Scandinavian women’s football goes global – A cross-national study of sport labour migration as challenge and opportunity for Nordic civil society

Project relevance Women‟s football stands out as an important subject for sports studies as well as social sciences for various reasons. First of all women‟s football is an important social phenomenon that has seen steady growth in all Nordic countries.1 Historically, the Scandinavian countries have been pioneers for women‟s football, and today Scandinavia forms a centre for women‟s football globally.2 During the last decades an increasing number of female players from various countries have migrated to Scandinavian football clubs. Secondly the novel development of immigration into Scandinavian women‟s football is an intriguing example of the ways in which processes of globalization, professionalization and commercialization provide new challenges and opportunities for the Nordic civil society model of sports. According to this model sports are organised in local clubs, driven by volunteers, and built on ideals such as contributing to social cohesion in society.3 The question is now whether this civil society model is simply disappearing, or there are interesting lessons to be drawn from the ways in which local football clubs enter the global market, combine voluntarism and professionalism, idealism and commercialism and integrate new groups in the clubs? Thirdly, even if migrant players stay only temporarily in Scandinavian women‟s football clubs, their stay can create new challenges with regard to their integration into Nordic civil society. For participants, fans and politicians alike, sport appears to have an important role to play in the success or failure of the integration of migrant groups.4 Unsuccessful integration of foreign players can lead to xenophobic feelings, where the „foreigner‟ is seen as an intruder that pollutes the close social cohesion on a sports team or in a club. It is therefore also relevant to gather more knowledge about the civil integration processes that are connected with sports labour migration.

1 From 1990 to 2007 the numbers of participants in Danish and Norwegian girls‟ and women‟s football have doubled from 31,000 to 60,344 and from 50,000 to 97,958, respectively. In the number of female footballers increased in the same period by more than 100,000 participants from 32,753 to 136,026 (Weigelt and Kanoh 2006). There has also been a steady growth of female participants in Finland and Iceland although the absolute numbers are lower; namely 22,364 and 5,400 respectively (http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/women/93/77/21/ factsheets.pdf). 2 (Ottesen 1989, Brus & Trangbæk 2003, Grønkjær & Olsen 2007, Hjelm & Olofsson 2003, Hjelm 2004, Fasting 2003, Skogvang 2006, 2007, Skille 2008, Eliasson 2009). 3 (Meinander & Mangan 1998, Ibsen 2002, Andersson & Carlsson 2009, Seippel 2010). 4 (Agergaard & Sørensen 2009, Hognestad 2009). With regard to existing research, immigration into Scandinavia women‟s football is a completely new study area. The cross-disciplinary field of research in sports labour migration has focused almost entirely on male athletes in internationally renowned sports disciplines such as (men‟s) football and primarily this has looked at migration to English-speaking societies.5 In Scandinavia there is an almost complete lack of literature on football labour migration, and so far there are no published studies focusing on female footballers‟ migration.6 By taking up immigration into Scandinavian women‟s football as a research topic we will contribute to sports studies as well as social sciences by adding to the growing international literature on the development of women‟s football,7 as well as studies of women‟s migration.8 More broadly, we aim to contribute to a social scientific understanding of organizational transition in the sport system by exploring sports labour migration as a meeting of the voluntary organization model of the Nordic countries and global development processes in sports.

Aim and problem formulation The project aims to develop knowledge about the ways in which immigration of female football players (in conjunction with globalization, professionalization and commercialization processes) creates new challenges and opportunities for the Nordic civil society model of sports. To be more specific we will inquire into the challenges that develop, when the local and global, voluntarism and professionalism, idealism and commercialism, and different perceptions of civil integration meet. Given the fact that women‟s football does not have the same resources as men‟s football we might have the chance to identify new hybrid forms of organization that will provide football governing bodies and club managers with alternatives to a simple transition from a civil society to a market-based model of organization. Forms that bear on the civil society model and at the same time may serve as models for the future development of Nordic sports clubs which according to current sports policy should be enabled to participate in the global development of sport, as well as address welfare society issues such as physical inactivity and social differentiation.

5 (Maguire and Stead 1998, Stead and Maguire 2000a, 2000b, Maguire and Pearton 2000a, 2000b, Lanfranchi and Taylor 2001, Magee and Sugden 2002, McGovern 2002, Darby 2005, 2007, Molnar 2006, Poli and Ravanel 2005, Poli 2006, Taylor 2006, Dietschy 2006, Darby et. al. 2007, Tiesler and Coelho 2007, Cornelissen and Solberg 2007, Molnar and Maguire 2008). 6 (Skogvang 2008, Eliason 2009, Agergaard & Botelho forthcoming). 7 (Lopez 1997, Pfister et al. 1998, Caudwell 2002, 2003, Harris 2005, 2007, Scraton et al. 1999, 2005, 2008, Williams 2007). 8 (Simon & Brettell 1986, Pedraza 1991, Zlotnik 1995, Lenz and Schwenken 2003, Kofman 2005, Donato et al. 2006). This project will consist of three studies. First of all, a macro-level study will research the ways in which immigration into Danish, Norwegian and Swedish women‟s football has developed in conjunction with broader processes of globalization, professionalization and commercialization. Secondly, a meso-study will explore the ways in which women‟s football clubs negotiate between a local and global orientation, voluntarism and professionalism, idealism and commercialism. And finally a micro-study will focus on the agents (club representatives and migrant players) and their approach to the civil integration challenge. Altogether these studies will lead us to understand the changing conditions facing national football governing bodies, local clubs and club members alike and help us identify emerging models and strategies that react to this development. The three studies will be described in more detail below following a brief overview of the theoretical framework and design of the project.

Theoretical framework As already mentioned the project is founded on literature about the development of women‟s football as well as women‟s migration. Here we will concentrate on the broader theoretical frame; namely theories relating to the Nordic civil society model on the one hand and the concepts of globalization, professionalization and commercialization in sport on the other. The civil society concept is developed in contrast to models of society, which have focused only on the state or the market, and has been used to characterize the basis of so-called voluntary organizations of people.9 The expression a „Nordic civil society model of sports‟ is an analytical construct since there have been few empirical studies to define the model in more detail; either by relating the model to sports systems outside of the Nordic countries (which may disclose a number of overlaps) or by describing the similarities and differences between the ways sports are organized in the different Nordic countries.10 The general characteristics of voluntary sport organizations have been described and summarized as: Voluntariness, independence from the state and market, and democratic decision-structures, so distinguishing them from the professionalization processes in sports.11 However, empirical studies are yet to be made of the ways in which aspects of the voluntary organization manifest themselves in specific sports clubs and may be developed to meet new sporting demands.

9 (Pestoff 1996, 1998, 2009). 10 (Meinander & Mangan 1998, Ibsen 2002, Gammelsæter 2009). 11 (Ibsen 1992, Seippel 2002, Norberg 2003, Seippel 2010). Perspectives on globalization in sports have ranged from the so-called cultural imperialist view of sport as a diffusion of a global monoculture to the counter-point stressing the diversity of local responses to globalization processes in sports.12 A step away from this dichotomous discussion, whether globalization makes the world of sports more homogeneous or heterogenous, is taken with the concept of glocalization stressing the interdependencies and hybrid forms of sports organizations that develop in the meeting between local conditions and global structures.13 The development of professionalization in sports has been described in Nordic countries as an increase in the number of athletes and club managers who take up sport as a job.14 Latterly the concept has come to mean not only the employment in itself but also the processes whereby club activities and administration are organized according to a market-oriented rationality.15 Related to this development is the concept of commercialization defined as the process by which transactions are based on compensation rather than reciprocity.16 However, empirical studies have also pointed to the occurrence of a so-called „dugnadsøkonomi‟ in Norwegian sports, where economical compensation is mixed with reciprocity among volunteers.17 A concept that may prove useful in our studies for integrating theories about the Nordic model with theories describing current developments in Scandinavian women‟s football.

Design and methods The project is designed as a cross-national study, where the development of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish women‟s football in general and in specific clubs is compared. By choosing specific clubs as cases the importance of understanding sports labour migration in its concrete and empirical contexts is taken into consideration, and the aim is to obtain a more profound understanding of the phenomenon.18 Working with several cases the idea is to understand the dynamics of development in each club, and later to compare them. As case-studies the project makes use of various sources and methods that together contribute to document the conclusions drawn from the studies.19

12 (Houlihan 2003, Maguire 1999, Rowe 2003). 13 (Robertson 1992, Guilianotti and Robertson 2004, 2009). 14 (Peterson 1989). 15 (Goksøyr 1991, Peterson 1993, Heinilä 1998). 16 (Enjolras 2001). 17 (Enjolras & Seippel 2001). 18 (Flyvbjerg 1988, 2006). 19 (Maaløe 2002, Robson 2002, Yin 2003). Study 1: The foreigners arrive – a historical study of how the immigration of professional players in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish women‟s football developed between 1990-2010 The starting point of this study is the 1990s which according to our preliminary inquiries is the decade when the immigration of foreign players became more common and Scandinavian women‟s football clubs started contracting players as professionals.20 The study aims to describe the ways in which immigration into Danish, Norwegian and Swedish women‟s football has developed in conjunction with broader processes of globalization, professionalization and commercialization. To do so historical studies will be conducted in the archives at the Danish, Norwegian and Association. Files of international transfer certificates will help provide an overview of immigration (as well as emigration of players) and give basic information about the migrants‟ background (e.g. nationality and age), their club affiliation and their status as professionals or amateurs. The archive material and other kinds of historical sources such as international documents on the development of women‟s football, yearbooks and annual accounts will allow us to compare the globalization, professionalization and commercialization of women‟s football in the three countries. The concept of glocalisation will be used to provide an understanding of the ways in which immigration into Scandinavian women‟s football is influenced by globalization processes (such as increasing global mobility of female footballers), but also is shaped by regional, national and local development patterns (such as the regional recruitment of players from other Nordic countries, a varying pattern of immigration into the different Scandinavian countries, and a diversity in different types of clubs‟ engagement in the recruitment of players from abroad.) The study will try to explain the diversity in the professionalization of women‟s football among the countries, and the disparity given the fact that the migrant players seem to be full-time professionals, while national players are often on part-time contracts or play as amateurs. This development will be related to the emerging commercialization processes. The economics of women‟s football in , Norway and Sweden seems to a large extent to be based on welfare state support to sports and voluntary work, whereas sponsor and media revenues are apparently still limited; factors that are to be studied further in the second study with its focus on particular clubs. PhD-student: NN, University of Copenhagen, Dk

20 (Eliasson 2004, Skogvang 2006, Agergaard & Botelho forthcoming). Study 2: The model in transition – a management study of Scandinavian women‟s clubs‟ re- organization in the wake of globalization, professionalization and commercialization The second part of the project aims to develop an understanding of the ways in which specific women‟s football clubs are reorganizing themselves in the wake of the developing globalization, professionalization and commercialization processes. Two Danish, two Norwegian and two Swedish clubs have been selected for this study. All of the clubs have years of experience with recruiting migrant players and they represent a diversity of different forms of organization.21 Through studies of various club documents and interviews with club managers we will inquire into the clubs‟ current organization, management structures and sponsor relations with a particular focus on how they are reacting to the global, professional and commercial development of women‟s football. A general discussion concerning the question of whether women‟s football clubs will apply a sameness or separation strategy in relation to men‟s football will follow. Given the fact that there are fewer resources women‟s football clubs are forced to find innovative ways of getting public attention, for instance through corporate social responsibility projects that use social and/or ethical values to help gain support for women‟s football.22 This prompts the question of whether women‟s football clubs can brand and promote the product in a different way to men‟s football clubs, for instance by making the clubs seem “more fun”, “more collective” and “more multicultural”, in order to attract sponsors. In relation to football labour migration the challenge (and opportunity) is to include migrant players in such a branding strategy. For instance recruiting professional female players from abroad (instead of employing national players) may be justified by referring to their contribution to and social integration into the club. This again reflects expectations about migrant players‟ integration into the clubs which will be considered at more length in the third study. Our hypothesis is that we will find hybrid forms of organization in women‟s football clubs where voluntary work and play coexist with full-time and part-time professionalization, and ideals of, contributing to social cohesion in local communities, for instance, are mixed with an orientation towards the global market and attempts to commercialize women‟s football. PhD-student: NN, Department of Sport Sciences, Malmö University, Sweden

21 The selection includes football clubs only for women as well as football clubs with male and female sections, clubs with a primarily voluntary and professional administration, and clubs from different environments (rural and city clubs). 22 (Morton et al. 2003, Munilla & Miles 2005, Carlsson & Lindfeldt forthcoming). Study 3: The integration challenge – an anthropological study of Scandinavian women‟s football clubs‟ and migrant players‟ approaches to civil society integration The third part of the project aims to develop an understanding of the integration challenge that follows with the clubs‟ recruitment of players from abroad and the different perceptions that club representatives and migrant players may have of this process. Anthropological field studies will be conducted in the clubs included in the second study; consisting of observations of daily interaction and interviews with club representatives and players alike. The focus will be on micro-sociological aspects of sports labour migration. Adaptation of migrant players not only on the field to a different playing and coaching style but also off the field has been pointed out as a central challenge in sports labour migration.23 Human labour as „commodity‟ is marked by its plasticity and variability turning the integration process into a crucial one for the employeers.24 In the literature on male football migration it has been described how clubs prefer recruiting players with a similar cultural and linguistic background to diminish the integration challenge.25 Informed by the first study, which will show how players are recruited to Scandinavian women‟s football from other Nordic countries as well as from countries elsewhere, we will first have to locate and explain the particular clubs‟ approach to the integration challenge. Next the migrant players‟ approach to the integration process and the way it is managed in the different clubs will be considered. The relation of migrant players to the host club and surrounding community may not fit with the traditional understanding of close social cohesion in civil society. New patterns of mobile sports labour migrants have been observed in studies that compare athletic migrants with highly skilled migrants in various sectors of international business, for example.26 The so-called trans-migrants fulfill their professional jobs and stay in touch with family and friends through the use of information technology such as Facebook and Skype.27 At the policy level these new types of trans-migrants may require other approaches than the emphasis on close-knit social relations in a club. In other words, the meeting between club representatives‟ and migrant players‟ different perceptions of adaptation may result in a number of challenges, and also call for new strategies towards integrating different types of members into sports clubs. Post.doc. NN, University of Copenhagen, Dk

23 (Maguire 1999, Maguire et al. 2002). 24 (Poli 2005). 25 (Stead and Maguire 2000a, McGovern 2002, Taylor 2007). 26 (Elliott and Maguire 2009, Khadria 2001, Beaverstock 1991, 1996, 2004, 2005, Dezalay 1990). 27 (Botelho 2001, Agergaard & Botelho forthcoming). Statement of the Nordic added value of the project As described above the research project consists of three studies that are all regional and cross- national in their focus rather than being defined as separate national projects in three different Nordic countries. All studies will contribute to an understanding of challenges for a historically grounded Nordic civil society model of sport, and point out various ways in which sports labour migration calls for new forms of organization and social integration. The reason for focusing entirely on the Scandinavian countries in this Nordic project is that women‟s and Iceland holds a less important role globally, and at present the immigration and professionalization of players does not seem to be developing at the same pace as in the Scandinavian countries. The emigration of players from Finland and Iceland to the Scandinavian countries is considered as a possible regionalization rather than globalization of women‟s football. Researchers from the main sports research departments in Finland and Iceland will, however, be invited to contribute their knowledge about women‟s football in their respective countries at project seminars and where appropriate in publications. Through the project activities they will also be able to gain knowledge about the present development of women‟s football in countries, where globalization, professionalization and commercialization are taking hold. Even though some of the participants in the project have participated in joint seminars and publications, this new and emerging research field has not been dealt with in this detail before and none of the project participants have previously cooperated on a research project; using their complementary competences to strengthen the particularity of each individual‟s knowledge. The project will help to develop a center for Nordic research in football and migration. Malmö and Copenhagen may only cover a small area on a map of the Nordic countries, but together they can provide a number of leading researchers involved in research on football (with various disciplinary focuses) and a suitable environmental context for further expansion of the research field. There is, for example, a private initiative to establish a World Village of Women‟s Sports in Malmö, which is to become a de facto centre for sports research as well as women‟s sport.

Research training and exchange The project will provide a number of opportunities for researcher training through two PhD-grants and a post-doctoral-grant. Even if the grant-holders are affiliated to specific institutions to which some have geographical proximity, their field of research will cover various locations in the Scandinavian countries and they will have to be on the move to collect and analyse material. Moreover each PhD-grant holder will spend at least half a year in a research milieu in another Nordic country. On the other hand, the geographical proximity between (some of) the participating institutions will provide the grant-holders with the possibility of meeting regularly so the synergy between the studies is not just left as a vision in the project proposal.

Research networks As listed on our CVs the main applicant and co-applicants participate both in sports- and migration related research networks; spanning from international disciplinary sports research networks to cross-disciplinary migration research networks that are either Nordic, national or institutional. Moreover the main applicant is a board member on the international network of football migration research: foomi-net. Through this network project group members will be invited to participate in international research seminars and conferences, where they will be able to meet researchers from other areas of the world working on similar topics. Since a number of leading researchers from sports departments in all Nordic countries participate in the project group, the project will also offer a unique opportunity for establishing a Nordic network for research in sports labour migration and for exchanging knowledge about current sports organization issues between the Nordic countries.

Project organization To realize the project in the best manner we will operate with three levels of organization. First of all, there is the total project group that includes all participants listed in the application form. The total project group will meet at annual seminars in Denmark, Norway and Iceland, as well as at the final conference in Sweden. They will form the critical mass for the development of the project. Secondly there is the group of project employees and applicants who will be in touch with each other on a regular basis since they are linked either institutionally or through roles as scholarship-holders and supervisors. The grant-holders will be responsible for informing their supervisors and universities about the progress of their project every half-year. Thirdly there is a steering group consisting of the main applicant and co-applicants who in dialogue with the total project group will be responsible for evaluating the progress of the project every half-year through video conferences and at meetings connected with the annual seminar. The main applicant will function as the daily project manager and attend to the project administration (including economic and communication issues) at the University of Copenhagen. Dissemination and publication plans Information about the project will from the outset be publicly available through the establishment of a project website that will be regularly updated. At the website we also plan to make the results of the studies publically available in an online database. The peer-reviewed journals that are highly esteemed in our field are not open-access journals. However, our bibliometric service unit has found that all of the journals where we plan to submit allow the authors to publish their articles as pre- or postprints in their own archives. By building on the online database of foomi-net, we can establish a convincing archive of literature on female football migration. In relation to the scientific community a number of publications and scientific papers will form part of each grant. Moreover we plan to publish a special issue of the peer-reviewed journal Soccer and Society to which not only the grant-holders but also the total project group will contribute with independent or joint articles. In the final half year of the project the principal investigator will be responsible for producing a common output report. This report will be written for the general public. The final conference will also provide the opportunity to present our results to a wider public including representatives from football governing bodies, club managers etc. as well as to other researchers interested in working in the field.

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