Travis Fink Stone Center/Tinker Foundation Summer Field Research Grant Terminal Report September 21, 2018

The goal of this research was to study current and historical mobility and migration in the Ecuadorian

Amazon. Specifically, this research focused on a specific indigenous group called the Shiwiar, who have been an understudied group due to their small population, remote location, and relatively recent split from the larger Achuar nation to whom they are closely related. I carried out this research during the months of July and August 2018 in the city of Puyo the capital of Pastaza province, and on the Rio Bobonaza in the Ecuadorian Amazon. I spent approximately three weeks living with the Shiwiar in the community of Kapirna on the Rio Bobonaza, and I traveled with a group of Shiwiar men from Kapirna to the provincial capital of Puyo. This research follows five summers of language study and preliminary research in the Ecuadorian Amazon where I have been studying the Kichwa and

Achuar-Shiwiar languages. This is my second visit to the Shiwiar territory, and I was able to observe and discuss topics related to Shiwiar mobility and migration.

I began this research in July of 2018 through visiting the provincial capital of Puyo to meet with various

Achuar, Shiwiar, and Kichwa speakers. I made a trip to the Achuar community of Copataza on the Rio Pastaza where I met people with kinship ties with the Shiwiar, and have lived in Shiwiar communities previously. They told me in detail their history of travel and also conflict with the Shiwiar of the Bobonaza. They make frequent trips to visit family members who have married into Shiwiar communities, although at times their mobility has been limited during times of escalated conflict between family groups. Historically these conflicts were much more common, and the ethnogenesis of the Shiwiar seems to have begun with a war between two rival Achuar families where one family pushed the people now known as the Shiwiar across the Bobonaza River into territory formerly occupied by a variety of Zaparoan groups who underwent a decline in population during the rubber boom. These Achuar families intermarried with Kichwa-speaking Zaparoan groups and became known as the Shiwiar or “enemies”.

In the Shiwiar community of Kapirna, I was told that the Achuar and Shiwiar previously traveled long distances to the Huallaga and Amazon rivers in Peru in order to obtain salt, but after the 1941 war between Ecuador and Peru this travel become much more difficult because of the hardening of the border between the two countries.

This meant that some Shiwiar and Achuar were limited in their ability to travel to visit family members and carry out raids in Peru, but these activities still occurred to some extent. Because of the remote location of the Achuar and

Shiwiar territory, the Ecuadorian and Peruvian governments have historically had little control over the area. Movements to other regions, such as the Shuar and Achuar territories has decreased as the Shiwiar are no longer participating in alliances with other communities to carry out attacks on enemies. The Shiwiar used to travel long distances to establish alliances with Kichwa and Achuar families and to carry out attacks on the Shuar, Achuar, and Kichwa families with whom they were feuding. I was told that since the arrival of missionaries and the increased presence of soldiers since the 1970s this feuding has greatly decreased. A number of Shiwiar individuals who carried out attacks have also been sentenced to time in prison which is further discouraging violent conflict with other groups. During times when feuding was common, houses of individual families were widely dispersed on the tributaries of large rivers where men would build houses in remote locations where they could not be easily found by their enemies. Houses were large and built with high walls made of palm wood to protect them from attacks by rival groups. With the arrival of missionaries, feuding decreased because the missionaries gave the

Shiwiar and Achuar machetes and other manufactured goods that they would typically acquire through raiding or trade. The Shiwiar began to gather in more centralized communities and built airstrips so that the missionaries could bring them manufactured goods. This means that the Shiwiar and Achuar are less likely to travel to each other’s territory unless they are visiting family members. This information was communicated to me by Shiwiar and Achuar elders in Kapirna and Copataza respectively.

In Kapirna, I was informed that in recent years travel to Peru has become much easier due to better relations between Ecuador and Peru, and both governments have recognized the right of indigenous peoples to travel back and forth between the two countries. The Shiwiar regularly make two day long trips downriver to the community of Andoas in Peru where they buy boat motors, firearms, shotgun cartridges, and tobacco among other things. They prefer to go to Peru because it is closer than Puyo, and there are much lower taxes on imported goods in Peru. Another difficulty of traveling to Puyo is the cost of air travel. To go to Puyo by boat would take two days going upriver in a motorized canoe, and would require travel through Andwa and Kichwa territory where it would be difficult for Shiwiar individuals to find lodging for the night due to the history of conflict between these groups.

The only other options would be to take a plane either from Kapirna, or Montalvo located seven hours upriver from

Kapirna. Flights from Kapirna have largely been suspended because of the low demand for flights due to the cost

(over 100 USD per person one way) and because pilots are hesitant to attempt landings on the dirt airstrip. The cost from Montalvo is 15 USD per person, and is less expensive because of the military base located at Montalvo that is maintained by the Ecuadorian Air Force. This is squarely in Andwa territory which means that it is difficult for Shiwiar individuals to find lodging because they are considered to be enemies by many of the Andwa and Kichwa living there. Violence does not usually occur, but it becomes much more difficult to find places to stay when traveling with Shiwiar individuals. I observed this first hand when traveling with a group of Shiwiar men that they were not offered housing or manioc beer like I had been in the past when I was traveling with a group of Andwa in the area who are related to the Shiwiar men. Because of this, we had to find lodging in a small medical clinic where the resident doctor, a man from Guayaquil doing his rural service year, allowed myself and the Shiwiar men to spend the night so that we could take the plane the next day to Puyo. It is not uncommon for people to have to wait three or four days for the next plane, so this makes travel to Puyo more difficult for the Shiwiar and Achuar living on the Bobonaza River who may have a history of conflict with the Andwa at Montalvo.

I also traveled to the Shiwiar community of Bufeo, located a three hour walk inland from the Bobonaza.

Fifteen years ago, the community of Kapirna consisted only of a few tambos (small, seasonally used houses) used by residents of Bufeo for fishing trips and as launching points for trips to Peru and Puyo since the Rio Bufeo is not navigable. I was told that flights sometimes came to Bufeo, but the cost was too much for individuals to plan trips without support from the Shiwiar leadership who are in charge of community funds. These individuals had to make a three-hour journey to Kapirna and then go to Peru or Puyo by boat and plane.

When I return to this area for longer terms of research, I will make a number of changes to my research strategy. I will focus more on staying with other families in the area, which will be easier now that I am more well- known in the community. This will give me more opportunities to gather the perspectives of different Shiwiar individuals who may have different experiences than the family with whom I have been working. Secondly, when I am embedded in the community for months at a time, I will have more opportunities to travel. I was almost able to visit the markets in Peru, but I was not able to go due to concerns about time constraints and because I was sick from being exposed to river water. I will also make sure to contact the military authorities in Puyo and Montalvo to be certain that they will allow me to cross the border and return on the Bobonaza River. I have been assured by the

Shiwiar that if I am traveling with indigenous people that I will be granted entry to Peru as long as I inform them of the day that I intend to return to Ecuador via this border crossing. This crossing is typically only used by indigenous peoples. Many of the soldiers in the area are indigenous, and they are generally sympathetic to the peoples living in the area. Overall, I am pleased that I was able to travel to Kapirna and Bufeo and back to Puyo with a group of

Shiwiar. I would recommend to anyone undertaking similar research to have a speech prepared to bring to the community meeting upon arrival. On this trip, I gave a formal speech thanking the Shiwiar for allowing me entry to the community and explain why I was there using both Shiwiar and Spanish, and this was met with much approval from the community. Although I was welcomed during my first visit, I did not make a formal speech. I believe that this made people feel more comfortable around me, and they were more willing to help with the research. In Bufeo I also made sure to establish contacts with the president of the community, and he has offered to allow me to return to conduct research in Bufeo.

The findings from this report can be used to provide valuable information on the Shiwiar. The Shiwiar have been underrepresented in the anthropological literature, and they are often considered to be Achuar. The Shiwiar see themselves as a distinct group, and they do not like being grouped with the Achuar with whom they have historically had conflicts. This project will contribute to our understanding of the history of the Shiwiar, specifically how they have migrated to their current territory, and how the Shiwiar are currently moving throughout the Ecuadorian and

Peruvian Amazon regions and what challenges they face that limit their mobility.