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7. Dakota Pronouns.2 uŋkitawapi ma ni iś uŋ Pronouns in Dakota: miye A Brief Look wića wa ya iye ići nitawa REFERENCES u Boas, F. & Deloria, E.C. (1939). Dakota Grammar. OUR ROADMAP Washington, DC: National Academy of Science. v What information do pronouns in u Corbett, G. G. (2000). Number. Cambridge: Cambridge Dakota convey University Press. v The distribution of different kinds u Pinson, T. M. (1990). Possessor Ascension in Dakota Sioux. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of of pronouns Linguistics 34, 75-96. v Bound Pronouns u Riggs, S. R. (1893). Dakota Grammar: with Texts and v FreePronouns Ethnography. Department of the Interior. [Reprinted in 2004. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.] v Combined Pronouns u Shaw, P. A. (1980). Theoretical Issues in Generative v Possessive pronouns Phonology and Morphology: a case study from Dakota (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Toronto: Toronto. v Alienable vs inalienable [Published 1980. New York, NY: Garland.] possession u Dakota speakers at the Dakota Workshop at Carleton, held August 26-28, 2016. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 2 Dakota is a Siouan language – and so is the closely related Lakota, and this has led to some confusion. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 3 u Stephen Riggs (1812-1883) was a missionary who was part of the Some Dakota Mission, organized by the General Association of Context Congregational Churches of Massachusetts. u His grammar of Dakota was published in 1893 and is “the” grammar of the language. u Franz Boas and Ella Deloria’s grammar was published in 1939 by the National Academy of Sciences. u But, this grammar is primarily of Lakota u Some more contemporary linguists have spent time on reservations gathering data but haven’t given anything back to the community - and sometimes profit from the work that members of a tribe put into various projects. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 4 u The Linguistics and Computer Science Departments at Carleton have a nascent partnership with the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, of the Lake Traverse Reservation in South Dakota. u The goal is to contribute to the documentation and revitalization of Dakota and to produce a pedagogical grammar which could be used by teachers, learners, and linguistics. u Between the US and Canada, there are appr. 300,000 Dakota people. u But, for the Sisseton, the language is projected to be extinct on their reservation by 2028. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 5 1st: The person(s) speaking Person 2nd: The person(s) being addressed The Information 3rd: The person(s)/thing(s) being spoken about that Pronouns singular: One person/thing Convey in English Number plural: More than one person/thing masculine: Male gendered thing (usually an animal) or person Gender feminine: Female gendered thing or person neutral (neuter): Some animals, inanimate things, or a non- specific gender for a person subject: The doer of the action Role in object of the verb: The person/thing that the action is being done to Sentence object of the preposition: The noun that follows a preposition 6 owner/possessor: The person/thing that possesses Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery someone/something else 1st: The person(s) speaking The Information Person 2nd: The person(s) being addressed that Pronouns 3rd: The person(s)/thing(s) being spoken about Convey in Dakota singular: One person/thing Interestingly, gender is encoded in the dual: The person speaking and the person being addressed language in lots of Number Ø The dual has pronouns only in the 1st person in Dakota ways, but not in pronouns plural: More than one person/thing subject: The doer of the action object of the verb: The person/thing that the action is being done to Role in Sentence object of the preposition: The noun that follows a preposition Ø prepositions are sometimes built into verbs in Dakota – e.g. kíćikaġa = to make for owner/possessor: The person/thing that possesses someone or something else7 Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Bound Pronouns u Most pronouns in Dakota are attached to the verb. ti = to dwell wati = I dwell u wa is a prefix here. itoŋśni = to tell a lie iwatoŋśni = I tell a lie u wa is an infix here. (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13) We’ll return to when a pronoun is a prefix and when it is an infix. Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 8 • In Teton, the only third person bound pronoun is for plural objects that are human or animate. Bound Pronouns in Dakota (1) (Boas and Deloria 1939, p. 76) Subject Object Ø True for Dakota also. 1st person -singular wa we ma mi kaġa = to make -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- wakaġa = I make -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi yakaġa = you (singular) make uŋkaġapi = we make 2nd person Ø “pi” is a plural marker that is attached to the end of a word or phrase -singular ya ye ni ni -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi kaġa = he made makaġa = he made me nićaġapi = he made you (plural) or 3rd person they made you -singular -- -- -- -- waśtedaka = to love -plural -- -- wića waśtewićadaka = he loves them (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13-14) 9 (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Interesting Facts: Bound Pronouns in Dakota (2) • There are different pronouns when the prepositions ki ‘to’ and kíći ‘for’ are part of Subject Object the verb. 1st person ki/kíći kíćićaġa = to make for -singular wa we ma mi yećićaġa = you make for -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi Ø Question: Do the object pronouns also differ based on ki and kíći? Is: nd niyećićaġa = you make for me 2 person Ø The speakers aren’t sure about this one -singular ya ye ni ni • If a verb begins with yu or ya, the y is -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi dropped. The 1st person pronoun changes to md or bd and the 2nd person changes to d. 3rd person yawa = to read -singular -- -- -- -- bdawa = I read -plural -- -- wića dawa = you read 10 (Riggs 1893, p. 13) (table adapted from Riggs 1893, p. 16) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery Interesting Fact: A NOTE ABOUT THE DUAL NUMBER u In Dakota, the dual includes the speaker. u The dual pronouns are only in 1st person. English does not have the dual, but some other u The pronoun for the dual is the same as for the languages do. plural, but without the plural marker –pi. u Dual: uŋ/uŋki Plural: uŋ-pi/uŋki-pi u In Upper Sorbian, the dual does not have to include The dual in Upper Sorbian the speaker. • Upper Sorbian is spoken in eastern Germany u The dual means “two” and can be in the 2nd and by appr. 40,000 – 45,000 people. 3rd person. singular dual plural ja ‘I’ mój ‘we two’ my ‘we’ dźěłam ‘I work’ dźěłamoj ‘we two work’ dźěłamy ‘we work’ ty ‘you’ wój ‘you two’ wy ‘you all’ hród ‘palace, castle’ hrodaj ‘two hrody ‘palaces/castles’ palaces/castles’ Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 11 (examples from Corbett 2000, p. 20) § According to Riggs (1893), Dakota does Subject Object not have an object pronoun for the dual number. 1st person ki/kíći § According to Boas and Deloria (1939), -singular wa we ma mi the dual object pronoun is the same as -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- the dual subject pronoun in some -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi dialects. nd Ø Question: 2 person -singular ya ye ni ni § Is “uŋkaġa” OK for “he made you and me”? -plural ya-pi ye-pi ni-pi ni-pi § NO: “You and I made something.” kaġa = he made 3rd person makaġa = he made me -singular -- -- -- -- -plural -- -- wića nićaġapi = he made you (plural) or they made you Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 12 Ø wićaśta = man Sometimes pronouns are Ø wimaćaśta = I am a man. bound to other nouns… Ø ma is the first person singular object pronoun Ø A man is me. Ø Speakers say that ma is not an object pronoun. “X is happening to me./X is my state of being. Ø But, speakers said that no one would ever say wimaćaśta. Ø waoŋśida = merciful …and sometimes pronouns Ø waoŋsiwada = I am merciful. are bound to adjectives. Ø Here, we have the first person singular subject pronoun Ø Speakers agree: I am the doer of X (examples from Riggs 1893, p. 13-14) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 13 Speakers agree that there is a There are other times when the object pronoun distinction between “I am is used for a subject. doing” pronouns and “Something is happening to me” pronouns Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun So, there is an active/stative or unaccusative/unergative split. wanowan = I was swimming. miśtima = I was sleeping. u The vowel in the pronoun is dropped. u Swimming is a more active verb. The swimmer is physically doing something. u Sleeping is a more passive verb. “I” is more like the object of sleeping and not the agent of sleeping. (examples from Pinson 1990, page 79) Ling 222 ~ Fall 2016 ~ C. Ussery 14 Adjectival verbs in Dakota also use object pronouns as subjects. asní: to get well, be well, Subject Object recover from sickness 1st person ki/kíći -singular wa we ma mi amásni: I am well. -dual uŋ uŋki -- -- uŋkásni: You and I are well. -plural uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋ-pi uŋki-pi uŋkásnipi: We are well. 2nd person anísni: You (singular) are well.
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