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THE ROLE of BIBLE TRANSLATION in ENHANCING XITSONGA CULTURAL IDENTITY by MBHANYELE JAMESON MALULEKE

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THE ROLE of BIBLE TRANSLATION in ENHANCING XITSONGA CULTURAL IDENTITY by MBHANYELE JAMESON MALULEKE THE ROLE OF BIBLE TRANSLATION IN ENHANCING XITSONGA CULTURAL IDENTITY by MBHANYELE JAMESON MALULEKE (Student number: 2008141174) THESIS SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR IN BIBLE TRANSLATION IN THE FACULTY OF THEOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE BLOEMFONTEIN SOUTH AFRICA DATE SUBMITTED: 2 FEBRUARY 2017 SUPERVISOR: PROF JA NAUDÉ EXTERNAL CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF NCP GOLELE ABSTRACT The Vatsonga are an ethnic group composed of a large number of clans found in South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Swaziland. Xitsonga (the language of the Vatsonga) is spoken in all four of these countries. In South Africa alone, Xitsonga is a language spoken by over two million first language speakers and is one of the official languages of the country. This study investigates the ways in which Bible translation has enhanced Xitsonga cultural identity. The focus is on the 1929 and the 1989 editions of the Xitsonga Bible. The research question is: In what way(s) did the Xitsonga Bible translations recreate, rearrange and reshape Vatsonga cultural identity? The theoretical and methodological frameworks for the research are Nord’s functionalist approach to translation studies, Descriptive Translation Studies and Baker’s Narrative Frame Theory. The theoretical background of the concept of identity and the relationship of language and translation to identity will lead to a detailed examination of the socio-cultural framework of the Xitsonga Bible translations. The social, cultural and linguistic features of Vatsonga cultural identity are described, especially their cultural identity prior to the arrival of the missionaries. The historical framework of the Xitsonga Bible translations are described from the earliest encounters with the Portuguese to the pivotal arrival of the Swiss missionaries in the latter part of the 19th century and their early efforts to translate the Bible into Xitsonga. Extensive archival materials are also examined for the insights that they can provide on the historical, ideological and theological background of the Xitsonga Bible translations. Both the 1929 and the 1989 Xitsonga Bible translations receive a thorough examination and analysis using the analytical methods of Descriptive Translation Studies and Frame Theory. Frames examined include the organisational frame which includes the translation process, the translation teams, the prestige of the translation and social pressures accompanying the translation. The linguistic and translation frames, which include translation strategies, the use of loan words, the derivations of new words, and explicitation, will also be examined. The major findings elucidate the ways in which the two Xitsonga Bible translations enhanced cultural identity. The first Xitsonga Bible translation (1929) played a role in empowering and legitimising colonialism and paved the way for submissive colonial faith within the Vatsonga society. The translation made extensive use of loan words from neighbouring African languages, especially Sesotho, as well as from the colonial languages spoken in South Africa (English and Afrikaans), but not from French (the language of the Swiss missionaries). In this way, the translation enhanced the vocabulary inventory of Xitsonga by expanding the range of items which can be described in the language. Some indigenous words referring to traditional religious practices and practitioners were avoided, thus promoting the colonial Christianity of the missionaries. Most importantly, the 1929 version united the diverse sub-units of the Vatsonga people around a single translation of the Bible. Thus, the 1929 translation assisted in the creation of identity through the unification of its readers around a single translation. iii In contrast to the 1929 Xitsonga Bible translation, the 1989 Xitsonga Bible translation strengthened the cultural identity of Xitsonga by utilising not only indigenous cultural terms of Xitsonga, but also by utilising and coining natural Xitsonga equivalents, and by utilising Xitsonga first-language speakers as translators. The 1989 version also differs from the 1929 version in its Dynamic Equivalence approach through the direct influence of Eugene Nida. The standardisation and simplification of the orthographic system for writing Xitsonga and the harmonisation of dialectal variants served to strengthen and unify Xitsonga as a language, thus further strengthening cultural identity. Keywords Xitsonga, Vatsonga, Tsonga, Bible translation, Translation Studies, Descriptive Translation Studies, Frame Theory, cultural identity, dynamic equivalence, orthography, dialect harmonisation, Swiss missionaries, evangelisation, indigenous languages, colonialism, postcolonialism, Africanisation, translation agent iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Lest I plunge into oblivion, let me hasten to place on record that in addition to my quest for knowledge, three episodes have greatly motivated me to be a lover of wisdom. As far back as 1978, UNISA’s Public Relations division took a photograph of myself clad in doctoral graduandi attire. The photograph was to be used as an advertisement during graduation ceremonies that were pending in autumn of that year. This photo has been a powerful inspiration to me and has acted as a launching pad for my protracted journey toward the pinnacles of learning. Commending me on earning my MA degree, Maggie Helass, my mentor and my (Ox)ford on my long walk to the world of English, addressed me as “Dr Maluleke…” I was thrilled! A young, and outspoken researcher on the UFS staff – one Saint George – used to refer to me as “Dr Maluleke,” in our correspondence until I got used to it. I am humbled by the UNISA experience and by the honour accorded to me by both emissaries. Great names, friends and fellow South Africans have have mentored me in this undertaking. In a slight difference from the title of Mandela’s autobiography, mine was a long walk to enlightment. Groping in the dark through the densely forested field of Bible translation, I was surprised to realize that my journey was a true replica of Mary Stevenson’s (1936) dream of footprints in the sand. As I wandered lonely as a cloud like William Wordsworth in the research field, I kept my fingers crossed because I feared that when the going gets tough, some of my mentors would be swept away by the flooding current of emotions rather than to stand up firmly to reason… I salute the stoics – those who mentored me to the bitter end. Space does not allow me to mention all my good Samaritans, except only a few of my torch- bearers, the literati and the rich in Spirit. In addition to being an appraising supervisor, Prof JA Naudé is the fountain of witwaters from whence I quenched my thirst for knowledge. Just as Saint Martin of Tours once cut his cloak in half to share with a beggar during a snowstorm to save the beggar from dying from the cold, Naudé has cut his Bible in half to share with me during my research. His scholarly works, tutelage, support and friendly discussions kindly guided me out of a cave of ignorance and arrogance into the beaming light of erudition. For the sake of heaven and the social sciences, may his noble name continue to be sung amongst the Bible translation community. Let me acknowledge as well the assistance, support and guidance of one of the doyennes of Xitsonga, Prof NCP Golele, as external co-supervisor. Her meticulous reading and comments on every page of this thesis have improved it immensely. Research has shown that in any society the fairer folk is the natural guardian of language and culture. In Vutsonga, Golele is one of the few courageous women who hold the Xitsonga candlelight in the hurricane of globalisation. v The cream of tertiary education in the form of high powered educators, most of them acclaimed scholars in their respective fields, is sadly trapped in administration as heads of departments, directors of institutes, and deans of faculties. Prof Cynthia Miller-Naudé is an illustrious tutor and one of the best dew shakers in academia. (Un)fortunately, she too has become a victim of the boardrooms rather than being an angel of the seminar rooms where her impassioned teachings should continue to illuminate dim minds. Despite her confinement in administration, I for one have benefitted copiously from her teachings, guidance and advice albeit for a short period of time. It would unbecoming of me to deny Prof Kobus Marais’ hospitality and encouragement – he was the host who welcomed me on behalf of the UFS on my first visit to the university, and made me realize my potential as doctoral material. How can I dare to forget the service of my good friend, Tante Sello Jonas Thinane, an industrious administrator ever ready to sacrifice his busy schedule to help me. I would like to single out the Revd. Dr. T.R. Schneider (né Manghimani xifaki xa mumu), a member of the last generation of the Swiss missionaries in Vutsonga. From him, I gleaned all that a researcher could derive for my data bank. Information on the history of Swiss mission in southern Africa, the Swiss missionaries’ exploits, Xitsonga, you name it; he gladly offered it to me. My thanks also goes to the EPCSA former Moderator in Braamfontein, the Rev Dr Risimati Titus Mobi, who gave me written permission to access the Swiss Mission research documents at the William Cullen Library, University of Witwatersrand. Out of the Van’wanati clan, I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to Prof T.S. Maluleke for his support and encouragement and for offering me direction for my research project. His academic writings, particularly his doctoral thesis, were a source of help to me. The Malulekean dictum applies here ku dya i ku engeta (“thank you once more, M’nwanati!”) My indebtedness goes to Bursary Section of the South African Jewish Board of Deputies (SAJBD) in Johannesburg whose financial assistance made it possible for me to pursue and realise my dream. I hope the head of the Bursary Section, Mr David Sacks, will continue to help millions of other deserving students to finish their studies as well.
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