Transnational Contexts of Culture, Gender, Class, and Colonialism in Play

EAST ASIAN POPULAR CULTURE

VIDEO GAMES IN EAST ASIA

EDITED BY ALEXIS PULOS AND S. AUSTIN LEE East Asian Popular Culture

Series Editors

Yasue Kuwahara Department of Communication Northern Kentucky University Highland Heights, Kentucky, USA

John A. Lent Temple University, USA School of Communication and Theater Philadelphia, USA Aim of the Series This series focuses on the study of popular culture in East Asia (referring to China, Hong Kong, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan) in order to meet a growing interest in the subject among students as well as scholars of various disciplines. The series examines cultural production in East Asian countries, both individually and collectively, as its popularity extends beyond the region. It continues the scholarly discourse on the recent prominence of East Asian popular culture as well as the give and take between Eastern and Western cultures.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14958 Alexis Pulos • S. Austin Lee Editors Transnational Contexts of Culture, Gender, Class, and Colonialism in Play

Video Games in East Asia Editors Alexis Pulos S. Austin Lee Department of Communication Department of Communication Northern Kentucky University, USA Northern Kentucky University, USA Highland Heights, Kentucky, USA Highland Heights, Kentucky, USA

East Asian Popular Culture ISBN 978-3-319-43816-0 ISBN 978-3-319-43817-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43817-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016955843

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Cover design by Samantha Johnson

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents

1 Introduction 1 Alexis Pulos and S. Austin Lee

Part I Gamer Culture 15

2 Bullet Hell: The Globalized Growth of Danmaku Games and the Digital Culture of High Scores and World Records 17 Mark Johnson

3 Content Production Fields and Doujin Game Developers in Japan: Non-economic Rewards as Drivers of Variety in Games 43 Nobushige Hichibe and Ema Tanaka

4 From Pioneering Amateur to Tamed Co-operator: Tamed Desires and Untamed Resistance in the Cosplay Scene in China 81 Anthony Y. H. Fung and Boris L. F. Pun

v vi Contents

Part II Gender and Class 97

5 Making Masculinity: Articulations of Gender and Japaneseness in Japanese RPGs and Machinima 99 Lucy Glasspool

6 Living the Simple Life: Defining Agricultural Simulation Games Through Empire 127 Fan Zhang and Erika M. Behrmann

Part III Colonialism and Transnationalism 153

7 Virtual Colonialism: Japan’s Others in SoulCalibur 155 Rachael Hutchinson

8 A Chinese Cyber-Diaspora: Contact and Identity Negotiation in a Game World 179 Holin Lin and Chuen-Tsai Sun

Index 211 About the Editors

Alexis Pulos currently teaches games and culture, board game design, and video game analysis at Northern Kentucky University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of New Mexico where he studied rhetoric, new media, digital games, and film. His current work focuses on the ways player agency is structured through the design and social regulation of rule systems. S. Austin Lee received his BA from Seoul National University and MA/ Ph.D. from Michigan State University. His areas of expertise include communication technology and intercultural communication. His scholarly work has been published in top academic journals, including Journal of Applied Psychology. He has also received a top paper award from the National Communication Association.

vii Contributor Bios

Erika M. Behrmann is an activist-scholar focusing on feminist theory, postfeminism, pedagogy, postcolonialism, and their various intersections and materializations within media and gaming spaces. Her publications can be found in Teaching Media Quarterly (2015) and Films for the Feminist Classroom (2016). Anthony Y. H. Fung is a Director and Professor in the School of Journalism and Communication at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He is also a Professor in the School of Art and Communication under the Recruitment Program of Global Experts at Beijing Normal University at Beijing and Pearl River Chair Professor at Jinan University at Guangzhou, China. His research interests and teaching focus on popular culture and cultural studies, popular music, gender and youth identity, cultural industries and policy, and new media studies. He published widely in international journals and authored and edited more than ten Chinese and English books. Lucy Glasspool is an Assistant Professor in the Center for Global Communication Strategies at the University of Tokyo. Her research interests include gender and sexuality in Japanese popular culture and transnational fan practices. She is currently completing her Ph.D. on gender and Japaneseness in videogame fan cultures at Nagoya University.

ix x Contributor Bios

Nobushige Hichibe, Ph.D., is a Senior Researcher of Foundation for MultiMedia Communications and a Visiting Associate Professor of Digital Hollywood University in Japan. He is a qualitative sociologist working in the fields of media studies. He is the author of Yo-Kai Watch Ga 10 Bai Tanoshiku Naru Hon (Game and Animation Studies of Yo-Kai Watch (in Japanese), 2015). Rachael Hutchinson is an Associate Professor of Japanese Studies at the University of Delaware, where she teaches Japanese language, literature, film, and videogames. Her work on games appears inGames and Culture and NMEDIAC: Journal of New Media and Culture, as well as Identity Matters: Race, Gender and Sexuality in Video Game Studies (ed. Jennifer Malkowski and TreaAndrea Russworm, University of Indiana Press) and Introduction to Japanese Pop Culture (ed. Alisa Freedman and Toby Slade, Routledge). She has published widely on representation and identity in Japanese literature, film, and manga and is currently working on a book about videogames and Japanese culture. Mark R. Johnson is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Digital Creativity Labs and the Science & Technology Studies Unit at the University of York. His work focuses on professional gaming and eSports, and competitive gaming more generally, with strong additional interests in gaming cultures and communities, streaming, game aesthetics and themes, and the intersections between games and real-world political and cultural institutions. Outside academia, he is a former professional poker player, holds the high score world records in multiple games, is an independent game developer, the co-host of the Roguelike Radio podcast, and a freelance games writer. Holin Lin is a Professor of Sociology, National Taiwan University. She has been working in the field of Internet and digital game studies. Her work focuses on the social interaction in massively multiplayer online game communities. Boris L. F. Pun is a Ph.D. student in the School of Journalism and Communication at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interests mainly relate to popular culture and subcultural studies, espe- cially in animation, comic, and game (ACG). He is also interested in the issue of cultural identity, cultural industries and policy, and the globaliza- tion and transculturation. Contributor Bios xi

Chuen-Tsai Sun is an Adjunct Professor of Department of Computer Science and Graduate Institute of Education, National Chiao Tung University. He is currently engaged in research and teaching in the areas of digital games, digital learning, and artificial intelligence. Ema Tanaka, Ph.D., is a Chief Researcher of Foundation for MultiMedia Communications and a Visiting Researcher of Waseda Institute for Digital Society in Japan. She has more than 10 years of experience in policy and market research on ICT, media fields, and Internet governance. Fan Zhang is a Ph.D. student with particular interests in intercultural communication, critical rhetoric, gaming, media, and technology at Bowling Green State University. Her publication can be found at International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies (2015). List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Screenshot of “Ikaruga” (2001). Accessed on 21/5/2015, available from http://store.steampowered.com/app/253750/ 39 Fig. 2.2 Screenshot of “Crimzon Clover” (2011). Accessed on 21/5/2015, available from http://store.steampowered.com/app/285440/ 40 Fig. 3.1 The elements and circular mechanism of the “content production field” 47 Fig. 3.2 Three game production fields categorized by intents and motivations 49 Fig. 3.3 Conceptual characteristics of three game production fields 50 Fig. 3.4 An example of a dynamic game, Touhou Eiyashou (Team Shanghai Alice) 51 Fig. 3.5 An example of static game, Tsukihime (Type-Moon) 52 Fig. 3.6 List of dynamic game developer interviewees 53 Fig. 3.7 List of static game developer interviewees 55 Fig. 3.8 Developers and users interact at Comic Market, where developers rent small booths and sell games to users directly 57 Fig. 3.9 Packaged doujin games 57 Fig. 3.10 Display racks of a doujin game shop (Sangatsu-Usagi in Akihabara) 58 Fig. 3.11 Comparison between doujin game development and commercial game development 58 Fig. 8.1 History of player migration between Chinese and Taiwanese WoW servers 193

xiii List of Tables

Table 6.1 Congregated themes based Weibo answers to Supercell’s question: “What is your favorite decoration” and “What are the pros and cons of Monday” (n = 817) 141 Table 8.1 Data collection from Taiwanese WoW game forums 187 Table 8.2 Data collection from Chinese WoW game forums 187

xv CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Alexis Pulos and S. Austin Lee

Introduction: Developing Critical Contexts of Gameplay To study games is to also study the forms and cultures of play that develop around and give meaning to the acts of playing games. In its most abstract structure of play, or paidia, is the unconstrained use of imagination to engage with the world. It is here that paidia offers individuals the freedom to “play” and to “play with” the world around them. However, these acts are always imbued with deep social meanings that are simultaneously expressed through and developed during that act of play.1 From the early games of Mancala, Go, and Chess to the acts of playing house or dolls, individuals learn to navigate social structures from agriculture and warfare to domesticity and gender.2 In sum, as individuals learn to play, they also learn to understand, and reinforce, a variety of social practices, making play a formative activity in the construction of the individual, society, and

A. Pulos (*) • S.A. Lee Department of Communication, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY, USA

© The Author(s) 2016 1 A. Pulos, S.A. Lee (eds.), Transnational Contexts of Culture, Gender, Class, and Colonialism in Play, East Asian Popular Culture, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43817-7_1 2 A. PULOS AND S.A. LEE culture.3 The activity play, or paidia, is however balanced between ludus, or the controlled rules of play.4 Rule systems provide players with the formal design challenges, outcomes, and goals that form the parameters of the game, and “players accept the rules because they make the game activity possible.”5 From this perspective, it is equally important to understand the larger social, cultural, and national contexts that influence and control the design of game structures. It is therefore between the act of playing and the formally designed systems of the game that meaning is created, maintained, and controlled, making games an evocative cultural object.6 It is at this intersection of paidia and ludus that games interpellate individuals into the socially constructed environment of the game,7 and which this book seeks to explore. Within an increasingly complicated and complex world, digital envi- ronments and games serve as a resource for game players to understand and negotiate social interactions. Turkle notes that electronic games are a material resource that new generations understand as a part of themselves because they are “a primary source for developing”8 an understanding of who we are and how we should act toward others. Electronic games enable individuals think about themselves in new ways and reveal how the worlds they live in are constructed. According to Murray, “everyday experiences [are]… increasingly gamelike, and we are aware of the constructed nature of all of our narratives. The ordinary catego- ries of experience, such as a parent, child or student are understood as ‘roles’ that are perpetually deconstructed into their ‘culturally invented components.’9 The construction of identity, once understood through the protocols of human relationships, is now composed of intersecting arrangements of a collective story game, “an aggregation of overlapping, conflicting, constantly morphing structures that make up the rules by which we act and interpret our experiences.”10 Through the use of augmented reality to create exercise routines11 or through the development of moral reasoning within multiplayer online games,12 the stories, games, and experiences of individuals continually blend together to inform lived experiences of contemporary life. As lived experiences become increasingly gamelike,13 it is increasingly important to understand how digital games teach us to understand and manage these interactions, making digital games a nexus for engaging with the complex interrelations of a postmodern life. INTRODUCTION 3

Recent game research ranging from narrative structures (Wark 2007; Bogost 2007, 2008, 2011) to rule systems (Juul 2005; Galloway 2006; Frasca 2007) and from economics (Castranova 2005; Dyer- Witheford and de Peuter 2009; McGonigal 2011) to identity (Williams and Smith 2007; Williams et al. 2011; Jenkins 2006) reveals not only a greater need to analyze games from a critical perspective but highlight the significance of games as a dominant cultural artifact of the twenty- first century.14 A coherent game analysis therefore comes from a nuanced understanding of the political economies and cultural practices that work to enable and constrain game production, the acts of playing and the communities of support built around a game. Hjorth and Chan further note that previous game research is often guided by American and European perspectives that leave the Asia-Pacific region neglected.15 To confront this problem, they offer an initial overview of the socio-technological, socio-cultural, techno-nationalist, and economic dimension of video games in the region, thereby present- ing them as a fully realized media and social phenomenon. Central to this discussion is the developing digital infrastructures, ownership patterns, market structures, and online industries that have driven some of the most dynamic digital markets in the world (Jin and Chee 2008; Consalvo 2016). However, to move beyond the well-covered discus- sions of industries, PC Bangs/gamer cafes,16 genres, and community contexts17 of previous research, a stronger focus must be paid to the local, national, and transnational ideologies that are a part of these cultural artifacts. To build a critical perspective on gaming cultures within the East Asian region, this book analyzes the transnational flow of player practices, game content/production, and game design structures. The book is arranged around three thematic sections: (1) gamer culture, the participatory spaces that enable player competition, game production, and fan engagement with East Asian games; (2) gender and class, the articulations of masculinity and the deigned class structures that are built into the structures of East Asian games; and (3) colonialism and transnationalism, the colonial contexts that are designed into East Asian game narratives and game archi- tectures. The subsequent chapters therefore work to bridge the economic and political constraints of the game industry with the socio-cultural 4 A. PULOS AND S.A. LEE

practices of play and game structures to offer a more detailed analysis of East Asian games. Part I Part I traces the transformation of player practices and gamer cultures from their localized contexts of participatory interaction to the larger information-based spaces of transnational capital. In this context, the introductory section of this book contextualizes the acts of and ways that paidia creates ways of engaging with game structures. From Spacewar to Overwatch and from Ms. Pacman to Paragon, the competitive structures of games and their localized spaces of play were a sig- nificant component in shaping Japanese arcade and gamer culture (Jin 2010; Taylor 2012). Chapter 2 therefore draws on the literature around Japanese gaming culture, its digital heritage, and Mark Johnson’s first- hand experience as a high-level player to explore the competition over high scores and world records in danmaku games and their expansion outside of Japan. Danmaku games are a unique genre of highly chal- lenging fast-paced Japanese arcade games which need little strategy or tactical thought, but demand extremely high levels of attention and reflex, as they overwhelm the player with complex geometric patterns. While danmaku high scores were limited to Japanese arcades, the development of networked contexts gave rise to danmaku discussion forums which offer the ability to share record-breaking videos, discuss strategies for maximizing scores, and create the ability to “port” these games to consoles and PCs owned by non-Japanese gamers, resulting in a nascent global digital culture for this once quintessentially Japanese genre. Even as danmaku games spread across the globe, garnering greater forms of competition, there is still a continuing dominance of Japanese players in danmaku. Johnson relates this trend to other gaming subcultures with distinct geographical concentrations of their strongest players— real-time strategy games in South Korea, multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) games in China, first-person shooters in Europe, fighting games in North America, and so on—and considers the interrelation between digital danmaku culture and the prior arcade-centric culture in Japan from which it grew. The rise of competitive games, via the once localized nature of danmaku games, highlights the continuing trend of globalized gamer INTRODUCTION 5

cultures. In Chap. 3, Nobushige Hichibe and Ema Tanaka extend the discussion of globalized cultural practices through an examination of the “production field” in doujin games. Stemming from the shared interests in a media text, doujin artists create and share self-made works at doujin-specific events. Unlike large-scale game productions,doujin developers are not traditionally motivated by economic return but by their playful ability to create a diversity of content, the personal autonomy and flexibility afforded by this development processes, the loose production periods, and the closeness between them and the fan communities. However, under the influence of the diffusion of broadband, smart devices, and the emergence of online sales site such as “Steam,” the distribution ecosystem, which had been closed locally, is now globalizing. With the market for PC games shrinking, some doujin game developers have begun to adopt new global game distribution platforms to earn a living beyond the doujin events and doujin shops which traditionally served as a Japanese-only distribution networks. Through an analysis of the cultural fields of production, the authors work to complicate the art- ist’s ability to share their interest, products, and passions with the need to gain economic and social capital, thereby offering new insights into the social practices of fan communities. In Chap. 4 Anthony Fung and Boris Pun continue the discussion of fan communities through an examination of cosplay cultures surround- ing animation, comics, and games (ACG). The authors highlight the ways cosplaying has become a sustainable profession and career path in the Chinese cultural market through a case study of HangZhou 304 COS (HZ304), which was launched as a small cosplay group and even- tually succeeded in transforming into a major cosplaying professional organization. While cosplay research frequently focuses on gamer fan- doms18 and forms of resistance,19 this case study targets the cosplayers’ subcultural nature, processes of self-enhancement, and their negotiation of cultural identities. Specifically, the authors investigate the ways cosplay plays with the societal taboo of homosexuality through subver- sive cosplay performances that call into question the patriarchal power of the nation. Fung and Pun examine the phenomenon, what they term the “tamed struggle,” from the perspective of cultural economy to illus- trate how HZ304 operates to accommodate the needs of the authori- ties while maintaining cultural resistance against the mainstream. The 6 A. PULOS AND S.A. LEE authors therefore document the untamed desires and resistance practices of professional cosplayers and explicate how they can be voluntarily tamed by the status quo to serve the interests of both commerce and the state. Part II Part II moves from the paidia to the ludic to examine the ways ideological structures are constructed and embodied by designers and players. In this section the authors address the ideological structures that are built into the formal systems of game design. In Chap. 5, Lucy Glasspool focuses on Japanese RPGs (specifically the games and spin-offs of the popular Final Fantasy VII) to demonstrate how the industry- and fan-created texts within English-speaking Japanese game fandoms, and by extension wider transnational Japanese pop culture fandoms, are used by some fans to express two contradictory ideals of gender and sexuality through a particular imagining of “Japaneseness.” By examining articulations of masculinity in official FFVII media, Glasspool first argues that by designing a specific and even Orientalist20 “Japanese” masculinity in their interpretation of FFVII’s male characters, fan commentary advocates two very different gender ideals: a hegemonic “macho” (and by extension heteronormative) and dominant Western masculinity against a more androgynous and fluid ideal. Despite the characterization of postmodern fans as making small distinction between “original” and “copy,” the tensions between industry and fans in the practices of game localization show the high value attached to imaginings of Japaneseness by many English-speaking fans (Pelletier- Gagnon 2011; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013). Second, one way in which this Japaneseness is articulated in online JRPG fandoms is through user commentary on gender and sexuality. Commercial FFVII texts tend to encourage a broadly masculinist, heteronormative reading, as well as the arguably Orientalist imagining of a specifically androgynous and even feminized Japanese masculinity; this masculinity is used by some fans to uphold dominant Western heteronormativity and masculinity. Through this provocative analysis of the top-down/official localization practices of game designers and the bottom-up commentary of interpretive fan communities, Glasspool problematizes ways Japanese gender performances, while linked to an androgynous masculinity, are (re)articulated against the heteronormative desires of a Western masculinity. INTRODUCTION 7

In Chap. 6, Fan Zhang and Erika M. Behrmann critically explore how videogame structures reflect Western neoliberal constructs through a case study of the popular videogame Hay Day. With 8.5 million players, Supercell’s mobile game, Hay Day, has become one of the top internationally downloaded games on iTunes.21 In Hay Day, players own and cultivate a virtual plot of land as they work to nur- ture higher-yielding crops, rear “quirky” new animals, and produce tradable goods to their friends. Unlike other farming simulations, like Farmville, Hay Day relies on a unique requirement of digital labor, where players must continually exchange goods with other players to earn income, level up, and progress through the game. The design of this Westernized exchange labor gives rise to what Zhang and Behrmann define as an illusory global market of neoliberal practices that shape player interactions in non-Western spaces. Against the backdrop of Marx, Althusser, and Negri and Hardt, the authors offer a nuanced insight into the ways Hay Day reinforces capitalist structures and Western ideologies through gamification, commodity fetishism, and Empire. Part III Part III works to bridge the paidia with the ludic through the transnational contexts of game design and game play of East Asian game design. In Chap. 7, Rachael Hutchinson examines the Japanese fighting game genre, specifically the SoulCalibur series, within the historical and cultural contexts of colonial East Asia. Hutchinson primarily examines the cultural politics of games as media artifacts that perpetuate the stereotypical representation of race and nation. Specifically, she draws comparisons between the racial and ethnic representations of “Other” in SoulCalibur to racial attitudes prevalent in the Meiji period, at the height of Japanese colonial expansion into Korea, Taiwan, Okinawa, and Micronesia. She argues that the impact of the historical colonial context on the current game text is readily apparent, seen in close analysis of character appearance and behavior as well as backstory in the game narrative. The most pertinent examples are the hyper-Japanese archetypes of ninja and samurai seen in Taki and Mitsurugi and the colonial Others of Maxi (Ryukyu/Okinawa), Talim (Micronesia), and Seung-Mina and Yun-Seong (Korea). By drawing connections between the Meiji period 8 A. PULOS AND S.A. LEE and the present, Hutchinson shows how videogame content does not appear in a vacuum but is deeply connected to historical context as well as themes which are explored in other art forms, such as literature, film, and the fine arts. The representation of national identity, particularly in the stereotypical ways demanded by the fighting game genre, has potent implications in contemporary East Asia. The realities of power relations between Japan and its neighbors have deep roots, and pervasive stereo- types of the colonial Other continue to saturate the Japanese media. This chapter points to the role-playing game (RPG) as one possible site of negotiation, where living the Other’s experience may open the way to mutual understanding. In Chap. 8, Holin Lin and Chuen-Tsai Sun examine large-scale social interactions in the online game World of Warcraft (WoW) involving players on both sides of the Taiwan Strait. Although tensions between China and Taiwan are historically governed by limited contact and political tensions, the development of digital spaces has given rise to new and persistent forms of contact. While there are currently many forms of cross-border interactions in cyberspace, massively multiplayer online games are unique in their provision of “persistent worlds” in which players spend long hours together every day, extending over months or years, thereby creating a strong sense of “living with” others despite long distances between them. To complicate the sense of living with, state-regulated Internet and game industry sanctions in China, through the “Harmonious Society” (he xie she hui) political doctrine, are utilized to control online social interactions. Due to these regulations, the second expansion of WoW was delayed by several years as the game localizers strove to meet the Chinese mandates for imported games; as a consequence many Chinese players moved their accounts to Taiwanese servers in 2008. This “WoW rush” resulted in extensive daily contact between tens of thousands of Chinese and Taiwanese players until 2011, when Chinese officials finally permitted a new WoW expansion. The authors offer a rich analysis of the intersecting national, political, and social tensions that arose due to this virtual border crossing and present new implications for border control and cross-border contact using information technology. INTRODUCTION 9

Companion Edition While this book primarily takes critical-cultural approaches to East Asian videogame studies, the companion edition, Transnational Contexts of Development History, Sociality, and Society of Play: Video Games in East Asia, complements thesis approaches with historical and socio- psychological approaches. In the companion edition to this book, East Asian games were covered from three distinct perspectives. In part I, historical insight worked to ground the development of game industries as Mariko Koizumi detailed the history of the Japanese game industry while Arielle Goldberg offered new insights on Nintendo and their advanced gaming technologies. Part II illustrated the growth of mobile social games through Akiko Shibuya and her colleagues’ discussion of in-game purchases, Hogeun Seo and Shinhea Claire Lee’s analysis of social interactions, and Bryan Hartzheim’s insights on mobile studio production practices. Finally, in part III, Sara Liao discusses the social construction of youth gaming in net-bars, and Hongsik Yu provides a detailed research method for Internet gaming addiction. Through these chapters, the companion book presented detailed insights into the social contexts and impacts of gaming in the East Asian region. The companion book works to extend previous research on the backdrops,22 trends, and impacts23 of games in the region.

Notes 1. Johan Huizinga. Homo Ludens (Boston: Beacon Press, 1950). 2. Marry Flanagan. Critical Play: Radical Game Design (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009). 3. Brian Sutton-Smith. The ambiguity of play (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997). 4. Roger Callois. Man, Play and Games (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1958). 5. Jesper Juul. Half-Real: Video Games Between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005) 38. 6. Sherry Turkle. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005) 267. 10 A. PULOS AND S.A. LEE

7. Dmitri Williams, Tracy L.M. Kennedy and Robert J. Moore “Behind the Avatar: The Patterns, Practices and Functions of Role Playing in MMOs” Games and Culture, 6 no. 2 (2011): 338–361. 8. Sherry Turkle. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005) 89. 9. Janet Murray. “From Game-story to Cyberdrama.” In First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game, 2004, Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan editors, 2–11 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004) 3. 10. Janet Murray. “From Game-story to Cyberdrama.” In First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game, 2004, Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan editors, 2–11 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004) 3. 11. Teemu H. Laine and Hae Jung Suk. “Designing Mobile Augmented Reality Exergames.” Games and Culture: A Journal of Interactive Media, 11 no. 5 (2016): 548–580. 12. Ryan G. Hornbeck. “Explaining Time Spent in Multiplayer Online Games: Moral Cognition in Chinese World of Warcraft.” Games and Culture: A Journal of Interactive Media, 11 no. 5 (2016): 489–508. 13. McKenzie Wark. Gamer Theory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007). 14. Eric Zimmerman and Heather Chaplin. “Manifesto: The 21st Century Will Be Defined by Games.”Kotaku.com , 2013, http://kotaku.com/manifesto- the-21st-century-will-be-defined-by-games-1275355204. 15. Larissa Hjorth and Dean Chan, editors. Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific (Routledge Studies in New Media and Cyberculture) (New York: Routledge, 2009). 16. Jun-sok Huhh. “The Bang Where Korean Online Gaming Began: The Culture and Business of the PC Bang in Korea.” In Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific, 2009, edited by Larissa Hjorth and Dean Chan, 102–116. (London: Routledge, 2009). 17. Don Heider. Living Virtually: Researching New Worlds (New York: Peter Lang, 2009). 18. Nicolle Lamerichs. “Stranger Than Fiction: Fan Identity in Cosplay.” Transformative Works and Cultures 7 (2011): doi:10.3983/twc.2011.0246. 19. Jin-Shiow Chen. “A Study of Fan Culture: Adolescent Experiences with Animé/Manga doujinshi and Cosplay in Taiwan,” Visual Arts Research, 33 no. 1 (2006): 14–24. 20. Edward Said. Orientalism (London: Penguin, 2003). 21. Bernhard Warner. “Finland’s Supercell: Mobile Games with Megaprofits.” Bloomberg Businessweek, 2013. http://www.businessweek.com/articles/ 2013-05-02/finlands-supercell-mobile-games-with-megaprofits.