uŋkitawapi ma ni

iś uŋ Pronouns in Dakota: miye A Brief Look wića wa ya iye ići nitawa REFERENCES

u Boas, F. & Deloria, E.C. (1939). Dakota Grammar. OUR ROADMAP Washington, DC: National Academy of Science. v What information do pronouns in u Corbett, G. G. (2000). Number. Cambridge: Cambridge Dakota convey University Press. v The distribution of different kinds u Pinson, T. M. (1990). Possessor Ascension in Dakota Sioux. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of of pronouns Linguistics 34, 75-96. v Bound Pronouns u Riggs, S. R. (1893). Dakota Grammar: with Texts and v FreePronouns Ethnography. Department of the Interior. [Reprinted in 2004. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.] v Combined Pronouns u Shaw, P. A. (1980). Theoretical Issues in Generative v Possessive pronouns Phonology and Morphology: a case study from Dakota (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Toronto: Toronto. v Alienable vs inalienable [Published 1980. New York, NY: Garland.] possession u Dakota speakers at the Dakota Workshop at Carleton, held August 26-28, 2016.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 2 Dakota is a Siouan language – and so is the closely related Lakota, and this has led to some confusion.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 3 u Stephen Riggs (1812-1883) was a missionary who was part of the Some Dakota Mission, organized by the General Association of Context Congregational Churches of Massachusetts. u His grammar of Dakota was published in 1893 and is “the” grammar of the language. u Franz Boas and Ella Deloria’s grammar was published in 1939 by the National Academy of Sciences. u But, this grammar is primarily of Lakota u Some more contemporary linguists have spent time on reservations gathering data but haven’t given anything back to the community - and sometimes profit from the work that members of a tribe put into various projects.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 4 u The Linguistics and Computer Science Departments at Carleton have a nascent partnership with the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, of the Lake Traverse Reservation in South Dakota.

u The goal is to contribute to the documentation and revitalization of Dakota and to produce a pedagogical grammar which could be used by teachers, learners, and linguistics. u Between the US and Canada, there are appr. 300,000 Dakota people. u But, for the Sisseton, the language is projected to be extinct on their reservation by 2028.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 5 1st: The person(s) speaking

Person 2nd: The person(s) being addressed The Information 3rd: The person(s)/thing(s) being spoken about that Pronouns

singular: One person/thing Convey in English Number plural: More than one person/thing

masculine: Male gendered thing (usually an animal) or person

Gender feminine: Female gendered thing or person

neutral (neuter): Some animals, inanimate things, or a non- specific gender for a person

subject: The doer of the action Role in object of the verb: The person/thing that the action is being done to Sentence object of the preposition: The noun that follows a preposition

6 owner/possessor: The person/thing that possesses Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery someone/something else 1st: The person(s) speaking The Information Person 2nd: The person(s) being addressed that Pronouns 3rd: The person(s)/thing(s) being spoken about Convey in Dakota

singular: One person/thing Interestingly, gender is encoded in the dual: The person speaking and the person being addressed language in lots of Number Ø The dual has pronouns only in the 1st person in Dakota ways, but not in pronouns plural: More than one person/thing

subject: The doer of the action

object of the verb: The person/thing that the action is being done to Role in Sentence object of the preposition: The noun that follows a preposition Ø prepositions are sometimes built into verbs in Dakota – e.g. kíćikaġa = to make for

owner/possessor: The person/thing that possesses someone or something else7

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Bound Pronouns

u Most pronouns in Dakota are attached to the verb.

ti = to dwell wati = I dwell u wa is a prefix here.

itoŋśni = to tell a lie iwatoŋśni = I tell a lie u wa is an infix here. (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13)

We’ll return to when a pronoun is a prefix and when it is an infix.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 8 • In Teton, the only third person bound pronoun is for plural objects that are human or animate. Bound Pronouns in Dakota (1) (Boas and Deloria 1939, p. 76) Subject Object Ø True for Dakota also. 1st person -singular wa we ma mi kaġa = to make -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- wakaġa = I make -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi yakaġa = you (singular) make uŋkaġapi = we make 2nd person Ø “pi” is a plural marker that is attached to the end of a word or phrase -singular ya ye ni ni -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi kaġa = he made makaġa = he made me nićaġapi = he made you (plural) or 3rd person they made you -singular ------waśtedaka = to love -plural -- -- wića waśtewićadaka = he loves them (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13-14) 9 (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Interesting Facts: Bound Pronouns in Dakota (2) • There are different pronouns when the prepositions ki ‘to’ and kíći ‘for’ are part of Subject Object the verb. 1st person ki/kíći kíćićaġa = to make for -singular wa we ma mi yećićaġa = you make for -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi Ø Question: Do the object pronouns also differ based on ki and kíći? Is: nd niyećićaġa = you make for me 2 person Ø The speakers aren’t sure about this one -singular ya ye ni ni • If a verb begins with yu or ya, the y is -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi dropped. The 1st person pronoun changes to md or bd and the 2nd person changes to d. 3rd person yawa = to read -singular ------bdawa = I read -plural -- -- wića dawa = you read 10 (Riggs 1893, p. 13) (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Interesting Fact: A NOTE ABOUT THE DUAL NUMBER u In Dakota, the dual includes the speaker. u The dual pronouns are only in 1st person. English does not have the dual, but some other u The pronoun for the dual is the same as for the languages do. plural, but without the plural marker –pi. u Dual: uŋ/uŋki Plural: uŋ-pi/uŋki-pi

u In Upper Sorbian, the dual does not have to include The dual in Upper Sorbian the speaker. • Upper Sorbian is spoken in eastern Germany u The dual means “two” and can be in the 2nd and by appr. 40,000 – 45,000 people. 3rd person.

singular dual plural ja ‘I’ mój ‘we two’ my ‘we’ dźěłam ‘I work’ dźěłamoj ‘we two work’ dźěłamy ‘we work’ ty ‘you’ wój ‘you two’ wy ‘you all’ hród ‘palace, castle’ hrodaj ‘two hrody ‘palaces/castles’ palaces/castles’

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 11 (examples from Corbett 2000, p. 20) § According to Riggs (1893), Dakota does Subject Object not have an object pronoun for the dual number. 1st person ki/kíći § According to Boas and Deloria (1939), -singular wa we ma mi the dual object pronoun is the same as -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- the dual subject pronoun in some -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi dialects.

nd Ø Question: 2 person -singular ya ye ni ni § Is “uŋkaġa” OK for “he made you and me”? -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi § NO: “You and I made something.” kaġa = he made 3rd person makaġa = he made me -singular ------plural -- -- wića nićaġapi = he made you (plural) or they made you

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 12 Ø wićaśta = man Sometimes pronouns are Ø wimaćaśta = I am a man. bound to other nouns… Ø ma is the first person singular object pronoun Ø A man is me. Ø Speakers say that ma is not an object pronoun. “X is happening to me./X is my state of being. Ø But, speakers said that no one would ever say wimaćaśta.

Ø waoŋśida = merciful …and sometimes pronouns Ø waoŋsiwada = I am merciful. are bound to adjectives. Ø Here, we have the first person singular subject pronoun Ø Speakers agree: I am the doer of X

(examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13-14)

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 13 Speakers agree that there is a There are other times when the object pronoun distinction between “I am is used for a subject. doing” pronouns and “Something is happening to me” pronouns

Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun So, there is an active/stative or unaccusative/unergative split.

wanowan = I was swimming. miśtima = I was sleeping. u The vowel in the pronoun is dropped. u Swimming is a more active verb. The swimmer is physically doing something. u Sleeping is a more passive verb. “I” is more like the object of sleeping and not the agent of sleeping.

(examples from Pinson 1990, page 79)

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 14 Adjectival verbs in Dakota also use object pronouns as subjects. asní: to get well, be well, Subject Object recover from sickness 1st person ki/kíći -singular wa we ma mi amásni: I am well. -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- uŋkásni: You and I are well. -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋkásnipi: We are well. 2nd person anísni: You (singular) are well. -singular ya ye ni ni anísnipi: You (plural) are well. -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi asní: He is well. 3rd person asnípi: They are well. -singular ------(examples from Riggs 1893, p. 32) -plural -- -- wića

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 15 Where do Bound Pronouns Go? u When there is a subject and object pronoun, the object precedes the subject

u mayakaśka = you bind me (example from Riggs 1893, p. 30)

u But, the 1st person precedes the second person, even if the 1st person is the subject

u mayaduhapi = you have me

u Actually: madupahi. [duha] is already conjugated because it starts with /y/.

u The 1st person object comes before the 2nd person subject. This is like the first sentence.

u uŋniyuhapi = we have you (singular or plural) (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 57)

u The 1st person subject comes before the 2nd person object.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 16 Some patterns for attaching pronouns to verbs Things are more complicated… Prefixes Infixes

u The verb root has one syllable u The verb root begins with a vowel. The u ba: to blame pronoun is inserted after the vowel.

u mayaba: you blame me u opa: to follow

u owapa: I follow u Verbs that begin with ka or pa

u paġan: to part with u The verb is formed with the prefix ba, bo, u kpaġan: to part with one’s own or na. The pronoun is inserted after the

u wakpaġan: I part with my own prefix. u baksa: to cut off with a knife

u Verbs that begin with “d” or “k” u bawaksa: I cut off with a knife u daka: to esteem so

u wadaka: I esteem so u The verb begins with ć, ś, m, or n. The pronoun is inserted after the first syllable.

u ćapá: to stab

(examples from Riggs 1893, p. 55-56) u ćawápa: I stab 17

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Free Pronouns in Dakota u miś wakaġa There are separate pronouns for I I made subjects, objects, and possessives. “I also made” u miś is the contracted form Question: The Dakota Grammar by Riggs (1893) says that these pronouns are mostly u miye mayakaġa used for emphasis. Is that accurate? Can me me you made separate pronouns be used without an “You made me” attached pronoun? u miye is the full form Ø Is miś kaġa OK for “I made”? Ø Yes: miś can always mean “me too” u miye mitawa me mine “my own” (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 12) 18

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Interesting Facts: Free Pronouns • Only subjects have both full and contracted words. Subject Object Possessive • There in no contracted form 1st person full contracted for the 2nd and 3rd person plural. -singular miye miś miye mitawa Question: Is the contracted -dual uŋkiye uŋkiś -- uŋkitawa form more casual? -plural uŋkiyepi uŋkiś uŋkiyepi uŋkitawapi Ø Is miye wakaġa more formal than miś wakaġa? nd Ø Miye wakaġa is more 2 person definitive – ”I am telling you -singular niye niś niye nitawa I made this.” -plural niyepi -- niyepi nitawapi • The object word is the same as the full subject word. 3rd person • Just as with the attached -singular iye iś iye tawa pronouns, there is no -plural iyepi -- iyepi tawapi separate object pronoun for the dual number. (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) 19 Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery COMPOUND PRONOUNS IN DAKOTA: PRONOUNS THAT COMBINE THE SUBJECT AND THE OBJECT

ći I + you ići self kíći each other

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 20 wa + ni = ći Subject Object u ći can be used when the subject 1st person ki/kíći is 1st person and the object is 2nd -singular wa we ma mi person -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- u Waśtećidaka = I love you -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi (singular) u Waśtećidakapi = I love you 2nd person (plural) -singular ya ye ni ni u Question: Does ći have to be used -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi in this context? YES

u Is waśtewanidaka OK? NO 3rd person u Question: Can ći be used with the -singular ------first person plural? NO -plural -- -- wića

u Can waśtećidakapi mean “We love you?” (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 17) 21 u Waśteuŋkidakapa “We love you.” Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Reflexives: “self” pronouns: The subject and object of the verb/preposition are the same. In English, reflexive pronouns cannot be the subject of the sentence.

Singular Plural 1st person myself (masculine, ourselves (masculine, feminine, neuter) feminine, neuter)

2nd person yourself (masculine, yourselves (masculine, feminine, neuter) feminine, neuter)

3rd person himself (masculine) themselves (masculine, herself (feminine) feminine, neuter) itself (neuter)

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 22 I cooked dinner for myself. I cooked dinner for him. Reflexive *I cooked dinner for himself. Pronouns in Ø The subject and object of the preposition are not the same. English He hurt himself while fishing.

Ø The person who did the hurting and the person who was hurt are the same.

He hurt him while fishing.

Ø The person who did the hurting is different from the person who was hurt.

They repaired the roof after the flood. Reflexives can be singular or *Themselves repaired the roof after the flood. plural in English and singular, dual, or plural in Dakota. Ø The reflexive cannot be the subject…

We looked at ourselves in the mirror.

*Ourselves looked at us in the mirror. 23

Ø …even when the subject and the object are the same people. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Reflexive Pronouns in Dakota Singular Dual Plural

1st person miḉi uŋkiḉi uŋkiḉi -pi Interesting Facts: 2nd person niḉi niḉi -pi • Like English, the subject and 3rd person iḉi iḉi -pi object are the same person. waśtedaka = to love “Love” is a bad verb • Unlike English, Waśtemiḉidaka = I love myself. for these examples. in Dakota the Technically OK, but no subject and the Waśteniḉidaka = You love yourself. one would say these object are Waśteniḉidakapi = You (plural) love yourselves. sentences. They’re not combined into culturally appropriate. one word. Waśteiḉidaka = He loves himself.

(table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 17) 24 Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery kíći: each other

Reciprocals are like reflexives in that the subject and object are the same people.

The verb may have the plural ending –pi, depending on the (subject/object) noun.

Ø waśtekićidapi = They love each other./They love one another.

ØRecall: kíći also means ‘for’ kíćikaġa = to make for Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 25 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

In Dakota, possessive pronouns express possession of nouns that can be transferred to another person and possession of nouns that cannot be transferred to another person.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 26 TWO TYPES OF POSSESSION

INALIENABLE ALIENABLE u The thing that is owned cannot u The thing that is owned can be be transferred to someone else. transferred to someone else. u mioie = my words u Speakers prefer the word for u mitaoŋspe = my axe “words that belong to me” u nitakićuwa = your comrade u uŋtaŋćaŋpi = our bodies (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 15)

“Mi” is used for continuous possession, but speakers are very unclear about the alienable/inalienable possession distinction.

The possessive pronoun is prefixed to the noun that is possessed….sometimes.

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 27 Interesting Fact: Possessive Pronouns in Dakota • Inalienable possession is expressed Attached Separate with either a prefix or suffix. Natural Artificial st • The 1st and 2nd person pronouns 1 person are prefixes. -singular: my mi, ma mita mitawa • miiśta = my eye -dual: yours uŋ, uŋki uŋkita uŋkitawa • nidekśi = your uncle and mine -plural: our uŋ-pi, uŋki-pi uŋkita-pi uŋkitawapi • The third person pronouns are suffixes. • suŋka = the younger brother of 2nd person a man -singular: your ni nita nitawa • suŋkaku = his younger brother -plural: your ni-pi nita-pi nitawapi Question: Can the free pronouns be used for both alienable and 3rd person inalienable possession? -singular: his, -ku, -tku ta tawa mitawa miiśta = my own eye? NO hers, its tawa suŋkaku = his own younger -plural: their -kupi, -tkupi ta-pi tawapi brother? NO – you don’t own people 28 (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery suffixes The possessive pronoun can also be attached to the verb u waśtekidaka = to love one’s own

u iyeya = to recognize u iyekiya = to find one’s own ki: one’s own

u paksa = to break off u kpaksa = to break off one’s own

u paġaŋ = to part with u kpaġaŋ= to part with one’s own

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 16) 29 MORE ON INALIENABLE POSSESSION

Again, the possessive pronoun is u Pinson (1990) cites previous work which says that attached to the verb. only ialienable possession uses the attached pronouns. But this previous work focuses on Lakota. Śunka ni-thawa wa-kute. Mi-siha śica-mna dog you-belong I-shoot my feet bad-smell ‘I shot your dog./I shot the dog that belongs to you.’ ‘My feet stink’ u nitawa ‘your’ in the Riggs (1893) grammar *ni-śunka your-dog Ni-mi-thawa you-me-belong Question: Is nitaśunka OK? NO – “śunka mitawa” ‘You belong to me.’ u According to the Riggs grammar, nita is the 2nd person singular possessive bound pronoun for inalienable Nape ma-yaza possession. hand my-hurts Question: When is ma used and when is mi used? ‘My hand hurts.’ Speakers aren’t sure 30 Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery (examples from Pinson 1990, p.77-78) Ni-nape o-bd-uspa Back to wa + ni = ći your-hand locative-I-hold ‘I’m holding your hand.’ • Recall, the 1st person pronoun changes when the verb begins with –yu or -ya.

Nape o-ći-uspa. hand locative-I+you hold

‘I’m holding your hand.’ (examples from Pinson 1990, p.81) u The second sentence is linguistically interesting because the possessive pronoun ‘your’ is acting like the object of the verb. The entire phrase “your hand” is actually the object. u Recall… u ći can be used when the subject is 1st person and the object is 2nd person u Waśtećidaka = I love you (singular) u Other languages that are reported to sometimes treat possessive nouns as objects of verbs include: Choctaw, German, Hebrew, and Kinyarwanda (spoken in Rwanda, Congo, and Uganda). Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 31 u An investigation of how Dakota categorizes more active (unergative) and less active (unaccusative) verbs and how that compares to other languages POSSIBLE TOPICS u A more comprehensive study of when TO EXPLORE pronouns are prefixed versus when they are infixed how this compares to other ordering patterns in Dakota

u A more detailed examination of how possession is expressed and environments when a possessor acts like the object of a verb

Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 32