TRIMESTERTRIMESTER 2 HISTORYHISTORY OVERVIEWOVERVIEW 2020-2021

1/4-1/4-1/1/77 ​ ​ ​ ​ The Constitution

Date ​ ​ ​1787

Themes ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations ​ ​ ​Trade and Commerce

Readings ​ ​1/4-5 ​Hist US V3 Ch 35, 36 ​ ​ ​ ​Shhh! p 7-26 1/6-7 ​Hist US V3 Ch 37, 38 ​ ​ ​ ​Shhh! p 28-44 ​ ​ ​1/11-12 ​Hist US V3 Ch 39, 40 ​ ​ ​ ​Who Was Geo Washington? pp 1-21 ​ ​ ​ ​Founding Mothers – Mrs. Jay ​ ​ ​ ​Story of George Washington Ch 1-2 ​ ​ ​1/13-14 ​Hist US V3 Ch 41, 42 ​ ​ ​ ​Who Was Geo Washington? pp 22-42 ​ ​ ​ ​Story of George Washington Ch 3-4

BriefBrief OverviewOverview ofof AmericaAmerica inin thethe AftermathAftermath ofof thethe RevolutionaryRevolutionary WarWar

The state of American affairs post-Revolutionary War: Congress and the states are in debt, and a postwar depression on the scale of the Great Depression of the 1930s exacerbates the troubles. Currency is losing value. Army vets are unpaid – given promissory notes that are worth little due to inflation. Vets sell their notes to put clothes on their backs and food in their mouths.

Economic slump of the 1780s had many sources: • Massive quantities of property were destroyed in the war. • Because men were fighting in the war, they were unable to perform their regular jobs. Economic output fell. • Enslaved men, women, and children emancipated themselves by leaving with the British or simply running into forests and swamps. This was a financial loss to their enslavers. • Britain refused to allow Americans to trade with British sugar islands in the Caribbean – one of the American’s greatest income sources. • To finance the Revolutionary War, begun as a fight against ‘taxation without representation,’ Americans faced higher taxes than they ever met as British colonists. • Taxes in most states were 3-4 times higher than colonial levels. • Taxes imposed in the 1780s were heavier than they appeared on paper – there was an acute shortage of hard money (gold/silver), but gold or silver was often the only acceptable form of payment. • Taxes were aggressively collected: o Belongings could be seized if taxes not paid o If collectors didn’t make their quotas, the collector’s property could be confiscated and sold, or the collectors could be thrown in jail. This forced collectors to overcome any qualms in taking delinquent taxpayers’ property.

Between the Peace of Paris in 1783 and the Constitution's ratification 5 years later, the single heaviest government expense at both the state and federal level was the war debt. heaviest government expense at both the state and federal level was the war debt. • A crucial mechanism of war finance had been the issuance of promissory notes- o IOUs to people who lent cash, to army contractors, to soldiers • Much was eventually converted to savings bonds. o Some held onto their promissory notes, but many sold theirs ▪ Joseph Plumb Martin had fought through the entire war. He and his comrades were bitter about the way they had been discharged in 1783. Many, including him, had to sell them to buy clothes and gain sufficient funds to make their way home.

Rebellions and Uprisings Shays’s Rebellion • Daniel Shays led an uprising of Massachusetts farmers in opposition to the high taxes and stringent economic conditions. In January of 1787, Shays led 1200 men in an attack on a federal arsenal in Springfield. Though repulsed by an armed force raised by wealthy Bostonians, the rebellion led the Massachusetts legislature to provide debt relief. o Shays’s Rebellion revealed the hopeless weakness of the country’s military power. It also seemed to demonstrate the dangers of unmediated democracy, free assembly, and unbridled speech.

Adonijah Mathews • In 1787, Mathews led an uprising of farmers who vowed: “not to pay the certificate tax” (a tax designed to reduce the war debt that Virginia had run up during the Revolutionary War). Mathews was arrested, but rebels overpowered the sheriff and set Mathews free. Mathews headed to Richmond, the state capital, and threatened an insurrection to force legislators to repeal the certificate tax. The legislators repealed the tax.

Americans deeply divided- Historian Woody Holton sees 2 Factions with Conflicting Views: • Shays, Mathews, farmers- o Demanded tax relief and willing to use rebellion to get it • James Madison – o Madison and other Constitutional Framers rebelled against state governments by writing the Constitution o What alarmed Madison was the specific legislation that state assemblies adopted: ▪ Representatives had shown excessive indulgence to debtors and taxpayers. In most states, thousands of citizens were behind in paying their taxes ▪ Tax relief crippled governmental operations, prevented the servicing of the enormous debt amassed during the war.

Social Changes: A rise in middle-class legislators is seen. With the exodus of Loyalist-elites after the war, many of whom filled political positions, men from the middle class (mechanics, etc.) stepped into the power vacuum. • In New Hampshire, New York, and New Jersey, middle-class legislators increased from 1/6th of the legislature to 3/5ths after the Revolutionary War. “Liberty” is redefined- For the Revolutionary generation: ​ • Liberty = communities should have the right to govern themselves For the post-Revolutionary generation: • Liberty = access for everyone to the political process

A new “continental” attitude emerging: The generation born in the 1750s or early 1760s didn’t participate in the French & Indian War and remembered little such as the Stamp Act crisis or the Boston Tea Party. The experiences that shaped them was not participation in the Committees of Correspondence, but rather the war itself. They soldiered in the Revolutionary War and fought for the NATION. • They marched under orders of Congress • Under the direction of one man – Commanding General Washington • TheyThey learnedlearned toto thinkthink “continentally”“continentally”

Examples of such men: • Alexander Hamilton – soldiered in the war, rising to lieutenant colonel; trusted aide-de- camp to General Washington • John Marshall – started in the militia as a teenager o “I had grown up at a time…when the maxim ‘united we stand, divided we fall’ was the maxim of every orthodox American; and I had imbibed these sentiments so thoroughly that they constituted a part of my being. I carried them with me into the army where I found myself associated with brave men from different states who were risking life and everything valuable in a common cause believed by all to be most precious; and where II waswas confirmedconfirmed inin thethe habithabit ofof consideringconsidering AmericaAmerica asas mymy countrycountry andand CongressCongress asas mymy government.”government.” ​

The MakingMaking ofof thethe ConstitutionConstitution “It appears to me, then, little short of a miracle, that the Delegates from so many different States (which States you know are also different from each other), in their manners, circumstances, and prejudices, should unite in forming a system of national Government, so little liable to well founded objections.” George Washington to Lafayette, February 7, 1788

“I have always regarded that Constitution as the most remarkable work known to me in modern times to have been produced by the human intellect, at a single stroke (so to speak), in its application to political affairs.” William Gladstone at a centennial celebration of the Constitution

Political Tumult of the mid--1780s1780s “If the present paroxysm of our affairs be totally neglected, our case may become desperate.” ~ James Madison to James Monroe • Difficulties with foreign nations o Britain refused to leave the forts on the Great Lakes o Spain was claiming land on the American side of the Mississippi River ▪ 1784 – closed the Mississippi River from Natchez south • Problems with frontier warfare between the Indians and the white settlers o England and Spain supplying Indians with arms and encouraging raids o US settlers taking the land of the Indians in defiance of treaties • Mediterranean o Barbary pirates preying on American ships • Trade o American trade shut out of British West Indies • States o Refusing to abide by the stipulation of the Treaty of Paris for reimbursing Loyalists for loss of property ▪ Confederation government unable to enforce the treaty o Conflict over state borders o States reluctant to give up their sovereignty, making it difficult to resolve issues • Debt o Unable to service the huge war debt

Confederation Congress • Itinerant, plagued with absenteeism o Difficult to obtain a quorum for conducting business ▪ (When the Treaty of Paris received, it took 7 weeks to muster a quorum to approve it) ▪ By 1786, Congress was able to conduct business only 15% of the time • Lack of a lot of talented men – many talented members of Congress chose to serve in their state legislatures • Delegates frustrated – those of larger states frustrated by the smaller states’ ability to hinder congressional action (each state had one vote, regardless of population) • TheThe CongressCongress hadhad nono powerpower toto collectcollect taxes,taxes, defenddefend thethe country,country, paypay thethe publicpublic debtdebt oror encourageencourage tradetrade andand commercecommerce –– anan ineineffffectualectual nationnationalal governmentgovernment

By 1786 – belief was spreading among members of Congress that the republican experiment was foundering. There were many variables, but most attention focused on the inadequacies of the Articles of Confederation. The nation’s leading citizens believed the American economy would never attract capital (that would spur growth) unless the federal government were overhauled. They sought to reopen the credit valve.

Rise of Federalism Federalists – supporters of a strong national government (Opponents referred to as “Anti-Federalists”) • Federalist leaders: o James Madison o Alexander Hamilton o George Washington o John Jay • The Federalist leaders’ experience in the Continental Army and Congress strengthened their national vision; they believed the nation’s survival was at stake.

Lead up toto thethe Grand ConventionConvention March 1785 – Mount Vernon • Conference between commissioners from Virginia and Maryland at Mount Vernon. • Culminated in a compact that opened up the Potomac River to the commerce of all states. • James Madison, who guided the Mount Vernon agreement through the Virginia legislature, may have authored the resolution that urged all the states to send delegates to an interstate commercial convention in Annapolis in September.

September 1785 – Annapolis • Only 5 states sent delegates. Quorum not met. • Delegates adopted an “Address” proposing another try at a continental convention for the purpose of “digesting a plan” to “render the constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union,” taking place in May 1787. • The Annapolis delegates clearly saw the Philadelphia Convention not limited to just amending the Articles of Confederation

In months leading up to the convention, nationalist reformers worked proactively to help the Philadelphia convention get off the ground: • Secured Congressional approval for the meeting o However, Congress decreed the convention limited to the revising of the Articles of Confederation • Madison launched a campaign to persuade George Washington to be part of the Virginia delegation. (Washington held the confidence of the people – his support crucial for success)

Shays’ Rebellion 1786-1787 • In central and western Massachusetts, the postwar economic depression shrank wages while taxes rose. Many farmers lacked the money to pay their mortgages and taxes. By late summer of 1786, the jails were filled with debtors; foreclosures skyrocketed. o Organized groups of veterans protested – they forced court closures across the region o Daniel Shays, a farmer who fought in the Revolutionary War, led an armed group to the arsenal in Springfield, Massachusetts. The objective was to capture arms to build an army. o A state-raised army defeated the rebels and tracked those who dispersed. • The rebellion symbolized the weakness of the national government: under the Articles of Confederation, Congress couldn’t raise a national army without the unanimous consent of all the states, so it was unable to assist Massachusetts. • George Washington had feared that the insurrection would spread to neighboring states. He realized the national government was powerless to help Massachusetts. It was imperative to change the national constitution to give “energy and respectability to the government.” The Philadelphia Convention was already scheduled to meet, but Shays’ Rebellion changed the delegates' atmosphere.

Convention “It is really an assembly of demigods” wrote Thomas Jefferson, upon reading the list of delegates

Attendees 55 delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia (Rhode Island did not send any delegates) • Most delegates were well educated - America’s social, economic, and political elite • 39 had served in Congress • 8 had worked at state conventions • 7 had been governors • 34 were lawyers • 1/3 were Continental Army veterans • 9 had sat in the July 1776 Congress, and 3 had voted against independence Along with other leaders of the time, these delegates are called the Founders, or Founding Fathers, of the United States.

Some Revolutionary leaders were not present: • John Adams & Thomas Jefferson were serving as ministers abroad • Samuel Adams was ill • Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee refused to come o Patrick Henry “smelled a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward monarchy.”

An overwhelming majority of those attending embraced 2 core ideas: 1. All agreed that the confederation is defective 2. Powers of the national government must be increased

But – traditional sectional divisions existed in Philadelphia. • Southerners wouldn’t tolerate any threats to their slave property • Northerners wouldn’t tolerate reforms that might endanger their commercial enterprises • Success was uncertain, but these men wanted desperately to succeed – they recognized that the existing national government wasn’t working.

In the opening hours of the convention, 2 crucial decisions made – 1. George Washington elected president of the convention 2. Agreed to meet in secret a. To ensure free and candid discussions a. To ensure free and candid discussions b. Secrecy also necessary if contrary to Congress’s mandate, they were to consider drafting a new constitution.

Virginia Plan – Virginia delegation came prepared • Presented the convention with the first working proposal (mostly result of James Madison’s endeavors), which came to be called the Virginia Plan o Was a systematic change in government – not just revision of the Articles o Created a powerful national government ▪ Bicameral Congress apportioned by population • Lower house elected by people • Upper house elected by the lower house ▪ Executive – President named by Congress ▪ National judiciary o Congress and a president elected for life. A national government so powerful that states were like administrative agencies

Virginia Plan too extreme for most delegates. Smaller states objected to the Virginia Plan’s call for proportional representation based on population rather than equal representation by the states.

New Jersey Plan – counterproposal to Virginia Plan • Unicameral Congress; each state would have one vote in the legislature • Retention of Articles of Confederation, of the sovereignty of the states o But -Congress granted powers to tax and regulate foreign and interstate commerce (although not the broad powers proposed by Virginia Plan)

A heated debate over the Virginia Plan and the Jersey Plan – June 19th -Virginia Plan was chosen as the basis for discussion (by a vote of 7 states to 3 states) • Now the debates focused on how powerful the new government would be • Major conflicts: o How to reconcile conflicting interests of large and small states? o Balance of power between national and state governments? o How to create an executive strong enough to govern yet not so strong as to endanger republican liberty? o Slavery and slave trade issues, of which northerners and southerners disagreed?

Several obstacles confronted the drafters, but really only 22 mattersmatters thatthat couldcould bebe potentialpotential deal--breakersbreakers: • Contention between large and small states over representation • Clashes over slavery

The Great Compromise After 6 weeks of rancorous debate - collapse looked imminent, but the Great Compromise salvaged the convention. (Also called the “Connecticut Compromise” as it was proposed by Roger Sherman of Connecticut, although it was not a new idea. He had a similar idea back in 1774). • House of Representatives – representation apportioned based on populationpopulation (slaves counted as 3/5 of a person – the Three-Fifths Compromise) o Northern states didn’t want slaves counted but agreed to the compromise o Southern states wanted slaves to count as a 5/5 of a person but agreed to the compromise • Senate – equalequal representation: 2 per state, chosen in the state legislatures • In theory – House would act on popular will, Senate for minority states and regions

After the passage of the Great Compromise, an even bigger division emerged – between the North and the South. Just as it was clear that the small states would not join without protection from the large states, it was now clear that the southern states would not join if slavery were threatened.

Bargaining between the northern and southern delegates brought about: Regarding slavery- • Importation of slaves was permitted for at least 20 years. After 1808 Congress could abolish slave importation. • Southern slave owners allowed to go into northern states to search for runaway slaves • Slavery not permitted in Northwest Territory (today’s states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota) • Central government could protect states from “domestic Violence” by “suppressing Insurrections,” which included slave revolts Export duties- • Export duties would be forbidden by the Constitution (southerners were great exporters)

Now…Which powers given to the national government and which are left for the states?

The Constitution -- National government strengthened • CongressCongress – LegislativeLegislative BranchBranch o Could now levy/collect taxes, regulate commerce (between states and foreign nations), administer patents and copyrights, make laws for naturalization, make laws necessary for the execution of the Constitution o Bicameral Congress ▪ House of Representatives – Lower House (favors large states) • Number of representatives apportioned based on population and serve a 2-year term • Representatives chosen by popular election • Slaves count as 3/5ths of a person ▪ Senate – Upper House (favors small states) • Each state has 2 senators serving a 6-year term • State legislatures elect their senators • PresidentPresident – ExecutiveExecutive BranchBranch o Command over armed forces, direct diplomatic relations, power over appointments to executive and judicial branches o 4-year term of office; perpetually re-eligible for reelection o Electoral College – president elected by “electors” equal in number to representatives and senators from each state. State legislatures decide how the electors are chosen. Electors cast 2 votes for president – at least one of the choices must be from outside their home state. This is to prevent voting only for the “favorite son” of their state. (Small changes made to this in later years). o Serves as a check and balance to the power of the legislative branch o Given the power to veto laws (although Congress can override a veto with a 2/3 vote in each house) • SupremeSupreme CourtCourt – JudicialJudicial BranchBranch o Serves as a check on the other branches of government o Courts interpret state and national laws

September 17, 1787 – Constitution signed Not everyone was pleased with it- • Madison was disappointed (didn’t give the national government as much power as he desired) desired) • 3 delegates refused to sign – Elbridge Gerry, George Mason, and Edmund Randolph (felt it gave the national government too much power; wanted a bill of rights) o Elbridge Gerry declined to sign – wrote his wife, “I am exceedingly distressed at the proceedings of the Convention…being almost sure, they will…lay the foundation of a Civil War.” o Men like Gerry and Mason fought the Constitution because they feared it threatened states’ rights and civil liberties. Most were easily reconciled once the Bill of Rights was adopted.

In a closing speech to the delegates at the convention, Benjamin Franklin voiced his belief that while the Constitution is not perfect, it was certainly very good, and it was unlikely that a better one could be written.

The Constitution was first sent to Congress. (The Constitution or the Continental Congress didn’t stipulate that congressional approval was necessary. But political realities made Congressional approval necessary, especially since the convention went beyond what Congress had sanctioned). • The Constitution “ignited a firestorm” in Congress. Ultimately, the opposition in Congress conceded that it was prudent to send on to the states. On September 29, Congress referred the Constitution to the states, without formal approval or disapproval.

The Constitution was then submitted to specially elected state conventions for ratification, rather than the state legislatures. Approval of 9 states (out of the 13) was required for the new government to take effect.

Ratification –– thethe Federalist/AntifederalistFederalist/Antifederalist DebateDebate Ratification was difficult – the debate shifted to the states where sentiments were more sharply divided. Opposition to the Constitution was widespread.

Federalists Supporters of the proposed constitution called themselves “Federalists.” They were aware that the country’s problems of the 1780s stemmed from a weak central government. They believed the stronger central government of the Constitution was required to safeguard the liberty and independence that the American Revolution created.

Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay were talented Federalist leaders. The Federalists were organized, well-funded, and made use of print media.

Antifederalistss Antifederalists opposed the ratification of the Constitution. Many farmers and ordinary people who lived in rural America joined political elites like Patrick Henry and George Mason. They were especially strong in the newer settled western regions of the country.

For many, the federal government established by the Philadelphia Convention seemed to violate the principles of 1776 • Antifederalists – o Feared an expanding republican empire (thought that republican liberty could only be preserved in small, homogenous societies) o Skeptical that separation of the executive, legislative and judicial branches would be sufficient to prevent abuse of power. o Feared the greatest threat to the United States was the potential for corruption, leading to the seizure of power and tyrannical power over the people. (They had just overthrown what they saw as British tyranny). o Objected to lack of protection for individual liberties in the Constitution. o Objected to lack of protection for individual liberties in the Constitution. • Federalists quickly countered arguments- o The Federalist essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay ▪ Argued that power was not the enemy but rather the guarantor of liberty ▪ The authors had debated in favor of the Constitution all summer – knew how to counter every point. ▪ Used populist slang and principles to defend the Constitution o Were better organized and effectively used the newspapers to forward their cause. • Antifederalists provided little match for the arguments of the Federalists

Ratification by the States Federalists focused on securing majorities in 9 states to enact the Constitution. They were confident of ratification in Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Georgia. They were uncertain in New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia – hoped that ratification elsewhere would help sway in favor of ratification.

Small states in favor (to protect themselves from large states) • Delaware and New Jersey – ratified 1st (Dec 1787) • Connecticut (Jan 1788) • Maryland (Apr 1788)

3 Southernmost states saw the need for strong national government (protection from Indians and Spanish) • Georgia (Jan 1788) • South Carolina (May 1788) • North Carolina (waited)

“Big Three” • Pennsylvania – hard-fought but ratified quickly (Dec 1787) • Massachusetts – suspicious of government, and initially, John Hancock and Samuel Adams withheld their endorsement. If Massachusetts failed to ratify, then it was probable that other crucial states would not ratify either. Eventually, Governor Hancock announced his support, which tipped the balance toward ratification. (Feb 1788) • Virginia – now the key 9th state! Without Virginia, New York wouldn’t ratify. The Union couldn’t endure without them. Madison gathered support in Virginia with the promise of a federal Bill of Rights. Finally, 10th state to ratify - by a close vote (June 25, 1788)

Rest of the states- • New Hampshire – was the 9th state to ratify (4 days before Virginia, but Virginia didn’t know yet). (June 21, 1788) • New York – quickly followed Virginia (July 1788) • North Carolina – (Nov 1789) after the Constitution went into effect on Mar 4, 1789 • Rhode Island – (May 1790) a year after Constitution in effect

Despite the difficulties and the close votes in some states, acceptance of the Constitution was almost inevitable. Since the Confederation Congress had virtually ceased to exist, the alternative was governmental chaos.

Benjamin Rush on the adoption of the Constitution - “The…adoption of the Constitution in less than 10 months, under the influence of local “The…adoption of the Constitution in less than 10 months, under the influence of local prejudices, opposite interests, popular arts, and even the threats of bold and desperate men, is a solitary event in the history of mankind. Tis done. We have become a nation.”

Bill of Rights – list of limits on government power States offered a variety – Madison culled a set for Congress to consider. Congress reached an agreement for 12 amendments, which were sent to the states for ratification • By Dec 1791, 10 had been ratified and became the National Bill of Rights o Guaranteed- ▪ Freedom of speech, religion, press, assemble peaceably, petition government for a redress of grievances ▪ Right to keep and bear arms ▪ Housing of Soldiers: no quartering of troops without consent of owner (derived from the colonists’ experience under British rule) ▪ Protection from “unreasonable searches and seizures” ▪ Protection of Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property: formal accusation by a grand jury, protection against double jeopardy and self-incrimination, private property not taken for public use without just compensation ▪ Rights of Accused Persons in Criminal Cases: right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury and due process of law including witnesses against and in his favor ▪ Rights in Civil Cases: Right of trial by jury ▪ Excessive Bail, Fines, and Punishment Forbidden ▪ Other Rights Kept by the People: rights omitted from the Constitution does not imply they are denied ▪ Undelegated Powers Kept by the State and People: States are given all powers not specifically granted to the federal government or the people • Bill of Rights, an outstanding achievement – has protected citizens’ democratic rights ever since

FoundingFounding FathersFathers 1/20-1/211/20-1/21 ​ ​ ​ ​ George Washington

Date ​ ​1789-1799

Themes ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations ​ ​Trade and Commerce

Readings ​Hist US V4 Preface, Ch 1, 2 ​ ​Who Was George Washington? pp 43-73 ​ ​Founding Mothers – Martha Washington ​ ​Story of George Washington – Ch 5-6

“We are in a wilderness without a single footstep to guide us.” – James Madison, June 1789, regarding the new government

Where to Begin?? Enormous challenges confronted the men who were expected to assemble in March 1789: • Opponents to the Constitution demanded amendments or a new constitutional convention • The government lacked sources of revenue • European lenders refused American loans • Several states on brink of collapse • By the thousands, settlers were crossing the Appalachians, provoking reprisals from powerful Indian tribes protecting their families and homelands • Fears abound that “the great Increase of New States will make so many Republics too Unwieldy to manage” • Southerners suspicious of northerners, westerners of easterners • Advocates of emancipation press for the regulation of the slave trade or even abolition • Defenders of the “peculiar institution” willing to secede if Congress dares to tamper with it Every member of congress knew the nation’s survival hung in the balance.

April 30,, 17891789 - George Washington took the oath of office as first President of the United States (John Adams elected Vice President) • Unanimously elected by the Electoral College • Washington had mixed feelings: o “I bid adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic felicity and with mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express, set out for New York…with the best disposition to render service to my country in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its expectations.”

Congress had to decide on a title for the President- • “His Most Benign Highness” • “His Highness, the President of the United States and Protector of the Rights of the Same” o Settled on “Mr. President”

Shaping of the Presidency Washington knew that everything he did would establish a tone for the future. Mindful of this, he was extremely careful and intentional in his actions. He indelibly shaped the institution of the presidency. • “As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents may be fixed on true principles,” Washington remarked to Madison. • Washington succeeded in making the presidency available to the republican citizenry while simultaneously conveying a sense of prowess and legitimacy of the new government. (He also exuded this same aura of power before the Congress).

National government came together slowly in 1789 Creation of the Cabinet James Madison coined the term “cabinet” for the meeting of executive department heads. The cabinet was not mandated by the Constitution or established law, but a constitutional reference utilized to serve as justification for the creation of the cabinet reads: “may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices.” • Secretary of State – Thomas Jefferson • Secretary of Treasury – Alexander Hamilton • Secretary of War – Henry Knox • Attorney General – Edmund Randolph The above 4 officials, along with the President, formed the backbone of the United States Cabinet. • Washington surrounded himself with talented and trusted colleagues. To establish both credibility and balance, Washington chose cabinet members from different regions of the country. But the cabinet soon polarized between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. The cabinet was often filled with tension surrounding the question of a national bank, especially between Jefferson and Hamilton. Jefferson believed the acrimony had little impact on governance, explaining that “The pain was for Hamilton and myself, but the public experienced no inconvenience.” o Historian Fergus Bordewich faults John Adams for failing to “shape the vice o Historian Fergus Bordewich faults John Adams for failing to “shape the vice presidency into an assertive force in the deliberations of the Senate, condemning that office to the diminished status that it retains today.” • Though both Washington and Vice President John Adams were federalists, they rarely interacted in their positions as President and Vice President. Washington seldom consulted Adams on any issues, causing Adams to write that the office of vice president was the “most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.”

The President’s cabinet today consists of the Vice President and the heads of the 15 executive departments.

The First Congress’sCongress’s PrinciplePrinciple ObjectiveObjective Solve National Debt Problem • National/Federal debt (issuance of bonds/promissory notes) = $54 million • State debt (combined state total) = $25 million • Total war debt = $79 million (interest included) o Over $2 billion today o “We are in the dark,” confessed a Pennsylvania congressman. “I do believe we are now walking on the brink of a precipice that will be dangerous for us to step too fast upon.”

The difficulties faced by the new republic regarding its precarious financial condition- • Only 3 banks existed at this time: in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston • At least 50 disparate kinds of money were in use, many counterfeit: Spanish doubloons and pistoles, Dutch guilders, British pounds, French guineas, and various state-issued currencies. • So many coins had been clipped or trimmed that even the simplest transactions required a pair of scales. • In parts of the South, receipts for tobacco often substituted for money.

On the same day that Congress sent 12 amendments to the Constitution to the states to ratify (10 of which were ratified and became the Bill of Rights), Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was instructed to prepare a plan for handling the nation’s debt.

Public confidence in the new government to cope with all the “confusions, animosity and discord that now seems to dominate in the several States” was shaky at best. “Is there not danger from the imbecility of the Govt.?” wrote Vice President John Adams, who expected fully half the members of Congress to give up and resign within two years. “What has it to attract the hopes or excite the fears of the People? Has it power? Has it Force to protect itself or its Offices? Has it Rewards or Punishments in its power enough to allure or Alarm?”

Alexander Hamilton • Federalist (strong national government) • Foresaw America’s future strength; wanted to promote growth with domestic manufacturing and overseas trade • Admired entrepreneurs but politically conservative (admired stability of British government)

Jan 1790 – 1stst PhasePhase ofof Hamilton’sHamilton’s PlanPlan 1st “Report on the Public Credit” • Urged the national debt to be refinanced (by allowing the government’s creditors to exchange their depreciated securities at face value for new, interest-bearing bonds) • National government to assume the state’s wartime debts (current creditors exchange state securities for federal ones) • Discharge foreign debt Finances would be stabilized and good credit established. Congress endorsed the bill after Finances would be stabilized and good credit established. Congress endorsed the bill after much debate (over the federal government’s assumption of the states’ debts, led by Madison). To gain the support of Jefferson and anti-federalists, a deal was struck whereby the nation’s capital (federal district) would reside in the southern state of Virginia in return for support of Hamilton’s fiscal plan.

Dec 1790 – 2ndnd PhasePhase ofof Hamilton’sHamilton’s PlanPlan • National bank o For handling the government’s financial affairs and pooling investment capital o Opposition came from the South (including Jefferson and Madison) o Feared would serve northern business/manufacturing better than southern agriculture • Excise tax on distilled spirits Congress ultimately passed, and Washington signed it into law (against the advice of Jefferson and Madison). Jefferson didn’t believe the Constitution gave the government power to charter a bank.

Rift widening – thethe beginningbeginning ofof politicalpolitical partiesparties Federalists – strong national government; strong in the northeast • Hamilton, Washington

Jeffersonian Republicans – opposed to the expanding federal power of Federalism under Hamilton; favored states’ rights, agrarian economy, republicanism; strong in south and western frontier territory • Jefferson, Madison (Madison slowly changing from a Federalist to Republican)

-We see the sectional divisions in the country widening further, a harbinger of future conflicts leading up to the Civil War.

The Impressive Output of the First Congress In its three sessions (the first 2 in New York, the 3rd in Philadelphia), it- • Created the departments of State, War, and Treasury, the Supreme Court, the federal court system, and the 1st criminal code. • Debated and passed the Bill of Rights • Enacted an agenda of duties and tariffs to create a revenue stream for the federal government • Adopt a financial plan that rooted the nation’s economic system in capitalist principles • 1st national bank is launched, 1st census begun, patent and copyright systems established. • Treaty making initiated through negotiations with the Indian tribes of the trans-Appalachian west • North Carolina and Vermont brought into the Union, setting the precedent that new states would be admitted on an equal basis with the old. “In no nation, by no legislature, was ever so much done in so short a period for the establishment of Government, Order, public Credit, and general tranquillity,” wrote john Trumbull, a Hartford lawyer.

17921792 FallFall ElectionsElections Both Federalists and Republicans agreed that Washington needed to serve a 2nd term. Growing strife in politics caused both the administration and the public to fear Washington’s retirement. • But Washington was seriously considering retirement – even had Madison draft a farewell address in early 1792

However, Washington was troubled - • He suspected a confrontation between the national government and the western farmers over the excise tax • Jefferson and Hamilton were spouting vitriolic rhetoric, stirring the partisan waters Washington came to believe what everyone was telling him – only his presence during the next 4 years could keep the Union intact

Washington and Adams elected to a 2ndnd termterm

New RepublicRepublic inin aa ThreateningThreatening WorldWorld Shortly after inauguration, word arrived that Louis XVI had been guillotined and that Great Britain went to war with France. • French Revolution • Began in 1789 in effort to reform a weak monarchy o Pent up demands for social justice took over – King Louis XVI beheaded in 1793 • By the end of 1793- o Europe in a deadly struggle between revolutionary France and a counterrevolutionary coalition led by England and Prussia

Initially – most Americans saw the French Revolution in a positive light. (John Adams, one of the few naysayers – feared it would be “nothing but calamities.”) By the spring of 1793, with the slaying of France's king and queen, massacres, and forced de-Christianization throughout France, Americans became uneasy for the first time.

Deep fissures in American’s attitude towards the French Revolution and how to respond: • Federalists castigated the anarchy of the revolution, but many still supported the attempt for liberty. o Jefferson regretted shedding innocent blood but thought it necessary if true liberty was achieved. • Washington saw safeguarding national security as the principal objective o When France requested advance payments on debt, Washington consented. o After heated discussion – Washington declared American neutrality ▪ France outraged. The rash behavior of France’s minister to America, Edmond Charles Genet, threatened American neutrality. • Cabinet asked for his recall, but the Jacobins had overthrown Genet’s supporters in France (the Girondists). The Jacobins recalled him to France to stand trial (probably resulting in the guillotine). Washington offered him refuge in the US. • He married the daughter of the governor of New York and became a gentleman farmer.

Aug 1793 – The word from England • Orders-in-Council o Banned neutral shipments of wheat, corn, flour to France o Banned commerce b/w neutral nations and French West Indies • By 1794 – 400 American vessels seized and American trade in West Indies ceased

Washington sent John Jay to England to negotiate a settlement of differences, to prevent a war between England and America. • After much negotiation, give-and-take, Jay presented a draft treaty in September 1794 to the British minister o John Quincy Adams reviewed the draft – agreed that while it didn’t give the US all that was hoped for, it was preferable to war.

Treaty of Amity, Commerce,, andand NavigationNavigation –– oror simply,simply, ‘Mr.‘Mr. Jay’sJay’s Treaty’Treaty’ • The only substantive concession was that Great Britain would pay for spoliations resulting from actions taken under orders-in-council from actions taken under orders-in-council o This would silence most who cried for war • No budging on impressment or neutral rights o Treaty flawed but prevented war with Great Britain. ▪ Noteworthy that Great Britain signed any treaty with America during this period ▪ A late 19th-century American historian stated that this event was of ‘epochal significance’ because it represented the existence of an American nationality of far greater importance than the technical recognition of independence forced from King George in 1783.

Terms of the treaty made public- • Public debate began in earnest o Washington and Jay most reviled ▪ “Jay reacted to all this…with philosophic calm. He reportedly joked that he could, if he wanted, make his way from one end of the country to the other by the light of burning effigies of himself.” o Many Republicans believed the Federalists were literal descendants of Tories • But Hamilton’s essays supporting the treaty helped sway opinion

While Jay was in England working on the treaty, the upset over the excise tax on whiskey came to a head…

The Whiskey Rebellion – 1794 • Excise tax on whiskey immediately resulted in turmoil upon passage o There was anger and resistance in western Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and on the frontier of every state south of the Potomac river • Washington focused on the dissenters in Pennsylvania (because of the violence against the tax collectors) o A federal force of 13,000 militia marched into western Pennsylvania, with Hamilton at the head. (Washington was with Hamilton, but people persuaded him, for the sake of safety, to turn back) o Rebels dispersed. Rounded up 150 rebels; all but 20 released; only 2 convicted of the 20 prosecuted; Washington pardoned those 2. • Republicans were furious. • Hamilton resigned.

Pinkney’s Treaty – Treaty of San Lorenzo • Spain granted free navigation of the Mississippi River • Right of deposit in New Orleans for 3 years • 31st parallel recognized as the southern boundary of the US This treaty helped placate the West – ending the furor over the Jay Treaty

Political harmony had disappeared. Jefferson resigned as secretary of state and joined Madison (and others) in open opposition to Washington’s policies.

September 1796 – Washington’s Farewell Address Washington announced his intention to retire (he was very ready!): • Farewell Address not given as a speech but published in 2 Philadelphia newspapers o Admonished the evils of political parties; deplored the deepening political divisions o Regarding foreign policy – America should steer clear of entangling foreign o Regarding foreign policy – America should steer clear of entangling foreign alliances o Heartfelt and reflected wisdom acquired from years of public service Every year since 1896, a senator has read Washington’s Farewell Address aloud in the legislative session

Legacy of George Washington This first presidency is one of the greatest in American history- • Washington’s presence was crucial to the solidification of the new national government • Washington’s support of Hamilton’s financial program helped maintain prosperity and provided a basis for a modern economy and modern state • Washington’s greatest success was in foreign affairs- o Preservation of peace (kept out of foreign entanglements) o Treaties that ensured opportunities in lands westward to the Mississippi

Precedents that Washington set • Taking the oath of office: April 30, 1789, Washington stepped out onto the balcony of Federal Hall in Lower Manhattan to take the oath as the United States' first president. When Samuel Otis, Secretary of the Senate, held out a Bible before Washington, he placed his right hand upon it. • Robert Livingston, the Chancellor of New York, asked Washington if he would solemnly swear to execute the office of President of the United States, and to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. Washington answered that he would, reciting the oath back to the chancellor. • Washington, aware he was given the power to shape the presidency: “I walk on untrodden ground,” was a comment frequently made by Washington in the days leading up to his inauguration. Washington believed that the precedents he set must make the presidency powerful enough to function effectively in the national government yet not show any tendency toward monarchy or dictatorship. • Washington made the office of the presidency powerful by appointing a cabinet and proposing major legislation to Congress. He presented the annual State of the Union report, required by the Constitution, as a speech given directly to the Congress. • Washington set precedents for the social life of the president. Troubled by how the presidents of the Confederation Congress had been overwhelmed by visitors, he spent his days doing the business of government. He met with the public in the late afternoon. Dinner parties with guests took place in the evenings. • Because Washington loved to spend time at Mount Vernon, he made it acceptable for presidents to retreat from the pressures of the job to their own homes while in office. • He retired from office after serving 2 terms, setting the precedent that presidents should only serve for 2 terms

1/25-1/281/25-1/28 ​ ​ ​ ​ John Adams ​ ​ ​ ​ ​BeginningBeginning ofof PoliticalPolitical PartiesParties

Date ​ ​1796-1800

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires

Readings ​1/25-26 ​ ​Hist US V4 Ch 3, 4 Readings ​1/25-26 ​ ​Hist US V4 Ch 3, 4 ​ ​ ​ ​Who Was George Washington? pp 74-101 ​ ​ ​1/27-28 ​ ​Hist US V4 Ch 6, 7 ​ ​ ​ ​Story of Alexander Hamilton Ch 1-2 ​ ​ ​ ​ Beginning of political parties Federalists – strong national government; strong in the northeast • Followers of Hamilton

Jeffersonian Republicans – feared strong government; favored states’ rights, agrarian economy, republicanism; strong in south and western frontier territory • Followers of Jefferson • Also called Democratic-RepublicansDemocratic-Republicans or just Republicans (forerunner to the modern- day Democratic party) • Madison, a Republican, was the first to use the word “party” – writing that the Republican party was formed to save the republican government and to preserve the dream of the American Revolution

Washington had steered the nation through the first 2 terms of the presidency – now was the first contested presidential race.

Election of 1796 The presidential election had narrowed down to John Adams and Thomas Jefferson • They had worked together in the past o Declaration of Independence o In Europe together, while Adams was the US minister to England and Jefferson minister to France o In the Washington administration • But they differed greatly in views o Adams, a committed Federalist o Jefferson leader of the oppositional Democratic-Republican party

Adams received 71 electoral votes = President Jefferson received 68 electoral votes = Vice President • Unlike today, it took 3 weeks for the results of the balloting to be known. That entire time Adams believed he had lost the election. • The narrow margin was a foreshadowing of future problems • On inauguration day, Adams recalled that Washington said, “Ay! I am fairly out, and you are fairly in! See which of us will be the happiest!”

Adams took office during a crisis with France • French naval vessels interfering with American merchant ships in the Caribbean, so Adams sent 3 commissioners to Paris • Agents of the French foreign minister told the American commission that a loan to the French government and a bribe to them was the only way to achieve success o John Marshall and Charles Pinckney immediately sailed home. Elbridge Gerry stayed, fearing a decision of war • Adams reported the affair to Congress. (Became dubbed the XYZ affair because the French agents’ names were blacked out in the documents presented to Congress, replaced with the letters X, Y, and Z). o Federalists immediately wanted to declare war; raged against the French insult to American honor ▪ 1798 – created the Provisional Army (Washington at its head, with Hamilton 2nd in command) and established a Department of the Navy 2nd in command) and established a Department of the Navy o Republicans were appalled by the French government’s behavior but were also alarmed by the Federalists’ call for war

Alien and Sedition Acts 1798 – Federalists in Congress began to push through the Alien and Sedition Acts, which would curb the flow of foreign aliens into the country. Fear of foreign subversion prompted the Ultra Federalists to enact the legislation. Neither Adams nor Hamilton urged the legislation, but the president made no attempt to prevent their passage. • Naturalization Act o Residency requirement of new immigrants was raised from 5 years to 14 years ▪ New immigrants – most of whom gravitated towards the Jeffersonian Republicans – had to wait 14 years before they could become citizens and vote • Alien Act o President authorized to deport dangerous resident aliens • Alien Enemies Act o President could deport resident aliens if their home countries were at war with the U.S. • Sedition Act o Punishable by fine or imprisonment for those who conspired to thwart federal law or who made “false, scandalous, and malicious” statements about federal officials ▪ Jeffersonian Republicans were stunned – it threatened to smother all political opposition

Adams largely ignored the clamor from the secretary of state to run the aliens out of the country. He signed warrants for only 3 aliens, but they left the country before the president acted. However, the Sedition Acts were zealously enforced. Those affected most by the Sedition Acts were editors of newspapers opposed to Federalist policies. • 17 Republican editors were indicted; 14 convictions secured o However, the number of Republican newspapers doubled in the next 2 years • Jefferson characterized the Federalist measures as “the reign of the witches”

Effects of the Alien and Seditions Acts-

Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions Jefferson, seeing military preparations going forward against France as well as the passage of the Alien & Sedition Acts, feared that the Federalists were invincible. Civil liberties might be gone – how to fight against it without a free press?

Jefferson secretly drafted a document that, if implemented, would redistribute power between the federal government and the states – may even result in disunion. He put forward that each state must have the authority to declare any acts of the federal government that it believed illegitimate “void, and of no force” within its domain. Vice President Jefferson had drafted a doctrine of state nullification.

Jefferson turned the draft over to John Breckinridge, a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. The latter agreed to protect the author's identity and introduce it into the Kentucky state assembly.

Kentucky assembly- • With minor alterations, the assembly passed the legislation that became known as the KentuckyKentucky ResolutionsResolutions. o Declared that the federal government violated the Bill of Rights o Nullification was the rightful remedy (to declare federal law invalid within a state’s borders)

Virginia assembly – • Jefferson apprised Madison of his actions. Madison drafted similar legislation to introduce to the Virginia assembly • Virginia assembly approved the VirginiaVirginia ResolutionsResolutions

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions received little support from other states. However, Jefferson warned that the Alien and Sedition Acts would “necessarily drive these states into revolution and blood.” Historian Ron Chernow said Jefferson “wasn’t calling for peaceful protests or civil disobedience; he was calling for outright rebellion, if needed, against the federal government of which he was vice president.” Jefferson set forth a radical doctrine of states’ rights. • The influence of Jefferson’s doctrine of states’ rights reverberated right up to the Civil War and beyond. Future president James Garfield, at the close of the Civil War, said that Jefferson’s Kentucky Resolution “contained the germ of nullification and secession, and we are today reaping the fruits.” • Again, the sectional divide is apparent – Virginia is a southern state, and Kentucky is a western state

Within a year, the tide turned- • John Quincy Adams, in Europe, sent assurances that France was ready to negotiate honorably • Adams appointed new peace negotiators to go to France o Federalists in Adams’ cabinet enraged (Federalist war program depended on a legitimate French crisis continuing) • Envoys secured an agreement releasing the U.S. from the 1778 alliance and restored peaceful relations. o Adams proud of having kept the nation out of the war. He had his tombstone inscribed with “Here lies John Adams, who took upon himself the responsibility of Peace with France in the year 1800.”

Election of 1800 Federalists in disarray- • Peace was a reality, and they stood charged with exercising federal power unconstitutionally • Some Federalists angry at Adams’ “betrayal” (securing peace with France)

Emotional election – gangs of young Federalists and Jeffersonians clashed in the streets

Jeffersonian Republicans won a decisive victory- • Jefferson – 73 electoral votes • Burr – 73 electoral votes • Adams – 65 electoral votes

Tie between Jefferson and Burr given to the House of Representatives • Deadlock developed • HouseHouse finallyfinally electedelected JeJeffffersonerson, 10 states to 4 states on the 36th ballot o To prevent such a recurrence, the 12th amendment was passed, providing separate Electoral College ballots for president and vice president

The election revealed strong sectional differences- • Federalists dominated New England o Merchants, manufacturers, commercial farmers close to the coast o Merchants, manufacturers, commercial farmers close to the coast • Jeffersonians dominated the South (middle states were more closely contested) o Old Antifederalists, artisans, agrarians o Unlike Antifederalists, Jeffersonian Republicans supported the Constitution but wanted greater dependence on the states

ImportanceImportance ofof ElectionElection ofof 1800-1800- Control of thethe federalfederal governmentgovernment passedpassed fromfrom oneone politicalpolitical partyparty toto anotheranother –– maybe not easily – but peacefully and legally

2/1-2/2 ​ ​ ​ Judicial Review

Date ​ ​1755-1835

Themes ​Rise and Fall of Nations ​ ​ Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 8, 9 ​ ​Founding Mothers Abigail Adams ​ ​Story of Alexander Hamilton Ch 3-4 Topics

John Marshall (1755-1835) –– The Great Chief Justice “My gift of John Marshall to the people of the United States was the proudest of my life.” ~John Adams

Early Years • A fellow Virginian and a distant cousin to Thomas Jefferson • John’s father oversaw his education at home (no local schools at the time) – studied classical and contemporary literature, William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England, and had a Latin tutor. (John transcribed Horace and Livy). o Said of his father – “…and to his care, I am indebted for anything valuable which I may have acquired in my youth. He was my only intelligent companion; and was both a watchful parent and an affectionate friend.” • Served in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. o With Washington at Valley Forge • After the Army, he read law under George Wythe at William and Mary College. o Attended only 3 months, but he didn’t lack in learning. o Was admitted to the bar in 1780 and went into private practice in Fauquier County, Virginia.

Political Career Marshall was a Federalist (but had voted against the Alien and Sedition Acts) • Served in the Virginia House of Representatives • Was a delegate to the Virginia convention responsible for the ratification or rejection of the Constitution o Together with James Madison and Edmund Randolph, Marshall led the fight for ratification • Marshall’s talents attracted John Adams; Marshall accepted an appointment to the 3-man commission to France (which ended in the XYZ scandal). • The declining fortunes of the Federalist party and pressure from George Washington convinced Marshall to join Congress and later become Secretary of State in the Adams’ convinced Marshall to join Congress and later become Secretary of State in the Adams’ administration.

Chief Justice (1801-1835) Marshall was nominated for Chief Justice by Adams and confirmed during the lame-duck session of Congress before Thomas Jefferson's inauguration. Jefferson and Marshall were old adversaries, despite family ties. • Jefferson thought Marshall a traitor to republicanism • Marshall – who soldiered during the Revolutionary War – regarded Jefferson (and other healthy Virginians who hadn’t borne arms during the war) as a shirker. His stint in the Continental Army made a Federalist out of him.

Republicans had taken hold of the presidency and Congress – but Federalists dominated the judiciary. This rankled Jefferson and his colleagues: • Republican antagonism resulted from the fact the judges were appointed (not elected) and had lifetime tenure. The robes, court ceremonies, elevated benches seemed unrepublican.

At the time of Marshall’s appointment, the Supreme Court had difficulty finding able men to sit on the Court and trouble gathering a quorum to hear cases, forcing many cases to be carried over or canceled. Morale was poor.

Initially, John Adams offered the Chief Justice position to John Jay. Jay declined because the court had none of the necessary “Energy, weight, and Dignity” to support a national government. Marshall set out to remedy the situation - • Changed how the Supreme Court announced its decision – adopted the practice of handing down a single opinion of the Court, allowing it to present a clear rule. o This enhanced the Court’s authority by speaking in one voice, rather than the earlier practice of each justice issuing his own opinion. o The Court became solidified by having the associate justices reach a collective decision. To do this, Marshall turned the Court into “a band of brothers” by building consensus through friendly discussion.

Marshall ran a congenial court. The Court met only 2 months a year – the rest of their time was spent riding a circuit to hear cases in various states. When the Court was in session in Washington, the justices boarded together in the same rooming house, avoided outside socializing, and discussed each case intently amongst themselves. Decisions were usually made quickly, in a matter of days.

Marshall’s natural abilities distinguished him from other lawyers and jurists. He could grasp a subject in its whole yet simultaneously analyze its parts and relate them to the whole. • Justice Story states that he had the ability to seize “as it were, by intuition, the very spirit of juridical doctrines.” • Thomas Jefferson admitted Marshall’s talent but didn’t respect it. o Jefferson told Story that “when conversing with Marshall, I never admit anything. So sure, as you admit any position to be good, no matter how remote from the conclusion he seeks to establish, you are gone. So great is his sophistry you must never give him an affirmative answer, or you will be forced to grant his conclusion. Why, if he were to ask me whether it were daylight or not, I’d reply, ‘Sir, I don’t know, I can’t tell.’”

Marbury v. Madison (1803)(1803) This case began the process of “judicial review.” 1st assertion by the Supreme Court of its right to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional • Although this was the only time in Marshall’s tenure as chief justice that a Congressional act was declared unconstitutional, no Supreme Court did so again until the Dred Scott decision in 1857. decision in 1857.

During the lame-duck session of congress, William Marbury was appointed by John Adams to be the justice of the peace in the District of Columbia. Adams left office before the commission was delivered, and President Jefferson refused to deliver it. (Ironically, it was Secretary of State Marshall who had failed to deliver the commission in time).

Marbury brought suit before the Supreme Court to seek a judicial command requiring Secretary of State Madison to deliver the commission (and thus let Marbury assume his appointment). • The Court ruled that, yes, Marbury had a vested right in the office for the term fixed by the statute and that the law had to provide a remedy for the violation of Marbury’s legal right. • BUTBUT – Supreme Court couldn’t issue a writ mandating delivery of the commission.

So, the Court declared what its opinion would have been if it had the authority to handle the matter. The case allowed Marshall to proclaim the doctrine of judicial review, which reserves to the Supreme Court final authority to judge whether or not actions of the president or the congress are within the powers granted to them by the Constitution.

John Marshall’s Legacy • Moderate Federalist who participated in more than 1,000 decisions, writing more than half himself • Had simple tastes, a common touch, popular style and easygoing with ready humor • His amiability was the source of much of his success

Ultimately, Marshall’s greatest achievement was maintaining the Court’s existence and asserting its independence in a hostile Republican climate. Under his watch, the judicial branch of government attained power equal to the executive and legislative branches.

2/3-2/4 ​ ​ ​ Thomas Jefferson Lewis and Clark

Date ​ ​1800-1826

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V3 Ch 34; V4 Ch 10, 11 ​ ​Story of Alexander Hamilton Ch 5-6 ​ ​Which Way West? pp 1-15 (Steps 1-7) ​ ​

“The Philosopher President” – Henry Adams regarding Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)1743-1826) • 3rd president • Initiated the quarter-century rule of the “Virginia Dynasty”

Jefferson’s’s VisionVision –– TerritorialTerritorial ExpansionExpansion forfor anan AgrarianAgrarian NationNation Jeffersonians believed that political liberty could survive only under conditions of broad economic and social equality. • The independent, yeoman farmer (self-reliant, industrious, and concerned for the public good) had the qualities deemed essential to democratic citizenship o BUT – industriousness generated wealth, which leads to social inequality, which could destroy the foundation of a democratic society o SOLUTION – territorial expansion to provide land for everyone o SOLUTION – territorial expansion to provide land for everyone ▪ Also believed that newly created states would strengthen their political control over the Federalists.

Jefferson’s 11stst TermTerm

Louisiana Purchase A windfall of a purchase - nearly doubling the nation's size, providing the land Jefferson saw as essential for an agrarian democracy. • 1800 – Spain ceded the trans-Mississippi region (called Louisiana) to France but retained control of New Orleans. • 1802 – Spain closed the Mississippi River to American commerce. The US not happy about this. o Jefferson sent an American minister to France to purchase a tract of land on lower Mississippi that could serve as a port. • 1803 – Napoleon, with the prospect of renewed war with England and Haiti's successful rebellion against French rule, decided to sell all of Louisiana to the United States. (Napoleon realized that he would be unable to keep American settlers out of the region if he was fighting wars in Europe). o $15 million bought the United States 830,000 square miles of new territory.

ImpactImpact ofof thethe LouisianaLouisiana PurchasePurchase • Land for generations of future yeoman farmers • Neither France nor Britain could now threaten New Orleans and America’s outlet to the sea • Freed America from Europe’s colonial entanglements and prepared the way for eventual dominance of the U.S. in the Western Hemisphere

Lewis & Clark Expedition Before Jefferson knew that America would purchase the Louisiana Territory, he had already made plans for a “scientific” and covert military/commercial expedition into the Spanish held trans-Mississippi West.

1802 – Jefferson chose Meriwether Lewis, an army veteran, and Jefferson’s private secretary, to lead the expedition. • “Capt. Lewis is brave, prudent, habituated to the woods, & familiar with Indian manners and character,” explained Jefferson, regarding his choice of expeditionary leader. • Jefferson sent Lewis for crash courses in astronomy, natural history, medicine, map- making, lunar navigation, and ethnology

Lewis chose his army friend William Clark to be co-commander. • Clark had explored the Mississippi, knew how to handle enlisted men • Better mapmaker, surveyor, and waterman than Lewis

Lewis and Clark made a great team – they got along very well and were both writers. They wrote continually about all that they encountered.

Jefferson’s beliefs about what would be found on the expedition In 1800, the land beyond the Mississippi was unknown or misunderstood. Jefferson thought: • Rockies would be equal in height to the Blue Ridge Mountains • Mammoths and other prehistoric creatures roamed the upper Missouri River • Huge mountain of pure salt lay in the Great Plains • Water route existed that led to the Pacific – the elusive northwest passage

The Corps of Discovery The Corps of Discovery May 14, 1804 – Expedition begins! • Embarked from St. Louis, traveling the Missouri River • 40+ men, including York, Clark’s black slave

1804-05 Winter • Spent with Mandan Indians in present-day North Dakota • Constructed a fort to live in

Lewis and Clark informed the Indians they met, through translators, that the United States had taken over the territory and that their new father, “the great Chief the President” was “the only friend to whom you can now look for protection, or from whom you can ask favors, or receive good counciles, and he will take care to serve you and not deceive you.”

Spring 1805 – Sacagawea • Sacagawea (Shoshone), her husband Toussaint Charbonneau (French/Canadian river man), and infant son join the expedition • Prove invaluable as translators • Presence of Sacagawea and baby a sign to the Indians of the Corps’ peaceful intentions

April 7, 1805 – proceed up the Missouri River to the Rockies • Corps of 33 travel in 6 canoes and 2 pirogues o (the rest of the Corps had traveled back to Jefferson with letters and specimens) • Took 4 months to get to the Rockies (including a month-long portage around the Great Falls of the Missouri)

August 1805 – Reached the Great Divide • Arrived on the present-day Montana-Idaho border • Extremely difficult place to cross the Rockies

September 22, 1805 – Reached country of the Nez Perce Indians • Built canoes for the trip down the Clearwater River, Snake River, and the Columbia River to the Pacific

November 7, 1805 – Pacific Ocean! • Clark records what he saw in the estuary of the Columbia River: “Ocian in view! O! the joy…Ocian 4142 Miles from the Mouth of Missouri R.”

Winter 1805-06 Winter • Built and wintered at Fort Clatsop on the south side of the Columbia estuary

March 1806 – Begin return • After crossing Rockies, Lewis and Clark separate o Lewis explored Marias River (Montana) o Clark traveled down the Yellowstone River • Reunited in North Dakota o Left Sacagawea and family with Mandan Indians o Traveled Missouri River to St. Louis

September 23, 1806 – Expedition finished! • Arrived in St. Louis • Expedition took 2 years, 4 months • Incredibly, for an expedition that faced many unexpected challenges and dangers, Charles Floyd was the sole fatality. He likely died from appendicitis.

ImpactImpact ofof thethe LewisLewis andand ClarkClark ExpeditionExpedition ImpactImpact ofof thethe LewisLewis andand ClarkClark ExpeditionExpedition • Opened up a fur-trading empire in the West • Strengthened America’s claim on the Oregon Territory • A wealth of scientific information discovered

Jefferson’s 2 ndnd TermTerm

Dominated by foreign policy • Goals o Foreign policy based on “no entangling alliances” with Europe o Emphasized importance of overseas commerce ▪ (wanted to keep manufacturing in Europe) o Peace

Neutral Rights 1803 – European war resumed. America declared its neutrality and wanted neutral rights • But both Britain and France seized American shipping o Congress passed the Non-Importation Act (banning British imports)

1807 – Chesapeake • British warship stopped the American frigate Chesapeake o Demanded 4 crew members be handed over as British deserters o American commander refused to hand them over. British opened fire, killing 3 and wounding 18 • American response – Embargo Act o Forbid American vessels to sail into foreign ports o Bad Decision! ▪ Little effect on Britain ▪ But caused American exports to drop 80% in a year, and imports declined by more than a half. New England hit hardest. o Congress repealed Act in 1809

Overview of thethe PresidencyPresidency • 1st term – o Louisiana Purchase / Lewis & Clark expedition o Successful 1st term because peace between France and England allowed American commerce to flourish • 2nd term – o Difficulties at home and abroad o Resumption of war between France and England threw the economy into reverse ▪ John Randolph remarked – “never has there been any Administration which went out of office and left the nation in a state so deplorable and calamitous” • But no one felt more keenly than Jefferson the disappointment under which his old hopes and ambitions were crushed - o “Never did a prisoner feel such relief as I shall on shaking off the shackles of power” ~ Thomas Jefferson o Tried to maintain neutrality (but his efforts didn’t avert the War of 1812 with Britain) After his 2nd term, Jefferson retired to Monticello, where he spent the last 17 years of his life. He had more than 40 years of public service. He died on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. (John Adams also died on this day).

Legacy of Thomas Jefferson Planter…Lawyer…Scientist…Author…Governor…Vice President… President…Philosopher…Architect

Thomas Jefferson was a man of many talents and accomplishments. On his tombstone, he wished to be remembered for writing the Declaration of Independence, Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and as Father of the University of Virginia.

Famous and familiar words of American history: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” • He is probably most celebrated for articulating the American national creed. The words above are the core articles of faith in the American Creed - the fundamental and universal principles of self-government that he set forth in the Declaration of Independence.

Of the two visions of government – Federalist or Democratic-Republican – Jefferson’s Democratic vision influenced the country's politics for another half-century. Many of his followers became president (Madison, Monroe, Jackson), and this democratic vision defined the country until the Civil War.

2/8-2/9 ​ ​ ​ ​ IndianIndian WarsWars ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Date ​ ​1758-1838

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 12, 13, 14 ​ ​Story of Alexander Hamilton Ch 7-8 ​ ​Which Way West? pp 15-25 (Steps 8-11)

Regions of the United States prior to thethe 1830s1830s Northeast – • Small family farms • Forests cut down for new farmland and fuel

South – Maryland to Georgia, west to newly formed Alabama and Mississippi • Land exhausted by tobacco – a new crop of cotton initiated the recovery • By 1820 cotton was over half of the nation’s agricultural export o Eli Whitney’s cotton gin aided the process for short-staple cotton o Switch to cotton was the turning point for the South – and national – history ▪ Increased demand for slave labor ▪ Cotton becoming king ▪ The demand for slave labor had been waning until the introduction of the cotton gin led to skyrocketing profits from cotton production cotton gin led to skyrocketing profits from cotton production

Trans-Appalachia – Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River, Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico • Dominated by Native American tribes o 1790 – only 100,000 white settlers o 1820 – a million more white settlers had arrived ▪ Land speculators promoted the sale of western land ▪ By 1830 – power belonged to the white settlers. Indians faced military defeat or forced migration west

Dispossession of Native Lands American colonists have long desired Indian lands – for both the money to be made in land speculation and for settling for themselves. Colonist anger over the Proclamation of 1763 was a contributing factor for the American Revolution. • The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was Britain’s first attempt to administer the new American empire it had won. Its guiding principle was to restore and maintain order on the frontier. Indian relations must be directed from London by a government with an imperial vision of American affairs, not by individual colonies pursuing local agendas. o It prohibited any “private Person” from buying “any Lands reserved to the said Indians within those parts of our Colonies where We have thought proper to allow Settlement,” and it prohibited purchase or settlement west of the Appalachians. • By restricting and regulating access to Indian country, the proclamation intended to avoid further frontier wars and keep colonists within the British orbit as the empire grew. However, getting American colonists to accept the proclamation was another matter. Many frontier settlers simply ignored it. • Land speculators were furious. Unlike squatters, they could not ignore the proclamation. They had hoped to gain fortunes in speculation when the war was won, the French expelled, and Indian lands open for settlement. • British policy and the Indian boundary threatened to stifle attempts by Washington and other planters at achieving greater economic independence and frustrate their vision for the expansion of Virginia. American victory in the Revolutionary War opened the flood gates into Native lands.

Alexis de Tocqueville wrote in Democracy in America: “Toward the end of 1831, I found myself on the east bank of the Mississippi, at the place the Europeans call Memphis. During the time I was there, a large band of Choctaws arrived (the French of Louisiana call them Choctas). These savages had left their native land and were trying to make their way across to the west bank of the Mississippi, where they hoped to find the refuge promised them by the American government. It was then the heart of winter, and the cold that year was unusually bitter. The snow on the ground had frozen, and enormous chunks of ice floated on the river. The Indians traveled in families. Among them were the wounded and the sick, newborn infants, and dying elders. They had neither tents nor wagons, only scant provisions and some weapons. I watched them embark for the voyage across the great river, and the memory of that solemn spectacle will stay with me forever. Not a sob or a cry was to be heard despite the large number of people; all were silent. Their misfortunes were old, and they heard despite the large number of people; all were silent. Their misfortunes were old, and they sensed that there was nothing to be done about them…Nowadays the dispossession of the Indians is often accomplished in a routine and – one might say – perfectly legal manner.”

Tocqueville goes on to note the differences between the Spaniards and the Americans: “The Spaniards loosed their dogs on the Indians as though the natives were ferocious beasts. They pillaged the New World as if storming a city, indiscriminately and mercilessly. But to destroy everything is impossible, and frenzy has a limit: the remnants of the Indian population, having escaped the massacres, eventually mixed with the conquerors and adopted their religion and mores.” “By contrast, the conduct of the Americans of the United States toward the Indian exhibits the purest love of formalities and legalities. Provided that the Indians remain in the savage state, the Americans do not interfere in their affairs and treat them as independent peoples. They will not occupy Indian land until it has been duly acquired by contract. And if by chance an Indian nation can no longer live within its territory, the Americans offer a fraternal hand and lead the natives off to die somewhere other than in the land of their forefathers.” “The Spaniards, despite acts of unparalleled monstrousness that left them indelibly covered with shame, were unable to exterminate the Indian race or even prevent the Indians from sharing their rights. The Americans of the United States achieved both results with the marvelous ease, quietly, legally, philanthropically, without bloodshed, without violating a single one of the great principles of morality in the eyes of the world. To destroy human beings with greater respect for the laws of humanity would be impossible.”

IndianIndian Wars and Leaders

Red Jacket oror Sagoyewatha (c.(c. 1758-1830)1758-1830) Tribe – Seneca (part of the Iroquois Six Nation Confederation) Location – Ohio Valley and Great Lakes

Red Jacket was a Seneca Pine Tree chief (a leader/orator who didn’t hold a sachem title) renowned for his oratorical skills. ▪ Revolutionary War o Fought on the side of British; said to have worn a red coat provided by the British o War record undistinguished – fled from the battle, accused of cowardice ▪ Post-Revolutionary War o Most of the Seneca’s land ceded to the United States due to alliance with the British o Red Jacket prominent in negotiations between the Seneca and the new American republic o Headed a delegation to Philadelphia (then the seat of the U.S. government) in 1792. Met with George Washington, who presented Red Jacket with a large silver peace medal. (Red Jacket often posed for pictures while wearing this medal). ▪ War of 1812 o Red Jacket, an ally of the United States, fought against Great Britain o Heavy casualties led Red Jacket and the Seneca to withdraw from the conflict ▪ The remainder of Red Jacket’s life devoted to defending Seneca culture and religion against white domination ▪ Famous oration o 1805 – “Religion for the White Man and Red” ▪ Red Jacket responds to New England missionary Reverend Cram at Buffalo Creek, who wanted the Seneca to give up their religion: “Brother, you say there is but one way to worship and serve the Great Spirit. If there you say there is but one way to worship and serve the Great Spirit. If there is but one religion, why do you white people differ so much about it?...we do not wish to destroy your religion or take it from you. We only want to enjoy our own”

Tecumseh (1768-1813)(1768-1813) Tribe – Shawnee Location – Ohio Country Post-Revolutionary War • 15-year-old Tecumseh joined a band of Shawnee who harassed white settlers, trying to stop their invasion of Indian land • Tecumseh became a charismatic leader of a confederation of southwestern Great Lakes tribes, and his brother Tenskwatawa became a religious leader known as “the Prophet.” The 2 of them worked towards countering the American expansion into Indian lands

Battle of Tippecanoe The situation during Jefferson/Madison presidency: • Americans viewed Indians as their dependents, living within a fixed boundary, separating British (Canada) from American sovereignty. • British treated Indians as autonomous people dwelling in their own country between the British Empire and the American Republic.

By breaking down Indian sovereignty, Jefferson sought to absorb them into American society as farm families without tribal identities/allegiances. • This alarmed the natives, who were proud of their autonomy. • Warriors were horrified – American style farming for men was emasculating for the warriors. In Indian culture, the women cultivated crops.

Jefferson ordered the territorial governors of Indiana and Michigan to pressure Indians to cede millions of acres for 1-2 cents/acre. • William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana territory, was relentless – negotiating land cession treaties with older chiefs of smaller minority tribes. Younger warriors were especially outraged and rallied to the leadership of Tecumseh and Tenskatawa. 1811, November – • While Tecumseh was away, William Henry Harrison marched with 1,200 soldiers to attack Prophetstown. While the soldiers were asleep along the banks of Tippecanoe Creek, Tenskatawa led the Shawnee on a surprise attack on Harrison and the soldiers. • Heavy casualties, but Harrison won the battle o Harrison nicknamed “Old Tippecanoe” • Contemporary critics faulted Harrison for provoking attack and not securing the camp, but President Madison claimed Tippecanoe a glorious victory. Tecumseh was killed in 1813 at the Battle of Thames

Osceola (1804-1838) “Black Drink Singer” Tribe – Seminole (Creek) Location – Florida

Creek Indians- There were 2 factions: • White Sticks o Lived and farmed as whites o Wanted to cooperate with white settlers o Wanted to cooperate with white settlers • Red Sticks o Maintained Indian ways o Wanted to drive the white settlers away

During War of 1812 – • White Sticks fought with the Americans, against the Red Sticks and British o = Indian Civil War • March 1814 o General Andrew Jackson and his men, along with White Stick Creeks, fought a battle at Horseshoe Bend, beating the Red Stick Creeks o Red Sticks now had no land – went south to Florida, joining with the Seminole Indians

Osceola, a young Creek boy, born in eastern Alabama, moved with his family after the Creek War of 1813-14 to Florida. The Creeks joined the Seminoles (including Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw Indians, and runaway slaves).

The Seminoles agreed to live in Central Florida, but soon the government wanted them to relocate west of the Mississippi River under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Osceola and other Seminoles refused to sign the Treaty of Fort Gibson, which would have ceded their Florida homeland.

Second Seminole War (1835-42) • Osceola and others killed a government agent, making Osceola a wanted man. • 1837 – Army troops arrested Osceola under a flag of truce. He died in prison of malaria 3 months later, at Fort Moultrie in South Carolina. • His capture drew national attention. He was recognized as a defender of his people; many derided the deceitful method of his capture.

The Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive of the Indian Wars fought by the U.S. military.​ 2/10-2/11 ​ ​ ​ ​James Madison ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ War of 1812

Date ​ ​1803-1815

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 15, 16 ​ ​Francis Scott Key (Kulling) ​ ​Star-Spangled Banner (Stewart) ​ ​Star-Spangled Banner (Spier) ​ ​

Topics

Lead up to the War of 1812 1803-1803-18181515:: England Fighting Napoleonic France Britain felt she was fighting for her life as an independent country and saw herself as the savior of the world against Napoleon, who wanted to control it. In this context, America could not be permitted to get in the way. British impressment of American sailors became a bone of contention. • IMPRESSMENTIMPRESSMENT • IMPRESSMENTIMPRESSMENT o Britain boarded American ships and impressed sailors for their navy. Britain desperately needed sailors for the Royal Navy to fight France – (without a well- manned navy, the English maritime empire would collapse). o Royal Navy grew to an unprecedented scale during the war against revolutionary France and Napoleon’s empire ▪ 1793 – Royal Navy had 16,600 sailors ▪ 1797 – grew to 119,000 sailors o Shortage of sailors increased as sailors sought work on American merchant ships. Deserters fled low pay, lousy food, and harsh discipline of the British. Britain paid seaman $7/month whereas an American merchantman was paid $25-30/mo. o Also, an issue with impressment – Britain insisted that no one born a British subject could renounce citizenship. American naturalization defied the British concept of perpetual citizenship. Many of the impressed seamen had taken American citizenship and were therefore no longer British.

1807-1815:1807-1815: AmericaAmerica SqueezedSqueezed betweenbetween FranceFrance andand EnglandEngland • NAPOLEONS’S BERLIN (1806) AND MILAN DECREES (1807) o Part of Napoleon’s Continental System - Napoleon blockaded the British Isles and also decreed that ships following the British requirements for neutral ships forfeited their neutral status and were subject to confiscation ▪ French seizure of American ships began immediately • BRITISH ORDERS-IN-COUNCIL OF 1807 o Britain declared that neutral ships with cargo bound for Europe had to first land in a British port where duty was levied, and a license obtained to trade with Europe. Violation of the Orders made ships liable to seizure. ▪ Jefferson’s response was the Embargo Act – a bad choice, for it brought American trade to a standstill • RESULT = SEIZURE OF AMERICAN SHIPS o Both England and France seized American ships, despite America’s status as a neutral nation. Both countries wanted to prevent American goods from reaching the other. America saw this as a violation of her neutral rights to trade with both sides. ▪ Britain seized ~1,000 American ships and France ~500 • Jefferson’s Response: o Jefferson and Congress institute a total embargo – this causes a severe depression o Angry citizens referred to the embargo as “dambargo” or “ograbme” (embargo spelled backward, pronounced o-grab-me, as in grabbing/choking someone by the neck

1808:1808: MadisonMadison electedelected PresidentPresident • Embargo Act repealed in early 1809, 3 days before Jefferson left office • Congress replaces with the Non-Intercourse Act, which opened trade with nations excepting France and England. The Non-Intercourse Act proved an unsuccessful policy. • Macon’s Bill No. 2 of 1810 – o The U.S. would exclusively trade with either France or England, depending on which nation first drops trading restrictions o France drops the Berlin and Milan decrees first. (Britain would drop the Orders in Council, but they were too late). The French stop seizing American ships. • War fever mounting with British seizure of ships and impressment of American sailors

1810:1810: WarWar HawksHawks electedelected toto CongressCongress • Congress gains new Republican leaders – many were War Hawks • Congress gains new Republican leaders – many were War Hawks o Loudest shouts for war came from the South and West ▪ Henry Clay of Kentucky (became Speaker of the House) ▪ John C. Calhoun of South Carolina o War Hawks were nationalistic and supported the westward expansion of the United States. 1/3 of the House of Representatives dubbed War Hawks. o The Northeast, mostly Federalist, opposed the war

IndianIndian ResistanceResistance AlongAlong WesternWestern FrontierFrontier • 1811 – Battle of Tippecanoe o Tecumseh’s brother, the Prophet, led an attack on Harrison’s army o British supported the Indian resistance against American settlers – they wanted a buffer zone of neutral Indians between British Canada and the United States o American settlers resented the British support given to the Indians (i.e., sale of munitions to Indians living in American territory by British agents)

1811:1811: MadisonMadison UrgesUrges CongressCongress toto PreparePrepare forfor WarWar • He accused Britain of “trampling on rights which no Independent Nation can relinquish.”

1812:1812: MadisonMadison AsksAsks CongressCongress forfor DeclarationDeclaration ofof WarWar • Vote primarily partisan o Every Federalist opposed o 81% of the Republicans voted for war o Closest vote for war in American history • June 18, 1812 – Madison signed the declaration of war o Federalists referred to it as “Mr. Madison’s War” o War of 1812, also known as “The Second American Revolution.” In Madison’s address to Congress, he indicted the British for violating America’s right to freedom of the seas and impressing American citizens into the British navy.

War of 1812 oror “The“The SecondSecond AmericanAmerican Revolution”Revolution” Two days before America’s declaration of war, England had repealed the Orders-In-Council, which would reduce seizure of American ships - but it took 3 weeks for the U.S. to learn of the repeal.

The British government expected the U.S. to withdraw the declaration of war, but Madison noted that the British foreign secretary reserved the right to re-impose the Orders. Therefore, Madison refused to repeal the declaration. Britain now commenced the war in earnest, although most of their resources were directed against Napoleon, who had just invaded Russia. • The conflict with America was a secondary concern, or a side-show compared to the fight with Napoleon

Objectives for the U.S. and Britain The U.S. • End impressment of American sailors into the British Royal Navy • End seizure of American ships • End violation of neutral rights by the English • End British sale of arms to Indians, end Indian raids on the frontier, and eliminate the ability of the Indians to block westward expansion • Restore honor and respect for the United States

Great Britain • Fight a defensive war in North America to conserve troops for the European war theatre • Because of war with Napoleonic France, the English couldn’t allow Americans to trade (thereby helping) the enemy, regardless of lawful neutral rights to do so • Retain Canada, and end the ability of the U.S. to threaten British colonies (such as Canada) • Retain Canada, and end the ability of the U.S. to threaten British colonies (such as Canada) in America • Possibly to humble the Americans

America assumed it would be easy to conquer Canada…Thomas Jefferson referred to the conquest of Canada as just a “matter of marching.” But inept army leaders and inadequate munitions and supplies meant that Americans lost the majority of significant campaigns. They were never able to march in and take Canada from the British.

Theatres of War of 1812 1. Sea – principally the Atlantic Ocean and the east coast of North America o Warships and privateers attacked each other’s ships while Britain blockaded the Atlantic coast ▪ Old Ironsides o British mounted raids during the later stages of the war ▪ The burning of Washington, D.C. ▪ Battle of Fort McHenry and the Star-Spangled Banner 2. American-Canadian FrontierFrontier o Along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River ▪ Captain Perry and the Battle of Lake Erie 3. American South and Gulf Coast o Andrew Jackson and Battle of New Orleans

Course of the War The outbreak of war was preceded by years of diplomatic dispute, but neither side was ready for it when it came. • Britain heavily engaged with the Napoleonic Wars in Europe • The U.S. had an inadequate army (less than 12,000 effectives), a lack of money to finance the war, and the country divided about the war. There was vocal opposition to the war in the northeast, with talk of secession.

American-Canadian FrontierFrontier American lost most of the significant campaigns in this area in 1812. However, in 1813 there were a couple of significant gains: • Battle of Lake Erie (1813) o Captain Perry repulses the British Navy, allowing Americans to gain control of Lake Erie. The British and their Indian allies were cut off from their supply base. • Battle of Thames (1813) o Americans drove Tecumseh out of the Ohio territory and back into Canada. Tecumseh was killed, effectively ending coordinated Indian resistance in the Old Northwest territory By the end of 1813, the possibility of an Indian homeland in Ohio was destroyed. Still, the Americans had not conquered all of Upper Canada as anticipated (and would never do so).

On the Sea U.S. Navy was never a match for the Royal Navy, however the U.S.S. Constitution did defeat H.M.S. Guerrire – earning the nickname “Old Ironsides” because several cannonballs bounced off her sides. She also defeated the H.M.S. Java and H.M.S. Macedonian. • “Old Ironsides” is still a commissioned warship – the oldest commissioned warship, and the only ship in the U. S. Navy to have sunk an enemy vessel in action. (The only other ship to share that title was the USS Simpson, which was decommissioned in 2015).

When Napoleon was defeated in 1814, Britain took a more aggressive approach against the United States since more troops were available to deploy. The British conducted raids along the Atlantic coast (to relieve pressure on the British in Canada). They couldn’t travel too far inland Atlantic coast (to relieve pressure on the British in Canada). They couldn’t travel too far inland nor hold any permanent possession of the area. The goal was to take/destroy U.S. munitions, harbors, and shipping. • Burning of Washington, D. C. (1814) o British halted army near Washington and sent terms under a flag of truce, offering no destruction of town if citizens paid a ransom. The party bearing the truce flag was shot upon. Accommodations were now out of the question- ▪ Burned and destroyed government buildings, including Capitol and President’s House • President’s House became known as the White House from the whitewash used to cover the scorch marks left from the fire on the outside of the building. ▪ Also, a factor in the destruction of government buildings by the British was retribution for the American burning of comparable government buildings in the Canadian city of York earlier in the war. ▪ British troops did spare private property. ▪ Dolly Madison saved valuables such as the Gilbert Stuart painting of George Washington and trunks loaded with Cabinet papers. ▪ The Declaration of Independence housed at the State Department and Madison’s diary of the Constitutional Convention were also taken to safety. • Fort McHenry and the “Star-Spangled Banner” (1814) o British were keen to invade Baltimore. Baltimore was home to much of the privateering – the British felt it either needed to be destroyed or forced to pay a large ransom. ▪ To gain access to Baltimore by sea, the British bombarded Fort McHenry for 25 hours. Lawyer Francis Scott Key, on an English truce boat at the time of the bombardment, saw the American flag still flying over the fort after the bombardment ended. Inspired, Key wrote the poem “The Defense of Ft. McHenry,” which was afterward set to music (of an English drinking song popular in American tavern). The song became “The Star-Spangled Banner,” our national anthem.

American South and Gulf Coast • Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814) o Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend. It was the climactic battle of the Creek War. 800 out of 1,000 Red Stick Creeks died. o Creeks were forced to surrender more than 20 million acres. • Battle of New Orleans (1815) o Andrew Jackson moved into New Orleans in late 1814. Using regulars, militia, pirates, and other fighters, he built strong defenses south of the city. o British attacked on Jan 8, 1815 – but the Americans were victorious. ▪ Hailed as a great victory, it made Jackson a national hero and a prominent political leader. o Note: the battle was waged 2 weeks after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, but the treaty didn’t go into effect until Feb 17, 1815 – after the treaty was ratified by both sides and exchanged. Therefore, even though the Battle of New Orleans was waged after the treaty was signed, the war was not yet officially over.

Treaty of Ghent By 1814, both sides were weary of a costly war. • The United States was running out of money, the government was in disarray, and New England was considering secession • British had been fighting France for 16 years and had run up huge war expenditures

Christmas Eve of 1814, at Ghent, Belgium – agreement on treaty finally reached: • Essentially a cessation of hostilities – prewar territory and the prewar boundary between • Essentially a cessation of hostilities – prewar territory and the prewar boundary between Canada and US restored. No loss of territory. Neither side won or lost. o Nothing on grievances that lead to war- ▪ Impressment, neutral rights, ceding lands, fisheries, navigation down Mississippi River o (However, with the cessation of Napoleonic Wars, impressment was largely abandoned since the need for large numbers of sailors was no longer necessary)

BUT – it can be argued that the treaty was a remarkable achievement for the United States, which was an internally divided country, militarily weak and nearly bankrupt. As with the War of Independence, the United States survived. Great Britain had to accept that the U.S. was no longer a quasi-colony. (This is why the war was also referred to as the Second American Revolution)

With the end of the war – The U.S. • Separatist movement in Massachusetts ended • Federalist party collapsed • Economic relations with England improved • Indians the biggest losers – Indian resistance to the expansion of white settlements was suppressed. The 20 million acres of land that was supposed to have been restored under the Treaty of Ghent as a prewar territory was never restored. England • Could now concentrate on European threat o Battle of Waterloo would shortly take place…

James Madison 4th President, a Founding Father and part of the Virginian dynasty – • “Father of the Constitution” – principle force in the Constitutional Convention, author of the Virginia Plan that formed the basis of the Constitution • Co-author of the Federalist papers • Leader of the House of Representatives at the beginning of the new government in 1789 o A significant influence in passing the Bill of Rights • Co-founder of the Democratic-Republican Party (also known as Jeffersonian-Republicans) • Secretary of State for the 8 years of Jefferson’s presidency Yet, he seemed awed by the presidency. He had a timid, shy personality and had difficulty managing the divided Republican Party.

Historian Gordon Wood notes that historians have had difficulty appreciating Madison’s achievements – but contemporaries realized what he had accomplished. John Adams wrote to Jefferson in 1817: • “Notwithstanding a thousand Faults, and blunders,” Madison’s administration had “acquired more glory, and established more Union than all his three Predecessors, Washington, Adams and Jefferson put together.”

During the war, Madison declared that NOT to have waged war would’ve told the world “the Americans were not independent people, but colonists and vassals.”

The War of 1812 finally established the Americans' independence and nationhood that so many had previously doubted. For this reason, it was often referred to as the Second American Revolution.

2/17-2/18 ​ ​ ​ ​ James Monroe John Quincy Adams v. Andrew Jackson

Date ​ ​1817-1825

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 17, 18, 19 ​ ​Francis Scott Key ​ ​Star-Spangled Banner (Stewart) ​ ​Star-Spangled Banner (Spier) ​ ​

Topics

““Rip Van Winkle’s America”” (from Gordon Wood’s Empire of Liberty) Writer Washington Irving perceived that his native America was no longer the same as it had been a generation earlier. He wrote “Rip Van Winkle” to express his amazement at the transformation. The main character Rip awakens from a sleep that had begun before the Revolutionary War and lasted 20 years. He enters his village, but feels lost. “The very character of the people seemed changed. There was a busy, bustling disputatious tone about it, instead of the accustomed phlegm and drowsy tranquility.” Even the language was strange – “rights of citizens, elections, members of Congress, liberty”…when people asked him on “which side he voted” and “whether he was a Federalist or Democrat” Rip could only stare “in vacant stupidity.”

In a few short decades, America had experienced a remarkable transformation in its society and culture: • Pre-Revolutionary War – America consisted of 2 million British subjects living in disparate colonies along a narrow strip of land along the Atlantic coast. o Post-War of 1812 – 10 million subjects of a giant republic, settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. • Became one of the most commercialized people in the world • Slavery widely condemned but didn’t die – was flourishing in the South. As it disappeared in the North, it became more entrenched in the South. • Politics became more democratized as more Americans gained the right to vote.

Irving recognized that the United States was a country “in which one of the greatest political experiments in the history of the world is now performing.” Americans were confident they could, by their efforts, remake their culture. Their Revolution told them that people’s birth didn’t limit what they might become.

But the result was not exactly what the Founders expected. By 1815, the Classical Enlightenment in America was over. The transformation America experienced was unimagined by the Founders – for the character that Americans celebrated in Andrew Jackson (undisciplined and untutored hero of the Battle of New Orleans of 1815) was scarcely the character they sought in 1789.

After the War of 1812, Americans thought they had finally become a nation – the only one that was free and democratic in a world of monarchies. At the same time, many came to realize that their future as a united and freedom-loving people was being thwarted by the continuing presence of slavery. Their experiment in republicanism was not yet over and would be further tested…

“Good“Good PresidentPresident Monroe”Monroe” When Madison left the presidency in 1817, he and James Monroe were the only members of the Madison administration who had been in the public life at the beginning of the new national government. As president, he was the last of the Revolutionary framers (still dressing in old fashioned knee pants and silver-buckled shoes).

Service before presidency: • Fought in the Revolutionary War – crossed Delaware with Washington, injured at the Battle of Trenton • Delegate in the Continental Congress • An Anti-Federalist; fought against ratification of the Constitution; for states’ rights • Elected to Senate of the first United States Congress in 1790 • A Jeffersonian-Republican • Diplomat in France, helping to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase • Secretary of State and Secretary of War under Madison

President Monroe ((1817-18251817-1825)) –– “Era“Era ofof GoodGood Feelings”Feelings” James Monroe, Democratic-Republican, was the last president from the Virginia dynasty (starting with Jefferson). He was a hard worker, had a reputation for integrity, and was a skillful, practical politician. Monroe chose John Quincy Adams as his Secretary of State (a New Englander and former Federalist). • Monroe set out on a national tour of the United States – even visited New England, which no president had done since George Washington. A Boston Federalist newspaper welcomed his visit as a sign of a new “era of good feelings.” The phrase stuck.

Latin America andand thethe MonroeMonroe DoctrineDoctrine During Monroe’s presidency, new policies were fashioned for Latin America to guide the United States’ hemispheric relations for years to come. • 1808 - Spain and Portugal’s colonies began the struggle for independence. • 1817 – President Monroe proposes recognition of Latin American republics. Congress agrees. o (except the U.S. did not recognize black Haiti, independent from France since 1804, until 1862 by the Lincoln administration) • 1822 - European powers talked of helping Spain regain its American empire. o This alarmed England as well as America. England proposed the idea of Anglo- American cooperation the thwart Spain’s intentions. o Secretary of State John Quincy Adams opposed an Anglo-American alliance. Filled with a spirit of nationalism following the war of 1812 and a distrust of Britain, Adams recommended independent action based on 2 principles: ▪ Sharp separation between the Old World and New World ▪ U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere o Monroe agreed, outlining the new Latin American policy in his December 1823 State of the Union message. It became known as the “Monroe Doctrine” but was written by John Quincy Adams. • Monroe Doctrine: o American continents closed to new European colonization o Political systems of the Americas are separate from those of Europe o The U.S. would consider as dangerous to its peace and safety any attempts to extend Europe’s political influence in the Western Hemisphere. o The U.S. would not interfere in existing colonies in the New World nor meddle in Europe’s affairs

The Doctrine also applied to Russia’s ambitions on the northern Pacific coast. The declaration had no immediate effect, but it would become evident how momentous this was by the end of the century. It became a fundamental statement of American foreign policy.

The Missouri Compromise 1819 – Missouri wanted admission into the Union. A bill to enable the Missouri voters to elect a convention to draft a state constitution came before the House of Representatives. • James Tallmadge of New York proposed an amendment to the bill, which would: o prohibit further importation of slaves into the state o all children born of slaves after Missouri’s admission to the Union would become free at the age of 25 ▪ (The number of blacks in Missouri was about 10,000 – the same number New York had remaining when New York adopted an emancipation plan. The plan Tallmadge proposed was similar to New York’s). • FIERCE DEBATE ENSUED… o A Georgian Representative told Tallmadge: “You have kindled a fire which all the waters of the ocean cannot put out, which seas of blood can only extinguish.” o Tallmadge responded: “If dissolution of the Union must take place, let it be so! If civil war, if gentlemen so much threaten, must come, I can only say, let it come!” ▪ The Missouri controversy prefigured the coming 45 years of sectional conflict… • Compromise finally reached: o Missouri allowed as a slave state o Maine admitted as a free state (thus keeping the balance of slave and free states equal, ensuring equal votes in the Senate) o Slavery was excluded from the Missouri Territory north of the latitude 36/30’ north (southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri

For the moment, the issue of slavery’s expansion was put to rest. But the debate revealed that slavery was becoming even more firmly entrenched in the South (due to cotton and its intensive labor requirement) as northern states and other countries in the world were abolishing the institution.

Diary entry of John Quincy Adams on November 29, 1820: • “If slavery is the destined sword of the hand of the destroying angel, which is to sever the ties of this Union, the same sword will cut in sunder the bonds of slavery itself. Dissolution of the Union for the cause of slavery would be followed by a servile war in the slave-holding States, combined with a war between the two severed portions of the Union. It seems to me that its result might be the extirpation of slavery from this whole continent; and, calamitous and desolating as this course of events in its progress must be, so glorious would be its final issue, that, as God shall judge me, I dare not say that it is not to be desired.”

45 years later - excerpt from Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address: • “If we shall suppose that American Slavery is one of those offences which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South, this terrible war, as the woe due to those by whom the offence came, shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a Living God always ascribe to Him?”

John Quincy Adams (1825-1829)(1825-1829) The presidentialresidential electionelection ofof 18241824 • Politics were in transition – for decades following the election of 1800, Jeffersonian- Republicans had monopolized the presidency and dominated the Congress. The Federalist Party languished. • Now was the first time since 1800 that there was competition for the presidency. Five • Now was the first time since 1800 that there was competition for the presidency. Five candidates running for office: o John Quincy Adams (advocated fed program of econ development) o Henry Clay (advocated fed program of econ development) o Andrew Jackson (limited gov’t, agrarianism, state’s rights) o William Crawford (limited gov’t, agrarianism, state’s rights) o John C Calhoun (in between nationalism and state’s rights) • None of the candidates received a majority vote. Now the House of Representatives voted on the president, per the 12th Amendment, by choosing from the top 3 contenders. A delegate from each state cast 1 vote. o Adams elected by the House of Representatives on the 1st ballot. (An alliance of Adams & Clay supporters gave Adams the election, even though he had trailed Jackson in electoral votes). ▪ Jacksonians charged that there was a “corrupt bargain” o (This was the last time that House of Representatives chose a president)

Party System The Adams/Clay alliance formed the basis for what would be called the National Republican party (later called the Whig party).

Jackson/Crawford followers coalesced into Democratic-Republicans, later named the Democratic Party.

Adams’ Administration Adams called for federal road and canal building, standardization of weights and measures, a national university, government support of the arts and sciences – but they fell victim to sectional conflict. There were much disagreement and conflict among the political leaders - between those who wanted federal spending on national projects like roads, canals and those who wanted limited input at the federal level, instead favoring decisions coming from the state level.

Day of Celebration and Tears On July 4, 1826 – the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence – both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died. Two men who had worked so hard to create and maintain the new nation lived to see it reach its 50th year – what an apropos time for the curtain to fall on their lives. • John Quincy, in his diary that night, wrote that it was a “visible and palpable” manifestation of “Divine favor.”

2/22-2/23 ​ ​ ​ ​Transportation Revolution

Date ​ ​1800s – 1850s

Themes ​Science and Technology ​ ​Trade and Commerce

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 22, 23; V5 Ch 20 ​ ​Amazing Erie Canal pp 1-13 ​ ​ Topics In 1829, Andrew Jackson rode in a horse-drawn carriage to his inauguration. Eight years later, he left the capitol in a train at the end of his presidential tenure. Transportation Revolution Industrial and commercial growth was dependent upon transportationtransportation. Industrial and commercial growth was dependent upon transportationtransportation.

Transportation improvements provided both a means for industries to receive raw materials and vehicles to transport increased goods to market. Improved transportation was a significant contribution to economic and geographic expansion. New roads, canals, and railroads were key factors in the transportation revolution, which would fuel industrialization. An aggregate of local economies turned into a nationwide economy. Transportation was critical in the communication revolution –people and goods were transported more quickly as well as information and news.

Canals The Erie Canal represented the 1st step in the transportation revolution • Broke ground for construction in 1817; derided as “Clinton’s Big Ditch” (New York Governor DeWitt Clinton pushed for the canal). When finished in 1825, it was hailed as the engineering marvel of the day. • Canal ran from Albany (on the Hudson River) to Buffalo (on Lake Erie): 363 miles long, 40’ wide, 4’ deep. • The Erie Canal made New York the “Empire State.” Within 9 years, the state's cost for construction had been paid off in tolls collected. By then, its channel was being expanded to accommodate more traffic. • The volume of goods and people it carried at a low cost encouraged the construction of more than 3,000 miles of canals by 1840, primarily in eastern and Midwestern states.

Railroads Even at the height of the canal boom, people were impressed with Britain’s steam-powered railroads. Unlike canals that could freeze in winter, the railroads could operate year-round and could be built almost anywhere.

The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad –construction began in 1828. By the end of the 1830s, there were 450 locomotives in the country and 3,200 miles of track – as much as the total canal mileage and twice the track in Europe. (By the 1850s – 30,000 miles of track). • Railroad construction proceeded quickly in the United States: o People felt the need for it o Availability of land (European railways spent a lot of time and money on rights-of- way, where in America they were cheap or in free land grants) o State governments contributed 45% of early railroad capital

ImpactImpact ofof railroads:railroads: • Sped up the industrial revolution – stimulating mining and processing of metals/coal; created industries in the manufacture of rails, trains, and rolling stock; encouraging the workforce to leave agriculture and move into other occupations • Facilitated emergence of towns and cities in the West • Opportunities for farmers to ship crops to distant destinations, encouraging market production rather than local consumption • Political consequences: east-west ties were reinforced at the expense of north-south ones. They encouraged the Old Northwest to ship produce eastward rather than south along the rivers to the Gulf, affecting the balance of power regionally and nationally (which exacerbated sectional tensions in the years leading up to the Civil War).

Steam Engines Robert Fulton and Steamboats Robert Fulton didn’t invent steamboats, but he was the first to make them commercially successful. • Fulton, an artist, turned towards a career in shipbuilding. (He had also designed a submarine for the British Navy). • His interest was in the recently invented steam engine and using it to power ships. He was not the first with this idea but was the first to make it work in the marketplace. • 1807 – the North River (later known as Clermont) made its debut, steaming upriver on the Hudson from New York to Albany, and soon entered commercial service. Fulton’s boat – formerly known as “Fulton’s Folly” – was a hit.

Impact of steamboats • Most useful for trips upstream with strong currents – Mississippi the ultimate example. o 1817 – record 25 day trip up the Mississippi from New Orleans to Louisville; by 1826, the trip was cut by 8 days o Pre-steamboat traffic on Mississippi had mostly been downstream. At New Orleans, boatmen broke up their barges to sell for lumber and walked back home to Kentucky or Tennessee along the Natchez Trace road. • Steamboat travel was instrumental in the Industrial Revolution, helping to transport raw materials and finished goods quickly.

2/24-2/25 ​ ​ ​ ​ IndustrialIndustrial RevolutionRevolution

Date ​ ​1790s – 1850s

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 21 V5 Ch 25, 26 ​ ​Amazing Erie Canal pp 14-end ​ ​ Early Industrial Revolution in America 1790s-1830s The first phase of industrialization took place between the 1790s through the 1830s. New England was the heartland of industrialization in America- • System of universal public education • Southern New England had plentiful water power to generate the mills and factories • As steam power took over, the center of industrialization moved to Pennsylvania

Samuel Slater ““Father of the American Industrial Revolution The start of the American Industrial Revolution is often attributed to Samuel Slater: • Called “Father of the American Industrial Revolution,” “Father of the American Factory System,” or “Slater the Traitor” (by the English) • Slater was an apprentice in a cotton mill in England. Rising to the position of superintendent, he became intimately familiar with the mill machines. British law forbade exporting of the machine designs or mill workers leaving England. Slater covertly left England, arriving in New York in 1789. • 1791 -With his business partner's financial support, Slater built America’s 1st water-powered cotton spinning mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. A waterwheel drove the machinery that carded and spun cotton into thread. o Slater’s wife Hannah invented a type of cotton sewing thread, becoming the 1st American woman to be granted a patent. • Slater employed families to live and work at the mill site. o 1803 – built a mill village named Slatersville. It included a modern mill, tenement houses for the workers, and a company store. o Slater’s factory system was soon imitated and improved upon by innovators like Francis Cabot Lowell throughout New England.

Question -- What did the cotton mills need??

Cotton Cotton In the South, the land was exhausted by tobacco. Cotton was introduced, but the hardier short- staple variety was challenging to process. The seeds were stickier and difficult to separate from the cotton fibers. In 1793, Eli Whitney’s cotton gin (short for “engine”) separated the seeds from short-staple cotton, vastly increasing what a single person could process in a day. This new cotton production provided the raw material for the booming industrial textile mills of the American northeast and Great Britain.

Eli Whitney –– CottonCotton GinGin // InterchangeableInterchangeable PartsParts Whitney grew up on a Massachusetts farm. During the Revolutionary War, he manufactured nails to fill the demand caused by British embargoes. He quickly learned how the marketplace worked and diversified into hatpins and canes. His genius was his ability to observe what people needed and to provide it.

Cotton Gin- • After Yale, Whitney moved to a southern plantation to tutor. When that job fell through, he went to work on Catherine Greene’s plantation (widow of Revolutionary War hero Nathaniel Greene). Whitney saw how hard it was to separate the seeds from short-staple cotton. In 1793, he invented a machine that could do the job many times faster than a slave doing it by hand. o By hand, it took 10 hours to remove enough seeds to make one pound of cotton lint. o 1 worker with a gin could clean 50 pounds of cotton in a day ▪ Whitney’s gin processed 50 pounds/day – modern gins process 15 tonnes/hour • After the invention of the cotton gin, cotton became America’s leading crop. Demand for cotton was fueled by other Industrial Revolution inventions, such as the machinery used in the textile mills and the steamboat to transport it. • Unfortunately, the increased profitability significantly increased the demand for both land and slave labor. Slavery spread across the Deep South and into the Southwest, becoming more entrenched. Before the invention of the cotton gin, slavery had looked likely to die out. However, the cotton farmers held fast to slavery and created pro-slavery rhetoric that claimed: God ordained slavery, slavery was good, slaves were better off than northern factory workers.

InterchangeableInterchangeable PartsParts -- thethe American system of mass production • 1798 – Whitney, who hadn’t seen much profit from the cotton gin (despite gaining a patent for it, so many people pirated the machine that he couldn’t make money with), launched a new venture in manufacturing arms. • Up to this time, muskets were made one at a time; no two were exactly alike. Whitney observed carefully, noting a war scare with France, and came up with an innovative idea – arms that he claimed he could produce more efficiently with the help of machines. And on the battlefield, having guns that were made the same simplified repairs with replacement parts. • His idea of machine-made, interchangeable parts was the beginning of what would become known as the “American system” of mass production. Although others would create this system in their industries, he popularized it and was instrumental in lobbying politicians to pass legislation to standardize arms production.

By identifying interchangeable parts as his goal, Whitney put his finger on the manufacturing technique that would transform the North and the world.

Lowell Textile Mills Francis Cabot Lowell and mechanic Paul Moody devised a power loom capable of weaving cloth. Lowell and his associates formed the Boston Manufacturing Company to build America’s first integrated textile factory that performed every operation necessary to transform cotton lint into finished cloth. (Other mills in America and Great Britain kept spinning and weaving as into finished cloth. (Other mills in America and Great Britain kept spinning and weaving as separate operations, but Lowell brought all steps under one roof). • The company initially built a factory in Waltham, Massachusetts. Doing well, they opened new operations in East Chelmsford on Merrimack River, renaming that town Lowell. The Lowell mills became a prototype for Northeastern mills. • Another of Lowell’s innovations was hiring young farm girls to work the mill. He paid them lower wages than men but offered benefits that many girls were eager to earn. (The girls’ wages were three times higher than they could make as a household servant). o The girls lived in clean boardinghouses with chaperones, were paid cash, and had opportunities to participate in religious and educational activities.

Some other ingenious inventors- • Charles Goodyear – 1844 patented the process for vulcanizing rubber • Elias Howe – 1846 a journeyman machinist who patented a sewing machine • Cyrus McCormick – 1831 invented a mechanical reaper • John Deere – 1837 made a plow from steel rather than wood or iron

Growth of Cities The 1820s-1850s was a period of the most rapid urbanization in American history • 1820 – 5 cities with population greater than 25,000 (& 1 city w/ pop greater 100,000) • 1850 -26 cities w/ population greater than 25,000 (& 6 cities w/pop greater 100,000) The growth of cities was a result of the transportation revolution and industrialization. During this period, most of the cities grew up oriented to commerce rather than industry, especially along the inland waterways.

3 types of cities: • Commercial centers • Mill towns • Transportation hubs Before 1840 – most people moving to cities were from the countryside; after 1840 – European immigrants.

Cities were mostly in the Northeast and the Old Northwest. The South had few cities; only New Orleans could compare with northern centers. There was a slower extension of the railroad networks in the South as well as less industry. The southern economy was mostly agrarian.

City Life Urbanization brought challenges and dangers: • The most terrifying danger in cities was fire. • Pollution – coal and steam-powered factories added soot to the air • Lack of hygiene – o Cities rarely provided water; people dug their wells despite contamination from nearby outhouses o Outhouses and sewers would overflow during rains o Horse manure littered the streets o Garbage in alleys – cities would loose geese and hogs to scavenge. Dogs, rats, and vultures joined them. Signs were posted warning parents not to leave babies unattended due to the danger of being eaten by the scavenging animals. • Urban violence – o Riots fueled by racial tensions (i.e., Irish immigrants competing with blacks for jobs) o Ethnic, cultural, and social hostilities fueled violence • The death rate in cities was higher than in the countryside and higher than the cities' birthrate.​​ 3/1-3/2 ​ ​ ​ ​ Andrew Jackson 3/1-3/2 ​ ​ ​ ​ Andrew Jackson Trail of Tears

Date ​ ​1829-1839

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 20, 24, 25 ​ ​ Andrew Jackson (president 1829-1837) “Our Federal Union: It Must Be Preserved” ~ Andrew Jackson’s toast at the Jefferson Day dinner

He was one of America’s most important and controversial presidents: • Known most for Indian Removal • Expanded the powers of the presidency – o kept the Union intact during the Nullification crisis o opposed the national bank, vetoing the re-charter of the Second Bank of U.S.

Election of 1828 –– AA PivotalPivotal YearYear The political climate had changed. The old system, based on elite coalitions, largely disappeared. • Defenders of a nat’l administration (with the focus on a strong central gov’t) started calling themselves “National” Republicans, later becoming Whigs (Adams, Clay) • Supporters of a popular mandate called themselves “Democratic” Republicans, later becoming simply Democrats (Jackson, Van Buren, Calhoun)

Now emerged a competitive party system oriented toward heavy voter participation: • Major parties raised $, selected/promoted candidates, brought voters to the polls • Sponsored conventions, rallies • Party newspapers printed attacks on rivals • Language of politics became contentious & militaristic • Strong party identification became part of the new political culture

Jackson styled himself as the people’s candidate- • Depicted the administration of John Quincy Adams as corrupt and aristocratic • Promised a more democratic political system • Got 56% of the popular vote (more than any other president in the 1800s) But – Jackson owned slaves, defended slavery, and condoned mob attacks on abolitionists, and ordered forcible removal of Indians in disregard to treaty rights and the Supreme Court

Path to White House The first 6 presidents came from the same mold: wealthy, educated, and from the east (Virginia or Massachusetts). Jackson was the antithesis - orphaned at 14; he grew up in poverty. Jackson was a military hero, lawyer, and successful planter from Tennessee. As a law student, he was a “roaring, rollicking, game-cocking, horse-racing, card-playing, mischievous fellow.” He was nicknamed “Old Hickory” for being as tough as old hickory on the battlefield. He ran for president in 1824 but lost to John Quincy Adams in the House of Representatives vote. Jackson vowed to avenge what he called a “corrupt bargain.”

The election of 1828 was a nasty contest. Neither Jackson nor Adams personally participated in the battle, but their supporters made slanderous attacks against the opposing candidate. Adams was accused of procuring women for the Czar of Russia when he was U.S. minister to that country (not true); Jackson was vilified for living with Rachel as man and wife, “living in sin,” before her divorce from her 1st husband (true), calling Rachel a bigamist. Also, he portrayed his mother as a prostitute (not true).

Adam’s and Jackson’s positions: • Adams stood for a vision of coherent economic progress, improvement both personal and national, directed by deliberate planning. • Jackson’s campaign was vague on specific policies. Jacksonians’ vision of the future lay in opening new lands to white settlement. Campaign slogans celebrated agrarian virtue and promised to restore Old Republicanism.

President Jackson The presidential election of 1828 brought a massive victory to Jackson, receiving almost 70% of the electoral college vote and 57% of the popular vote. An ordinary man became president. • Sectional differences were evident in the vote- o A bare majority in free states (50.3% of the vote) o A large majority in slave states (72.6% of the vote)

As president: • 2 key principles (drawn from Jefferson) guided him: o Limited national government o The obligation of the government to defend ordinary people against “monied” aristocracy • He used presidential power in the name of the people, asserting power most forcibly with the veto o His 6 predecessors before had only cast 6 vetos combined, but Jackson vetoed 12 bills – often because they conflicted with his political agenda • Unionist - Despite support for limited national government and states’ rights, he didn’t believe any state had the right to reject the will of the majority or destroy the Union.

Opposition to National Bank The Second Bank of the United States’ charter was due for renewal. Jackson vetoed its re- charter in 1832 and withdrew federal funds from the bank in 1833. In Jackson’s veto message, he cited the following reasons for his opposition: • Concentrated financial strength in one institution • Served mainly to make the rich richer • Exercised too much control over members of Congress • Favored northeastern states over western and southern states Money-lending functions were taken over by local and state banks. This increased credit and speculation. Jackson then issued the Specie Circular in 1836, requiring that buyers of government lands to pay in “specie” (gold or silver coins). There was great demand placed on banks to exchange notes for specie, but the banks did not have enough specie, causing many banks to collapse. The collapse was a direct cause of the Panic of 1837, which threw the country into a deep depression.

The U.S. Senate censured Jackson in 1834 for his action in removing U.S. funds from the Bank of the United States. When the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate, the censure was removed.

Nullification Crisis 1828-1832 Also called the “secession crisis” – resulted from disagreements over tariffs • 1828 - Critics alleged that high tariffs on imports of common manufactured goods made in Europe made those goods more expensive than the ones from the northern U.S., raising the prices paid by planters in the South. the prices paid by planters in the South. • Southern politicians argued that tariffs benefited northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. o Vice-President Calhoun presented nullification as a means by which southern states could protect themselves: declared a state had the right to nullify - declare void - any Federal laws that went against its interests. • 1832 – Congress modified the tariff of 1828 by retaining high duties on some goods but lowering other rates. Later that year, a South Carolina convention adopted an Ordinance of Nullification, voiding the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 in the state. o The state legislature threatened secession if the federal government forced the state to comply. • Jackson responded forcibly, proclaiming that “the laws of the United States must be executed…The Union will be preserved, and treason and rebellion promptly put down.” He asked Congress for 2 things: o A “Force Bill” authorizing the use of military force to enforce the tariff o New tariff revisions. • The Compromise Tariff was engineered by Clay and supported by Calhoun; these revisions called for gradual reductions. • South Carolina repealed its nullification of the tariff laws but saved face by nullifying the Force Bill (Jackson ignored).

The crisis is over - but left unresolved were the constitutional issues it raised: Was the Union permanent? Was secession a valid way to protect minority rights? Such questions would trouble Americans until the civil war.

IndianIndian RemovalRemoval Jackson was a leading advocate of Indian removal. He had been negotiating treaties and removal policies with Indian leaders for years before his election as president. The policy of forced relocation of Native Americans westward and onto reservations defined American policy for the rest of the century.

By 1825, lands of the southeast Native Americans (Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole & Creek) had been eroded by land-hungry white settlers. The Indians began restricting land sales to government agents, determined to resist whites taking over their land. • Jackson recommended to Congress the removal of the southeastern tribes o Rationalized it was humane to remove them because they were surrounded by whites, dooming their civilization to weakness and decay o Also claimed the policy was justified because state laws should prevail over Native American claims or the federal government (contradicting his statements over tariffs during the Nullification Crisis)

1829 – crisis came to a head • Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal; claimed jurisdiction over both the tribe and their lands • Cherokee protested – brought suit to the Supreme Court o 1832 – Worcester v. Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall held the Georgia law “repugnant to the Constitution” with “no force” over the Cherokee. By inviolable treaty rights, the Cherokee were considered “domestic dependent nations” of the U.S. Federal government. • But Georgians defied the Supreme Court decision (with Jackson’s approval) o Jackson’s response: “John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it.”

1830 – Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands east of the Mississippi River in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders (present-day Oklahoma). • The North frowned upon the Removal Act • The North frowned upon the Removal Act • Removal Act was popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land increased the pressure on tribal lands. • The sequence of Indian removal- o 1831 – Choctaw o 1832 – Seminole o 1834 – Creek o 1837 – Chickasaw o 1838 - Cherokee

Trail of Tears (1838)(1838) Initially referred to the forced removal of Cherokee in 1838 – • Jackson’s successor, Van Buren, enforced the removal of the Cherokee. • U.S. Army gathered the Indians in stockades before herding them west to “Indian Territory” (present-day Oklahoma) • 15,000 removed; 4,000 died on the trek that the Cherokee remember as the “trail of tears.” o Most of the deaths occurred from disease, starvation, and cold. ▪ Private John G. Burnett wrote: • “I saw the helpless Cherokees arrested and dragged from their homes, and driven at the bayonet point into the stockades. And in the chill of a drizzling rain on an October morning I saw them loaded like cattle or sheep into 645 wagons and started toward the west…On the morning of November the 17th we encountered a terrific sleet and snow storm with freezing temperatures and from that day until we reached the end of the fateful journey on March the 26th 1839, the sufferings of the Cherokees were awful. The trail of the exiles was a trail of death. They had to sleep in the wagons and on the ground without fire. And I have known as many as 22 of them to die in one night of pneumonia due to ill treatment, cold and exposure…”

The Indian Removal Act had promised to guarantee and protect the Native American lands in the west, but those promises were broken within a generation. The removal left the eastern United States open for tremendous expansion.

Before the end of Jackson’s 2 terms, about 46,000 Native Americans had been dispossessed and a like number slated for dispossession under his successor.

Historian Jeffrey Ostler on Indian removal: Between 1830 and the early 1840s, the United States moved a large majority of the American South’s Native people. • At any given time, year in and year out, Indians were being forced from their homes, waiting and dying in detention camps, starving or freezing along trails of tears, or trying to rebuild their communities in disease-ridden new homes. • As Native people were being expelled, slave traffickers ripped African Americans from family members in older slave states, put them in chains, and drove them along a Second Middle Passage (its own trail of tears) to clear formerly Indigenous lands and plant them to white gold. o In 1850, the South produced 1 billion pounds of cotton, triple its production in the year of the Indian Removal Act. The removal of Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks was vital to King Cotton’s rise.

Jackson Legacy –– TheThe JacksonianJacksonian EraEra ((thethe 1820s-1850s)1820s-1850s) The Democratic Party Jackson’s popular appeal created the Democratic Party, and his decisions made while in the Jackson’s popular appeal created the Democratic Party, and his decisions made while in the White House became its policies. John Quincy Adams and the Framers believed in a balanced government, but Jackson was a populist, believing in popular sovereignty. • Until the Civil War changed America, the Democratic Party endorsed popular sovereignty, opposed a national bank and national economic planning, promoted continental expansion, and protected slavery. • The Whigs became the oppositional party - endorsing a national bank, tariff protectionism, and government-directed economic development (internal improvements). Whigs also supported anti-slavery reforms.

Many considered the Jacksonian Era nothing short of another American Revolution. By 1850, the “common man” demanded his place in politics, the office of president was invigorated, and the frontier exerted a powerful influence. Hated by many but loved by many more, Andrew Jackson embodied this new American character.

In drafting his inaugural address in 1861, Lincoln looked to Andrew Jackson’s Proclamation to the People of South Carolina. In it, he found the example of a president who had fought secession and chaos, rescuing the Union from an armed clash with a hostile South 28 years earlier. Franklin Roosevelt found that Jackson met the challenge and rescued the Union with a “rugged, courageous spirit.”

Jon Meacham saw the tragedy of Jackson’s life was that a man dedicated to freedom failed to see liberty as a universal, not a particular, gift. The triumph of his life was that he held together a country whose experiment in liberty ultimately extended its protections and promises to all.

Sequoyah • Sequoyah was born in c1776 in the village of Tuskegee. His mother was a Cherokee woman, and his father was fur trader Nathaniel Gist. • Sequoyah married a Cherokee, had a family, and was a silversmith by trade. He fought under General Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indian during the War of 1812. • He was illiterate; the Cherokee had no written language, and he had never learned the English alphabet. Unlike the white soldiers, he was unable to write letters home or read military orders. After the war, he thought about the idea of literacy for the Cherokee. • He began to make symbols that could make words, finally reducing the thousands of Cherokee thoughts to 85 symbols representing sounds. His daughter learned how to make the symbols. • 1821 – after 12 years of working on the new language, he introduced his syllabary to the Cherokee people. Within a few months, thousands of Cherokee became literate. Sequoyah remains the only identifiable person in human history to have invented a writing system for his language without first being literate in another.

3/3-3/4 ​ ​ ​ ​ A Paradox - ​ ​ ​ ​Slavery in the Land of the Free

Date ​ ​1776 -1865

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 27, 28, 29 ​ ​Which Way West? pp 28-43 ​ ​Founding Mothers Caty Greene ​ ​Founding Mothers Caty Greene ​ ​ The Paradox… In the Declaration of Independence, the Founders declared we were all created equal and had a right to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” Yet, in this land of freedom, there was a group of people enslaved. Many people recognized the incongruity of this situation. Most of the men at the Constitutional Convention admitted that they hated slavery, but the battle for a constitution was their first priority. Unfortunately, attempting to abolish slavery at this time would have assured defeat for a working constitution, thus preventing the union from forming. It was a divisive issue then - and would take several generations and a civil war to rectify. In the meantime, Americans were struggling with the problem of slavery… John Carter III (c1727(c1727 –– 1804)1804) The Abolitionist That Time Forgot Carter was a wealthy Virginia plantation owner with more money, land, and slaves than either George Washington or Thomas Jefferson. He owned 16 plantations, an iron foundry, ships, flour mills, and more than 500 slaves, an inheritance from his grandfather “King” Carter.

Later in his life, Carter had some questions concerning God and religion. Eventually, he became a Baptist (and later a Swedenborgian) and became convicted that slavery was wrong. In 1791 Carter did something extraordinary – he freed his slaves! By a “Deed of Gift” filed with the county, he began the process of manumitting his slaves, over 500, at a pace of 15 per year. The decision did not sit well with his sons-in-law (who resented losing part of their inheritance) or his neighbors, who feared a possible rebellion on their plantations.

By 1792, Carter had tired of the squabbling that that resulted from the Deed of Gift. After appointing a Baptist minister to complete the manumission project, he retired to Baltimore. In 1796, he bequeathed his Virginia property to his children, ensuring that his freed blacks were given fair leases and that his sons-in-law couldn’t undo his work. In accordance with his wishes, his descendants continued freeing slaves for nearly 50 years after his death. • His manumission is the largest known release of slaves in North American history before the American Civil War and the largest number ever manumitted by an individual in the U.S.

“No other Virginians of the Revolutionary era – including those, like Jefferson and Washington, who spoke out so passionately against slavery – managed to reconcile freedom in theory and freedom in practice with such transparent simplicity.” ~ Andrew Levy, English professor

Elizabeth Freeman “Mum“Mum Bett”Bett” Elizabeth Freeman was born into slavery in New York. Purchased at 6 months by John Ashley of Sheffield, Massachusetts, she served his family until nearly 40. By then, she was known as “Mum Bett” and had a daughter, “Little Bett.” Her husband had been killed while fighting in the Revolutionary War.

One day her mistress hit her with a heated shovel. Angry, Mum Bett left the house and refused to return. She contacted Theodore Sedgewick, a lawyer with anti-slavery sentiments, wanting to sue for her freedom.

Sedgewick agreed to take the case, which was joined by another slave named Brom, also owned by John Ashley. Brom & Bett v. Ashley was argued before a county court. The jury ruled in favor of Bett and Brom – making them the first slaves to be freed under the Massachusetts constitution of 1780. • This case set a precedent that was affirmed by the state courts in the Quock Walker case and ultimately led to the abolition of slavery in Massachusetts.

Elizabeth Freeman died a free woman in 1829, surrounded by her family in the free state of Massachusetts that she helped to create. Almost 40 years later, her great-grandson W.E.B. DuBois was born, famous for his book The Souls of Black Folk and helped create the NAACP. DuBois was born, famous for his book The Souls of Black Folk and helped create the NAACP.

Paul Cuffe (1759-1817) Paul’s father was a former African slave who had purchased his freedom, and his mother was Wampanoag Indian. When his father died, Paul began working on whaling ships. He taught himself mathematics and navigation and began sailing his vessels. During the Revolutionary War, he made his living as a blockade runner.

Cuffe became a successful businessman – he owned his ships, had investments in whaling and commerce, and fishing and farming interests. He became a Quaker in 1808. At the time of his death, he was the wealthiest man in Westport, Massachusetts, and the wealthiest black man in the United States. He was an abolitionist and in favor of repatriating blacks to Sierra Leone.

In 1780, he and his brother refused to pay taxes in protest against the Massachusetts state constitution, which prohibited blacks and Indians from voting. The 2 brothers alluded to taxation without representation. While they did not gain the vote, their tax burden was much lighter!

Richard Allen, Absalom Jones,, andand thethe EarlyEarly BlackBlack ChurchChurch Absolom Jones, born a slave on a Delaware plantation, worked in his owner’s house and received a basic education. His owner moved to Philadelphia, where Absolom worked by day in his owner’s store and attended a school for blacks at night. He married another slave, eventually buying first his wife’s freedom and then his own.

Jones became active in a Methodist Episcopal Church where both whites and blacks worshipped together. • He became a lay preacher, meeting fellow lay preacher Richard Allen • Large numbers of African Americans came to the church o When the attendance of African Americans increased, the church relegated them to sit in remote areas of the church ▪ Jones, Allen, and the other African American congregants permanently left the church

Absolom Jones – • became a minister at St. Thomas’s African Episcopal Church Richard Allen – • remained loyal to Methodism; founded African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) – the first denomination created specifically for African Americans

3/8-3/9 ​ ​ ​ ​Abolitionists && KingKing CottonCotton ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Date ​ ​1825-1865

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 30, 31, 32 ​ ​Heart and Soul Ch 2 ​ ​Trail of Tears pp 4-27 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Topics “Never before has the black race of Central Africa, from the dawn of history to present day, “Never before has the black race of Central Africa, from the dawn of history to present day, attained a condition so civilized and improved, not only physically, but morally and intellectually.” ~ John C. Calhoun, on how slavery has aided African Americans

King Cotton South and “The“The PeculiarPeculiar Institution”Institution” The history of slavery in America begins with the earliest European settlements and ends with the Civil War. Slavery initially existed in both the north and the south, but the north's industrialization and the expansion/demand for cotton in the south shifted the balance, making slavery a regional issue. • The cotton gin led the American south to emerge as the world’s leading producer of cotton • The southern cotton-based economy depended upon cheap slave labor

Different Regions in South • Old Upper South – VA, MD, NC, KY o 18th century – tobacco, rice are staple crops • Lower South or “Black Belt” South (for rich, black soil) – SC west to Texas o 19th century – King Cotton South – cotton is the staple crop ▪ By 1825, the dominance of Virginia fading as King Cotton shifted the center of southern influence to the Lower South o Virgin earth of Black Belt seemed ideal: ▪ South Carolina backcountry yielded 300# cotton/acre ▪ Alabama black belt yielded 800-1,000# cotton/acre o Cotton production soared – ▪ In 1820, the US surpassed India as a leading producer of cotton ▪ By 1850, 68% of the world’s production of cotton came from the US South

Cotton Cotton was very labor-intensive- • Slavery remained legal in states that grew cotton. • The spread of cotton cultivation entailed the migration of farmers and the forced migration of enslaved laborers • Because the importation of slaves from overseas was illegal since 1808, slaves could only come from the seaboard slave states o Initially, slaves walked overland from Virginia to Mississippi/Louisiana (took 6-8 wks) ▪ Only when Kentucky or Tennessee had surplus slaves did the phrase “sold down the river” come into common use • Historian Ira Berlin called the migration of slaves west the “Second Middle Passage.”

The rapid rise of the Cotton Kingdom transformed not only the economy of the South but the economy of the US as a whole – and even across the Atlantic • Cotton growing dominated the Lower South • Manufacturing of cotton textiles fueled the industrial revolution in the North and across the Atlantic (esp England) • Much of the Atlantic civilization of the 19th century was built on the backs of slaves

As the cotton industry took hold, slavery became more entrenched, and opposition to the Peculiar Institution began to grow.

Abolitionists

Early abolitionists had called for the gradual end of slavery, supporting the compensation of slave owners. • Ben Franklin helped found the American Abolition Society in 1775

New abolitionists saw slavery as a blight – they advocated an immediate end without compensation to owners. They became very vocal and more involved- • In response to growing abolitionist sentiment: o Andrew Jackson prohibited the post office from delivering Abolitionist literature in the south o Abolitionists were physically attacked. In the North, there were riots and mob violence against abolitionists. Abolitionist presses were destroyed. ▪ President Jackson denounced abolitionists as “incendiaries” who deserved to have their “unconstitutional and wicked” activities broken by mobs • Since mailings were banned in the South, abolitionists sent petitions to Congress and the state legislatures o Gag rule – passed in the House of Representatives, forbidding the discussion of bills/petitions that restricted slavery (John Quincy Adams referred to the bill as “the gag”) ▪ However, the instigators of the gag rule reckoned without John Quincy Adams, who had invented many devices for getting around the gag! He was a master of parliamentary procedure and very effective at presenting many petitions despite the rule. Even his foes respected his cleverness: • Virginian Henry Wise called him “the acutest, the astutest, the archest enemy of Southern slavery that ever existed…and his prophecies have been fulfilled…far faster and more fearfully…than ever has been anticipated.”

The Second Great Awakening was vital in stimulating the abolitionist movement and other reform movements. Charles Finney, one of the most famous of the preachers during this time, preached that God is not angry but merciful and loving. Salvation is the beginning of good works here on earth, therefore go forth and do as well as believe! • With a less formal clergy and belief that anyone could be saved (as opposed to Calvinism in which only those who are predestined for salvation are saved), these groups meshed well with Jacksonian Democracy o Women became more involved • Soon reform movements designed to improve societal evils emerged from the churches in America – such as abolitionism

Differences within the abolition groups: • Some groups were involved only with the abolition of slavery while other groups supported women’s rights and other causes as well • Class and race divided abolitionists o White abolitionists saw in absolutes – a person was either a slave or free o African Americans knew that there were degrees of freedom – northern blacks were less free than whites

Black and white abolitionists generally worked well together, fighting against discrimination also • 1841 – 1st successful integrated “sit-in” in American history o Organized by Garrison when a black man was drug from a “white car” of a Massachusetts railway • 1855 – after several years of legal challenges, Massachusetts was finally successful in outlawing segregated public education o 99 years would pass before the Supreme Court desegregated schools throughout the country

The Southern argument for slavery: The Southern argument for slavery: • The sudden end to slavery economy would kill the southern economy • If slaves freed, then widespread chaos and unemployment would ensue (citing mob rule of France after the French Revolution) • Slavery is the natural state of mankind (Greeks, Romans, and English had slavery) • Slavery is seen in the Bible • Constitution protected slave-holders to rights to their property • Slavery good for the enslaved; it brought Christianity to them • Slaves are better cared for than poor Europeans and workers in the Northern states

The rebuttal to these arguments came from abolitionists…

William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator Garrison was raised Baptist and grew up with a religious zeal to set the world aright. At the age of 25, he began his antislavery newspaper. His publication, The Liberator, reached thousands. For the entire generation of people that grew up in the years that led to the Civil War, he was the voice of abolitionism. • The 1st issue appeared in January 1831 • His words, “I am in earnest – I will not equivocate – I will not excuse – I will not retreat a single inch – AND I WILL BE HEARD,” clarified the position of the new abolitionists. o He spoke in the tone of a romantic evangelist • Garrison had a sound understanding of the antislavery cause – it was a battle for public opinion. If a critical segment of the public opinion could be brought to recognize slavery as a moral evil, the institution’s days would be numbered. • 34 years after publishing The Liberator, Garrison saw the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution go into effect, banning slavery forever. It took a lifetime of work, but slavery was finally purged from the Constitution.

Abolitionists flooded the nation with antislavery literature. Former slaves began to tell their stories- • By the 1840s and 1850s, over 100 published book-length accounts of slavery written by runaway slaves themselves. Autobiographies of slaves were instrumental in influencing public opinion to end slavery. o Frederick Douglass – a famous escaped slave who told his story ▪ He escaped from slavery when he was 21. As a former house servant, he had learned to read and write by “various stratagems.” ▪ He began to speak to crowds about his experiences as a slave. Narrative was his autobiography. His talents as an orator and writer brought him dangerous attention. Fearful that his master would claim him and return him to bondage, Douglass went on an extended speaking tour of the British Isles. (A group of abolitionists bought his freedom. He safely returned to his wife and children in America). ▪ He began publishing an anti-slavery newspaper North Star. • After the abolition of slavery, he fought for the vote for blacks and women and spoke against the mistreatment of the Chinese and American Indians

3/10-3/11 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Slavery ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Abolitionist Movement

Date ​ ​1800s-1865

Themes ​Trade and Commerce Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V5 Ch 24, 36; V6 Ch 3 ​ ​Trail of Tears pp 28-48 ​ ​Heart and Soul Ch 3

Topics “I have plowed and reaped and husked and chopped and mowed, and can any man do more than that?...And how came Jesus into the world? Through God who created him and woman who bore him. Man, where is your part?” ~ Sojourner Truth, delivered 1851 at Women’s Convention, Akron, Ohio Sojourner Truth (1797-1883) Childhood Sojourner Truth, one of the best known black women of her time (rivaled only by Harriet Tubman), was a passionate speaker for abolition and women’s rights. Yet much of what we know of her, outside of her dictated autobiography, was reported by others. She was illiterate, and much of her life is shrouded in mystery.

Born into slavery in New York, Isabella (Belle) Baumfree (later taking the name Sojourner Truth) was one of 10 or 12 children to Dutch-speaking parents. She spoke only Dutch until she was 9 years old when she was sold away from her family. At her new home, she was beaten daily. She was owned by several masters and forced to marry an older slave in 1817. Belle bore 5 children.

Freedom The state of New York began a gradual emancipation program in 1799, the process complete in 1827. Her master promised Belle her freedom in 1826, but he reneged on his promise, stating that her hand injury made her less productive. Furious, she nevertheless continued working to satisfy her sense of obligation to her.

Late in 1826, Belle escaped to freedom with her infant daughter. (She had to leave her other children because they were not legally freed until they had served as bound servants into their 20s). She found herself on the doorstep of the Wageners, who took in her and her baby. Isaac Wagener bought her services from her master for the remainder of the year when the state’s emancipation took effect.

During her stay with the Wageners, she found out that her son Peter was illegally sold to an Alabama owner. With the help of the Wageners, she sued and won custody of her son. She was one of the first black women to win a case in court against a white man. Also, during her stay, she had a powerful conversion experience, becoming a devout Christian. Religion lay at the heart of Truth’s transformation from a victimized slave to a charismatic leader. Her conversion also led her to a lifelong commitment to reform activism.

“The Spirit calls me, and I must go.” 1843 – Belle changes her name to Sojourner Truth, a name she believed God had given her. She became a Methodist, traveling and preaching about the abolition of slavery. In 1844, Sojourner met William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and David Ruggles. She dictated her memoirs to her friend, and in 1850 William Lloyd Garrison privately published her book The Narrative of Sojourner Truth: a Northern Slave.

“Ain’t I a Woman?” 1851 – Sojourner attended a Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio, where she delivered a famous speech on women’s rights later known as “Ain’t I a Woman?” Different versions of Truth’s speech have been published, with the 1st one published a month later by Marius Robinson, a newspaper editor in the audience. Robinson’s account of the speech does not include the question, “Ain’t I a woman?” Twelve years later, Frances Dana Barker Gage published a different version of the speech. Gage’s speech became the historic standard, but the speech patterns of Truth in the Gage version is of a person with Southern dialect – and Truth was a New Yorker who spoke with a Dutch accent all of her life. More than likely, the later, famous version published by Gage was not accurate.

Later Life Sojourner spent the years leading up to the Civil War speaking before hundreds of audiences about abolition and women’s rights. During the Civil War, she helped recruit black troops for the Union Army, and after the war, she tried in vain to secure land grants from the federal government for former slaves.

She traveled until shortly before her death, speaking for women’s rights, prison reform, temperance, free land for former slaves, and against capital punishment. Sojourner died in 1883 at 86 years old.

Harriet Beecher Stowe Harriet Beecher Stowe came from an educated family of reformers. Her father, Lyman, was a preacher and her mother, Roxana, ran a school for girls. Her parents taught all the children to think for themselves.

The Beechers were reformers, addressing a variety of social problems: • Poverty • Prostitution • Abuse of women, children, animals, convicts, and the insane • Most momentous – crusaded against slavery

Uncle Tom’s Cabin or Life Among the Lowly appeared in serial form in 1851 – and printed as a book in 1852. To her surprise, her book sold 300,000 copies in 1852 alone. Harriet’s sister-in- law had encouraged her to “make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing slavery is,” and Uncle Tom’s Cabin resulted from that effort.

Stowe crafted a religious allegory exposing slavery as an institutional sin trapping ALL parties – white, black, southern, and northern – by forcing them to muffle Christian truth in pretense. Stowe made it plain that her real target lay in the North. “Do you say that people in the free states have nothing to do with it?” she asked in her conclusion. “Would to God this were true! But it is not true. The people of the free states have defended, encouraged, and participated; and are more guilty for it, before God, than the South, in that they have not the apology of education or custom.”

3/15-16 ​ ​Beginning of Women’s Movement for Equal Rights

Date ​ ​1830s – 1850s

Themes ​Philosophy and Religion Themes ​Philosophy and Religion

Readings ​Hist US V5 Ch 22, 23 ​ ​Never Forgotten (in class) ​ ​ ​ ​ “Remember“Remember thethe Ladies!”Ladies!” ~~ Abigail Adams to her husband, John

During the Revolutionary War, women took on greater burdens and responsibilities. Later, many women found work in the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Slowly women began to express their desire for the same rights as men.

Much of the discussion of equal rights for women and children, abolition, and temperance happened outside of the public arena – in churches. Religion was very important to the reform movements, including the suffragette movement. Most reformers in the mid-19th century were churchgoers. The Second Great Awakening proclaimed that everyone – man or woman – must assume responsibility for their salvation and encouraged people to follow their conscience. Women became active in religious reform societies – especially abolition societies. Early feminists often came from denominations that practiced the greatest degree of gender equality (Quakers and Unitarians). Women’s participation in philanthropic institutions, religious organizations, and reform movements provided a practical education in self-assertion, leadership, and public communication. Women’s involvement in abolition brought about the self-awareness of their shackles: • Abigail Kelley put it this way – in trying to break the chains of the slave, female abolitionists had discovered “we were manacled ourselves.” • The Grimke sisters came to the cause of women’s suffrage through their experience with abolitionism. “The investigation of the rights of the slave has led me to a better understanding of my own,” said Angelina Grimke. • Churches eAbolition eWomen’s Suffragerage was a common path leading to women’s suffrage

Women participated in petition campaigns to protest Indian removal and slavery. Of all the antebellum congressmen, John Quincy Adams probably did the most for women’s rights by presenting and defending their petitions.

Like that of abolition, the cause of women’s suffrage found more support among the Yankees and the middle class. Whigs tended to be more open to suffrage than the Democrats. The Whigs’ support of public education and economic development was its most significant contribution to women’s suffrage. • Oberlin College in Ohio been coed and interracial since 1837

Leaders in Fight for Women’s Rights Angelina and Sarah Grimke - The sisters came to the cause through abolitionism. Their antislavery convictions came through religious conversion, migrating from Episcopalianism to Presbyterianism to the Society of Friends. Growing up in a slave-holding family, they moved from Charleston to Philadelphia, where they joined William Lloyd Garrison in his American Anti-Slavery Society. Their fight for women’s rights also included the ordination of women.

Sarah Grimke wrote Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes, which stated that whatever is right for a man to do is also right for a woman.

Abigail Kelley- A Quaker teacher in Massachusetts, she spoke at an anti-slavery convention. Incensed by both abolitionism and women speaking in public, a mob burned the hall down. Kelley observed that women had good cause to be grateful to the slave for in “striving to strike his irons off, we found most surely that we were manacled ourselves.”

Elizabeth Blackwell- She applied to 29 colleges before Geneva College accepted her in 1847. She was the 1st woman to graduate from medical school anywhere in the world.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott,, andand SenecaSeneca Falls-Falls- In 1840, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott attended a World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. They had to sit behind curtains and were forbidden to speak. Resolved to advocate for women’s rights, they organized a convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848.

Their Declaration of Sentiments was modeled after the Declaration of Independence, which declared that “all men and women are created equal.” Eleven resolutions were made at the convention – the most controversial being the “sacred right to the elective franchise.” • 300 people attended • 68 women/32 men signed the resolutions • Frederick Douglas was a speaker

A national uproar followed; newspapers mocked the convention. However, many other conventions were held all over. Two weeks following the Seneca Falls convention, Quaker Daniel Anthony attended a women’s rights meeting in Rochester, New York, hosted by a Unitarian church. His daughter Susan B Anthony would become the most famous of suffragette leaders.

Throughout the 1850s, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B Anthony led annual conventions. The primary purpose was to achieve equal opportunities in education, work, equality before the law, and the right to appear in public platforms. The cornerstone was the right to vote. (It would take 72 years before the passage of the 19th amendment in 1920 guaranteed the vote for women).

3/17-3/18 ​ ​ ​ ​ Pioneers Head West Manifest Destiny

Date ​ ​1820s-1850

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V5 Ch 5, 6, 7, 8 ​ ​Never Forgotten ​ ​Which Way West? pp 28-43

Pioneers Now called ‘pioneers,’ they referred to themselves as ‘emigrants’ because they were leaving the United States – going west to foreign lands… • California and Texas were part of Mexico o (California encompassed present-day CA, NM, AZ, UT, NV, CO, and WY) o By 1835, 30,000 Americans migrated to Texas (the largest group of Americans outside of US borders at that time) • Oregon was claimed by England as well as the US o (Oregon Territory roughly defined as north of California to Alaska)

Santa Fe Trail Santa Fe Trail In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain. For about 20 years, each spring after that, traders assembled wagons and inventories for the annual journey along the Cimarron River to New Mexico, selling their wares in the capital city of Sante Fe.

These traders demonstrated: • How to maneuver Conestoga wagons over prairies, rivers, and mountains • Travel in convoys under the leadership of a wagon master • Circling the wagons against menacing Commanche and Pawnee Indians These lessons were invaluable to those who would later travel west by overland routes.

Oregon Trail The Beginning – Traders mark the way Fur trading companies forged the first trails over the Rockies. William Ashley advertised for 100 enterprising men for his fur trading company. Fortunately for his company, he recruited Jim Bridger and Jedidiah Smith, mountain men who knew their way around. Ashley founded the practice of holding a rendezvous every year, usually beneath the Grand Tetons, where his trappers would meet to exchange their pelts for supplies. In 1825, Ashley returned from his first rendezvous with 3,200 beaver skins valued at $48,000.

Beaver Trapping Comes to an End- News traveled fast, and the report that wagon transport across the Great Plains and into the mountains was manageable. Fur companies proliferated – their trappers mastered the arts of survival in the wilderness, coexistence with Indians, and found the safest trails into and over the Rockies. But the beavers became nearly extinct in 15 years, and in 1840 some trappers decided to try farming in the Willamette River valley in Oregon Territory.

Panic of 1837 A depression resulted from the Panic of 1837 (caused by Jackson’s banking policies). Midwestern farmers especially were ruined by the Panic and were looking for opportunities to start over.

Migration on the Oregon Trail 1843 ~1,000 settlers traveled west to Oregon, fleeing economic depression. • Over the next few years, more and more farming families followed the 1,900 mile Oregon Trail (5,000 Americans had relocated by 1844) • Route: start in Iowa or Missouri ealong Platte and South Platte Rivers eover South Pass of the Rockies e stop at Ft. Bridger to restock e northwest to Ft. Hall e along Snake, Boise, and Columbia Rivers to Willamette Valley, Oregon • The overland route to Oregon discontinued with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869

California Trail Cheap land attracted settlers, hard times after the depression following the Panic spurred them on, and then the discovery of gold brought thousands... • 1841 – long caravans traveled, led by professional guides • 1842 – Mexican government, apprehensive about the number of settlers coming into California, forbade foreign acquisition of land. However, immigrants from the US kept California, forbade foreign acquisition of land. However, immigrants from the US kept coming, and Mexico lacked the resources to enforce the policy. • Route: followed the Oregon Trail, but parted ways at South Pass or Raft River e south thru the desert north of Salt Lake e follow Humboldt River to its Sink (end) e cross the 40 Mile Desert e cross the Sierra Nevada into California o (there are different crossings over the Sierra Nevada: Truckee River, Carson River, etc.) o Encountered the harshest terrain after the divergence of the California Trail, with the desert crossing and the steep, rocky Sierra Nevada crossing o It was a 3-6 month journey; it was necessary to time it so that the Sierra Nevada was crossed before the snows. • California Trail in constant use from 1841-1869, peaking in 1852. The transcontinental railroad ended the use of the trail.

Conditions on the trail • A high mortality rate from cold, heat, hunger, accidents, and disease • Wagons used to transport food and other necessities (people generally walked/rode beside wagon to help keep the weight minimal, so as not to overtax their draft animals) • Emigrants used the native grasses to feed their animals, water in the springs, rivers, lakes, and wood and brush for fire. Resources became depleted and contaminated, causing friction with the Indians. • Wagons are pulled up the steep mountains with ropes and pulleys, then let down the same way.

Mormon Migration to Salt Lake City • Most of the time, the trail paralleled the Oregon Trail but diverged with the Hastings Cutoff (from the Rockies’ South Pass to the Great Salt Lake) • Emigrants didn’t cross the plains in one single group- o 1846 – Brigham Young stretched 16,000 people in camps across Iowa ▪ Young had groups of people plant crops in one location and move to another, leaving the harvest for the next company. In this way, groups of emigrants methodically moved along the trail. o Unlike other emigrant caravans, no professional scouts or outfitters were used o On a good day, they made 10 miles • By the end of 1847 – 1,700 Mormons had made their way to Utah o By 1877 – 140,000 Mormons were living in Utah • The closest analogy in American history of the Mormon exodus would be the Puritans' great migration from England to Massachusetts Bay in 1630. Both were- o religiously motivated o well organized o implemented a pre-existing plan

Manifest Destiny The 1st use of the phrase “manifest destiny” occurred in an article in New York’s Jacksonian magazine Democratic Review regarding Texas's annexation. Public opinion was bitterly divided. The report asserted that Texas's integration into the Union represented “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.”

“Manifest destiny” served as both a label and justification for policies that might otherwise have been labeled American expansionism or imperialism. • Suggested that expansion across the continent was a God-given right for America • The assumption of white supremacy permeated these policies o Ignored the prior claims of Native Americans (who were seen as inferior) and Hispanics (seen as backward).

Important to Note – American expansionism didn’t represent an American consensus – it provoked bitter dissent. • Provoked renewed debate over the future of slavery • Whig Party was more concerned with the economic improvement of the land already acquired rather than expanding territory o Henry Clay: “It is much more important that we unite, harmonize, and improve what we have than attempt to acquire more land.”

James Polk PresidentPresident 1845-18491845-1849 • Democratic; condemned abolitionism and national banks • He agreed to serve only 1 term (so Calhoun could still try for the presidency) • Served as Speaker of the House and Governor of Tennessee • A prominent leader of Jacksonian Democracy

Polk had asked Andrew Jackson for advice on choosing a wife. Jackson suggested wealthy and intelligent Sarah Childress. Polk followed through on the advice and proposed to Sarah. Sarah, who was also political, answered that she would marry Polk if he could win a state legislature seat. He was successful, thus gaining both a wife and a legislative seat! She became his sole confidante.

Polk’s vision e continental expansion

Goals of the presidency (stated only to his wife and friend George Bancroft, Sec of the Navy): 1. Settlement of Oregon with Great Britain 2. Acquisition of California 3. Reduction of the Tariff 4. Establishment of an independent Treasury (Annexation of Texas wasn’t listed; he considered that a done deal. All of his goals were accomplished during his single term in office).

Oregon Settlement Both England and the US had claims to Oregon Territory. For 30 years, Britain had been more active there, but US immigrants arriving on the Oregon Trail tipped the balance in America’s favor.

1846 – Agreement reached to draw the boundary between England and the United States at the 49th parallel, with England keeping all of Vancouver Island.

California California encompassed present-day CA, NM, AZ, UT, NV, CO, WY. No mandate existed for California's acquisition, but Polk wanted California’s ports, envisioning a rich trade with China. His ambition for California would shape US-Mexican relations.

Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821. Mexico welcomed immigration and made naturalization easy. Mexico hoped to attract migrants from Europe and central Mexico. But instead, great numbers of Americans migrated to Texas over the Santa Fe Trail. The numbers of immigrants began to worry Mexico, and in 1830 Mexico suspended immigration from the United States. But the desire for economic development led to a lifting of the ban in 1833. By 1836, 30,000 Americans had settled in Texas. (American diplomats were pressing Mexico to sell Texas to the US).

In the 1840s, overland emigration of Americans to California increased the likelihood that California would not remain a Mexican outpost. Mexico City was too far away to maintain effective control of the territory. • Foreign powers recognized the vulnerability of California. A French diplomat reported that California could be taken by “whatever nation chooses to send a man-of-war and 200 California could be taken by “whatever nation chooses to send a man-of-war and 200 men,”

1845 – Polk offers to buy California from Mexico, but Santa Ana refused to sell. (Mexico was angry about Texas, which had been annexed without a treaty by the US in March 1845).

1846 – Polk sent an army into New Mexico and California. By Jan 1847, California and New Mexico in American hands. (The Mexican-American War was well underway at this point).

3/22-3/23 ​ ​ ​ ​ Mexican American War

Date ​ ​1846-1848

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 33; V5 Ch 10, 11 ​ ​Apples to Oregon ​ ​ ​ ​Which Way West? pp 43-58 ​ ​ ​Oregon Trail Ch 1 ​

Topics

Texas 1829 – Spain landed an army at Tampico on the Gulf of Mexico in a belated attempt to recover her possessions. Mexicans defeated Spain under the leadership of General Santa Ana. • Santa Ana saw himself as a New World Napoleon. He repudiated the Mexican Constitution of 1824 and set himself up as dictator. o Revolts broke out in several Mexican states that didn’t accept the coup. Texans looked on with horror at Santa Ana’s bloody suppression of the revolts. • Texan Revolution - o 1835 – Texan revolution broke out over economic and constitutional issues (similar to what provoked American Revolution). They at first fought to restore the Constitution of 1824. Then they declared Texas a separate state within the Mexican Republic and appointed an acting governor. The rebel Texans captured San Antonio. ▪ Santa Ana borrowed money to finance a campaign to subjugate the Texans to his authority. Santa Ana led a force to retake San Antonio. o The Alamo – ▪ A mission in San Antonio, with 187 defenders (mostly new arrivals from the United States) led by William Travis. Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett were also there. ▪ Travis and his men believed they had made the Alamo defensible until reinforcements could arrive. But Santa Ana arrived sooner and with a larger force than they anticipated. The defenders held out for 12 days; supplies and ammunition ran low. ▪ Santa Ana led an assault with 1,500 men on March 6. While victorious, Santa Ana did suffer heavy casualties. Everyone except a few non- combatants was killed. o Goliad – ▪ Texan commander James Fannin surrendered to the larger Mexican army (led by General Urrea). Urrea left the prisoners with another officer with instructions for decent treatment while he continued his advance. Santa Ana, hearing of the prisoners, ordered the execution of Goliad’s defenders; Ana, hearing of the prisoners, ordered the execution of Goliad’s defenders; Fannin and 341 of his men were massacred. In size and circumstances, this was an even greater atrocity than that at the Alamo. • Meanwhile, in East Texas- o where most Anglos lived – many wanted to declare full independence from Mexico. Many of them were recent immigrants and substantial slaveholders, who feared they couldn’t go on indefinitely side-stepping the Mexican laws against slavery. Since they constituted 40% of the armed forces of Texas, their views carried weight. Texan independence was popular in the US, where many saw it as a step towards annexation. o March 2, 1836, while the siege of the Alamo continued, a Texan Convention proclaimed independence. • San Jacinto – o The Texans intercepted a Mexican courier and found Santa Ana’s troop dispositions. Now commanding the Texan army, Sam Houston attacked while Santa Ana’s army was resting near the San Jacinto River. Santa Ana had failed to post guards and was taken by surprise. Houston’s men charged, yelling, “Remember the Alamo!” o Santa Ana was captured. In return for his life and safe-conduct, Santa Ana promised to withdraw the army beyond the Rio Grande (even though the Nueces River, 150 miles north of the Rio Grande, had always been the boundary of Texas). o The Texans considered the agreement signed by Santa Ana and the Texan president a treaty that recognized Texan independence from Mexico. However, the Mexican Congress refused to approve it. Intermittent warfare between Mexico and Texas continued for years. • Texas remained independent for 10 years. Immigration from the U.S. soared during the depression following the Panic of 1837. The population of Texas reached 125,000 by 1845, 27,000 of which were slaves. o The law forbade the exportation of U.S. slaves to foreign countries, but no one enforced the law along the Texas/Louisiana border. • Texas had sought admission into the Union, but President Jackson reluctant to upset the balance of slave and free states. In 1844 President Tyler opened up the annexation issue to ensure his election. o Southern Democrats wanted Texas as a slave state; Northern Democrats wanted Texas to pursue Manifest Destiny. o Tyler pushed legislation through Congress before leaving office that admitted Texas into the Union with the right to divide into 5 states. ▪ Within 12 months of annexation, the price of a prime field hand rose 21% - and through the 1850s continued to rise

Boundary Dispute Texas's boundary as a Mexican province had been the Nueces River, and this had remained the limit of effective control by the Lone Star Republic. But Texans had repeatedly laid claim to the Rio Grande as the boundary. Mexico severed diplomatic ties with the U.S. after Texas's annexation, denouncing the annexation as an act of aggression. With annexation, Mexico and Texas's undefined boundary became a dispute between Mexico and the United States.

Mexican-American WarWar 1846-18481846-1848 ​ “Mexico will poison us.”~ Ralph Waldo Emerson

1845 – Polk becomes President • In his inaugural address, Polk asserts that “our system may easily be extended to the utmost bounds of our territorial limits.” • Because Mexico was weak, Polk expected acquiescence to his demands: o Texas boundary was to be at the Rio Grande (rather than the previous Nueces River boundary, 150 miles north). o California and New Mexico territories as well o California and New Mexico territories as well

Polk ordered Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande • Oct 1845 – Taylor and 3,500 troops reached the Nueces River, hoping that army presence would bring concessions from Mexico. • Polk also sent an agent to Mexico City to buy Upper California and New Mexico o The Mexican government refused to see the American agent • Polk responded with force – Jan 1846, he ordered Taylor south to the Rio Grande, into disputed territory. (Some people in the United States and elsewhere wondered what a U.S. military force was doing along the Rio Grande). o In his diary, U.S. Lt. Col. Ethan Hitchcock wrote: “We have not one particle of right to be here. It looks as if the government sent a small force on purpose to bring on a war, to have a pretext for taking California and as much of this country as it chooses.” • Taylor built a fort on the Rio Grande, across from the town of Matamoros. On Apr 12, he blockaded the Rio Grande's mouth, preventing the Mexican commander from receiving supplies by water, and legally an act of war. • April 24, 1846- a skirmish between Mexican and American troops resulted in 16 American casualties. The war commenced.

War Declared Polk used this as a reason to declare on Mexico. He stated, in his war message to Congress, that “Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil…war exists, and, notwithstanding all of our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself” • (even though the skirmish occurred partly in Mexican territory and partly in contested territory) Congress declared war. America was divided. • Lincoln called it a “war of conquest fought to catch votes.” • Many criticized the war, but expansionists approved

Polk Directed War Four pronged attacks: 1. John Fremont sent to California – Calif in U.S. hands by 1847 2. Stephen Kearny sent to New Mexico (then to CA to join Fremont) – NM in U.S. hands 1846 3. Zachary Taylor crossed the Rio Grande, fighting Santa Ana’s troops as he advanced into Mexico 4. Winfield Scott invaded Mexico at Vera Cruz and marched victoriously into Mexico City in September 1847

Peace Negotiations April 1847 - Nicholas Trist had been sent to Mexico as the U.S. diplomatic representative. Polk sent him with instructions for the basis of a treaty: • Rio Grande River boundary between Mexico and the United States • Acquisition of at least Alta California (but try for Baja California also) • Acquisition of New Mexico

Mexican moderates approached him, willing to negotiate an end to the war. The Mexican government was willing to comply with the instructions Polk sent with Trist. During the peace negotiations, Trist receives his recall from Polk- • Trist fell into disfavor with Polk. With Scott’s capture of Mexico City, Polk decided that he wanted more Mexico territory than he had initially instructed Trist. o However, Trist takes it upon himself to continue with the negotiations and conclude a peace treaty. His reasons: ▪ That the administration did want a treaty ▪ That the administration did want a treaty ▪ He felt that peace was within his means to achieve ▪ Believed it a moral duty not to waste the opportunity ▪ Believed the letter was not binding because it was written without the awareness of the circumstances in Mexico City o So Trist continued to negotiate the treaty. He wrote to Polk, notifying him of his decision to stay but told Polk that the administration could choose to accept it or not. Polk’s reaction- He was mad! He wanted more territory from Mexico. But when he received the treaty, he knew he had no choice but to accept it. The war was highly unpopular, and the treaty was an exact fulfillment of his terms formulated 10 months previously.

Trist told his wife that he was governed by 2 considerations in defying orders and staying to negotiate a treaty: o “one was the iniquity of the war, as an abuse of power on our part; the other was that the more disadvantageous the treaty was made to Mexico, the stronger would be the ground of opposition to it in the Mexican Congress.” Trist wanted a treaty that could realistically end the war, capable of ratification by both sides. Privately he also felt shame for his country’s conduct in the war. “For though it would not have done for me to say so there, that was a thing for every right-minded American to be ashamed of,” he remembered thinking. Historians have concluded that Trist made a courageous and justified decision to defy his orders and remain in Mexico to secure a peace treaty.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1848 February 2, 1848 – peace commissioners signed the treaty. The U.S. gained an empire that stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Terms of the treaty: o The Rio Grande the boundary between the United States and Mexico o California territory and New Mexico territory passed into U.S. hands o The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million o Guaranteed civil, political, and property rights of former Mexican citizens

Impact of the Treaty The people affected most immediately by the treaty were the residents of the domain that Mexico relinquished, including approximately 90,000 Hispanics and a larger number of Indians. They were to become citizens of the United States; however, most Mexican Americans found themselves treated like foreigners. o California didn’t recognize Mexican Americans as citizens until 1870 o New Mexico didn’t grant full rights of citizenship to Hispanics until statehood in 1912 o Texas restricted the right to own land to whites only o Tribal Indians of California excluded from rights of property and citizenship

Rehearsal forfor thethe CivilCivil WarWar Many senior officers in both the Confederate and the Union armies got their first combat experience as junior officers in Mexico.

In a strategic sense, the war on Mexico contained problems similar to those faced during the Civil War- o In both wars, the United States needed to invade and conquer a vast country in the face of determined resistance o In both wars, the U.S. Navy blockaded ports to prevent the importation of munitions and supplies supplies o The Mexican government and the Confederate government both strove to gain foreign intervention o Mexico and the Confederate States hoped to prolong the conflict in hopes the opponent would tire and go home.

3/24-3/25/24-3/25 ​ ​ ​ ​ California Gold

Date ​ ​1848-1850s

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V5 Ch 12 ​ ​Oregon Trail Ch 2 ​ ​Apples to Oregon ​ ​Which Way West? pp 63-91 ​ ​

Topics The gold that Spanish explorers had sought in vain for 300 years had now been revealed! California Gold Rush Sutter’s Mill January 24, 1848 – James Marshall, supervising a sawmill construction for Johann Sutter along the American River, pulls some glittering particles from the millrace (channel for the waterwheel). The particles tested positive for gold.

Sutter and Marshall tried to keep it a secret, but that was a secret that could not be kept! By mid- June, three-quarters of the men in San Francisco left for the goldfields. News spread faster by water (no telegraph poles for thousands of miles), so those around the Pacific Rim heard first. • July 1848 – gold seekers from Hawaii and Mexican west coast arrived first

The Atlantic world learned more slowly. National attention didn’t focus on it until President Polk highlighted it in his Annual Message in December 1848. News then spread by telegraph and packets to Europe. • Gold Rush ensued in full force in 1849 • 80,000 Forty-Niners traveled to California

Polk promoted the gold rush to stimulate gold coinage U.S. Mint established in San Francisco to eliminate transporting gold bullion long distances • By the end of 1848 - $10 million in gold produced • By the end of 1851 - $220 million produced o Helped to alleviate the currency shortage that had always plagued the United States ▪ Thanks to the California gold and subsequent extension of generous British credit –a national bank pushed was never pushed again.

Routes to California Ship around Cape Horn • Easiest, slowest, most expensive • $300-700/person; 4-8 month journey (with the advent of fast clipper ships and then steamships, travel time shortened)

Ship to Central America4 cross Panama/Nicaragua by pack mule/dugout canoe4 ship to California • Fastest but expensive • Fastest but expensive • 5-8 wks; risked tropical diseases and violence

The overland route to California • Cheapest but dangerous • $200/person; 3-6 months o Overland migration for the Gold Rush dwarfed the earlier overland journeys and contained a higher proportion of town/city dwellers

Impact of Gold Rush on California California population increased faster than other Far West societies • 1850 census – 90,000 o (Utah and Oregon had about 12,000 each)

California most ethnically diverse (arriving in waves as news traveled) • Locals – Hispanics, Native Americans, Anglos • Pacific Rim – Native Hawaiians, Latin Americans, Asians • Eastern Americans – whites, free & enslaved blacks • Europeans

California was the 1st state to be settled by peoples from all over the world – and remains the most ethnically cosmopolitan society today.

Mining and Mining Towns • Miners – mostly unmarried • Communities could spring up overnight after a strike (as opposed to isolated farming settlements) composed of: o Miners o Saloons o Boarding houses/cooks/washing o Druggists o Prostitutes • Disorderly conduct – riots, lynchings. o The federal government provided no civilian political structure for former Mexican territories until the Compromise of 1850, so vigilantism predominated in California. • Wages o Very few miners became rich, but merchants who sold to the miners did well o Average daily wage for miner in 1848- $20 (‘49- $16, ’52- $5, ’56- $3) o In comparison, @ this time in New York City – a carpenter earned $1.40/day, female milliner earned 40 cents/day. ▪ But after easily mined gold and silver was gone, heavy machinery was needed. It became a corporate industrial concern, turning miners into wage workers. • Ghost towns exemplified a typical pattern: o Boom o Bust o Decay o Death

ImprovementsImprovements inin CommunicationsCommunications andand TravelTravel

Samuel Morse and the Telegraph “WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT” ~ Samuel F. B. Morse tapped this message out on a telegraph in the chambers of the United ~ Samuel F. B. Morse tapped this message out on a telegraph in the chambers of the United States Supreme Court. Forty miles away in Baltimore, Morse’s associate received the electric symbol and sent it back.

The invention they demonstrated in 1844 would change the world. Long-distance communication became a reality. No more waiting on ships or horses for news or information. Henry Adams identified this first telegraphic message as the time when “the old universe was thrown in the ash-heap, and a new one created.” Electric telegraphy represented a pivotal moment in a revolution of communications.

Morse was a professor of fine arts and a painter. When the painting commission he sought was denied to him, he turned his energies to developing the electric telegraph – a project that had long interested him. Morse entered into a partnership with Alfred Vail, a machinist.

Morse was one of over 50 inventors who built some type of electromagnetic telegraph before 1840 – but his prevailed because it was better made, less complicated, and less expensive.

Following the demonstration, telegraph lines rapidly appeared. The telegraph was especially important for a large country with a population spreading into remote areas. The commercial application followed quickly: • Transmission of stock and commodities prices • News of distant prices and credit for bankers and merchants • Political, diplomatic, and military news

Private companies, using Morse’s patent, built telegraph lines across the country. The wires often followed railroad routes. • By 1854 – 23,000 miles of telegraph wire in operation • 1866 – transatlantic cable had been laid between the U.S. and Europe • 1866 – Morse helped found Western Union Company. o Western Union transmitted its last telegram on January 27, 2006. Telephones, fax machines, and the internet replaced the telegraph.

Morse Code – Morse and Vail co-wrote a code that assigned a set of dots and dashes to each letter of the alphabet, allowing for the simple transmission of messages across telegraph lines. It didn’t need to be printed or decoded but could be “sound read” by operators. Morse code became standard throughout the world.

3/29-3/30 ​ ​ ​ Great Debate ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Date ​ ​1812-1852

Themes ​Trade and Commerce ​ ​Conflict and Conquest ​ ​Rise and Fall of Empires and Nations

Readings ​Hist US V4 Ch 34, 35, 36 ​ ​Dandelions ​ ​Which Way West? pp 63-91 ​ ​Oregon Trail Ch 3

Topics

The Great Triumvirate 3 outstanding orators represented the foremost statesmen of the decades between the War of 1812 and the Civil War: • Daniel Webster • Henry Clay • John C. Calhoun Each one represented the 3 major sections of the U.S. at the time and their respective mindsets (Northern businessmen, Southern slaveholders, and Western settlers).

Sometimes allies, often rivals, these 3 men who formed this “Great Triumvirate” all sought but failed to win the presidency. Of all the presidents of this era, though, only Andrew Jackson could rival the power or influence of these “Lions of the Senate.”

Daniel Webster • New Englander who supported northeastern businesses • Gifted orator - even his enemies marveled when he spoke • Humorous, hearty spirit • Hated slavery • Loved the Union

Henry Clay • Westerner (Kentucky) • Called the “great compromiser” • His “American System” provided the roadmap for the country’s later economic development • Spoke against slavery but owned slaves • Loved the Union Calhoun said of Henry Clay: “He is a bad man, an imposter, a creator of wicked schemes. I wouldn’t speak to him, but, by God, I love him.”

John C. Calhoun • Southerner from South Carolina – featured prominently in the nullification crisis • Fought tariffs that northerners wanted • Defended slavery – tried to convince people that it was necessary and good • Vigorous defense of states’ rights and southern regional interests provided the rationale for the Confederacy in the Civil War o “I never use the word ‘Nation’ in speaking of the United States. We are not a Nation, but a Union, a confederacy of equal and sovereign States,” asserted Calhoun.

The Great Debate Webster-Hayne Debate, 1830 One of the most momentous debates in Senate history – • Began over a plan to curtail western land sales, proposed by a Connecticut senator o Westerners viewed this as a scheme to preserve northeastern manufacturing by preventing cheap laborers from moving west ▪ Senator Hayne of South Carolina saw an opportunity to ally with the South and the West. (Hayne believed that an agricultural system built on slavery could only survive with an unlimited supply of cheap western lands).

Hayne began the debate- • He contended that states, not the federal government, should control their lands and that states should have the right to set aside specific federal laws if they wished.

Webster responds- Webster responds- • Challenges the South’s apparent willingness to subvert the Union for regional economic gain. o With this, the debate was broadened beyond land, tariffs, and slavery to consider the very nature of the federal republic. • Maintained that the North had always been the West’s ally

Hayne again argues that a state had the right to defy an act of Congress openly.

Webster returns with his classic “Second Reply to Hayne”- • Talks for 2 days, defending the Union against Southern congressmen who are openly beginning to talk of secession. o In a thundering voice, Webster denies that the nation is but a mere association of sovereign states, but instead is a “popular government, erected by the people; those who administer it responsible to the people; and itself capable of being amended and modified, just as the people may choose it should be.” • Secession really worries him, so he uses patriotic phrases to fight that idea. Webster warns against the bloodshed of brothers in civil feuds. He calls Calhoun’s Liberty first and Union afterward a folly, ending with Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!

The Western senators are won over. The Senate shelved the land sales resolution, and chances of an alliance between the South and West evaporated.

Legacy of the Great Triumvirate The Triumvirate figured prominently in major debates and issues during the decades preceding the Civil War: • Clay’s American System • The Missouri Compromise • Webster-Hayne Debate • Bank War • Webster-Ashburton Treaty • Annexation of Texas • Compromise of 1850

By 1852, Clay, Calhoun, and Webster had all passed away. They left a rich legacy behind them. Clay of the West, Calhoun of the South, and Webster of the North loved and greatly served their country. The generation that followed produced no leader that could unite the country without the force of arms.

Abbreviations for Resource Books

Hist US V2 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Two, The Making of Thirteen Colonies ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

Hist US V3 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Three, From Colonies to Country ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

Hist US V4 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Four, The New Nation ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

Hist US V5 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Five, Liberty for All? ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

Hist US V6 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Six, Terrible War Hist US V6 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Six, Terrible War ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

Hist US V7 ​ ​ ​A History of US, Book Seven, Reconstructing America ​ ​ ​ ​Joy Hakim

SOTW(3) ​ ​ ​Story of the World Volume 3: Early Modern Times (in-class read) ​ ​ ​Susan Wise Bauer

Heart and Soul ​ ​ ​Heart and Soul The Story of America and African Americans ​ ​ ​ ​Kadir Nelson

Trail of Tears ​ ​ ​The Trail of Tears ​ ​ ​ ​Joseph Bruchac

Apples to Oregon ​ ​Apples to Oregon ​ ​ ​ ​Deborah Hopkinson

Dandelions ​ ​ ​Dandelions ​ ​ ​ ​Eve Bunting

Shhh! ​ ​ ​ ​Shhh! We are Writing the Constitution ​ ​ ​ ​Jean Fritz

Francis Scott Key ​ ​Francis Scott Key’s Star-Spangled Banner ​ ​ ​ ​Monica Kulling

Sequoyah ​ ​ ​Sequoyah ​ ​ ​ ​James Rumford

Amazing Erie Canal ​ ​Amazing Impossible Erie Canal ​ ​ ​ ​Cheryl Harness

Founding Mothers ​ ​Founding Mothers: Remembering the Ladies ​ ​ ​ ​Cokie Roberts

Star-Spangled Banner ​ ​That Star-Spangled Banner ​ ​ ​ ​Gabrielle Stewart​ ​ Bibliography of Books used in Overview 2020-2021

Allison, Robert J. ​ ​The American Revolution A Concise History

Anderson, Fred ​ ​The War that Made America

Anderson, Fred ​ ​The Dominion of War

Andrlik, Todd ed. ​Journal of the American Revolution Annual Volume 2015

Andrlik, Todd ed. ​Journal of the American Revolution Annual Volume 2016

Aronson, Marc ​ ​Witch Hunt The Mysteries of the Salem Witch Trials

Bailyn, Bernard ​ ​The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution

Barry, John ​ ​Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul

Bordewich, Fergus ​The First Congress

Bunker, Nick ​ ​An Empire on the Edge How Britain Came to Fight America

Burke, Kathleen ​ ​Old World New World Great Britain and America from the Beginning

Calloway, Colin G. ​The Indian World of George Washington

Collier & Collier ​ ​The French and Indian War

Crevecoeur, J. Hector ​ Letters from an American Farmer

Ellis, Joseph ​ ​What Did the Declaration Declare?

Eltis, David ​ ​Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

Farrow, Lang, & Frank ​Complicity How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery

Ferling, John ​ ​Almost a Miracle

Ferling, John ​ ​Independence The Struggle to Set America Free

Flexner, James ​ ​Washington The Indispensable Man

Gordon-Reed, A. ​The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family

Gordon-Reed, A ​ ​Race on Trial

Holton, Woody ​ ​Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution

Hoock, Holger ​ ​Scars of Independence America’s Violent Birth

Nash, Gary ​ ​The American People

Martin, Joseph Plumb ​A Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier

Meltzer, Milton ​ ​The American Revolutionaries A History in Their Own Words 1750-1800

Middlekauff, Robert ​The Glorious Cause

Ostler, Jeffrey ​Surviving Genocide Native Americans and the United States from American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas

Painter, Nell Irvin ​Creating Black Americans

Philbrick, Nathaniel ​Bunker Hill A City, a Siege, a Revolution

Pinckney, Elise, Ed. ​The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney 1739-1762

Rediker, Marcus ​ ​The Slave Ship A Human History

Roach, Marilynne ​The Salem Witch Trials

Smith, Venture A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture, a Native of Africa, but Resident above Sixty Years in the United States of America

Taylor, Alan ​ ​American Colonies

Taylor, Alan ​ ​Colonial America A Very Short Introduction Taylor, Alan ​ ​Colonial America A Very Short Introduction

Tocqueville, Alexis de ​Democracy in America

Uschan, Michael ​ ​Salem Witch Trials

Wood, Gordon ​ ​The American Revolution

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