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H Foreword 22 mean that the KGB was no longer interested in our fate. He said bluntly that the KGB had the means to apply certain repressive measures against us and our relatives who re- mained behind if during our life abroad we did not behave ourselves He was extremely insistent in rec- CHAPTER I ommending that 1 refrain from publishing this book and that .my wife refrain from public statements defending the politi- IN PLACE OF AN INTRODUCTION cal prisoners Aleksandr Ginzburg and Anatoly Shcharansky, whom she had agreed to represent shortly before she was . disbarred. .' Three' hours later we stood stunned and deafened in Vi- enna airport. In those three hours we had been transformed from people with no rights, defenseless against KGB perse- cution---people like our 260 million fellow citizens-into people who were free but stripped of citizenship and .social status, stripped <?f a lifetime's experience. We would have to start learning everything all over again, from how to use a public telephone to how to travel by bus. OR THE reader to understand the place occupied by cor- It is now the spring of 1982; I am sitting 'at my writing desk Fruption in the Soviet state and. Soviet society, and the by the window, and before me lies a hilly and, way in which the Il1achinery of that corruption functions, he . Arlington street. The whole street is in bloom. The white, must have at least a general idea about the laws that govern pink, and purple blossoms are a delight to my eyes, used to that state and that society and under which its people live. the colors of Central Russia. Exotic-to me-birds For people born and raised in Western countries that knowl- are flying about inthe garden beneath my 1 already edge is not easy to acquire, even for the few who know know that the· bright red ones are called cardinals, but I do Russian, read Soviet newspapers, and have an with Soviet law. Even they, not having had IheexperienCDe not know what the sky-blue ones are'. I It is all so beautiful and so foreign to me."...' of living in the Soviet Union as ordinary citizens (perhaps And in front of me on my desk is the manuscript of this only as diplomats or journalists), find it hard to understand that the newspapers constantly and paint dis- book. a torted picture of events in the country. That is because aU ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, 1978-82 the newspapers are. in the hands of the single party-the Communist Party of the Soviet Union-which.exercises mo- nopoly rule over the country; they are carrying out the pro- pagandistic tasks assigned them by that party. But for the person who has grown up in a democratic COuntry the most difficult thing to grasp is the fact that ways 23 USSR: The Corrupt Society 24 In Place of an Introduction 25 and means of governing the huge superpower, and the rights various committees, unlike the Supreme Soviet, is no deco- and duties of its citizens, are. defined. not by a constitution or rative body: it plays an important role in the day-to-day \. any other written laws but by a whole body of unwritten t?e country. But that role, a,s played ("laws, which, although not published anywhere, are perfectly dozens of mimstnes and government committees, boils welllqIown to all Soviet citizens and are obeyed by them. down -mainly to carrying out the decisions made by party) The present Soviet constitution states that the power be- organs, which always have the final word. This applies in longs to the people, who exercise it through elected soviets equal measure to the Council of Ministers, charged with the -councils-and the government of the country is carried government of the entire USSR, and to the many district out by the Council of Ministers and other administrative executive committees, which are responsible for govern- ' The fact is, however" that true in the ment on the district level. Everyone in' the Soviet uniOil\ Umon belongs to the apparat of the Commumst party, and It knows that any district-level decision Of. any importance is ( is the members of that apparat who are the true leaders of made. in the party Raikom--:-the District Committee-and t.he country. that the Raiispolkom-the government District Executive ) The constitution states that the Supreme Soviet of the Comrnittee-:...merely formalizes that decision (or, as Soviet USSR is to exercise sUpreme power in the couptry: it issues jargon has it, translates it into the language laws and forms and dissolves the government-that is, the the sovIet). , Council of Ministers, which is responsible to it. But in real The Soviet population is much less well informed about life the Supreme Soviet of the USSR merely rubber-stamps the "balance of power" at the highest levels, but in those the decisions of the top Communist party organs. The purely lofty reaches too the party apparat's domination of the state decorative Supreme Soviet is necessary to give to the Soviet apparat is just 'as fully and openly manifest. state a semblance of For a minister, even if he is a member of the Communist Everything attests to the decorative, propagandistic func- Party Central Committee, the head of the corresponding de- tions of the Supreme Soviet:: it is in session' for a mere six partment of the Central Committee apparat, even ifhe is not days a' year, and in the' cou:r:se. of its forty-three. years of. a member of the Central Committee, is the boss. Without his existence there has never once been so much as a single vote sanction the minister can make no decision of the least iill- against a motion submitted by the government,or ,even an portaqce. abstention, either in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or in TheLstate's subordination to the. party is clearly.eVide.ntin} the supreme soviets of anY,.of the fifteen Union republics the rules of bureaucratic protocol: where a meeting is in that make up the federation that is the USSR. The fictitious order,' it is the department head from the Central Committee nature of the power of the supreme soviets is further borne apparat who summons the minister to his office, not. the out by the fact that never in any of these -Soviet "parlia- other way around. True, such summonses-though they are ments" has any question been raised relating to lack of con- in fact orders-are couched in the words of a request ("Ni- fidencein the government; no member of the government kolai Ivanovich, could you possibly come by and, see me at has even been questioned on any subject. such a time?"), but a minister would never make That government, in the form of the Council of Ministers, such' "request" of a Central Committee department consisting of sixty-two ministers and fourteen chairmen of head. D"IriI17f-1 ,. USSR: The Corrupt Society 26 In Place of an Introduction 27 , Here is an example from real life of the subordination of under the control of the party apparat. That strengthens the -t"'he state to the party apparat, a subordination that now party's control over society as a whole and over each citizen raises no eyebrows. A minister (now retired) who headed individually, since it turns the party into a monopoly em;) one of the industrial ministries for about twenty years told ployer, able to prevent the employment in any job of anyone me a story that put it all in a nutshell, both the position in who fails to observe the unwritten rules on which the party's the ruling hierarchy of each of its participants and the sub- power is based. ordination of the state apparat to the party apparat. Not only does the party apparat wield supreme power in My informant had arranged with another minister to trans- ,the country but it also governs the daily life of the country, fer to him control of severa" enterprises. They drafted a pro- i[from,the activities of the Council of Ministers to those of a posed Council of Ministers resolution about the transfer and small factory or collective farm. Each of the nation's dis- took it for approval, not to the Council of Ministers itself but rtricts is administered by the apparat of the District Commit- rather to the department of the party Central Committee Itee (Raikom) of the Communist party; each region by the apparat that was in charge of their ministries. The depart- apparat of the ,Regional Committee (Obkom); and' each ment head did not endorse the proposal, and the ministers- l Union Republic by the apparat of the Republic Central Com- one of whom was a member of the Central Committee, un- mittee. The entire state, finally, is ruled by the apparat of the Central Commjttee of the Communist Party of, the Soviet ( the party official-did even to his deci- Slon or appeal to the Council of MInisterS". It IS of course Union. possible that they might have succeeded in such an effort That structure is completely parallel to that of the governD with the help of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, ment; every government department, dealing with every who was a member of the Politburo, but relations with the sphere of life-economic., administrative, ideolo,gical-has head of the Central Committee department, on whom they its own corresponding department in the apparat of the party depended, would then have been ruined forever.
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