Distribution of Agrobiodiversity in Home Gardens Along the Corrientes River, Peruvian Amazon1

Distribution of Agrobiodiversity in Home Gardens along the Corrientes River, Peruvian Amazon1

2 ,3 MATHILDE PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT AND OLIVER T. COOMES*

212, rue Thibouméry, 75015, Paris, France; email: [email protected] 3Department of Geography, McGill University, Burnside Rm. 705, 805 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, PQ, Canada H3A 2K6 *Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

Distribution of Agrobiodiversity in Home Gardens along the Corrientes River, Peruvian Amazon. This paper examines crop species diversity in home gardens of traditional communities along a remote tributary in northeastern Peru. A large-scale survey was conducted of 300 gardens in 15 villages along a 150 km reach of the Corrientes River. Study villages vary notably in community size, ethnicity of residents (Achuar, Urarina, mestizo), and proximity to the regional town (Trompeteros) as well as to oil wells. Gardens were inventoried and interviews conducted with garden tenders to provide data on socioeconomic characteristics of the household and contextual conditions. Multiple regression analyses identiﬁed the determinants of species diversity. Results indicate high crop diversity—the highest yet reported for sites in the Amazon basin—particularly among the Achuar people. Garden species diversity is greatest in larger villages and, surprisingly, in those villages located nearer to the oil company. Within villages, households with larger land holdings (and gardens), more in-house labor, and garden tenders who are older and female tend to have more diverse gardens. A small number of households (15/300) were found to hold exceptional diversity, often older and land-wealthier households located on the outskirts of villages. These farmers held, on average, three times the number of species as a typical village garden and 60% of all species encountered in the study. Key Words: Cultivated plant diversity, home gardens, huertos, indigenous peoples, Peru, Amazonia.

Introduction and, if so, how did they become so and what are Tropical home gardens are increasingly recog- the implications for conservation? Among the agricultural sites worked in traditional communities nized as loci for in situ conservation of agro- — fi — biodiversity. The conservation of cultivated plants from swiddens or fallows to permanent elds in home gardens not only preserves a vital home gardens are often sites of the greatest agro- resource for humankind but also provides signif- biodiversity, particularly in the humid tropics, and icant economic and nutritional benefits for the the focus of increasing investigation (e.g., Trinh et al. rural poor (Thrupp 2000; Eyzaguirre and Linares 2003; Kehlenbeck and Maass 2004;Sunwaretal. 2004; Kumar and Nair 2006). Central to efforts 2006;Milleretal.2006;Pandeyetal.2007). aimed at promoting agrobiodiversity conservation This paper reports on a large-scale survey of agro- is the issue of how crop species are distributed— biodiversity in home gardens along the Corrientes both geographically and socially—and which River in northeastern Peru. Researchers working in factors shape patterns of species diversity (Bellon the Americas are increasingly recognizing how 1996, 2004; Zimmerer 1996; Brush 1998). Of unevenly agrobiodiversity is distributed, even among particular interest are locales of exceptional agro- nearby communities (e.g., Padoch and de Jong biodiversity and individual farmers who hold such 1991;PeroniandHanazaki2002; Ban and diversity—are there indeed “hotspots” of diversity, Coomes 2004; Major et al. 2005; Willemen et al. 2007; Emperaire and Peroni 2007), and that a 1 Received 1 June 2007; accepted 4 February 2008; variety of cultural, social, and economic factors published online 13 June 2008. influence crop diversity and composition (Bellon

Economic Botany, 62(2), 2008, pp. 109–126 © 2008, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 110 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62 and Brush 1994; Zimmerer 2003; Perreault 2005; The paper is structured as follows. The study Perales et al. 2005). Previous studies of home area is described, followed by an account of how gardens from Amazonia typically are based on small the home garden survey was conducted and samples from communities along the Amazon or its household data collected. Our findings on species major tributaries that are easily accessible from major diversity and garden composition are reported for towns or cities, describing crop species diversity and both regional and garden-level scales. The paper agricultural practices in gardens by one (quasi) concludes with a discussion of our principal ethnic group (e.g., Guillaumet et al. 1990;Works findings. 1990;Smith1996;WinklerPrins2002). Two recent studies from Peru suggest that distance to urban markets or “remoteness” and ethnicity are key Study Area determinants of crop diversity in home gardens The area of study lies along a 150 km reach of (Lamont et al. 1999; Wezel and Ohl 2005). In this the Corrientes River in the northeastern Peruvian study, we undertook the most extensive survey to Amazon, approximately 200 km due west of the date of crop diversity in Amazonian home gardens, city of Iquitos (Fig. 1). The Corrientes is a clear along a 150 km transect of a 3rd-order tributary of water river (pH: 5.5–6.5) that flows from the the Amazon River, populated by two Amerindian Andean highlands of Ecuador through lowland groups (Achuar and Urarina) as well as mestizos tropical moist forests of Peru, draining the eastern (ribereños), which is subject to oil extraction. As margin of the Pastaza fan and joining the Tigre such, the survey permits a synoptic as well as a River, which in turn is a tributary of the Marañón microanalysis of agrobiodiversity in home gardens in River (Räsänen et al. 1992). The region lies at a remote area, between indigenous groups and 140 m asl, receives approximately 2,800 mm of among those with greater/less interaction with the rainfall annually, and has soils that are derived from market and the oil industry. alluvium of volcanic origin.

Fig. 1. Map of study area, Corrientes River, Peru. Notes: Base map used by permission. All rights reserved. Location of Villa Tompeteros: 3° 48′ 20″ South, 75° 03′ 34″ West. 2008] ERUTACABUTE L:AAOINAGROBIODIVERSITY AMAZONIAN AL.: ET PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT

TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY VILLAGES AND HOME GARDENS IN CORRIENTES RIVER,PERU.

Distance from No. of Gardens Villa Trompeteros Mean No. of Species/ Inventoried VILLAGE Ethnic Groupa No. of Houses (min.)b Total No. of Species per Garden (Range) (% of Total) San Juan campesino A/ m 36 2 114 21.4 (9–75) 35 (97%) San Juan nativo A 23 5 108 24.2 (14–58) 22 (100%) Santa Elena A 33 5 141 30.5 (11–78) 30 (97%) Porvenir U 25 40 83 13.7 (3–49) 22 (96%) San José de Porvenir U 20 55 84 20.9 (2–38) 18 (100%) Paraíso U 12 130 83 19.1 (9–64) 11 (100%) Copal A 21 170 108 26.1 (9–57) 19 (91%) Nueva Vida A 5 240 85 39.4 (34–48) 5 (100%) Peruanito A 17 280 88 20.8 (8–66) 15 (94%) Pucacuro A/ m 68 330 161 29.8 (5–72) 54 (88%) Dos de Mayo A 8 370 48 18.0 (12–21) 6 (100%) San Ramón A 6 400 45 23.0 (14–32) 4 (100%) San José de Nueva Esperanza A 30 480 136 28.9 (4–70) 24 (93%) Santa Rosa A 17 510 122 38.8 (19–62) 14 (93%) Valencia A 25 540 146 29.7 (6–65) 21 (91%) TOTAL SPECIES = 309 a A=Achuar; m=mestizo; U=Urarina. b Time measured by 25-hp motorized rowboat going upriver. 111 112 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

Human settlement is limited to Amerindian Indeed, for the Achuar, ethnic identity is a flexible, and mestizo communities along the banks of the contextual notion (Seymour-Smith 1988). As such, Corrientes. The main native population of the upper a clear-cut distinction between mestizos and the Corrientes is the Achuar, members of the Jivaro Achuar is difficult to make. The Urarina villages, in ethnolinguistic group, who also occupy land along contrast, are much more homogenous, with only the neighboring Pastaza and Huasaga rivers. Achuar 13% of families referring to themselves as Achuar villages on the lower Corrientes are interspersed with or mestizos. communities of Urarina, who in-migrated from the The distance to market (Villa Trompeteros) may Chambira River in the mid-20th century. Residents take up to nine hours by small riverboat (upriver). live primarily from swidden-fallow agriculture on The influence of the oil company is strongest around the upland, complemented by hunting, fishing, the oil well stations, i.e., San Juan campesino and and gathering of edible forest products, medicinal nativo, and Santa Elena (Percy Rozas station), plants, and construction material. The primary Pucacuro (Pavayacu station inland from the market and service center is the district town of village), and San José de Nueva Esperanza (Nueva Villa Trompeteros, with about 1,200 inhabitants, a Esperanza station, just downriver of the village). In secondary school, and a clinic. The Corrientes these villages, many inhabitants rely on the oil region (including the upper Pastaza and upper company for employment (with the exception of Tigre) is the source of 65% of Peru’s oil, extracted San José), for income from sales of plantain and by the oil company, Pluspetrol. The company’s manioc, and for electricity and medical assistance. regional headquarters are located in Percy Rozas, The degree of reliance on the company varies in the across the river from Villa Trompeteros, from which other villages, from periodic visits by the medical four well stations and a pipeline to the coast are team to daily assistance with river transport and maintained. Although no roads join the region to the occasional short-term employment. rest of Peru, there is a private landing strip for the oil company’s small aircraft. Iquitos, the largest city in the Peruvian Amazon (pop: ca. 350,000), is three Data Collection days’ travel by public riverboat and 45 minutes by Data were collected along the Corrientes by the air with the oil company’s plane. primary author between July and November All villages along the 150 km reach of the 2003. Home gardens in each study village were Corrientes, upriver of Trompeteros/ Percy Rozas, inventoried with the primary garden tender, or, were included in the study, except for two new when the tender was unavailable, another mem- Urarina settlements not fully established at the ber of the household. The “home garden” was time of the survey (2003). The study villages vary defined as the peridomestic area belonging to the notably in size, ethnic composition, degree of household where members plant and/or tend market access, and involvement with Pluspetrol useful plants. Such an area includes the patio— (Table 1). Village size ranged from five to 68 the area in front of the house where ornamental households, with a mean of 23 households, each plants are grown; the huerto—the garden per se, comprised typically of six members. Eleven of the most often found behind or beside the house; the villages—officially or by self-designation—are puerto—the household’s land near the river, Achuar communities, three are Urarina, and one is where family members go to bathe and canoes a mestizo community (San Juan campesino). Given are launched; and the forest edge, where forest that the latter “mestizo” community actually com- plants are sometimes sourced. Garden dimensions prises a large number of Achuar families, it is were measured by the primary author using a considered here as an Achuar village. Villages pedometer. The garden tender was asked to officially designated as “Achuar” are comprised of identify, in the garden, each useful plant encoun- Achuar and recent as well as long-established tered by common (vernacular) name, including migrants. Queries about languages spoken and domesticates, semi-domesticates, or wild plants parents’ birthplace, posed systematically in three of used and/or managed by the garden tender, regard- the Achuar villages, revealed that 12% of male less of whether the plant was planted, grew heads of household actually speak Quichua as a voluntarily, or was preserved from clearing at the first or second language, and that only about 25% time of garden formation. The common names of all of household heads are of direct Achuar ancestry. plants encountered were recorded to indicate pres- 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 113 ence in the garden. Species richness, or “diversity,” species was encountered, with villages holding was defined as the total number of species present 45–161 species (Table 1, Appendix). The mean in the garden. number of species per garden was 26, ranging A structured questionnaire was administered to from a low of 14 species in the Urarina village the head(s) of household to complement the gar- of Porvenir to a high of 39 in the community den surveys. Participation was voluntary. Respond- of Nueva Vida. Although the number and type of ents were asked about household demography, species encountered vary markedly across villages, land holdings, garden history, and garden care- the composition of gardens by use category is taker’sprofile. When neither household head remarkably consistent (Fig. 2). The three primary spoke Spanish, a younger, bilingual household use categories are medicinal species (hallu- member or another villager served as interpreter. cinogenic, magic, and ritual plants) (17% of Teachers with temporary appointments, absentees, typical garden), fruit species (44%), and non- and households who declined to participate were fruit food species (23%). The most common not included in the sample. The garden visit and species in each category is malva (Malachra spp., interview typically lasted about 30 minutes. A total medicinal), caimito (Pouteria caimito, fruit tree), of 300 households participated in the survey. and taro (Colocasia esculenta), respectively. The Species names were determined from the other categories, though important as a whole, vernacular name by reference primarily to Duke each comprise only a few species; these include and Vasquez (1994) and Mejía and Rengifo culinary seasoning (5%), species used for handi- (1995), as well as botanists at the Instituto de crafts (4%), construction species (2%), ornamen- Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP) tals (2%), species used for fish poison and in Iquitos. Before undertaking field work, a list weapons (2%), and other species used for dyes of vernacular names was drawn up based on and varnish, forage, firewood, etc. (1%). Individ- previously-published garden and field inventories ual gardens differ significantly in terms of use in the region and in consultation with IIAP composition, but the variability is concentrated botanists. Specimens of 12 plants that could not among the gardens with lowest diversity. As be identified unequivocally in the field by gardens become more diverse, differences in the common name were collected, and IIAP botanists relative size of use categories lessen and their assisted in species identification. Whereas species functional (use) composition appear to converge. identification by voucher specimen collection of all plants encountered would have been a superior method, say for developing a definitive botanical list of plant species, we consider common name identification to be sufficient for our purposes, i.e., to identify and compare patterns of relative plant diversity across groups of farmers and to know why some hold greater or lesser plant diversity. Such an approach, when consistently applied, allows not only useful “within/between” group contrasts but also comparison to those of previous studies in Amazonia which, with few notable exceptions (see Table 4), rely also upon common (local) name and/or “on-site” farmer- assisted identification. Regional Agrobiodiversity Three hundred home gardens were inventoried for useful plants in the 15 study villages, consti- tuting 94% of gardens in the study area. The mean size of garden was 1,393 m2 (range: – 2 10 30,000 m ) and had been tended for 7.6 Fig. 2. Relative number of species per use category years (range: 0.1–30 years). A total of 309 plant in mean home garden, Corrientes River, Peru. 114 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

What explains the heterogeneity in the species Vida); having similar upbringing and cultural richness in home gardens across the study vill- background and being bound by kin exchange ages? To answer this question, we conducted networks, members of the same family are likelier multiple regression analysis to predict total and to have similar garden composition. In contrast, mean village species diversity. Several independent the largest villages comprise many in-migrating variables were considered initially: village size, families who make choices in the gardens that village age, ethnicity, distance to market (Villa reflect their distinct household histories, cultures, Trompeteros), distance to nearest village, and economic means, and needs. High diversity proximity to oil company bases (measured as a observed in larger communities reflects both a dummy variable with the value 1 assigned to the broader social pool of tastes, needs, and opportu- five villages located right next to the oil stations). nities for exchange of planting material, and also No statistically significant relationships were found the influence of the oil company. between the distance variables and species diversity. Village size was found to be highly correlated ETHNICITY with proximity to oil bases (r=0.702, p=0.004) Ethnicity plays a critical role in explaining and total species diversity (r=0.776, p=0.001). fi differences in species richness across villages, The nal regression models included only village although the statistical relationship found is equi- size and ethnicity to avoid multicolinearity. Village vocal. Urarina villages do have much lower mean size strongly predicted (positively) the total num- diversity than Achuar villages (18 species per garden ber of species encountered per village, whereas versus 28 species, t=-3.332, p=0.016), with differ- ethnicity was negatively related to the mean ences muted by the presence in each Urarina village number of species (Table 2). A separate simple of Achuar households (between one and five), linear regression model reveals that proximity to oil whose species richness is by far superior to that of company bases predicts higher total species diver- their Urarina neighbors. Indeed, when Achuar sity in village home gardens. The role of each families living in Urarina villages are excluded from independent variable is considered further in turn. the sample, total species richness is reduced to 68 in Porvenir, 59 in San José de Porvenir, and 55 in VILLAGE SIZE Paraíso (cf. Table 1). Using these revised values, Large villages tend to be more species diverse regression analysis yields highly significant results for than smaller ones; each additional household both the village size and the ethnicity variables 2 contributes an average of 1.6 species to total vill- (R =0.723, p < 0.001). The Urarina-restricted age diversity (Table 2). This relationship between model indicates a difference, on average, of 39.4 village size and agrobiodiversity reflects the degree species between Urarina and non-Urarina villages. of social and cultural diversity within villages, Ethnicity also influences the composition of which varies with village size. The three smallest plant diversity in home gardens. In general, communities each consist of a single kin group medicinal plants and fruit species are proportion- (plus one in-migrated couple in the case of Nueva ately less common in Urarina gardens (14% and

TABLE 2. REGRESSION MODELS OF TOTAL AND MEAN NUMBER OF HOME GARDEN SPECIES PER VILLAGE,CORRIENTES RIVER,PERU.

Total No. of Species Mean No. of Species Coefﬁcient (Std. Error) Coefﬁcient (Std. Error) (Constant) 68.898 (11.193)*** 27.434 (3.349) *** Ethnicity (1 = Urarina; 0 = other) -16.808 (14.374) -9.620 (4.300) ** No. of houses 1.644 (0.382)*** 0.005 (0.114) R2 0.643 0.299 F 10.817 2.563 p(F) 0.002 0.118 df 12 12

*** P(t) ≤ 0.01; ** P(t) ≤ 0.05; * P(t) ≤ 0.10. 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 115

34%, respectively, for Urarina gardens compared tional barter and gifting of seeds or cuttings, with 18% and 46% for other gardens), whereas particularly those who have become richer due to non-fruit food species and other smaller use their dealings with the company. categories are more present (Urarina = 52%; non- In addition, Pluspetrol is a direct source of Urarina = 36%). Particularly noteworthy is the planting material. Pluspetrol grounds are general- relative importance, compared to non-Urarina ly well cared for and adorned with fruit trees and gardens, of species used for extractive purposes ornamentals, and villagers often take advantage of (fish poison, weapons) and those of productive use medical visits or of meetings with Pluspetrol (construction, handicraft, dye, and varnish). Cer- officials to pick fruit or collect cuttings of orna- tain plant species are cultivated almost exclusively mentals—with or without permission—which by the Urarina: hanitadi (Phyllantus acuminatum), they later plant in their gardens. Employees of a fish poison; lidiane (undetermined sp.), a red the company are well aware of the villagers’ dye for fiber; and, maraca (undetermined sp.), strivings to put together large plant collections which serves as decoration for baby hammocks. and offer them bags of fruit or branches of Whereas these plants are used daily in Urarina ornamentals. Workers bring home fruit that grow communities, none were reported as utilized by on the Pacific coast and their seeds are often the Achuar. Further, huaca (Clibadium sp.) and collected for experimentation. Some families Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), the grains of which reported having planted grape and apple seeds the Urarina use as beads in the fabrication of obtained from the company (albeit futilely). necklaces, are found more frequently in Urarina Citrus fruit in home gardens can often be traced gardens than elsewhere. Many species occur only back to gifts from Pluspetrol employees. Lima occasionally in Urarina villages whereas they are dulce (Rutaceae, undetermined sp.), in particular, prevalent in the Achuar communities, including only occurs in the near-Pluspetrol villages. Orna- citrus fruit trees, other fruit trees such as sacha mentals are more prominent in these villages as mangua(Grias peruviana), macambo (Theobroma well, because they are readily available on bicolor) and uvilla (Pourouma cecropiifolia), and Pluspetrol flowerbeds and often given for free. medicinal plants such as ajo sacha (Mansoa Buseta macho (Anthurium sp.) is one such alliaceae), hierba luisa (Cymbopogon citratus), and ornamental that is almost exclusively cultivated mucura (Petiveria alliacea). The Achuar do in the five nearby villages. cultivate culturally specific plants, mamá nukurí In absolute and relative numbers, these villages for example, an Amaranthaceae which, according have more ornamentals per garden than the other to Achuar beliefs, stimulates the growth of communities. Interestingly, although the number manioc, and huayusa (Ilex guayusa), used as a of garden plant species in near-Pluspetrol villages purgative in early morning cleansing ceremonies. is higher than elsewhere, the functional composition of the gardens is similar: use categories OIL ACTIVITY remain roughly equivalent in both geographical locations. It is noteworthy that the health services The presence of Pluspetrol bases indirectly offered by the oil company have not caused a affects the species richness and composition of fi reduction in the number of medicinal plant home gardens. The ve villages located near species grown in home gardens. As such, the company stations stand out with high species proximity of the oil company does not funda- diversity (132 species per village versus 89 for mentally affect home gardening at the household non-Pluspetrol villages, t=3.142, p=0.009). Sev- level. Indeed, the company’s presence has no eral factors link the presence of the oil company statistically significant effect on the mean number with elevated garden diversity. The oil company of species per garden (R2=0.018, p=0.633). attracts workers from distinct geographical regions and thus pools households of diverse sociocultural backgrounds, which bring with them planting material, agricultural practices, Garden-Level Agrobiodiversity and tastes that contribute to village species Species diversity among the 300 gardens is diversity. Households also purchase planting normally distributed with a mean garden diversity material for their gardens in the Trompeteros of 26 species and standard deviation of 13.5 and Iquitos markets, as an alternative to tradi- species, reflecting high inter-household variation 116 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

(Fig. 3). The richest home garden contained 78 the garden (100 m2), number of years that the species, whereas the poorest gardens held just caretaker has tended the garden, ethnicity of the two. Only a small number of species are found in household (1 = Urarina; 0 = other), number of most gardens, and many are represented by just a cultivated fields belonging to the household, size few exemplars: species including taro, peach of household (number of people currently living tomato (Solanum sessiliflorum), caimito, sugar cane in the house), age, gender (1 = female; 0 = male (Saccharum officinarum), and sweet potato (Ipo- or both male and female), education level of the moea batatas) are found in more than two-thirds of garden tender, and village size (number of gardens, whereas over one-third of all species households). The model accounts for 35.4% of inventoried have a frequency of one. Interestingly, variability in species richness among gardens in many villages, one or two households display (Table 3). Five of the independent variables are exceptional diversity compared to other house- statistically significant predictors of species holds. We identify 15 such “outlier gardens” in 11 diversity—garden area, age and gender of tender, villages (Fig. 4). Although these gardens are held and number of fields are positively correlated with by only 5% of households, they collectively garden species richness; ethnicity is negatively contain 60% of all the home garden species related with the dependent variable. Village size, inventoried. Clearly, while some differences in which serves as a control variable, is not a sta- plant portfolios between villages can be explained tistically significant predictor of diversity, reflecting by village characteristics (size and ethnicity), the the fact that the range in diversity within villages microdistribution of species richness on the exceeds that across villages. The other variables— Corrientes River strongly suggests the importance household size, number of years of caretaking, and of household factors. education of caretaker—also are not statistically To tease out the household-level determinants significant. Each of the predictors of species of garden species richness, multiple regression diversity is examined further below. analysis was conducted, with number of species per garden as the dependent variable. Independent variables were chosen based on theoretical consid- SIZE OF GARDEN erations and on the previous work by Coomes and Ban (2004) and Coomes et al. (2004). The Households with larger home gardens tend to hold more plant species in their gardens. An most appropriate model explains species richness 2 in terms of nine independent variables: size of increase in garden area of approximately 720 m is required to raise the garden’s species diversity by one species, equivalent to expanding the area of the average garden by about 52%. When access to planting material is not impeded, the potential area of cultivation is the ultimate limiting factor in the formation of rich garden portfolios. As villages grow, the possibility of adding to garden area becomes limited because the garden may encroach on neighboring gardens, fields, or com- munal pathways. In a larger village such as Pucacuro, newly arriving families are allocated small plots of land on sites crowded against an abrupt riverbank. Living on the periphery of a village is a solution to space constraints. Indeed, households found on village peripheries do tend to have larger gardens: garden area is positively correlated with a dummy for “isolated” households (r=0.399, p < 0.001) and such households, which represent 14% of all sampled households, hold 57% of plant species diversity in their gardens. Fig. 3. Frequency distribution of species richness in Beyond the effect of greater area for planting, home gardens, Corrientes River, Peru. large gardens permit species diversification be- 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 117

ETHNICITY Urarina households hold signiﬁcantly fewer plant species in their home gardens than Achuar or mestizo households. On average, Urarina households hold a predicted 14 fewer plant species, controlling for other factors, than their non-Urarina counterparts. The role of ethnicity in shaping home garden agrobiodiversity and garden species composition has been discussed above.

LAND HOLDING Land holding is positively related to garden species diversity: land-wealthier peasants are gener- ally endowed with richer gardens than the land- poor. A unit increase in the number of cultivated fields held by a household corresponds to a predicted increase in home garden species of 1.7. This relationship is geographically contingent. When Fig. 4. Boxplot showing high-diversity gardens by the sample is divided into two sets—villages found village, Corrientes River, Peru. in a cluster near Trompeteros (n=5) and those villages upstream (n=10)—we find a strongly cause they encompass more microvariations in linear relationship between land holdings and soil, moisture, and other biophysical character- species diversity among upriver villages (r=0.336, istics. In addition, some large gardens include p < 0.001) but no statistically significant rela- secondary forest or forest edge where uncommon tionship among households in downriver villages forest species are found. In Santa Rosa, one man (r=0.054, p=0.547). The downriver villages are all considered a small area of forest adjacent to his within short distance of one another and of the huerto as part of his home garden because he had Trompeteros market (less than 35 minutes from brought planting material of the medicinal plant one another; less than one hour from Trompeteros, chirisanango (Brunfelsia grandiflora)fromthe by 25-hp motor boat), whereas the upriver villages forest and transplanted it a few meters from the are more than twice as far from Trompeteros. forest edge, thus appropriating some of the forest The proximity of the downriver villages to market, around his house. to the largest employers on the river, and to the

TABLE 3. REGRESSION MODEL OF NUMBER OF SPECIES PER GARDEN,CORRIENTES RIVER,PERU.

Coefﬁcient (Standard Error) (Constant) 13.400 (3.934)*** Village size (# houses/village) 0.032 (0.037) Size of garden (100 m2) 0.139 (0.023)*** No. of years in charge of garden 0.136 (0.131) Ethnicity (1 = Urarina; 0 = other) -13.892 (2.161)*** No. of cultivated ﬁelds 1.733 (0.586)*** Age of tender 0.139 (0.058)** Gender of tender (1 = female; 0 = male or both male and female) 3.980 (1.834)** Household size 0.104 (0.267) Education of tender -0.337 (0.255) R2 0.356 F 17.291 p(F) < 0.001 df 282

*** P(t) ≤ 0.01; ** P(t) ≤ 0.05. 118 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62 town may weaken the link between land wealth, bring planting material home during school livelihood, prestige, and garden diversity observed holidays. in the upriver villages. For example, some households depend more on wages from the oil company and are less dependent upon their fields and Discussion and Conclusions garden for their livelihood. This study of agrobiodiversity in home gardens of 15 communities along the Corrientes River in northeastern Peru yields five principal findings. HOUSEHOLD DEMOGRAPHY First, the remote Corrientes is a region of high Age and gender of the garden caretaker are cultivated plant species diversity. The number of significant variables in explaining the differences in useful garden plant species encountered (309 agrobiodiversity among households. Gardens spp.) is the highest reported to date for the tended by women are more diverse by 4.0 species Amazon basin (Table 4) and higher than often than gardens tended by men or by both. Older encountered elsewhere in tropical home gardens caretakers are associated with more species-diverse (e.g., see Tesfaye Abebe et al. 2006, Table 5). In gardens: an increase of 10 years in age corresponds to part, this finding is due to the large sample size of a predicted increase of 1.40 species in the garden. our study. Indeed, the mean number of species Garden caretaking is traditionally a woman’s encountered per garden is comparable to means responsibility in many Amazonian societies and reported in extant studies in Amazonia. Figure 5 especially among the Achuar (Descola 1986). illustrates the relationship between gamma diver- Planting material, such as seeds or cuttings, sity and sample size in previous studies of moves mostly through matrilineal kin networks agrobiodiversity in Amazonian home gardens. (Perrault-Archambault 2005), particularly from All reports with known sample size and exact female-to-female. Women tend to manage more species number are included, with the exception plant species in their gardens than men because of of papers by Smith (1996), Guillaumet et al. their traditional role as plant recipients and garden (1990), Hamlin and Salick (2003), and Wezel caretakers but also because of their knowledge of and Ohl (2005), because their surveys exclude horticulture. Age also matters because species certain categories of species (e.g., medicinal and acquisition is a lifelong undertaking. When leaving ornamental plants, timber, or herbaceous species). the maternal house, young women often take along A positive quadratic relationship exists between a few cuttings and seeds of the mother’splantsand gamma diversity and number of gardens sur- acquire other species through their travels, thus veyed, i.e., the more gardens surveyed, the higher accumulating species over time. The deepening of total diversity encountered. In addition, surveys knowledge with experience may similarly give rise to based on small samples may overestimate agro- more diverse garden portfolios in older households. biodiversity because households are not often In addition, with increasing age, households develop chosen randomly but rather by convenience stronger social networks through which planting sampling or as “indicative” of diversity. Clearly, material can be exchanged, in such a way that they more large-scale surveys are needed, particularly often become nodal points in their kin group. in remote regions such as the Corrientes, to assess The availability of in-house labor is also an the broader geographical distribution of agro- important determinant of garden species diversity. biodiversity in the Amazon basin. While household size does not hold predictive Second, the Achuar people along the Corrientes power, the number of individuals of working age hold much of the agrobiodiversity encountered, (i.e., 15–64 years) per household in a subsample and their Urarina neighbors are, by comparison, of 113 households, for which such data are avail- plant species–poor. The total number of species able, is statistically significant in a simple regres- cultivated by the 12 Achuar villages as well as the sion against the total number of species per garden Achuar families living within Urarina communities (R2=0.163; p < 0.001), with an additional adult was 297 species, considerably higher than reports resulting in as much as 4.61 extra species in the for other ethnic or mestizo groups in the Amazon garden. Young adults in the household, especially (Table 4). Relative to other Amazonian ethnic young girls, help out in the garden, and pupils groups, the Urarina would appear to hold less attending secondary school elsewhere sometimes agrobiodiversity in their home gardens. Several 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 119 factors may contribute to the observed differences home gardens. As such, market integration may between the Achuar and Urarina. The Urarina not always pose a threat to agrobiodiversity as along the Corrientes River are a smaller population perhaps expected; traditional farmers along the and live socially, if not geographically, isolated Corrientes River take advantage of new opportu- from the larger Achuar and mestizo population and nities offered by market access and links with the are only minimally involved with Pluspetrol. This oil company to enhance local agrobiodiversity. isolation is reflected in the paucity of reported Inter-household differences in species richness exchanges of planting material between Achuar are influenced by garden size, land assets, garden and Urarina households, whereas the Achuar tender age and gender, and in-house labor. Wealth frequently trade plants with other ethnic groups in the form of land assets, social capital, and cul- such as the Muratos, the Quichuas, and other tural capital favors the development of rich gardens Achuar groups from the Pastaza River. In addition, through access to varied agroecological micro- differences in knowledge of the surrounding forest, habitats (land holdings), experience (age), knowl- livelihood choices and priorities, and distinct ritual edge (age and gender), and labor (in-house labor). practices all are likely to affect home garden Such a strong positive link between wealth and planting and diversity outcomes. More ethno- agrobiodiversity is noted increasingly by researchers graphic and ethnobotanical research is needed to working elsewhere (see Bellon and Brush 1994; better explain these and other inter-ethnic differ- Wright and Turner 1999; Peroni and Hanazaki ences in agrobiodiversity in Amazonia. 2002). Despite marked inter-household differences Third, the number of crop species cultivated in in the number of species encountered, the relative home gardens of the Corrientes is highly variable at number of species by use category per garden is both the regional (inter-village) and garden level comparable, suggesting functional convergence (inter-household). The highest plant diversity is among home gardens in different villages. found in the largest villages: more households bring Fourth, a small number of farmers hold new plants to the total village pool of species. exceptionally diverse home gardens. Whereas Also, larger villages tend also to be the most socio- other researchers have encountered high-diversity culturally diverse, consisting of households of vari- farmers, referring to them as “master” or “expert” ous ethnic, geographic, and social backgrounds farmers (e.g., Boster 1983; Padoch and de Jong who, through their idiosyncrasies, contribute new 1991; Bellon et al. 1997; Salick et al. 1997; Tapia plants, but also new techniques, new tastes and 2000; Peroni and Hanazaki 2002), most reports needs, and new “plant-specific” knowledge to their are anecdotal. In our study of 15 villages, a total host communities. Such differences rather than of 15 high-diversity farmers was encountered similarities give rise to high species diversity: the among 300 households and typically only one Achuar, for example, hold high diversity but (or two) was encountered per village, in all but between-household differences in the sociocultur- four villages. These farmers hold on average three ally mixed so-called “Achuar” villages drive the times the number of species as the typical garden particularly rich agrobiodiversity observed. Market in the village and 60% of all species encountered access and interaction with Pluspetrol clearly also in the study communities. Often these farmers, affect village-level diversity: the money injected by older and land wealthier than average, possess the the oil company in proximate communities, the largest gardens and live on the outskirts of the services offered, especially regional transportation, village, in relative isolation. For each village, and, surprisingly, the species it contributes directly between 62 and 91% of all the home garden result in an increase in local cultivated species species of the village were grown in the two most diversity. Elsewhere among riverine communities species-diverse gardens. Between 28 and 73% of the Peruvian Amazon, researchers also have (48% on average) of the rarest plants, those that found higher diversity in gardens of communities occurred in only one of the village’shome near urban centers than in more remote areas gardens, were found in one of these two gardens. (cf. e.g., Works 1990; Padoch and de Jong 1991; In the 15 villages together, these 30 gardens Lamont et al. 1999; Wezel and Ohl 2005). In contain 73% of all inventoried plant species. the Brazilian Amazon, Major et al. (2005) show Such findings raise the possibility of developing that market orientation in areas of terra preta soils more parsimonious reconnaissance methods for does not diminish species richness in farmers’ the assessment of agrobiodiversity in home 2 CNMCBTN VL62 [VOL BOTANY ECONOMIC 120

TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF STUDIES ON AGROBIODIVERSITY IN HOME GARDENS OF AMAZONIA.

Source Most Diverse Garden Total # Species (Mean) # Gardens Surveyed # Villages Visited Ethnicity BRAZILIAN AMAZON Guillaumet et al. 1990 39 61 (37.3) 3 3 Caboclos Smith 1996 80 18 ? (pby caboclos) Smith 1996 25 77 33 id. WinklerPrins 2002 98 21 Caboclos Hiraoka et al. 2003 74 (27) 82 Ribeirinhos ECUADORIAN AMAZON Garí 2001 37 > 2 Quichua, Shiwiar and Zaparo PERUVIAN AMAZON Caceres Concha et al. n.d. 34 68 11 2 Ribereños (Cocama?) Oré Balbin et al. n.d. 50 94 14 3 Ribereños (Cocama?) Boster 1983* > 50 135 Many Aguaruna and Huambisa Denevan and Treacy 1987* 20 1 1 Bora Works 1990 49 > 120 50 1 Mestizo Padoch and de Jong 1991* 74 168 21 1 Ribereños Oré Balbin and Llapapasca Samaniego 1996 55 28 1 Ribereños Lamont et al. 1999* 125 (30) 27 1 Ribereños Lamont et al. 1999* 104 (27) 16 1 Yaguas Lamont et al. 1999* 111 (39) 8 1 Yaguas Lerch 1999 42 136 (8.03) 148 3 Ribereños Paredes et al. 2001 74 1 Mestizo Hamlin and Salick 2003 28 (14.6) 18 1 Amuesha Coomes and Ban 2004 32 82 (16.3) 24 1 Ribereños Wezel and Ohl 2005 31 71 (18.2) 19 2 Matsiguenka Perrault-Archambault and Coomes, this study 78 309 (25.86) 300 15 Achuar, Urarina and mestizos

Note: *Authors report having collected voucher specimens for most or all plants encountered, for use in off-site species identiﬁcation. 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 121

by the river, secondary forest, or fields—are important custodians of diversity. By focusing on large, diverse gardens on village peripheries, researchers may acquire at relatively low cost a useful initial picture of the palette of cultivated plants found in a region. While the investigator’s sense of observation remains the best guide to species rich gardens, gaining a better understanding of who these high-diversity farmers are, what role they play in the village’s in situ conservation dynamics, and the nature of their horticultural interactions with other villagers may prove very useful in future research on Fig. 5. Species diversity as a function of sample size agrobiodiversity in Amazonia and beyond. of home garden studies in Amazonia. Finally, access to planting material—such as — gardens, particularly as researchers seek to map seeds, cuttings, pseudostems, etc. is an important regional patterns of agrobiodiversity and identify factor in building agrobiodiversity in home gar- “hotspots” of cultivated species diversity. Recon- dens that merits further study. In the Corrientes, naissance studies could be undertaken, for exam- household wealth is tightly connected with access ple, that focus on the most species-diverse gardens to planting material. Three attributes of wealth and/or isolated farmers. If we had sampled the may interplay in this relationship: social wealth, two most diverse gardens in the eight largest physical wealth, and prestige. The development of villages of the Corrientes River study area, 67% of extensive social and kin networks enhances the plant species would have been found by visiting formation of rich gardens because social networks only 5% of gardens (Fig. 6). The challenge, of facilitate the procurement of planting stock (Coomes and Ban 2004; Perrault-Archambault course, is to be able to identify those gardens with fi outstanding diversity without undertaking ex- 2005). Physical wealth, comprised largely of eld haustive and time-consuming garden inventories. holdings, fosters the acquisition of planting mate- As issues of horticultural pride are prominent, few rial through an increase of purchasing and bar- farmers are willing to admit that someone else has a tering power. Prestige and wealth are also tightly lusher garden than their own. Asking a randomly connected. Garden agrobiodiversity is considered fi prestigious in many societies, the Achuar among selected farmer to identify the most proli c garden fi tender is unlikely to direct the investigator towards them (Descola 1986), as con rmed during this study by poor Achuar villagers who were ashamed to the outstandingly rich garden: we found that in a “ ” test of 53 respondents, only 28% cited one of the show scantly vegetated gardens. Being rich without exhibiting a garden that attests to one’s wealth may two most diverse gardens. Often the isolated ’ households—i.e., those separated from the village cast doubt on the legitimacy of one s prestige. Rich gardensallowtheirownerstobegenerousandto enter a virtuous cycle of gifting and counter gifting and of expansion of social networks. How exactly these cycles function, how planting material is acquired and exchanged, how it is disseminated through social networks, are questions that have received little attention and merit further research, especially as differential access to propagation material andethnicorsocialmembershipinfluence the local distribution of species diversity.

Acknowledgments This study was conducted with the ﬁnancial assistance of the Fonds pour la Formation de ’ Fig. 6. Number of species held by most diverse Chercheurs et l Aide à la Rercherche (FCAR) and gardens in eight largest villages, Corrientes River, Peru. the Social Sciences and Humanities Research 122 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

Council of Canada (SSHRC). We are much Macahuachi, and the residents of the Corrientes indebted to Dr. Carlos Manrique, Padre Louis River, whose trust, hospitality, and unfailing Castonguay, Victor Villalobos, to the managers, patience made this study possible. Our manuscript field staff, and medical team of Pluspetrol, and to benefited significantly by the insightful and the researchers of the Instituto de Investigaciones constructive comments of two anonymous de la Amazonia Peruana in Iquitos for their reviewers and the editor, Dan Moerman. generous logistic and technical support. Our deepest gratitude to Jaime Salazar, Reynerio Appendix

APPENDIX. LIST OF 100 MOST COMMON HOME GARDEN PLANTS,CORRIENTES RIVER,PERU.

Vernacular Name English Name Scientific Name (Family in Brackets When Sp. Unknown) Papa china Taro Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Cocona Peach tomato Solanum sessiliflorum Dun. Caimito Abiu Pouteria caimito (R.&P.) Radlk. Caña de azucar Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum L. Camote Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Guayaba Guava Psidium guayaba L. Guava Inga sp. Yuca Manioc Manihot esculenta Crantz. Plátano Plantain Musa sp. Aguaje Moriche palm Mauritia flexuosa L.f. Toronja Grapefruit Citrus paradisi Macfadyn. Mango Mango Mangifera indica L. Sacha culantro Wild coriander Eryngium foetidum L. Piña Pineapple Ananas comosus L. Guisador Turmeric Curcuma longa L. Mamey Syzygium sp. Coco Coconut Cocos nucifera L. Papaya Papaya Carica papaya L. Pijuayo Peach palm Bactris gasipaes H.B.K. Uvilla Amazon grape Pourouma cecropiaefolia Mart. Palta Avocado Persea americana Mill. Macambo Tiger cacao Theobroma bicolor Humb.&Bonpl. Malva Malachra spp. Papa mandi [Araceae] Santa maría/Maria panga Pothomorphe peltata Miq. Mucura Garlic weed Petiveria alliacea L. Huingo Calabash Crescentia cujete L. Naranja Sweet orange Citrus sinensis L. Agengibre Ginger Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Limón Lime Citrus aurantiifolia Christm. Huaca Clibadium sp. Zapote Sapote Quararibea cordata H.&B. Cacahuillo Theobroma speciosum Willd. Ají dulce Sweet pepper Capsicum annuum L. Hierba Luisa Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus DC. Cashú Cashew Anacardium occidentale L. Pandishu Breadfruit Artocarpus altilis Park. Ají piquante Hot pepper Capsicum frutescens L. Lancetilla Peperomia rubea Trel. Pichana/Escoba Broom weed Sida acuta Brum. Cidra Citrus medica L. Anona Sweetsop Annona squamosa L. Corazón de Jesús Jesus’ ear Caladium bicolor Ait. (Continued) 2008] PERRAULT-ARCHAMBAULT ET AL.: AMAZONIAN AGROBIODIVERSITY 123

APPENDIX. (CONTINUED).

Vernacular Name English Name Scientiﬁc Name (Family in Brackets When Sp. Unknown) Guineo Dessert banana Musa acuminata Colla. Sacha papa Yam Dioscorea triﬁda L. Ajo sacha Wild garlic Mansoa alliacea Lam. Pampa orégano Lippia alba Mill. Bijau Calathea lutea Aubl. Patiquina Dieffenbachia sp. Algodón Cotton Gossypium barbadense L. Ubos Hog plum Spondias mombin L. Chanca piedra Stone-breaker Phyllanthus sp. Piripiri Piri piri sedge Cyperus sp. Ojé Ficus insipida Willd. Sacha mangua Grias peruviana Miers. Coconilla Solanum stramonifolium (Cav. ex Lam.) Ungurahui Bataua palm Oenocarpus bataua (Pav. ex Dunal) Topa Balsa Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex Lam.) Mandarina/Tanjarina Tangerine Citrus reticulata Blanco Tomate Tomato Lycopersicum esculentum Mill Trigo Job's tear Coix lacryma-jobi L. Yarina Ivory palm Phytelephas macrocarpa (R.&P.) Achiote Annatto Bixa orellana L. Ishanga [Urticaceae] Rosa cisa African marigold Tagetes erecta L. Patiquina negra Xanthosoma purpuratum Krause. Shimbillo Inga sp. Verbena Verbena Verbena littoralis H.B.K. Barbasco Derris plant Lonchocarpus nicou Aubl. Ciruela Spanish plum Spondias purpurea L. Cedro Tropical cedar Cedrela odorata L. Bolsa mullaca Ground cherry Physalis angulata L. Charichuelo Rheedia gardneriana (Miers ex Planch.) Guayaba brasilera Eugenia stipitata McVaugh. Umarí Pouraqueiba sericea Tul. Lengua del perro (Hoja del aire; Air plant Kalancheo pinnata Lam. Paichicara) Patiquina roja Motelohuayo Cacao Cocoa Theobroma cacao L. Albaca Basil Ocimum basilicum L. Retama Golden lantern Cassia reticulata Willd. Atadijo Trema micrantha L. Flor de Margarita Maíz Maize Zea mays L. Achira Indian shot Canna indica L. Caihua Wild cucumber Cyclanthera pedata L. Chambira Fiber palm Astrocaryum chambira Burret. Yahuar piripiri/Ungurahuillo Eleutherine bulbosa Miller Sandía Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Thunb. Maní Peanut Arachis hypogaea L. Piñón blanco Physic nut Jatropha curcas L. Shebon Scheelea basleriana Burret. Macambillo Theobroma subincanum Mart. Mishquipanga Renealmia alpina Rottb. Ñukñuk pichana Scoparia dulcis L. (Continued) 124 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

APPENDIX. (CONTINUED).

Vernacular Name English Name Scientiﬁc Name (Family in Brackets When Sp. Unknown) Cebolla china Allium sp. Zapallo Squash Cucurbita pepo L. Piasaba Aphandra natalia (Balslev & A.J. Hend.) Barford Sinamillo Oenocarpus mapora Karst. Toé Angel’s trumpet Brugmansia suaveolens (H.&B. ex Willd.)

Note: Species listed in order of most common occurrence.

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