary but most of the times, they explained difficult vocabulary items on their own or students ask questions and they further explain the ideas. I found that during conference presentations, if presenters use any difficult vocabulary item, observers do not ask questions rather they draw the contextual meaning of the vocabulary item or sometimes they even know various difficult terms because the thematic division is already given and they attend the sessions according to their interests.

5.5 Limitations of the Study

The purpose of the study is to explore the interactional behaviors of academicians (instructors and presenters) in classrooms and conference presentations. I observe less participation of students in classrooms. Although some instructors try to maintain the interactional environment of classrooms but some students do not initiate any interaction

233 during classroom lectures. Less participation of students is major limitation of this study. There are many other factors which caused complexity and problem like time constraint, general attitude of participants towards recording the lectures and limited financial resources.

The recorded data comprised of forty conference presentations and thirty classroom lectures and one of the limitation of this research is to transcribe the entire data which is the most difficult and hectic part of this study. During the completion of this task, I felt serious health issues and at last this laborious work came to an end with the continuous efforts of ten months.

Being researcher, my presence in classrooms and conference presentations was also one of the limitations. I asked instructors, students and presenters to ignore my presence but instructors sometimes started discussing with me or sometimes tried to take my opinions on various issues. So I felt that the presence cannot be neglected rather instructors tried to remain more formal, tried to pronounce the words appropriately and tried to use English language as a medium of instruction. Some instructors tried to realizes the students the presence of the observer and mention some incidents which they will tell the students later because of recording of lectures. Some instructors looked nervous due to my presence as a researcher and tried to remain strict with the students.

The results of the questionnaire reinforce the results of the recorded and transcribed data as far as the use of language in classrooms is concerned. The participants of the survey were university students and data was also recorded from the same classrooms. The results show the importance and benefits of code-switching in classrooms. There is a possibility that the research participants may produce different results in response to the same inquiry. Another constraint in this study is insufficiency of research in the native and regional/indigenous languages of Pakistan in relation to foreign/English language especially at postgraduate/university level and especially on conference presentations. However I tried to cope with these limitations and conducted this study to provide and enlighten various issues related to the use of language in classrooms and conference presentations.

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5.6 Recommendations and Implications

This research will contribute in raising the awareness among instructors, presenters and students regarding uses of language at postgraduate level and conference presentations, yet inadequately explored area of academic discourse so far in Pakistan. Despite the limitations of this research, there are many practical and theoretical implications of this study. The following implications are derived from the results for the instructors and future researchers.

5.6.1 Recommendations for Instructors

1. In postgraduate classrooms, students belonged to different backgrounds and there was variation in learning abilities and motivation among students; despite all these discrepancies, instructors should maintain the interactive environment in classrooms. I found that most of the instructors did not create interactive teaching environment in classrooms rather instructors came and delivered the lectures. It is clear from the transcribed data that almost 90% of the transcribed data is uttered by the instructors. 2. Some students are hesitant in asking questions in English language, instructors give some liberty to ask the questions if they feel any ambiguity/difficulty in understanding the concepts. The results of this study are beneficial for the instructors at post-graduate level as they can bring change in teaching methodologies adopted during lectures. 3. The utility of code-switching in classrooms cannot be neglected as this study identifies various functions of code-switching and focuses on seven functions which are frequently observed in postgraduate classrooms. Code-switching was observed as an effective strategy in elucidation, giving instructions, changing the topic, asking questions, building arguments and telling jokes. Although code- switching performs many other functions as well but I delimited my study to these seven functions due to time and words constraints. Balkan (1970) and Cummings (1972) said that bilingual children have greater cognitive flexibility; they have distinct and diverse mental powers than monolinguals. Gulzar (2009) suggested that all Pakistani education system should be redesigned “on the pattern of 235

bilingualism for all, multilingualism for some and monolingualism for none”. On the basis of findings, I suggest that English and Urdu should be used as a medium of instruction and any regional language (according to the needs of the students) should be used in classrooms. The same ideology is presented by Rahman (2002) and Srivastava (1984). To educate the students, understanding is very important and results show that various objectives can be achieved if instructors use two languages (bilingual) in classrooms. The findings reveal that majority of the students agreed that the instructors remain brief, orderly, clear and relevant to the topic and situation, when they switch their code from one language to another. 4. English and Urdu languages are used as a medium of instruction and in almost every classroom, there is code-switching (which is later named as pragmatic switching) from English to Urdu and Urdu to English but English was observed as a dominant language in classrooms and sometimes when instructors felt that their lectures were recorded, they tried to use English language more than the regular classroom. English is medium of instruction at university level and the excessive use of L1/Urdu language in Pakistani classrooms may hinder the learning of English language. Although some students were good in speaking English language while others were quite hesitant to use English language. Policy makers may identify the area/need of the students and percentage of the use of Urdu language/L1 in classrooms. The findings suggest that the use of language as a medium of instruction should be revised in education policy and guidelines should be provided to the instructors for the controlled use of language in classrooms. 5. The contextual use of language is one of the important aspects of academic discourse. Instructors and presenters use the language according to the context. In classrooms, instructors use the language which is formal to less informal while in conference presentations, the use of language is from highly formal to formal. In classrooms, instructors frequently switch their code from one language to another (English to Urdu, Urdu to English) while in conference presentations code- switching is infrequent. The use of language depends upon the listeners as well; as in classrooms, code-switching is observed as a need of the students in some

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situations because sometimes students are unable to understand some concepts in English language and instructors switch their code to Urdu language or sometimes lack of vocabulary in English language causes the use of Urdu language in classrooms. Similarly, there are different reasons of switching form English to Urdu in conference presentations. Switching from one language to another is always context based, that’s why I named it as pragmatic switching. I suggest that the use of language should be based on context rather to focus of the use of any one language. The contextual use of language in classrooms and conference presentations encourages both Urdu and English language. Code-switching is observed as a significant strategy in classroom sessions and conference presentations. It serves various functions in classrooms like to elucidate meaning, to build argument, to explain with examples. In conference presentations, it serves to elaborate various concepts like cultural, regional and religious ideas and sometimes presenters express temporal realization in Urdu language. 6. Grecian maxims of quantity, relevance and manner are not an effective strategy in determining relevance, quantity of information, orderliness, clarity and preciseness of concepts and expressions in academic discourse settings. I proposed “Relative Relevance Model of Communication” to determine relevance in academic discourse. The contextual study of academic discourse (classrooms and conference presentations) shows that instructors and presenters remain relevant, provide adequate information, and remain brief and orderly. The term non-observance does not comply the pragmatic ideology of context because in academic discourse, presenters and instructors communicate according to the topic/subject and situation.

5.6.2 Recommendations for Presenters

This study could be useful for the conference presenters.

1. Code-switching is one of the effective strategies to deliver the appropriate and logical ideas in different academic settings. In conference presentations, there is less code-switching (from Urdu to English and English to Urdu) as compared to classrooms. There are various purposes of code-switching in conference 237

presentations. I found that presenters do code-switching when they want to deliver any religious ideas (qurbani ki khalein, month of Ramadan), culture specific ideology (concept of ghairat), sometimes the names of various objects (Lehaf instead of blanket, uqaab/shaheen instead of eagle) or sometimes pieces of texts (verses) are spoken as original text during presentations. 2. Two international conferences were recorded for data analysis. I suggest that presenters should use English as a medium of delivering the idea. If necessary, they can switch code from English to Urdu but they should try to minimize the frequency of switching. I found the dominance of English language in conference presentations. The reason may be that the recorded conference presentations were of international level and English is an international language. Some presenters switch their code from English to Urdu according to the need of the topic. 3. Presenters should be provided the time of thirty minutes to present their research papers. Short time of 10 to 15 minutes was provided to the presenters and they were supposed to present the whole research paper from introduction to recommendations/conclusion which was difficult. I observed that some presenters were not able to present the whole idea due to shortage of time or sometimes they spoke so quickly. Hence, Organizers should do proper time allocation for presentation.

5.7 Implication for Further Research

Throughout this study, I feel the inadequacy of information regarding language use in Pakistani classrooms. The investigation highlights various facts regarding use of language in classrooms and conference presentations and elaborate that code-switching is unavoidable practice in classroom discourse and used by presenters where necessary. The results of this study support the idea of Guthrie (1984), Merrit et.al. (1992) and Anna Flyman Mattson (1999) in the area of language use in classrooms but there is a need to explore the use of language in different academic fields/subjects in Pakistani contexts.

1. In future, researchers may concentrate on the functions of code-switching in EFL, ESL and ELT classrooms. There are more vistas to explore language use and

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functions of code-switching in the field of medical, engineering, undergraduate classrooms and even at school level. 2. Two international conferences on literature and linguistics were recorded as data for this research; researchers may explore the language use in other international and national conferences related to science and technology. 3. A corpus can be developed through recorded and transcribed data and other researchers can be benefitted through this corpus. 4. A comparative study can be conducted to explore various patterns of code- switching used by male and female participants in different subjects/fields of education. 5. A comparative study can be conducted on the use of language in classrooms and conference presentations can be conducted. 6. Due to unavoidable constraints of time and content management, I could not discuss all the possible functions of code-switching that I identified in the collected data. Owing to constraints of the required size of PhD dissertation, it seems less likely to delineate all the identified possible functions of code- switching like elucidation, giving instructions, translation, changing/introducing the topic, asking question, building argument, telling jokes or recreation, strategy to fit into the situation or linguistic environment, to say something secret, to show ethnic solidarity, to capture attention, to establish good will and support.

In a nutshell, this study aims at exploring the purposes of language used in classrooms and conference presentations. The results of the survey show that code- switching (the use of two languages English and Urdu) is an integral part of academic discourse. Code-switching performs various functions such as explanation with examples; elucidation, build arguments and these are verified from the transcribed data. The purposes of code-switching in classroom sessions are different from conference presentations as the former based on the need of the students and later based on the dimensions (cultural and social) discussed in conference presentation. The purposes of code-switching in academic discourse are discussed in detail in chapter no 4. I found that Grecian maxims of relevance, manner and quantity are not effective in determining the relevance (to the context), quantity of information delivered (in classrooms and 239

conference presentation), and perspicuousness (clarity of concepts and briefness of ideas). The application of Grecian maxims of relevance, manner and quantity are discussed in detail in chapter no 4. Furthermore, academic discourse community and pragmaticians may get benefit from the model, Relative Relevance Model of Communication in this study to analyze relevance in academic discourse.

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