Министерство образования и науки кыргызской республики Кыргызско-российский славянский университет
Кафедра теории и практики английского языка и межкультурной коммуникации
О.Ю. Шубина, В.Ш. Хасанова, Н.В. Курганова
Problems of Learning Languages
Учебное пособие для студентов старших курсов языковых специальностей
Бишкек 2010 УДК 80/81 ББК 81 Ш 95 Рецензенты: В.Д. Асанов, доц., Р.И. Кузьмина, доц., Г.А. Вишневская, доц. Рекомендовано к изданию кафедрой теории и практики английского языка и межкультурной коммуникации и Ученым советом КРСУ Допущено Министерством образования и науки Кыргызской Республики в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений
Шубина О.Ю и др. Ш 95 Problems of Learning Languages: Учебное пособие для студентов страших курсов языковых специальностей / О.Ю. Шубина, В.Ш. Хасанова, Н.В. Курганова. – Б.: КРСУ, 2010. – 118 с. ISBN 978-9967-05-573-5 Настоящее учебное пособие “Problems of Learning Languages” предназнача- ется для студентов старших курсов языковых специальностей. Цель пособия – совершенствование навыков чтения, развитие навыков ре- чевого общения, введение и закрепление лексики по изучаемой теме. Пособие состоит из четырех разделов, в каждый из которых включены тематические тексты, определенные задания по различным видам чтения (по- исковое, просмотровое и др.), задания на лексику, задания, направленные на развитие навыков написания аннотаций и эссе. В пособие включены также ролевые игры и тестовые задания для контроля знаний студентов: лексические тесты, тесты к видеофильмам и аудиотесты. В пособие включен словарь-минимум, охватывающий лексику всего мате- риала пособия. Задания, предлагаемые в сборнике, предполагают парный и групповой виды работ и предназначены как для аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работы.
Ш 4602000000-09 УДК 80/81 ббк 81 ISBN 978-9967-05-573-5 © КРСУ, 2010 CONTENTS
Unit I. Problems of second language acquisition ...... 5 Part I. Learning a second language...... 5 Part II. Problems of learning foreign languages...... 8 Part III. Acquisition of a second language...... 12 Part IV. Idea of the universal language...... 20 Part V. Role Play...... 26 Part VI. Viewing the film: Joe speaks French...... 26
Unit II. Bilingualism and multilingualism...... 29 Part I. Bilingualism...... 29 Part II. World English...... 35 Part III. Test of listening: Learning foreign languages ...... 40
Unit III. Set expressions and varieties of language...... 42 Part I. Slang...... 42 Part II. Idioms...... 52 Part III. Jargons ...... 60
Unit IV. Endangered languages...... 65 Part I. The Crumbling of the Ecosystem of Language and Culture. . . . . 65 Part II. Education for Multilingualism and Multi-literacy in Ethnic Minority Communities ...... 71
Vocabulary...... 77
Literature...... 82
3 UNIT I
Problems of Second Language Acquisition
Part I. Learning a second language
Text 1. Should you learn a second language?
1. Before reading the article given below, share your ideas about advantages of knowing a second language or being bilingual. 2. Read the text and do the assignments below.
Yes (Jeremy Westwood, Berlitz Publishing) It would be surprising if someone in my position were not convinced of the joy – and practical benefits – of learning a language. I was seduced by the world of language classes early, having started my working life teaching English in a language school in Ferrera, Italy. I was not a great teacher – I got the job because the director of the school an English vicar in Milan thought that I had gone to the right public school. But, having had a classical education, I proved a good learner. Furthermore, I was aided after hours by a lovely signorina – always a wonderful educational aid – who corrected my exercises. My acquaintance with languages pure and simple also began early – perhaps a key to enthusiasm and aptitude for learning a foreign tongue. I was sent to boarding school when I was four and I started to learn French when not much older, beginning with les Adventures de Madame Souris. I can now speak French and Italian to a high standard (with dashes of German and Spanish), something I have found very useful in both my personal and professional life. Not everyone has had my opportunities but most people have the chance to learn a second language to some degree. But why should they bother when English is an international language and when shouting louder is rumored to work well in many foreign parts? Well, there are good reasons for trying, even if only with the aid of phrase book order the dinner or find the nearest loo. First, it’s the convenience and simple practical virtues of being able to communicate. Second, it’s a matter of courtesy to try to talk to people in their language in their own country, even if it is only to say “good morning”. Even Australians will appreciate if you greet
4 them with “G’day”; you may seem to be less of a Pon which is sometimes a distinct benefit. It is also fun to succeed in saying the right thing, even if your few words then release – as they invariably do – a torrent in reply of which you can generally understand little. One of the most important phrases to learn, perhaps, it’s “I don’t understand”. There is nothing wrong in saying this; you are going to have to own up somewhere , sometimes as even the greatest polyglot cannot speak every language. The important thing is to show you are willing to try. What else should move one lo learn a foreign language? Self-interest is a good place to start. From the fun of being less of a foreigner to the thrill, in the halcyon days of youthful (and perhaps not so useful) travel, of the knowing smile from the girl or boy on the next bar stool. OK, the smile may be the start of a laugh at your pronunciation but the Ice has been broken. More vital, perhaps, is the ability to say – something important in an emergency when your phrase book is back in the hotel; or to have a chance of understanding a phone call received in your rented villa. And if you are in a country where the alphabet and the script are unfamiliar, then being able to recognize a few words is even more important. It does. Of course, depends on the level of your abilities; but arguing that it’s not worth trying because you’ll only learn a little is like saying there’s no point starting tennis unless you’re going to be able to play like Tim Henman. In addition, it’s simply not true that “everyone speaks English”. Even in the business of publishing, where I work, there are senior executives with whom I deal in France and Italy who don’t speak English. I believe my ability to communicate in their language helps my business with them and certainly helps my personal relationship with them. Of course, one can hire an interpreter, but have you ever tried to tell a joke through one? It takes time and money to learn a language as an adult, especially if you have one-to-one lessons in a language school. But the cost will be rapidly repaid. Yes, a degree of skill is required and it’s true that some people will always struggle. But I am convinced that anyone who can learn a language to whatever degree of expertise should do so. Note: Pon – a popular, important person (in Australia means popularity)
Assignments I. Answer the following questions: 1. Do you agree with the author’s point of view that one should learn a second language?
5 2. Have you personally experienced any advantages of being bilingual? 3. What did move you to learn L2?
II. Match the following words with proper synonyms: 1 loo a placid 2 aptitude b admit 3 one-to-one c lavatory 4 halcyon d private 5 own up e propensity f peaceful g tкte-а-tкte
III. Cite the reasons given in the text or give your own reasons why: 1. Though not everyone has good opportunities, but most people do have a chance to learn a L2 to some degree. 2. it is a matter of courtesy to try to talk to people in their language in their own country. 3. language knowledge helps in business and personal relationships.
IV. Translate the following sentences into Russian. 1. it is also fun to succeed in saying the right thing, even if your few words then release – as they invariably do – a torrent in reply of which you can generally understand little. 2. from the fun of being less of a foreigner to the thrill, in the halcyon days of youthful (and perhaps not so useful) travel, of the knowing smile from the girl or boy on the next bar stool. 3. but arguing that it’s not worth trying because you’ll only learn a little is like saying there’s no point starting tennis unless you’re going to be able to play like Tim Henman.
Text 2. No (Tim Jepson, Sunday Telegraph)
Read the text and do the assignments below. Learn a language? Are you kidding? Come on? You know it’s not going to happen. It’s one of those resolutions – or slightly desperate promises you make to yourself, invariably of the self-improving kind – that collapses within days under the weight of the application and sheer tedium required to achieve it. When the last time you tried to learn a language? School? Probably. And the time before that? When you an infant.
6 Let’s go to school first. Years of French and German, perhaps Spanish and Italian if you were lucky, and Latin, Greek of Welsh (only kidding) if you weren’t. Now how much can you remember? I studied French for seven years, and what a seven years. Hours and hours of learning long lists of words by rote, none of which, in that time, I once used in anger, or otherwise, on French soil. Hours and hours, in short, of tedium relieved only by sniggering in language labs, lusting after the French assistant – a schoolboy clichй, I know, but I fear, true – and poring over a new wave of trendy textbooks that aimed to make language-learning an easier and happier experience. If only. Part of my problem was that I couldn’t see the point of learning a language. My family went on holiday to rented houses in Norfolk or the Yorkshire Dales, places, where, on the whole the jocular use of zut alors or mon Dieu aside – French was rarely required. Nor could I see that learning a language demanded much in the way of flair or natural aptitude.L anguages, to my mind, were for dullards. What they required was learning by rote – and is there any type of learning more boring? – and the ability to apply a few rules of grammar and adopt a mildly amusing. Inspector Closeau-esque accent for oral exams. Being proficient in all these areasI came away, remarkably, with an A in my ‘O’ level. Perfect, until the first time I was required to use French in Francs trying to secure a hotel room late one evening in Angouleme. It wasn’t that no words came out my mouth, just that they were the wrong ones, and there were so few of them. After seven years of learning, and a few intervening years, all that remained to me was the vocabulary of three-year-old. So, even if you learn a language, or a fragment of one, face facts: you are going to forget it. The three-year-old bit is pertinent, because the best way to learn a language, of course, is as a very small child, when you have nothing else to do but be talked at all day – and don’t know enough to realize, or care, that there is an awful lot more to life. If someone jabbered to me in, say, Spanish all day, as I sat in a highchair, was dandled on a knee or gurgled on my back playing with my toes, then I’m pretty sure that after a couple of years, with no distractions other than the need to eat, sleep and learn to walk, I’d have enough to get by. But assuming you do, somehow, learn a language – what have you achieved? The ability to talk to people in other countries. Now ask yourself: how often do you visit other countries? Enough times to justify all the effort
7 and expenses? More to the point, how often do you visit countries where they don’t speak English, or at least enough English to make half-baked Spanish phrases or Italian blandishments redundant? Because it’s one of the truths of travel – foreigners are better at languages than we are. We don’t need to learn languages for one very simple reason. EVERYBODY SPEAKS ENGLISH. More to the point, in place like Scandinavia, they speak it better than we do. Of course it’s a courtesy to have a stab at the language of the country you’re visiting, but keep it to a few words (I’m convinced you can survive in any country with 10 well-chosen words and phrases – one day I’ll work out what they are). Learning something in later life, I believe, has nothing to do with reduced mental faculties and everything to do with no having enough time. Thus the only ways to learn a language are, first, to be lucky enough to be living in another country – I lived in Italy for seven years and finally did learn a second language ; the old full-immersion clichй really does work. Or second – and here I wasn’t so lucky - to enjoy the accelerated and pleasurable method of learning that goes be the name of “pillow talk”. Now if there were language courses that went by that name I might be, inclined to sign up…
Assignments I. Answer the following questions: 1. What are the reasons due to which learning a language becomes boring and almost impossible? 2. Why do many people forget foreign languages they learnt at school? 3. What are the only ways to learn a language?
II. Match the words in the left column with the definitions in the right one. 1 invariably a frequently 2 jabber b learning sth. by repeating until you remember it rather than by understand- ing the meaning 3 flair c attempt 4 stab d to be willing 5 to be inclined e talk quickly in exited way 6 rote f memorizing g always, without fail h talent
8 III. Translate into Russian the following sentences. 1. more to the point, how often do you visit countries where they don’t speak English, or at least enough English to make half-baked Spanish phrases or Italian blandishments redundant? 2. Thus the only ways to learn a language are, first, to be lucky enough to be living in another country – I lived in Italy for seven years and finally did learn a second language ; the old full-immersion clichй really does work. 3. Hours and hours, in short, of tedium relieved only by sniggering in language labs, lusting after the French assistant – a schoolboy clichй, I know, but I fear, true – and poring over a new wave of trendy textbooks that aimed to make language-learning an easier and happier experi- ence.
IV. Comment the following statements. 1. foreigners are better at languages than the English. 2. learning by rote is boring. 3. “Pillow talk” is the only suitable way to learn a language for the laziest people.
V. Home assignment. Work out 10 well-chosen words or phrases that will help you to survive in any foreign country.
Part II. Problems of learning foreign languages
Text 1. Problems of second foreign language
Read the following text and do the assignments below.
A second foreign language is any language learned after the first foreign language and mother tongue. While learning a second language a person can face various problems. 1. Choice of a language The very first problem in the second language is simply choice ofa language. Because it is crucial to realize what language family a language belongs to, what sort of connection and even cognation there is between the first and second foreign languages, what reasons and motivations a learner
9 has, what opportunities to acquire a language a learner possesses, and many other aspects of this point. 2. Age Another significant point of the second language learning is age. According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first language and a second language is the age in which the language was acquired. For example, a linguist Eric Lenneberg used a second language to mean a language consciously learned or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never acquired the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. In acquiring second language, Hyltenstam (1992) found that around the age of 6 and 7 there seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, second language learners could get near-native-likeness but their language would, while consisting of very few actual errors, have enough errors that would set them apart from the first language group. The inability of some of the subjects then to achieve native- like proficiency must be seen then in relation to age of onset. “The age of 6 or 7 does seem to be an important period in distinguishing between near-native and native-like ultimate attainment… More specifically, it may be suggested that the age of the onset interacts with frequency and intensity in language use” (Hyltenstam, 1992). Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2003) modified their age cut- offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-likeness, but there is no cut-off point in particular. Furthermore, they discuss a number of cases where a native-like second language was acquired during adulthood. Besides the later a person tries to acquire a second foreign language the worse progress it will make, because in the course of time and number of brain cells and neuronal ties reduced and cognitive abilities worsen significantly. 3. Time Another new development that has influenced the linguistic arrangement for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire the second foreign language. While previously children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the time span is nearer to five years (Collier, 1992: Ramirez, 1992). 4. Individual attitude to the SFL This factor plays an important role in the second foreign language acquisition, especially when a learner has a negative attitude either to a
10 language, a teacher, methodology or to a nation or a culture of a language. In this respect interest and a strong desire to know a language improves results of learning. 5. Individual abilities of SFL learner Not everyone can learn a foreign language. And it is clear that it is hard to know two foreign languages on good proficiency level simultaneously. It requires from a learner definite personal characteristic features: industry, self-discipline, intelligence, purposefulness, hard-working, intellectual curiosity, good memory, creativity and talent. A most stressful obstacle difficult to overcome in the second foreign language learning is laziness. Some people suffer greatly from the “illness”. They even try to prove their innocence with that fact that they already know a foreign language, and it is enough for them. Therefore a person needs strong will and good motivation to work hard. Another requirement is that a first foreign language level must be high, in order not to confuse two language structures in the head. That should be two well-developed language systems of grammar, vocabulary, phonetics in a learner’s consciousness. It will prevent languages from mixing in the speech. However particular usage of either language still remains a good way for reaching proficiency in foreign languages. 6. Success Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likehood and quality. First language learners will be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all first language learners will learn a first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or stuck as it were with ungrammatical items. The difference between learners may be significant.F inally, it is noted elsewhere, second language learners rarely achieve complete native-like control of the second language.
Similarities and differences between L2 and L1 X L2 L1 speed NA acquisition is rapid stages systematic stages of systematic stages of development development error correction not directly influential involved depth of beyond the level of input beyond the level of knowledge input success (1) not inevitable inevitable success (2) rarely fully successful successful
11 The study of learner-external factors in second successful acquisition is primary concerned with the question: How do learners get information about the target language? Study has focused on the effects of different kinds of input, and on the impact of the social context. 7. Social effects The process of language learning can be very stressful, and the impact of positive and negative attitudes from the surrounding society can be critical. One aspect which has received particular attention is the relationship or gender roles to language achievement. Studies across numerous cultures have shown that women, on the whole, enjoy an advantage over men. Some have proposed that this is linked to gender roles. Doman (2206) notes in a journal devoted to issues of Cultural affects on second language acquisition, “Questions abound about what defines second language acquisition, how far it borders extend and what the attributions and contributions of its research are. Thus there is a great amount of heterogeneity in the entire conceptualization of second language acquisition. Some researchers tend to ignore certain aspects of the field, while others scrutinize those same aspects piece by piece”. Community attitudes toward the language being learned can also have a profound impact on second language acquisition/ where the community has a broadly negative view of its relation to them, learning is typically much more difficult. This finding has been confirmed by research in numerous contexts. A widely-cited example is the difficulty faced by Navajo children in learning English as a second language. Other common social factors include the attitude of parents toward language study, and the nature of group dynamics in the language classroom. Early attitudes may strengthen motivation and facility with language in general, particularly with early exposure to the language.
Assignments I. Find some facts in the article to prove its title. II. Find the central idea of the text. III. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the first problem of learning a second language? 2. What is the difference between first and second language acquisition? 3. What age is considered to be a cut-off point for learners to achieve native-like proficiency?
12 4. What is the role of individual attitude to SFL? 5. What is the role of individual abilities in SFL?
IV. Find the facts to prove the following: 1. not everyone can learn a foreign language. 2. age is very important in SFL learning. 3. length of time is necessary to acquire the SFL. 4. first foreign language level must be higher then SFL. 5. The impact of positive and negative attitudes from the surrounding soci- ety can be crucial.
V. Give explanations to the chart “Similarities and differences between L1 and L2”. Find supporting sentences in the text.
VI. Match the words on the left with the words on the right: 1 span a achievement 2 widely-cited (example) b visual 3 attainment c period 4 measurement d supplementary 5 consciousness e awareness f assessment g interaction
VII. Choose the right synonym of the following words: 1) cognation a) relationship b) difference c) similarity 2) a cut-off point a) a point of beginning or starting b) a point of stopping c) a point of foot-hold 3) the age of the onset a) the age of stopping studying a language b) the age of continuing studying a language c) the age of starting studying a language 4) bilingual literacy a) knowledge of languages b) the usage of languages c) adherence to languages
13 5) second language acquisition a) knowledge of a second language b) mastery of a second language c) perception of a second language 6) good proficiency a) good experience b) good memorization c) good ability and skill 7) to become fossilized in studying the second language a) to acquire well b) to be incapable c) to perceive well VIII. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. леннеберг определяет второй иностранный язык как тот, который изучается и используется носителем после достижения половой зрелости. 2. личное отношение ко второму иностранному языку играет важную роль в его овладении, особенно когда у ученика возникает негативное отношение либо к языку, учителю и методике преподавания, либо к нации и культуре данного языка. 3. Чем позже человек пытается овладеть вторым иностранным языком, тем меньше будет прогресс, поскольку с возрастом познавательные способности значительно ухудшаются. IX. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire a second foreign language. 2. The study of the learner’s external factors in second languages acquisi- tion is primarily concerned with the question: How do learners get infor- mation about the target language? 3. There is a great amount of heterogeneity in the entire conceptualization of second languages acquisition. 4. some researchers tend to ignore certain aspects of the field, while others scrutinize those same aspects piece by piece. X. Home assignment 1. make up the summary of the text. 2. Write an essay about your personal problems in second languages acqui- sition.
14 Part III. Acquisition of a second language
1. Read the first passage of the text and try to predict what the rest of the text will be about. 2. Read the text and do the assignments below.
Text 1. Myths and misconceptions about second language learning
MYTH 1: CHILDREN LEARN SECOND LANGUAGES QUICKLY AND EASILY
One frequently hears this proposition in various forms. It is asserted that children can learn languages faster than adults; that immigrant children translate for their parents who have not learned the language; and that child learners speak without a foreign accent, whereas this is impossible for adult learners. Typically, when pressed, people asserting the superiority of child learners resort to some variant of the “critical period hypothesis.” The argument is that children are superior to adults in learning second languages because their brains are more flexible (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield &R oberts, 1959). They can learn languages easily because their cortex is more plastic than that of older learners (The corollary hypothesis is the “frozen brain hypothesis,” applied to adult learners). The critical period hypothesis has been questioned by many researchers in recent years and is presently quite controversial (Geneses, 1981; Harley, 1989; Newport, 1990). The evidence for the biological basis of the critical period has been challenged and the argument made that differences in the rate of second language acquisition may reflect psychological and social factors, rather then biological ones that favor child learners. For example, children may be more motivated than adults to learn a second language. There is probably more incentive for the child on the playground and in school to communicate in the second language than there is for the adult on the job (where they often can get by with routine phrases and expressions) or with friends (who may speak the individual’s first language anyway). It frequently happens that children are placed in more situations where they are forced to speak the second language than are adults.
15 However, experimental research in which children have been compared to adults in second language learning has consistently demonstrated that adolescents and adults perform better than young children under controlled conditions. Even when the method of teaching appears to favor learning in children, they perform less well than do adolescents and adults (e.g., Asher & Price, 1967). One exception is in the area of pronunciation, although even here some studies show better results for older learners. Similarly, research comparing children and adults learning second languages as immigrants does not support the notion that younger children are more efficient at second language learning (e.g., Snow & Hoefnagel-Hoehle, 1978). Nonetheless, people continue to believe that children learn languages faster than adults. Is this superiority illusory? One difficulty in answering this question is that of applying the same criteria of language proficiency to both the child and the adult. The requirements to communicate as a child are quite different from the requirements to communicate as an adult. The child’s constructions are shorter and simpler, and vocabulary is relatively small when compared with what is necessary for adults to speak at the same level of competence in a second language as they do in their first language. The child does not have to learn as much as an adult to achieve competence in communicating. Hence there is the illusion that the child learns more quickly than the adult, whereas when controlled research is conducted, in both formal and informal learning situations, results typically indicate that adult (and adolescent) learners perform better than young children.
MYTH 2: THE YOUNGER THE CHILD, THE MORE SKILLED IN ACQUIRING A SECOND LANGUAGE
A related myth concerns the best time to start language instruction. Certainly the optimal way to learn a second language is to begin at birth and learn two languages simultaneously. However, when should a young child who has acquired a first language begin a second? Some researchers take a younger-is-better position and argue that the earlier children begin to learn a second language, the better (e.g., Krashen, Long, & Scarcella, 1979). However, at least with regard to school settings, the research literature does not support this conclusion. For example, a study of 17,000 British children learning French in a school context indicated that, after five years of exposure, children who had
16 begun French instruction at age eleven performed better on tests of second language proficiency than children who had begun at eight years of age (Stern, Burstall, & Harley, 1975). The investigators in this study, the largest single study of children learning a second language in a formal classroom setting, concluded that older children are better second language learners than are younger ones. It may be that these findings reflect the mode of language instruction used in European countries, where heavy emphasis has traditionally been placed on formal grammatical analysis. Older children are more skilled in dealing with such an instructional approach and hence might be expected to do better. However, this argument does not explain findings from French immersion programs in Canada, where little emphasis is placed on the formal aspects of grammar, and therefore, older children should have no advantage over younger ones. Yet English-speaking children in late immersion programs (in which the second language is introduced in grades seven or eight) have been found to perform just as well or better on tests of French language proficiency as children who began their immersion experience in kindergarten or grade one (Genesee, 1981, 1987). The research does not always show an advantage to children who begin at an older age, but differences in performance are by no means as great as relative amount of classroom exposure would lead one to expect. Pronunciation is one aspect of language learning where the younger is- better hypothesis may have validity. A number of studies have found that the younger one begins to learn a second language, the more native-like the accent one develops in that language (Asher& Garcia, 1969; Oyama, 1976). This may be because pronunciation involves motor patterns that have been fossilized in the first language and are difficult to alter after a certain age because of the nature of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved. It may also be that we do not understand very well how to teach phonology in a second language. Perhaps if we could develop more advanced (e.g., computer-assisted) methods of instruction, older learners might do better at acquiring a native-like accent in the second language. Aside from the question of pronunciation, however, the younger- is-better hypothesis does not have strong empirical support in school contexts. The research suggests that younger children do not necessarily have an advantage over older children and, because of their cognitive and experiential limitations when compared to older children, are actually at a disadvantage in how quickly they learn a second language – other things being equal.
17 MYTH 3: THE MORE TIME STUDENTS SPEND IN A SECOND LANGUAGE CONTEXT, THE QUICKER THEY LEARN THE LANGUAGE
For many educators, the most straightforward way for children from non-English-speaking backgrounds to learn English is for them to be in an environment where they are constantly exposed to English. This is the ratio behind what is called “structured immersion,” an instructional strategy in which children from language minority backgrounds receive all of their instruction in English and have the additional support of ESL classes and content-based instruction that is tailored to their language abilities. Such a program has the advantage of providing more time on task for learning English than in a bilingual classroom. On the face of it, one might expect that the more English children hear and use, the quicker their English language skills develop. However, research evidence indicates that this is not necessarily the case. Over the length of the program, children in bilingual classes, where there is exposure to the home language and to English, have been found to acquire English language skills equivalent to those acquired by children who have been in English-only programs (Cummins, 1981; Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). This would not be expected if time on task were the most important factor in language learning. Furthermore, many researchers caution against withdrawing the support of the home language too soon. There is a great deal of evidence that, whereas oral communication skills in a second language may be acquired within two or three years, it may take up from four to six years to acquire the level of proficiency for understanding the language in its instructional uses (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1981).
Assignments I. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the critical period hypothesis? 2. Why can children learn languages easily? 3. What is the best time to start language instruction? 4. Why are older children better foreign language learners then younger ones? 5. What is structured immersion?
II. Create a time line of the events given in the text.
18 III. Comment on the text (use conversational expressions).
IV. Home assignment. Prepare a plan of scanning reading on text 1.
Text 2. How soon can children learn a foreign language?
Your son is not too young to start learning a second language. Research increasingly shows there are cognitive, cultural and economic advantages to being bilingual. Although it may not be typical in this country it is the norm for children in many parts of the world to grow up speaking two languages. We know very little about how bilingual infants acquire their two languages and how adult bilinguals process and represent their two languages in the brain. If the brain establishes its many neuronal connections by selecting those more frequently used, it is possible that bilinguals have a different pattern of connections in the language areas of the brain, when compared with monolinguals. One point to bear in mind is that not all pairs of languages are equally similar. As adults we find some languages easier to learn than others. For instance an English speaking adult would find learning German relatively easier than learning Japanese. It could be the case your son would use different techniques to learn English and German than two less similar languages. Indeed the first thing he will have to do will be to discriminate between the two languages and notice that there are two languages and not just one. Such discrimination may be easier for him if each of you as his parents speaks a specific language to him as you suggest. However this can have implications on his willingness to use one language when you are both present (see below). The false argument is sometimes made that encouraging two languages at home prevents either language from developing well. However as your son learns a second language it is likely that one will predominate because he is using that language more than the other at a given time. He may initially show a lack of proficiency in both languages as he undergoes a developmental phase in which limiting his use of English causes it to decline which his use of German has not yet reached an age appropriate level. This temporary language imbalance during which your son may not perform as well as native speakers in either language is healthy and normal.
19 He should reach age-level proficiency in English well before he starts school providing he is given adequate exposure and opportunity for using English – you can encourage this through contact with other adults and his own peer group in language-rich environments such as playgroups and nurseries. If your son has a chance to mix with German speaking children and adults outside the home this will increase his German development by increasing his need to communicate with others. Your son may develop a phenomenon called code switching as part of normal acquisition of his second language. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one language into the other, usually to clarify statements. Children over nine and adults tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings. If your son is exposed to and encouraged to use both languages from now onwards it is likely he will go on to acquire both languages simultaneously. If your son has a high exposure to German as a result of you speaking it to him but has little opportunity to use or practice it he may develop what is called receptive bilingualism. This means he will be able to understand German and will readily develop the language if he is ever totally immersed in it, for example if he lives in Germany, but may be happier to communicate in English. It can be difficult to give your son opportunities to use German as his motivation for using it will largely depend on his need to communicate. If he knows his mother speaks English to him he may look to her when he needs to speak. For this reason it may help if you both speak German to him when you are together at certain times. Alternatively you can find an environment outside the home (such as German playgroup or German speaking family) where he needs to use German exclusively. Remember that if your son seems excessively slow in learning to speak (any language) that he should be checked to make sure he can hear normally and does not have a specific language delay. These are problems which can affect any child but may be picked up later in bilingual children because speech delay may be assumed to be a normal result of their bilingual background.
Assignments I. Answer the questions: 1. What are advantages of being bilingual? 2. What is “code switching”?
20 3. What does receptive bilingualism mean? 4. What problems can affect any child?
II. Divide the text into logical parts and give headings to each of them.
III. Define the key words in the text. Discuss your choice (group work).
IV. Note down equivalents for the following words and phrases from the text. Make up sentences using the phrases. нервные соединения вовлечение его желания языковое несоответствие чрезмерно медленно специфическое языковое замедление
V. Explain what is meant by the following phrases: 1. one point to bear in mind 2. to prevent either language from developing well 3. one will predominate 4. to show a lack of proficiency 5. to undergo a developmental phase 6. age-level proficiency 7. adequate exposure and opportunity for using English 8. to be totally immersed in 9. at certain times 10. to find an environment outside the home
VI. Retell the text a. close to the content of the text b. in indirect speech
V. Home assignment: Give a summary of text 2.
Text 3. How to Learn a Foreign Language via SMS
Pre-reading assignments 1. Name all the ways of learning foreign languages you know. 2. Have you ever heard of learning a foreign language via SMS? If yes, share your experience with others, if not, try to guess the meaning of the notion.
21 Stockholm, Sweden (PRWEB) October 17, 2006. The whole way foreign languages are being taught to people worldwide has been revolutionized by SMS technology. That’s because one very passionate language teacher is literally changing the way people learn languages by using SMS. The language teacher is Mikael Nilsson and he owns and operates – a language education company launched two months ago and dedicated to teaching foreign languages through the use of SMS technology. “It’s a fact that people are time poor, and it’s also true that most wish they could speak one or more foreign languages,” says Mr. Nilsson. “I have used my experience to create SMS courses that will enable people to learn an entire foreign language, just by reading SMS messages sent to their cell phone.” The concept of learning a foreign language via SMS is revolutionary and Learning-by-SMS.com is believed to be the first company using this technology to teach foreign languages. “To learn a language, all one needs to do is to visit our website, register for a course and the SMS messages will start appearing on the student’s cell phone within minutes,” says Mr. Nilsson. It is expected that students will become proficient in the new language after completing an SMS course – truly remarkable given the way languages have been taught up until now. About Learning-by-SMS.com: Based in Karlskrona, Sweden, is a language education company dedicated to teaching foreign languages via SMS. Founded by Mikael Nilsson, Learning-by-SMS.com allows people from all walks of life to learn a complete foreign language quickly. Languages are taught using SMS technology, with supporting course material also available via the Learning- by-SMS.com website.
Assignments I. Find advantages and disadvantages of learning a foreign language via SMS (group work).
II. Find more information about learning a foreign language via SMS.
III. Home assignment Write an abstract to text 3 (in English).
22 Text 4. All immigrants may have to learn English
By PAUL EASTHAM, Daily Mail
Home office minister Lord Rooker suggested that immigrants could be required to learn English as a condition of being given UK citizenship. He said the tough new language bar was being looked at by the Home Office as a way of ensuring that all new citizens could move in mainstream society and hold down a job. But MPs were startled by Lord Rooker’s statement because it echoed Left-winger Ann Cryer, who triggered a furore last month when she called for immigrants who cannot speak English to be barred from entering Britain. Lord Rooker’s interview with the political website ePolitix.com came after reports that Home Secretary David Blunkett is planning to present a new package for asylum- seekers at this October’s Labour party conference. It is designed to head off renewed protests from MPs and trade unionists against the payment of benefits to asylum seekers in vouchers rather than cash. In his interview Lord Rooker said that no area would be out of bounds in the rethink of the system. He told ePolitix.com: ‘David Blunkett has made it quite clear that we’re looking at everything.’ He said that immigrants were too often not being encouraged to learn the language of this country and were being ‘denied their civil rights’ by being excluded from the employment market. Making English mandatory for those seeking citizenship would be a way of ensuring that ethnic minority women were not denied their civil rights by their own menfolk, said Lord Rooker. He said he backed the views of Mrs Cryer, who sparked controversy last month by suggesting, in the wake of race riots in northern towns, that too many Asian Britons failed to learn the language and that this was effectively ‘importing poverty’ into the country. Lord Rooker, whose former Birmingham Perry Barr constituency is home to a large Asian community, said: ‘There is a real problem she has identified. ‘There are situations . . . where sometimes people are not encouraged or persuaded to learn English by their family. The men say they don’t need it. ‘I don’t accept that, because it’s people being denied their civil rights. ‘The question arises, do we require people to learn English as a consequence of applying for nationality? We’re looking at this. We’re
23 looking at the issue of citizenship. ‘People must maintain their culture, maintain their religion and live in peace and tranquillity, but they must not be denied their opportunity to participate properly, particularly in the employment market.’ ‘We believe trying to force anyone to learn English would be open to challenge under the Human Rights Act on several counts, including the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and possibly the prohibition of discrimination. There is currently no national scheme to provide immigrants with English lessons, and availability of teaching is left to local education authorities. Last year former Home Office immigration minister Barbara Roche called for a new debate on Britain’s immigration laws, suggesting that the 30-year-old freeze on purely economic immigration should be eased as a way of tackle skills shortages in the economy. In her controversial comments, Keighley MP Mrs Cryer claimed the country was ‘importing poverty’ by allowing the people who struggled to find work because of the language barrier. She said migrants should face a language test to ensure they could integrate into the community.
Assignments I. Read the text. Translate the most difficult sentences (class work).
II. Answer the following questions: 1. What were the main reasons according to Lord Rooker why the immi- grants should learn the language? 2. What measures did the Immigration Minister want to undertake towards immigrants? 3. in what way were the civil rights of immigrants denied? 4. Does the government force people to learn English? 5. What conditions does Mrs. Gryer propose for immigrants?
III. Discuss the following topic: “Is it easy to be an immigrant?” Discuss the difficulties which immigrants may face within a foreign country. Think over the possible solutions of the problems of immigrants.
IV. Home assignment: 1. give a short summary of text 4 (10-12 sentences). 2. learn the new vocabulary.
24 Text 5. Toddlers who blow bubbles and lick lips learn languages faster
Pre-reading assignments 1. Read the title of the text. Tell what the text will be about according to its title. 2. Read the text and do the assignments below.
Children who can lick their lips and blow bubbles find learning to speak easier, a study found today. But toddlers who struggle to move their mouths in a co-ordinated way are also more likely to have problems learning language, the research said. Psychologists at Lancaster University said the findings could help child experts identify youngsters very early in life who will have language difficulties when they are older. The academics focused on 120 children aged 21 months, a period when toddlers are learning words very quickly. Dr. Katie Alcock, who led the Economic and Social Research Council funded study, said: “We have found links between non-language and language skills in children at a time of very rapid development. “We plan to follow-up this study when the children are older, to find out which skills give the best indication of later language abilities and problems. “We have already examined how much parents talk to their children at home. “Now we are also going to look at parents’ levels of education, and the children’s home environments, such as the number of books they have, to see what influences these have.” The academics divided the children into four groups to see how competent they were at different activities. In each group, some skills were more closely linked to language abilities than others. There was no link between a child’s ability at walking or running and their grasp of language. But children who were good at moving their mouths had a range of language skills, the research found. And those who could pretend that one object was another in play – such as using a block for a car or a box for a doll’s bed – were also better at speaking. The researchers assessed the toddlers’ speaking abilities by recording everything they said during half an hour of “free play” at home.
25 The child’s speech was then analysed to show the range of words and length of sentences used.
Assignments I. What is the research mentioned in text 5 devoted to? II. Retell the text using the key words and word combinations from the text. III. Home assignment Prepare a talk-show (a task on speaking skills): The class is divided into two minor groups. Students of one group are psychotherapists who claim that there is a certain connection between some peculiarities of toddlers and their abilities to learn languages. Students of the other group are skeptics who prove that there is no such a connection. Each group should write 15 confirmations of their theories and present a speech proving the statements made by the students. One person must be a talk-show presenter.
SUPPLIMENTARY READING Language Skill: Understanding What You Read A linguist named Henry Lee Smith became famous on radio because he could tell where an American grew up just by hearing him or her talk. He was able to do this because people in different regions of America often name the same thing in various ways. For example, someone from Boston who wants a soft drink may ask for a “tonic,” someone from New Jersey may ask for a “soda,” and someone from rural New York may ask for a “pop.” These regional speech variations are called dialects. Most likely, American dialects evolved from the accents of the firstB ritish settlers. Every region of Britain had a distinctly different accent, and when the British first came to America, those from the same regions tended to settle together. Later, when settlers from Britain and other countries moved to America, they adapted their speech patterns to those of the original British settlers. And, in some areas, large groups of settlers from non-English speaking countries influencedA merican dialects. Many German people moved to what is now called Pennsylvania Dutch country (called Dutch from “Deutsch,” meaning German), and their language patterns strongly reflect theirG erman heritage.
26 Yet though speech patterns differ throughout America, differences are minor compared with those in other countries, where dialects of people in one town may be barely understood by those in neighboring villages. Since people in America today are moving around their country more and more, regional accents are bound to diminish someday. In the future, it may be almost impossible to determine a person’s habitat by his or her speech.
Assignment Write an exposition on the following text.
Part IV. Idea of the universal language
Text 1. Can English Become a Universal Language?
There are very few linguistic subjects which would raise so much scholar`s concern and interest as the subject of the future of the English language. There have been many attempts made to foresee the future status and role of English. Back in 1852 a German linguist Jakob Grimm predicted its unique future as that of the universal language: “Of all modern languages, not one has acquired such great strength and vigour as the English… [it] may be called justly a language of the world; and seems, like the English nation, to be destined to reign in future with still more extensive sway over all parts of the globe”. We define the term “universal language” as 1) involving all people on the earth; 2) affecting everyone in the world; 3) suitable for a lot of different situations. We use terms “universal” and “world” as synonyms, basing on the original meaning of the word “universal” (from the Latin “universum” – world) which stands for the one that seizes the whole world. However, the notion “universal language” is wider than “world language”, for apart from the meaning “the one that seizes the whole world” it has got some other meanings, mentioned above. Looking up the explanatory dictionary of English one can see the meaning of a word combination “World Language” is quite similar to the meaning of the “universal” language − the language used and recognized by people in all the countries where it is spoken. The history of English as a world language is century old. It starts back in the
27 XVI century, when the first English-speaking areas appeared in America. At that time the number of mother-tongue English speakers was between 5 and 7 million, almost all of them living in Great Britain. Since then up to the middle of the XX century the figure increased almost fifty times, to around 250 million. Thus, English unlike any other language was and still is unprecedentedly rapidly spreading all over the world turning it into a truly world language. Such a case has never happened in history and no one can foresee its consequences. The existence of different variants of English (apart from British, American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, there are also Nigerian, Indian, Singapore and other variants) along with many other “new types” can be a sign of the emergence of “the English language family”. Let`s consider the factors that can affect English and turn it into the universal language: I. Involving all people on earth. 1. Nowadays English is the dominant or official language in over 75 territories.I t is represented in every continent and in the three main oceans – Atlantic, Pacific,I ndian. The number of native speakers is between 320-380 million (the UK, Ireland, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand). In the countries where English plays a significant role as a second, official or semi-official language there are around 200-300 million English speakers (Singapore, Malawi, India). There are also countries that recognize the importance of English as an international language and use it as the dominant foreign language in educational establishments (China, Japan, Israel, Poland, Ukraine, Russia) – 100 – 1000 million. Overall, the total number of native, non-native speakers and users in the world is around 1520-1680 million people. It is this representation of English speakers and users which makes the applications of the notion “universal / world language” a reality. Almost one fourth of the earth population speaks English. Moreover, this index is constantly increasing. Since English is developing in 3 directions (as a native, official and foreign language) eventually it will outnumber any language by the number of speakers. 2. Besides the above mentioned objective factors there can be some other things affecting the spread of English. One of them is the attractiveness of English for international use. The clearness of its vocabulary, almost complete absence of grammar gender, clearness and simplicity of suffixes and availability of auxiliary verbs and some other structural elements of its grammar considerably facilitate the process of language acquisition and make a good background for English becoming a universal language. However, one has to admit that the English grammar system is rather complex, pronunciation rules have got a lot of exclusions. Thus, the linguistic factor
28 would count the least among all others, as languages rise and fall in world esteem for many kinds of reasons – political, economic, social, religious – but linguistic reasons do not rank highly among them. II. Affecting everyone in the world. 1. A strong political and military power of the countries where it has an official status greatly promotes English on the world arena. Without that no language will be able to develop as a universal means of international communication. Since a military power and a political strength of English speaking nations grow, that will boost the significance and indispensable status of English in the world. 2. The economic power of the countries where it has an official status ensures the role of English as the world language. The spread and influence of English in the XX-th century was supported by the economic superiority of the new super state – the USA. A language cannot exist by itself, in some virtual space, out of touch with its speakers. If the USA continue to succeed on the world scene the role of their language will even increase more. 3. Considering the modern global political and economical changes, one should acknowledge there is one common objective process that more and more incorporates different national states – globalization. It is mostly in economy and politics where globalization takes place. Since the strongest world political and economical partner is the US (followed by Great Britain) English as their official language is hence becoming the “working” language of globalization and one of its means. Due to that the American culture is becoming the global culture. Globalization has created a united Europe which will cool down the sovereignty of European national states. But the national states didn`t die. The united Europe remains Europe of national states. Therefore, they will preserve their national languages. English won`t be able to compete with them, though English is very hard to replace in tourism, business, sports even in so nationally strong countries. Taking into account the prospective involvement of all countries in globalization, all in all, the role of a universal language will gradually and inevitably rise. III. Suitable for a lot of different situations. 1. English is the language of international air traffic control, and is currently developing its role in international maritime, policing and emergency services. It is the chief language of international business and academic conference, and the leading language of international tourism. 2. English is the language most frequently used for scientific, technological and academic purposes. 80 % of all the information electronically stored is in English either. It is the language that allows to access to the philosophical,
29 cultural, religious and literary history of Western Europe through its translations. In the XX-XXI centuries English has played a similar role to that performed by Latin for over thousand years. 3. Whether a country has imperial antecedents or not, in multicultural countries English may have a role in providing a neutral means of communication between its different ethnic groups. Therefore, nowadays English has a momentum which only a cultural cataclysm can seriously hamper. It is common knowledge, no educated man can do without English for some part of every day. Given something more like a cultural boost, we may expect present uses of English to expand even more, so that everyone in the world will in this or that way use English or be exposed to it which may really lead to English acquiring a status close to that of the “the universal language”.
Assignments I. Analyze what information in text 6 was new for you. II. Single out most interesting and most difficult grammar constructions from the text. III. Divide the text into logical parts and name them. IV. Role Play Set 3 groups of students. The first group should prove the attractiveness and universality of English. The second group presents the communicative function of the English lan- guage. The third group tells about the political aspect of English promotion.
V. Home assignment: 1. give a short summary of the text. 2. Prepare the plan of skimming reading on text 6. 3. Write an essay “The role of English in our country”.
Text 2. Esperanto
Pre-reading assignment 1. Before reading the text given below express your opinion on the notion “Esperanto”. 2. What does this word mean from your point of view? 3. Read the text and do the assignments below.
30 Esperanto is the most widely spoken constructed international language. The name derives from Doktoro Esperanto, the pseudonym under which L.L. Zamenhof first published the Unua Libro in 1887. The word itself means ‘one who hopes’. Zamenhof’s goal was to create an easy and flexible language as a universal second language to foster peace and international understanding. Although no country has adopted the language officially, it has enjoyed continuous usage by a community estimated at between 100,000 and 2 million speakers and it is estimated that there are about a thousand native speakers. Today, Esperanto is employed in world travel, correspondence, cultural exchange, conventions, literature, language instruction, television (Internacia Televido) and radio broadcasting. Some state education systems offer elective courses in Esperanto; there is evidence that learning Esperanto is a useful preparation for later language learning (see Esperanto and education).
Linguistic properties Classification As a constructed language, Esperanto is not genealogically related to any ethnic language. Esperanto can be described as “a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively agglutinative and to a certain degree isolating in character”. The phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and semantics are based on the western Indo-European languages. The phonemic inventory is essentially Slavic, as is much of the semantics, while the vocabulary derives primarily from the Romance languages, with a lesser contribution from Germanic. Pragmatics and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof’s original documents were influenced bythe native languages of early speakers, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French. Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions and a pragmatic word order that by default is Subject Verb Object and Adjective Noun. New words are formed through extensive prefixing and suffixing.
Vocabulary The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by “Lingvo internacia”, published by Zamenhof in 1887. It comprised 900 roots, which could be expanded into the tens of thousands of words with prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, Universala Vortaro, with a larger set of roots. However, the rules of the
31 language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international forms, and then derive related meanings from these. Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily but not solely from the western European languages. Not all proposed borrowings catch on, but many do, especially technical and scientific terms. There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether the need can be met by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words. In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must learn some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward. For example, eldoni, literally “to give out”, is used for “to publish” (a calque of words in several European languages with the same derivation), and vortaro, literally “a collection of words”, means “a glossary” or “a dictionary”. Such forms are modeled after usage in the ethnic European languages, and speakers of other languages may find them illogical. Compounds with -um- are overtly arbitrary, and must be learned individually, as -um- has no defined meaning. It turns dekstren “to the right” into dekstrumen “clockwise”, and komuna “common/shared” into komunumo “community”, for example. Nevertheless, there are not nearly as many truly idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto as in ethnic languages, as these tend to make international communication difficult, working against Esperanto’s main goal. In modern times, conscious attempts have been made by Esperantists to eliminate sexism in the language. One example of this is Riism, which is one among several propositions to modify the language in a non-sexist manner.
Geography and demography Esperanto speakers are more numerous in Europe and East Asia than in the Americas, Africa, and Oceania, and more numerous in urban than in rural areas. Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia; in Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico in the Americas; and in Togo and Madagascar in Africa. In the Almanac, Sidney S. Culbert a retired psychology professor of the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as 2 million. This falls short of Zamenhof’s goal of a universal language, but it represents a level of popularity unmatched by
32 any other constructed language. Ethnologue also states that there are 200 to 2000 native Esperanto speakers (denaskuloj), who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents (this happens when Esperanto is the family language in an international family or sometimes in a family of devoted Esperantists). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members. Others think such a ratio between members of the organized Esperanto movement and speakers of the language is not unlikely. The Finnish linguist Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community: • 1,000 have Esperanto as their native language • 10,000 speak it fluently • 100,000 can use it actively • 1,000,000 understand a large amount passively • 10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time. In the absence of Dr. Culbert’s detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. Few observers, probably, would challenge the following statement from the website of the World Esperanto Association: Numbers of textbooks sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions.
Culture Esperanto is often used to access an international culture, including a large corpus of original as well as translated literature. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. Many Esperanto speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the Pasporta Servo. Others like the idea of having pen pals in many countries around the world using services like the Esperanto Pen Pal Service. Every year, 1500-3000 Esperanto speakers meet for the World Congress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso de Esperanto). Historically most of the music published in Esperanto has been in various folk traditions; in recent decades more rock and other modern genres have appeared.
33 To some extent there are also shared traditions, like the Zamenhof Day, and shared behaviour patterns, like avoiding the usage of one’s national language at Esperanto meetings unless there is good reason for its use. Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto, namely Angoroj in 1964 and Incubus starring William Shatner in 1965. Other amateur productions have been made, such as a dramatisation of the novel Gerda Malaperis (Gerda Has Disappeared). A number of “mainstream” films in national languages have usedE speranto in some way, such as Gattaca. Esperanto is frequently criticized for “having no culture”. Proponents observe that Esperanto is culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one culture. (See Esperanto as an international language.)
Goals of the Esperanto movement Zamenhof’s intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement. Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations. Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called finvenkistoj, from fina venko, meaning “final victory”. Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called raŭmistoj, from Rauma, Finland, where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the “fina venko” and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980. These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive. (See Finvenkismo) The Prague Manifesto (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the Esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association (UEA).
Assignments I. Name the logical parts and put a special question to each of them. Discuss with your partners (pair work).
34 II. Find ten top key-words in the text. Compare your list of words with the ones made by other students.
III. Discuss the following items (use conversational expressions): a. esperanto is a constructed language. b. esperanto speakers are more numerous in Europe and east Asia then in the Americas, Africa, and Oceania. c. esperanto is often used to access an international culture. d. round table discussion “Esperanto or English?”.
V. Home assignment Write an annotation to Text 2.
Part V. Role Play
The year 3000. The Earth stopped being suitable for living. People decided to leave the Earth. They gathered, built a small spaceship, and went to seek for their fortune on some other planet. Their spaceship Live-1 with 13 people(the number of the students in the room) on board landed on a smaller planet in the Solar System called D-Pax. All the people on the spaceship speak different languages (and one common - English) and all come from different countries. The D-Paxians have a primitive language with a rather complicated sound system that has only consonants and no vowels. They like the way the Earth languages sound and want one of these languages to be spread over D-Pax. They accepted the earth dwellers very friendly and offered to choose one of their languages after a small presentation where they can give some general information about the languages themselves, their alphabets, area of usage, etc. After everybody has represented his/her language all the people must vote for each language explaining their view points.
Earth dvellers: • a man from Kyrgyzstan (the Kyrgyz language) • a man from Russia (Russian) • a man from China (Chinese) • a woman from Germany (German) • a man from Spain (Spanish) • a woman from France (French)
35 • a man from the United Arab Emirates (Arabic) • a woman from Tanzania [Africa] (Swahili) • a woman from Finland (Suomi) • a woman from Israel (Hebrew) • a Cambridge professor (Esperanto) • a woman from Ukraine (Italian) • a man from Vatikan (Latin)
Part VI. Viewing the film: Joe speaks French (fragment)
First viewing Assignments 1. Watch the film for the first time and define the main idea. 2. name the main characters. 3. What title would you give to the film and explain why?
Second viewing
Watch the film and do the following assignments.
a) Answer the questions: 1. Where did Phoebe come from? 2. for what kind of activity does Joe need French? 3. What was the first line of the scenario? 4. What system did Phoebe suggest in order to make Joe repeat a phrase after her? 5. When does Joe have his audition? 6. What was the task on the cassette? 7. What did Phoebe say to the film director about Joe’s French?
b) Answer the following yes/no questions: 1. Joe isn’t fluent in French. 2. While learning Joe repeated Phoebe’s words correctly. 3. The thing Phoebe says sounds just the same to Joe. 4. Phoebe was very calm during her tutoring. 5. There was a woman’s voice on the cassette. 6. Joe’s film partner was impressed by his knowledge in French.
36 c) Chose the correct answer: 1) Phoebe admitted the fault that she was too … a) young c) impatient b) absent-minded d) short-sighted
2) How did Joe estimate his knowledge after having listened to the cassette? a) He was pretty cool. c) He was pretty . b) He was pretty smart. d) He was pretty good.
3) What did Joe advise to his film partner? a) to hurry up c) to wake up b) to shut up d) to French it up
4) How did the voice on the cassette cheer Joe up? a) Good boy! c) Good job! b) Good work! d) Good morning!
5) What was the only thing correct in Joe’s resume? a) he could pick up a girl in 10 seconds b) he could drink a gallon of milk in 10 seconds c) he could dress in 10 seconds d) he could drink a gallon of beer in 10 seconds
IV. Express your idea on the following: 1. Is it a good idea to learn foreign languages using audio cassettes? 2. What qualities should Phoebe possess as a teacher? 3. What are Joe’s problems? 4. What are Joe’s main mistakes?
V. Items for discussion 1. Why is it important not to invent your own language while trying to speak a foreign language? How can one avoid it? Give some examples of creat- ing one’s own language while trying to speak a foreign language. 2. What is the best way of learning foreign languages? How should one begin? VI. Home assignment: Imagine that you are Joe and write a monologue where you share your experience of learning French (You can add your own ideas)
37 UNIT II
BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM
Part I. Bilingualism
Pre-reading assignments 1. What is bilingualism in your opinion? 2. Read the last passage of the text and share your way of understanding.
Text 1. Bilingualism as a Process
Before we move on to bilingualism as a process, it is first necessary to analyze briefly the following antithesis: complete (absolute) vs. incomplete bilingualism The first – complete or absolute bilingualism – undoubtedly describes bilingualism where the fluency and competence in both languages are of native standard. The second one – incomplete bilingualism – may represent several stages of fluency, but at the same time some aspects, like phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, syntax etc., can be improved. There are two different ways of achieving complete bilingualism: artificial and natural. The first means that the L2A1 runs by study, and the L22 is learnt in a kind of “artificial” environment: school, language courses, self-study etc. Normally “artificial” L2A starts after the age of seven, when the child – and later adult – is able to acquire the second language by means of any kind of study. Historically, artificial bilingualism became common practice around the time of the Middle Ages, with the extensive appearance of schools and universities.
1 L2A – second language acquisition 2 L2 – second language
38 It is necessary to underline here that the artificial way of L2A gives rise to the question of so-called “language abilities or capacities”. At the same time, nobody questions the human capacity and ability to acquire the mother tongue (L11). One can conclude that the real cause of bad L2A lies not in a lack of certain “language abilities” but in something else, when L2 itself is not a means or tool, but is the aim. Natural L2A means that the second language is acquired without special studies, for example, in a bilingual family. With the natural way of establishing bilingualism or polylingualism (and the total number of languages is irrelevant) the native fluency in L2 becomes essential because the individual needs to come into contact with other language speakers. L2 itself in such a case is not an aim or goal, but a kind of a tool or means to enter into contact and establish communication. L2A is realized directly in the L2 linguistic environment through direct contact with native speakers who produce repeatedly different “models” to be copied by the new member of the “community”. Furthermore, the L2 is acquired through performing a common activity or action, such as playing, cooking or washing. The central figure for artificial L2 acquisition is a language teacher who may lack the native fluency in the foreign (or L2) language, and the new tongue is learnt far from the required language environment. Second language exposure is short and limited by the margins of a “lesson” which is a far cry from the real practical activity characteristic of the natural way of acquisition. Natural acquisition is characterized by a greater tolerance towards the errors made by the learner because the attention is focused on the message or content (what was said) and not on the form (how it was said). In school the attention is focused on the errors (which creates additional troubles, difficulties and psychological barriers for learners) and the sanction or punishment for these kinds of mistakes is represented in the form of lower or bad marks or credits. .Advantages of natural bilingualism: • both languages (L1 and L2) are more stable grammatically than in the case of artificial bilingualism, especially if the second language is not used for a significant time; • one of the languages needs or requires more time to be “forgotten”; • at the phonetic and phonological levels either language is, again, more stable and provides the native fluency;
1 L1 – first language
39 • native fluency acquired in a natural environment is better for the career of the professional translator (because of the “time-factor”: translators have enough and almost unlimited time to “convert” the written message in L1 into the equivalent message in the L2 or vice versa, which gives them plenty of room to perceive the whole message in the first language, analyse it, compare it with the draft translation and to produce the requested message in the second language in its final version).
Disadvantages of natural bilingualism over artificial bilingualism: • it is very difficult and sometimes impossible to change the phonetic accent if the L2 was acquired from a specific dialect environment (for example: Mexican or Cuban accent in Spanish when the bilingual English-Spanish or French-Spanish person is currently living in Spain); • it is difficult and sometimes impossible to eliminate the dialect vocabulary if the L2 was acquired from a specific dialect environment (for example: a Colombian or Dominican accent in Spanish when the bilingual English-Spanish or French-Spanish person is currently living in Spain); • it is difficult and sometimes impossible to eliminate the dialect grammar patterns and models typical of one specific dialect or country (for example: the Castilian Spanish form "vosotros” <”you” plural informal> plus the whole verbal paradigm that corresponds to the second person in plural is ignored in most Spanish speaking Latin American countries. This form has been substituted by “ustedes” <”you” plural> with its correspondent 3rd person plural paradigm, which also exists in peninsular Spanish, but its lexical meaning is different: “you”, formal and respectful), and • a bilingual person with native fluency in both languages acquired naturally and especially in early childhood needs, sometimes, more specific training as an interpreter (no clear advantage over the bilingual interpreter with the L2 studied in an artificial environment). It is necessary to provide some reasons for such a statement. Generally speaking, each language is “stored” in a specific place or zone in the right and left hemispheres without establishing specific links between both languages, as in the case of natural acquisition. L2 artificial acquisition (study) requires necessarily the establishment of such specific links whilst learning new vocabulary, grammar rules, idiomatic expressions etc., an experience which is absolutely essential for any interpreter, to be able to switch between languages on a conscious level.
40 Advantages of artificial bilingualism over natural bilingualism: • it is easier to change the accent (requires a modicum of motivation and diligence); • it is easier to replace dialect, (or regional) words and expressions with the standard ones when moving to another country or region; • generally, bilinguals with a studied L2 are better as interpreters (because of the same "time factor": interpreters, especially those who do simultaneous interpreting, are under constant time pressure. Both languages in their heads have to be inter-linked in a special way. Such kind of links are necessarily established in the artificial mode of L2A that widely uses translation as a method of teaching. Natural L2 acquisition keeps both languages stored “independently” in our heads.
Disadvantages of artificial bilingualism compared with natural bilingualism: • grammar and vocabulary are less stable if the L2 is not used for a certain period of time; • a bilingual loses his or her ability to produce the fluent speech and starts to translate mentally if the L2 has not been used for a certain period of time; • second "artificially acquired” language is less stable phonetically if it has not been used for a certain period of time; • if certain grammatical rules are incorrectly understood, learnt and mastered during the process of learning or study, it is extremely difficult to correct them later (natural L2A completely ignores these difficulties because the future bilingual is always exposed only to the native models produced by native speakers). In any case, both types of bilingualism, once established, require continuous hard work in order to be maintained at a high level, which means that the bilingual person needs to use both languages all the time: to read, speak, write and listen all require training if he or she does not want to lose the language later on, because bilingualism in fact is not something we can obtain once and for all. It is always a dynamic process, in which it is possible to observe and distinguish some stages or phases: • establishment of bilingualism, when the potential or future bilingual is still acquiring (by a natural way or learning by an artificial way) the second language; • established or stable bilingualism, when an individual is already undoubtedly bilingual;
41 • the process of losing bilingualism, when an individual is forgetting or using less and less L2, for instance, when he or she has to abandon the bilingual environment (temporarily or permanently); • lost bilingualism, when a former bilingual has already lost his fluency in one of the two languages, for instance, when he or she, due to extra- linguistic factors, has already left the bilingual environment.
Assignments I. Single out main types of bilingualism. II. Divide the text into logical parts and give headings to each of them. III. Share your opinion on the following items. • A bilingual person should know cultural peculiarities of both languages. • A bilingual person has superiority in making career. IV. Make up a dialog using the new vocabulary. V. Express your opinion on bilinguism and its role in human life.
Text 2. Multilingualism
Pre-reading assignments 1. Read the first and the last paragraphs of the text and try to get the main idea of the text. 2. Would you prefer a multilingual or bilingual person? Why? 3. Single out advantages and disadvantages of being a multilingual person.
A multilingual person, in the broadest definition, as anyone who can communicate in more than one language, but be active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. Multilingualism could be rigidly defined as being native-like in two or more languages.I t could be also loosely defined as being less than native-like but still able to communicate in two or more languages. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). First languages (sometimes also referred as mother tongue) are acquired without
42 formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two first languages since birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals one language usually dominates over the other. The kind of bilinguism is mostly likely to occur when a child is raised by bilingual parents in a predominantly monolingual environment. One group of academics argue for the maximal definition which means that speakers areas native-like in one language as they are in others and have as much knowledge and control over one language as they do over the others. Another group of academics argue for the minimal definition based on use. Tourists, who successfully communicate phrases and ideas while not fluent in a language, may be seen as bilingual according to this group. However, problems may arise with this definition as they do not answer the question regarding how much knowledge of a language is required to be classified as bilingual. As a result since most speakers do not achieve the maximal ideal, language learners may come to be seen as deficient and by extension, language teaching may come to be seen as a failure. One does not expect children to “speak chemistry” like Nobel prize winners or to have become a professional athlete by the time they have left school, yet anything less than fluency in a second language by graduating schoolchildren is somehow inadequate. On the other hand, arguing that someone who can say hello in more than one language is multilingual society trivializes the language learning process. Since 1992, Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers are somewhere between these minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent.
Text 3. Multilingualism between different language speakers
Whenever people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behaviour. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as has been described by Howard Giles Accommodation Theory. Various, but not nearly all, multilinguals tend to use code-switching – a term that describes the process of ‘swapping’ between languages. In many cases code-switching is motivated by the wish to express loyalty to more than one cultural group, as holds for many immigrant communities in the New World. Code switching may also function as the strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if one of
43 the languages is not very elaborated, like Frisian, Sorbian and other minority languages, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages. This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code- switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language. These results in speakers using words like courier noir in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail chantage. Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speakers switching. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to consistently each use of different language. This phenomenon is found, amongst others, in Scandinavia. Speakers of Swedish and Norwegian can easily communicate with each other speaking their respective languages. It is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. Other example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two languages (Czech and Slovak) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia it was common to hear two people talking on TV each speaking a different language without any difficulty in understanding each other. Other example would be a Slovak having read a book in Czech and afterwards being insure whether he was reading it in Czech or Slovak. This bilingualism still exists nowadays, although it has started to doctorate after Czechoslovakia has split up.
Assignments I. Give the definition of multilingualism in its maximal and minimal meanings.
II. Give an example of convergent discourse.
III. Answer the questions: 1. How do multilinguists use code-switching? 2. What does bilingual interaction mean? 3. To which extent can speakers understand a language similar language? 4. What is uncommon for bilingual speakers? 5. What trivializes the language learning process?
44 IV. Match the following words to their synonyms. 1 rigidly a agreement, co-ordination 2 solidarity b failure 3 accommodation c exchange, interchange 4 swap d unwilling, averse, disinclined 5 reluctant e severely, strictly 6 convergent f sufficient 7 discourse g unity, cohesion 8 deteriorate h conversation 9 reverse I disintegrate 10 domain j part k come together, coincide l sphere, field
V. Give a short summary of text 3.
Text 4. Identity: A Dubious Choice
Read the text and do the assignments below.
I. My daughter Katya is four years old the other day, and I have to decide soon whether she’s going to be Russian or British. For the moment she’s both, of course. She can recite great segments of Marshak and Chukovsky, sing the theme tunes of the British soaps and chatter away about the finer points of Aladdin and Ivan the Fool to all comers in either language. II. But soon she’s going to have to go to school. I have to decide where. And one day, I suppose I’m going to explain to her why I chose one side or the other of her divided heritage. I know there’s a middle way. I could, I suppose, send her to one of the international schools in Moscow and hedge my bets. But then, I’ve never had much time here for the sort of international community that can afford to send its children to such schools. I’m probably wrong and uncharitable, but I imagine that it’s a community made up almost entirely of people doing hardship tours, living guarded in luxury apartments on Western salaries, while working in embassies or one of those myriad consultancies which masquerade as “aid to Russia”. III. So, which is it to be? Which is she to be? What will she inherit from one side or the other when it comes to a choice? She’s grown up mostly in Russia, so let’s start with that. She’s spent the majority of her time in the little village of Nikolina Gora embedded in a loving, volatile, highly emotional
45 Russian family, with a reverence for words and a deep-ingrained conviction that children must be protected from the awful realities of the world. IV. She’s been the beneficiary of the great Russian gift for friendship, and if she stays here and is lucky, she may grow up to inherit not only that, along, with the knowledge of the language and literature, but also some of the blistering Russian intellectual intensity that is one of the wonders of the world. V. What can Katya look forward to in England if that’s where we finally have to live? Her horizons would shrink from the prostor of Russia – the sense of the vastness of its space – to the fenced-in orderliness (and neatness and coziness) of English life. Her education would be good enough, but untouched by passion. She would grow up logical, but also an obedient consumer; intelligent, one hopes, but without any impossible secrets of dreams. So what do I want for Katya? The best of both worlds, I suppose. (by Jo Durden-Smith; Moscow Times 30.04.1994)
Assignments I. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the text about? 2. What are the problems which a multilingual family faces? 3. What choice does mother finally make?
II. Share your opinion on the following: a)What did Katya acquire from the both languages? b) What are the perspectives that Katya is to get in future from her divided heritage? c) Do you think the parent should give their children the oporunity to do their own choice? If yes, why?
III. Topics for discussion: a) The best way of fostering bilingual children. b) Children in international community.
IV. Home assignment Make up a plan of the lesson on the material of text 4 (scanning reading).
46 Part II. World English
Pre-reading assignments: 1. What are your expectations of the theme? 2. Express your opinion on the position of the English language nowdays.
Text 1. English speaking world
Read the text and do the assignments below.
The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain over two thousand years ago, English did not exist. Five hundred years later, Englisc, incomprehensible to modern ears, was probably spoken by about as few people as currently speak Cherokee – and with as little influence. Nearly a thousand years later, at the end of the sixteenth century, when William Shakespeare was in his prime, English was the native speech of between five and seven million Englishmen and it was, in the words of a contemporary, “of small reach, it stretches no further than this island of ours, native not there over all.” Four hundred years later, the contrast is extraordinary. Between 1600 and the present, in armies, navies, companies, and expeditions, the speakers of English – including Scots, Irish, Welsh, American, and many more trav- eled into every corner of the globe, carrying their language and culture with them. Today, English is used by at least 750 million people, and barely half of those speak it as a mother tongue. Some estimates have put that figure closer to 1 billion. Whatever the total, English at the end of the twentieth century is more widely scattered, more widely spoken and written, than any other language has ever been. It has become the language of the planet, the first truly global language. The statistics of English are astonishing. Of all the world’s languages (which now number some 2,700), it is arguably the richest in vocabulary. The compendious Oxford English Dictionary lists about 500,000 words; and a further half-million technical and scientific terms remain uncatalogued. According to traditional estimates, neighboring German has a vocabulary of about 185,000 words and French fewer than 100,000, including such Fran- glais as le snacque barre and le hit-parade. About 350 million people use
47 the English vocabulary as a mother tongue, a linguistic population scattered across every continent and surpassed, in numbers, though not in distribution, only by the speakers of the many varieties of Chinese. Three quarters of the world’s mail, and its telexes and cables, are in English. So are more than half the world’s technical and scientific periodicals: it is the language of technol- ogy from Silicon Valley to Shanghai. English is the medium for 80 percent of the information stored in the world’s computers. Nearly half of all busi- nesses in Europe are conducted in English. It is the language of sports and glamour: the official language of the Olympics and the Miss Universe com- petition. English is the official voice of the air, of the sea, and of Christianity: it is the ecumenical language of the World Council of Churches. Five of the largest broadcasting companies in the world (CBS, NBC, AВС, ВВС, СВС) transmit in English to audiences that can exceed one hundred million.
Assignments I. Divide the text into logical parts and give headings to each of them.
II. Give characteristics to the periods of development of the English language.
III. Prove with the help of the text that the English language is very popular nowadays.
Text 2. The world of English
Read the text and do the assignments below.
There are as many languages in the world as there are nations. Yet, quite a number of them use English in their political and economic activity. Of the more than 365 million in the world whose native language is English, only about 275 million live in the USA and Great Britain. The other 90 million live in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, some Pacific islands, and other places where English people settled. Most of the time, one English speaker can understand another. But in every English speaking country, people added new words to their vocabularies to name animals, plants and other things that were new to the first British people who went there. Forty-five countries consider English their first or official or natural native language. In addition there are 19 countries for which English is
48 the practical or educated first language – countries like Guyana, India and the Sudan. Many African states are English speaking by tradition and by choice using English to unify the country and serve as the principle means of communication between diverse tribes. Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia, Ghana, Malawi and Tanzania are just a few of African countries which depend on English for their law courts, parliaments and day-to-day business dealings. In Asia, the English language serves the same purpose for the entire Indian subcontinent as well as for the smaller outposts of the Empire – now the Commonwealth – such as Fiji, Tonga, Singapore, Malaysia and Ceylon or rather Sri Lanka, as it is now called. The Caribbean Sea is sprinkled with islands – Bermuda, Barbados, Trinidad, Jamaica, Dominica and the Bahamas – where English is spoken by everyone. English as a separate identifiable language is over 1,200 years old. It all began with the invasion of the islands of Britain by three Germanic tribes from northern Europe – the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, in the year 499 A. D. The first written records in English date from 700 A. D., and about this time Britain was invaded by Scandinavian adventurers called Vikings. After some 200 years of fighting with Anglo-Saxons the Vikings came to an agreement with the Saxon king Alfred the Great, to divide the island – the Saxons in the west, the Scandinavians who were Norse speaking, in the east. Through the intermarriage the 2 people became one, and their language became the linguistic blend which we call the Old English. In the verb ‘to be’ ,for example, the third person singular ‘he is’ is pure Saxon, ‘they are’ is purely Norse. The word ‘wife’ is Saxon, but the word ‘husband’ comes from Norse. English today is very different from the English spoken by the Anglo- Saxons. By the twelfth century, the language had changed so much that people could not read writings from the year 700. And today, we can’t understand either of these forms of English without a special dictionary. The history of English has three parts – “Old English” (before the year of 1150), “Middle English” (up until 1500), and “Modern English” (from1500 to now). The biggest difference between Old, Middle and Modern English is in vocabulary. Grammar has not changed greatly, but thousands of new words have come into the language. Many of these are from French. This is because the Normans, who were from France, were once the rulers of England. Many words from law and government, such as “judge”, “mayor”, and “state”, come from Norman French. Another important difference is pronunciation. No one really knows why, but English pronunciation has changed so much that there are almost no words said the same way today as in Old English. And, since speech changes
49 faster than writing, the spelling of a word often shows how it sounded in Middle English or Old English, not how it is said today. Modern English contains many variations of accents and even dialects, but unlike Italian or German, the dialects are rarely different enough to make comprehension impossible. True, a London cockney would have a very difficult time in a conversation with a steel worker in Glasgow and a Carolina cotton picker might find it difficult to understand and be understood by a sheep farmer from Australia, but a businessman from, say, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA would have few problems dealing with a businessman from Dublin, Ireland or Sydney, Australia, Auckland, New Zealand or Johannesburg, South Africa. A reasonably educated standard English allows comprehension and communication all over the world. Notes: 1. Lingua franca – a language used by people who do not speak the same native language 2. КО – an abbreviation for a knockout in boxing 3. Norse – древнеирландский, древнескандинавский язык
Assignments I. Divide the text into logical parts and give headings to each of them. II. Answer the following questions: 1. How can you account for the fact that English is either generally spoken or used as an official language in many (45 plus 19) countries of the world? 2. Do you agree that the English language has become the international lan- guage in such fields as industry and technology, jazz, sport, advertising and education? Give reasons proving your point of view. 3. You have probably had some experience of speaking English to people from various countries. If so, was it a problem to communicate with them? Was their English very different from the one you had been taught? And if it was, what made it different – the accent, word usage or something else?
Text 3. English as a global language
Read the text and do the assignments below.
People say “English is the global language” but do we use it that way? Most of the pages on the worldwide web are written in English, but are they written in a way that can be understood by a worldwide audience?
50 There are a lot of conferences held all over the world where linguists discuss what language should be treated as Global Language. One of such conferences is held in Britain annually and during the last conference English was accepted as Global Language till the year of 2010. A number of linguists reported on the global spread of English, indicating the dominant status of English as the most prevalent language of today. Ammon, for example, pointed out the dominance of English by providing the same statistics about the dominance of English. According to him, (1) English has the greatest number of speakers reaching as many as 1.5 billion people; (2) English is designated as official language of as many as 62 nations; (3) English is the most dominant language in scientific communication with 70-80 percent of academic publications being published in it; (4) English is the de facto official and working language in most international organizations; (5) English is the most taught foreign language across the world. English is also referred to as World English, Common English, General English or Standard English. In most countries around the globe the English language can be found in some form or another, whether it is an international news broadcast, such as CNN, or a Chicago Bulls tee-shirt. What centuries of British colonialism and decades of Esperanto couldn’t do, a few years of free trade, MTV, and the Internet has. A global economic and political structure needs a common tongue. Everyone has their own reasons for the rise of English as the global language. However, there are some common traits between them. Here are just a few samples of what people are saying: English is dominating the globe today because, when the sun finally set on the British Empire at the end of World War II, the United States emerged as a global superpower and cultural giant, leading the way in medical research, technological innovation, motion pictures and rock ‘n’ roll.” Most people agree that it has something to do with the emergence of the United States as a world superpower. The important thing to remember is: “A language becomes an international language for one chief reason: the political power of its people – especially their military power.” There is a distinction between English as spoken as a native language around the world (for example in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and as a non-native language spoken as a national (for example in India), regional or global lingua franca. In a situation where English dominates communication, the non-English-speaking people are inevitably disadvantaged. They become mute and deaf, and therefore prevented from fully participating in communication.
51 A second distinction is made between those countries where non- native or semi-native English has official or historical importance (special significance, for example, in Pakistan and Uganda), and those where it does not (for example, in Japan and Peru). There is a great gap in the working knowledge between native speakers and non-native speakers, especially those speakers whose mother tongues are linguistically distant from English. Thus, native speakers of English intentionally try to push non-native speakers out of discussions by making a full use of tactics that stem from phonetic, idiomatic, syntactic, and pragmatic characteristics unique only in English... For example, they step up the speed of speech, use a large number of jargons and idioms or make utterances that are grammatically complex. International English especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. There is a certain variant of English that is understood all over the world. It is called BBC English. And this kind of English is to be treated as Global English.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions. 1. Why do people need the global language? 2. name the chief reason for the language to become an international one? 3. name 5 main reasons due to which English dominates in modern society? 4. Describe distinctions between English as a native and non-native lan- guage? 5. What variant of English is understood all over the world?
II. Home assignment Write an essay where you can express your opinion about the role of English as the global language and its dominance in the world. Name your own ideas and reasons for it.
Text 4. English and a Spanish Family
Read the text and do the assignments below. The scene was inevitable: one Sunday morning? When I entered a room where my mother and father were talking, I did not realize that they were
52 speaking in Spanish until the moment they saw me they abruptly started speaking English. The gringo sounds they uttered (had previously spoken only to strangers) startled me, pushed me away. In that moment of trivial misunderstanding and profound insight I felt my throat twisted by a grief I didn’t sound as I left the room. But I had no place to escape to with Spanish. (My brothers were speaking English in another part of the house.) Again and again in weeks following, increasingly angry, I would hear my parents uniting to urge, “Speak to us now, en inglйs.” Only then did it happen, my teachers’ achievement, my greatest academic success: I raised my hand in the classroom and volunteered an answer and did not think it remarkable that the entire class understood. That day I moved very far from the disadvantaged child I had been only weeks before. But this great public success was measured at home by feeling of loss. We remained a loving family – enormously different. No longer were we as close as we had earlier been. (No longer so desperate for the consolation of intimacy.) My brothers and I didn’t rush home after school. Even our parents grew easier in public, following the Americanization of their children. My mother started referring to neighbors by name. My father continued to speak about gringos, but the word was no longer charged with bitterness and suspicion. Hearing it sometimes, I wasn’t even sure if my father was saying the Spanish word, gringo, or saying, gringo, in English. Our house was no longer noisy. And for that I blamed my mother and father since they had encouraged our classroom success. I flaunted my second-grade knowledge as a kind of punishment. (“Two negatives make a positive!”) But this anger was spent after several months, replaced by a feeling of guilt as school became more and more important to me. Increasingly successful in class, I would come home a troubled son, aware that education was making me different from my parents. Sadly I would listen as my mother or father tried unsuccessfully (laughing self-consciously) to help my brothers with homework assignments. My teachers became the new figures of authority in my life. I began imitating their accents. I trusted their every direction. Each book they told me to read, I read and then waited for them to tell me which books I enjoyed. Their most casual opinions I adopted. I stayed after school “to help” – to get their attention. It was their encouragement that mattered to me. Memory caressed each word of their praise so that compliments teachers paid me in grammar school classes come quickly to mind even today. Withheld from my parents was any mention of what happened at school. In late afternoon, in the midst of preparing our dinner, my mother would
53 come up behind me while I read. Her head just above mine, her breath scented with food, she’d ask, “What are you reading?” Or: “Tell me about all your new courses.” I would just barely respond. “Just the usual things, ma” (Silence, Silence. Instead of the intimate sounds which had once flowed between us, there was this silence.) After dinner, I would rush off to my bedroom with papers and books. As often as possible, I resisted parental plea to “save lights” by staying in the kitchen to work. I kept so much, so often to myself. Nights when relatives visited and the front room was warmed by familiar Spanish sounds, I slipped out of the house.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions. 1. What problems are touched in the text? 2. What was the beginning of the boy’s great academic success? 3. What was the effect of education the boy felt? 4. Why did the parents try to help their children with their homework? 5. Why would the boy prefer to stay with books than with relatives?
II. Prove the following statements. 1. The boy is the most successful child in the family. 2. Teachers replaced intimacy of family relations. 3. life in American community made the family different.
III. Express your opinion on the following. 1. Do you approve the boy’s behavior and his attitude towards his rela- tives? 2. What would you do on the parents’ place? 3. Have you met similar situations in your life?
IV. Find in the text words or word combinations describing the boy’s emotions concerning his relationship with his family and teachers.
V. Home assignment Make up a plan of the lesson on the material of text 4 (skimming reading).
54 Part III. Test of Listening. Theme: Learning Foreign Languages: Vivian (Computer Course – “Living English”)
Listen to the text and do the following assignments.
I. Answer the following questions: 1. How many languages does Vivian know? 2. Why does she think it is important to learn foreign languages? 3. What was the easiest language for Vivian to learn? 4. What languages doesn’t Vivian want to know and why? 5. What opportunities has Vivian got due to knowledge of foreign languages?
II. Put the words in order they occur in the text. a) a bit lazy b) discipline c) pronounce d) similar e) properly
III. True or false: T F 1. At the current moment Vivian lives in Hungary but she does not know Hungarian. 2. Vivian’s former flat mate spoke Italian. 3. Vivian considers Pushkin’s poetry to be very compli- cated and almost impossible to translate. 4. Vivian thinks that if you know English it’s not necessary to learn other languages. 5. Vivian respected her French teacher and her teaching methods.
IV. Complete the following sentences choosing a), b), c), or d). 1. i don’t know how many languages I could keep in my ______at the same time. a) mind b) brain c) head d) memory
2. ______is quite easy language for English people to learn. a) Russian b) Hungarian c) Check d) Spanish
55 3. learning similar languages is ______I think. a) easy b) difficult c) boring d) interesting
4. i think Hungarians are very ______. a) impatient b) hospitable c) picky d) lazy
5. my Russian teacher was______. a) Scottish b) Hungarian c) English d) French
V. Listen to the last passage of the text beginning with the sentence “You usually translate into your own language from a foreign language”. Insert the omitted words. 1. i think it’s really interesting to meet people and to (1)______with them in their own language. 2. i think of my best friends. Only a few are (2)______(3)______(4)______. 3. it really gives me the opportunity to travel and (5)______my (6) ______. 4. i don’t really have any desire to learn (7) ______languages like (8) ______and (9) ______. 5. i have to have some kind of (10) ______for the (11)______of a language.
56 UNIT III
SET EXPRESSIONS AND VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
Part I. Slang
Pre-reading assignments 1. Express your opinion on the concept “slang”. How do you understand the word “slang”? 2. Have you ever come across with slang? Did you have difficulties with understanding it? 3. Read the text and do the assignments below.
Text 1. Theory of slang and its uses
Slang is an informal kind of language in which words and phrases are used in new or unusual ways. Many slang terms are expressive, humorous, and vivid. Some are crude and offensive. A slang expression may be a new word, such as glitzy (gaudy) or hype (advertising that relies on gimmicks or tricks). Or it may be an old word with a new meaning, such as wired (excited) or cool (sophisticated and self-controlled). People use slang more often in speaking than in writing, and more often with friends than with strangers. Slang thus resembles colloquialisms, which are expressions used in everyday conversation but not considered appropriate for formal speech or writing. Unlike colloquialisms, however, most slang lasts only a few years. Also, nearly all colloquialisms are used – or at least understood – by the general population. But many slang expressions are limited to a certain segment of society or to a specific occupational group. For example, some slang is used only by criminals and other members of the underworld. Such slang is called argot or cant. The special slang and technical vocabulary of a profession or trade is known as jargon.
57 Some slang phrases have meanings that cannot be determined from the ordinary meanings of the words. Such phrases, including kick the bucket (to die) and up the creek (in trouble), are called idioms. Slang expressions change and spread so quickly that many people have difficulty determining what is slang and what is not. Dictionaries and language experts often disagree about whether a particular expression is slang, a colloquialism, or even standard language. Uses of slang Slang has a wide variety of uses. Many people use it because they want to seem fashionable and modern. Others use slang because it is frank and informal, expresses friendliness, and puts people at ease. Many slang terms are used to insult. For example, a person considered inferior or unpleasant can be described by such words as creep, drip, fink, jerk, nerd, sap and turkey. Some insulting slang words refer to certain ethnic, racial, and religious groups. Slang is also used to criticize or poke fun at established institutions. Many slang expressions help people express themselves vividly. For example, a student who says, “Math drives me up the wall!” probably sounds more convincing than one who says, “I dislike mathematics.” People often use slang to refer to painful or frightening situations. A soldier may say that a friend bought the farm rather than was killed in battle. Such language attempts to relieve anxiety by substituting a light-hearted or indirect expression for an unpleasant or direct one. Forms of slang Slang expressions arise in the same ways that other words come into being. There are seven chief forms of slang, each created by a different process. These forms are (1) old words used in new ways, (2) shortened or lengthened words, (3) figures of speech, (4) rhyming slang, (5) acronyms, (6) coinages and (7) blends. Old words used in new ways. Most slang expressions are simply new uses for old words or phrases. The flap(excitement or commotion) about air pollution is slang, but the flap(hinged section) of an airplane wing is not. To rip off (steal) a camera is slang, but to rip off the top of a box is standard English. Shortened or lengthened words. The process of creating a new word by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word is called clipping. Clipping produces many slang terms, including phiz (face), which is short for physiognomy; psycho, short for psychopath; and rep, short for reputation. Another type of shortened word is a back-formation. Most slang back- formations are verbs that were formed by dropping the ending from a noun.
58 Examples of such verbs include burgle (to steal), from burglar; letch (to lust), from lecher; and nuke (to attack with nuclear weapons), from nuclear. In the reverse process, a new word may be created by adding an ending to an existing one. Slang words created by this process include payola (graft), from pay; and slugfest (fight), fromslug (to hit). Figures of speech are expressions in which words are used in unusual ways. One of the most common slang figures of speech is the metaphor, an implied comparison between two different things. For example, the slang metaphor bean pole describes a thin person. Another type of slang figure of speech is metonymy, which substitutes a quality of something for the thing itself. Examples of metonymy include long green (paper currency) and skirt (woman). Rhyming slang is slang that replaces a word with a word or phrase that rhymes with it. Many cockneys in England and many Australians use such slang. For example, a cockney might say Rosie Lee for tea. Some American slang is also formed by rhyming. Examples include crumb-bum (inferior person) and thriller-diller (exciting story or motion picture). Acronyms are words formed from the first letters or syllables of the words in a phrase. This form of slang includes D.J. or deejay, from disc jockey; and kidvid (children’s television programs), from kid video. Coinages are newly invented words or phrases. Slang coinages include humungous (huge) moola (money), palooka (inferior athlete), and zit (pimple). Blends are new words created by joining the first part of one word to the second part of another. Examples of slang blends are gyrene (United States marine), from G. I. marine; and sexploitation (commercial exploitation of people’s interest in sex). Sources of slang Much slang comes from the special vocabulary of certain groups within a general population. These groups may be based on such factors as age, ethnic background, and occupation. A large amount of cant, jargon, and other group language spreads beyond the group that originated it and becomes general slang. The terms joint (cheap bar or restaurant) and scram (to get away quickly) originated as criminal argot. Theater jargon produced such expressions as ham it up (to overact) and turkey (failure). Jazz musicians invented gig (job) and bag (special interest or talent). Black Americans contributed many expressions, including dig (to understand), rap (to have a serious discussionLand nitty-gritty (the basics). The Yiddish language was the source of such terms as dreck (junk) and klutz (clumsy person).
59 All slang expressions were invented by someone, but only a few can be traced to a specific person. Jack Conway, a writer for the entertainment newspaper Variety, invented pushover (something easy) in the early 1900’s. T. A. Dorgan, an American cartoonist and sportswriter of the same period, probably originated dumbbell (stupid person). The spread of slang Most slang spreads by word of mouth, and so the paths of many expressions are difficult to trace. Language scholars have found that much slang originates in social groups that have lower incomes, less education, and less power than the rest of society. For example, many expressions spread from young people or from minority groups to the larger society. There are exceptions, however. Some slang comes from highly trained professional people, such as aerospace scientists and computer experts. Radio and television also spread slang. A TV entertainer introduces a new slang expression to millions of people at once, giving it almost instant popularity. Nearly all slang expressions die out soon after they become widely used. For example, crazy (wonderful) had a short period of popularity in the 1950s. On the other hand, some slang terms last so long and become so widely used that they are considered colloquialisms. Examples include belfy laugh (hearty laughter) and half-baked (not fully worked out). A few slang expressions even become part of the standard language. Hairdo was introduced in the 1920’s as a slang term for coiffure and became a standard word in less than 20 years. The words tidax and strenuous, which also began as slang, took longer to be accepted. Some slang words have been used for hundreds of years without reaching the status of colloquialisms or standard words. For example, grub (food) dates back to the 1600’s, and lousy (bad) dates back to the 1700s. However, both of these words are still considered slang, not part of the standard language. Spread attitudes towards slang Many people disapprove slang. They consider it an inferior language and accuse those who use it of careless, lazy thinking. Some believe the use of slang limits a person’s vocabulary and even weakens the standard language itself. Much of slang’s bad reputation comes from the company it keeps. Some people assume that slang is stupid and vulgar because it frequently occurs in informal conversation, accompanied by grammatical errors and profanity. Most people agree that slang can easily be overused and misused. A slang term becomes tiresome if it is repeated too often. Likewise, slang is inappropriate for certain uses, including formal speeches, business letters,
60 and schoolwork. A slang expression can also cause a loss of accuracy in communication because it may mean different things to different people. However, the reasonable use of slang promotes lively speaking and writing. Slang is an important part of any language and helps keep a language freshand alive. A great number of colorful and useful words have come from slang, including bootleg, jazz, pushover, and skyscraper (Robert J. Kispert).
Assignments I. Answer the following questions: a) What is slang? What is the difference between slang and colloquialisms? Slang and jargon? Slang and idioms? b) What are the main forms of slang? c) What are reasons for using slang? d) Where does slang come from and how does it spread? e) What are general attitudes towards slang?
II. Read the following quotations by famous English writers and linguists, comment on them. 1. G.K. Chesterton: “The one stream of poetry which is constantly flowing is slang. Every day some nameless poet weaves some fairy tracery of popular language... All slang is metaphor, and all metaphor is poetry...the world of slang is kind of topsy-turvydom of poetry, full of blue moons and white elephants, of men losing their heads, and men whose tongues run away with them – a whole chaos of fairy-tales.”
2. Henry Bradley: “Slang sets things in their proper place with a smile. So, to call a hat ‘a lid’ and a head ‘a nut’ is amusing because it puts a hat and a pot-lid in the same class.”
3. G.H. McKnight: “Originating as slang expressions often do, in an insensibility to the meaning of legitimate words, the use of slang checks an acquisition of a command over recognized modes of expression... and must result in atrophy of the faculty of using language.”
4. H.W. Fowler: “As style is the great antiseptic, so slang is the great corrupting matter, it is perishable and infects what is round it.”
III. Write an annotation to Text 1.
61 Text 2. Slang as a colloquial language
Slang is a particular kind of colloquial language. It refers to words and expressions which are extremely informal. Slang helps to make speech vivid, colourful and interesting but it can easily be used inappropriately. Although slang is mainly used in speech, it is also often found in the popular press. It can be risky for someone who is not a native speaker to use slang. Firstly because some slang expressions may cause offence to some sections of the population. For example, most policemen are quite happy to be referred to as, coppers but are offended by the term pigs. Similarly, you could probably use the word sozzled (meaning drunk) in front of anyone but using the words, passed or arseholed, which also mean drunk, could upset some people. Secondly, slang words date very quickly. Different generations, for instance, have used different slang expressions to say that something was ‘wonderful’.
pre-war: top-hole 1970s: ace, cosmic 1940s: wizzard 1980s: brill, wicked 1960s: fab, groovy
It can be possible to work out a native speaker’s age from the expressions which they use. as people tend to stick with the slang expressions of their youth. To sum up, you may find it interesting to learn about slang and you may come across slang expressions (particularly when you are watching films or reading popular newspapers or novels) but you might be well advised to avoid using slang yourself. Here are some examples of some slang words and expressions which you may come across. Expressions for money: dough, bread, dosh, loot, brass, spondulicks Expressions for the police: pigs, fuzz, cop(per)s, bill Expressions for drunk: pissed, sozzled, paralytic, legless, arseholed Expressions for a stupid person: wally, prat, nerd, jerk, dickhead plonker, pillock Expressions for lavatory: loo, lav, bog, John Expressions for drink: booze, plonk (wine), a snifter, a snort Drag-related expressions: a fix, dope, grass, high, stoned, snow (heroin) Prison-related expressions: nick (prison), nark (informer), screw (warder)
62 Slang is often used by one particular group and is unintelligible to other people. Here are some examples from American truck-drivers using CB radio to talk to each other.
grandma lane: slow lane affirmative:yes five finger discount:stolen goods motion lotion: fuel super cola: beer eyeballs: headlights doughnuts: tyres anklebiters: children
Text 3. Where did Cockney Rhyming slang come from?
Read the text and do the assignments after it. The phenomenon of Cockney Rhyming Slang (or Rabbit) is a code of speaking in which a common word can be replaced by the whole or abbreviated form of a well-known phrase which rhymes with that word. Cockney Rhyming Slang has been evolving in the East End of London since the sixteenth century. It is thought to have originated from the seamen and soldiers who used the London docks, from the gypsies who arrived in the 1500’s, and from the Irish residents, the Jewish factions and all the other ethnic minorities which have made up the population of the East End. It is also said to have originated as a secret way of communicating by coster mongers when carrying out illegal street trade in the mid-nineteenth century and has evolved into a complex and often very confusing “language”. It is common practice to abbreviate cockney terms. It is perfectly normal for someone to “reduce”, for example, the term “butchers hook (look)” when used within a sentence, e.g.: “Take a butchers at that” (instead of “take a butcher’s hook at that”) or “Let’s go for a Ruby” (curry, instead of a “Ruby Murray”) or “Hello me old china mate’”, (instead of “Hello my old china and plate”).
Assignments I. Replace the slang words, which are underlined in the sentences below with more formal equivalents. a. The newsreader on TV last night seemed to be pissed as he was reading the news. b. He’s quite a nice bloke really. c. i’ve got a terrible belly acne – I think I’d better make an appointment, with the quack. Her dad was furious when he learnt he had to wear a penguin suit to the wedding.
63 d. Can you lend me some dosh till tomorrow? e. i know there’ll be plenty of nosh but do we need to take some booze to the party. f. Have you got wheels or shall we call a taxi? g. i’m dying for a cuppa, f haven’t had one since breakfast. h. Can I use your loo, please? i. i was absolutely gobsmacked when she told me she was leaving.
II. Match the statements on the left with the responses to them on the right.
1 How was the party? a Let’s take him home. 2 What does that guy over there do? b Sure. I’ll keep my eyes skinned. 3 He’s getting legless. c He is in the nick. 4 Keep a lookout for the pigs. d It’s in a drawer, over here. 5 Where’s the dough? e He’s a cop. 6 Where’s her hubby? f Let’s go for a run in the motor. 7 What’ll we do tomorrow? g Wicked!
III. How would you translate the Cockney rhyming slang expressions in the sentences below: Example: trouble and strife = wife; apples and pears = stairs a. let’s have a butcher’s (short for butcher’s hook) at your homework. b. Just look at those Gawd forbids playing football! c. it’s on the Cain and Abel next to the phone. d. What a set of Hampstead Heath! e. she’ll get him to the lean and lurch by hook or by crook. f. Have you seen my titfer (short for tit for tat)?
IV. Vocabulary test
V. Home assignment Prepare reports on the theme “Slang”.
Text 4. “A Word in your Era”
Pre-reading assignments I. Before reading the text study the chart given below and with the help of the dictionary translate the words responded to the certain epochs.
64 60s 70s NYC DESIGNER COUTURE BRIXTON MEDIA RETRO COCKNEY CRED BUZZ Groovy No problem Know what I Divine Yo! Cool mean Fab Hassle Dosh Too too (as Def Hip in ‘too too divine’)
Ciao Take care Mate (as in Totally (as Wicked Classic (with ‘OK. mate?’) in ‘totally a twist) divine’) Happening Situation Brain (as Darling Bad Modern in ‘a right Brian?’) Pad Laid back Right (as in Bliss Babylon Style ‘you got it, right?’) Boutique Zoned Dodgy Fabulous Crucial Yuppie
Far OUT! OTT Well (as in Anything in Casual Designer ‘well dodgy’) Gear Scene (as in Bleedin’ French, Dude Directional ‘not my’) especially ‘moi’ (it’s very ‘toi’) Crash Relate Traffic She (as in he) Ma-an Key Into (as in Boozer Frock Sweet Post (as in ‘I’m really ‘post into’) modern’) Bag (as in Down the (as Score Very 80s ‘not my’) in ‘down the boozer’) Check it out Bloke Blow X meets Y (as in ‘It was Frankenstein meets Fins- bury Park’) Guy Ta! Heavy Trendy
65 II. Read the text, paying attention to the notes given below. III. Find in the text some facts to prove its title.
BY THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY, CHARLOTTE DU CANN SAT DOWN AND WEPT
l. The word designer has been declared O-U-T out! That well crucial key and directional media word has disappeared from the style dictionary. ‘At last,’ cry its critics, ‘at last we shall say what we mean.’ Designer never said what it meant. It didn’t have to. It was a box-word. Boxwords do not elucidate, they categorise. 2. The lucrative art of boxing began with superhack Tom Wolfe. His savage labelling of groups such as the Radical Chic rose to popularity in the Me Decade of the 70s. It was introduced to Britain in a tame form by style guru and marketing man Peter York (Sloane Rangers, Mayfair Mercs and the like), paraded by magazines (foodies ,young fogeys), books (nouveaux pau- vres. new Georgians) and television programmes. (Channel 4’s Hey Good Looking!) Each group was observed as if it were a new species, its character- istics logged with all the enthusiasm of Attenborough charting an egg-laying turtle. What had started out with some razor-eyed magazine satire had turned into an envious tabloid shopping list. З. By 1986 there were just too many species (dinkies, couch potatoes, wannabes, etc). So the media, never wild about complexity, simply dumped all these haves (for so they were) into the category of yuppie. Yuppies were not a behavioral phenomenon, they were a seriously materialistic one. The yuppies were children of the It Decade: they cared about things. They were quite happy living in a world that saw people as types, not human beings. 4. Yuppie-speak is entirely concerned with consumerism. Its favourite word is designer (designer clothes, designer water, designer violence). What does designer mean in these contexts? It says desirable, it says upmarket. It means, in plain English, moneyed. But by using the vague term designer, the meaning is kept firmly vague. Everyone knows what it signifies, but no one is going to say it out loud, ‘An Alessi kettle is an expensive kettle for status hungry people who need to show off their kitchenware.’ Who is going to say that? Designer kettle is, well, so much easier. 5. At best this is linguistic laziness, a kind of shorthand; at worst, camou- flage for the truth.I n a society divisible by money rather than class or belief, objects take on a serious significance. Words are being used to gloss over un- British covetousness. The death of the word designer does not herald a bright
66 new uncommercial future. It merely sends journalists scrabbling around the lexicon for a new concept. A new enviable state. 6. Slang fashion has always been a prime indicator of where you want to be. Ten years ago this place was Me-Decade New York, when psychobabble was big and we all wanted to sound like Diane Keaton. Seventies NYC was kinda nervy. There was a lot of talk about situation and checking yourself out. There was a lot of money spent lying on the couch and sitting on the wine-bar stool. Like the flared jean, 70s NYC has almost completely disap- peared (‘Did I really say no way?’), except for those lost in the time-warp vocab. 7. But some stayed on the tongue, even when the Big Apple went sour (post-Greenham, post-fried potato skin). It endured in ghetto speak. Black words from Harlem via Brixton. The word in the early 80s was street: street fashion, street entertainment, street cred. Man, you could not get more street than rap. 8. Those were the tiring years pavement-wise. You could hardly move for fire-eaters and roller-skaters, joggers and body-poppers. There was a lot of money spent on skateboards and dance classes. Those black inverting words (e.g. bad meaning good) conferred the kind of cultural, global cred you found on a Katharine Hamnett T-shirt. But, like break-dancing, they seemed a bit embarrassing in the new theme parks of Covent Garden and Soho. 9. What really filled the lexicon wardrobe in the UK was designer cock- ney. Designer cockney comes from a long tradition, from the music-hall rhyming slang to the bully-beef talking-on programmes like Minder and The Sweeney via swinging-60s London. The macho rabbit speeded up during the Falklands, an I’m-all-right-Jack version of the universe sung by Chas ‘n’ Dave down the boozer where no one drinks Perrier. Lads’ land. Miles away from the sensitive restaurant in Manhattan. 10. Designer cockney was and is used by the aspiring brat packs of the city and TV youth shows, sounding tough and witty in every club in the land (The designer cockney hero is David Bailey.) It’s a kind of double-think for those who adopt it, verbal camouflage for the haves. I may be earning, says this chipper whine, 10 times what my vocab implies, but you’d never guess. 11. This is inconspicuous consumerism, the equivalent of carrying an ex- pensive Japanese nylon rucksack rather than a Vuitton briefcase. They may cost the same but not everybody knows. 12. Designer cockney enables the well paid not to feel so guilty. Even though the class system has been radically shifted in the past decade, the
67 old-fashioned view holds good: you don’t sound rich unless you sound like the Queen. DC implies equality. In the same way that Edwina Currie adopts a northern speech pattern when talking to her constituents, so the haves will rabbit with the cabbie while in a taxi. They both know about dosh and The Knowledge and it makes everything appear very fair be- tween fare and driver. 13. But now all this street style is changing. Like the Doc Marten, the designer cockney’s favourite shoe, it is making way for the high heel. 14. The converse of the street is the drawing room. Oscar Wilde rather than Jools Holland. As with any style, word style has ‘built-in obsolescence. As soon as everyone is saying dosh. there comes an inexplicable urge to say guineas and florins. This is the first rule of consumer-style politics: always keep abreast of the wave. 15. Couture was hailed by the media as the new direction. Style is dead; go home chrome, content and charm are back. Actually, style is not dead, it just goes by a different name. And couture-speak is no different in its ap- plication from designer cockney. Except fewer people can afford it. Lacroix phrases like ‘too divine’ sit uncomfortably on the lips of everyman. just as violet is less egalitarian than black. Oh, yes, we might not have the accent gap any longer, but Great Britain, land of intersections, will divide you up yet.
Notes: Hack – a writer who does a lot of low-quality work, especially writing newspaper articles – заурядный писака, газетный писака Sloan Ranger – a stereotypical English upper middle class young woman, happier with her dogs and horses than humans; she may live in London but her spiritual home remains the country – прототип британской молодой женщины, любительницы деревенской жизни May fair Mercs (Mercenary) – a young woman, whose indeterminate class is transcended by her beauty and her ambition to climb in society (mistress, girlfriend, companion of a successful wealthy man) – молодая меркантиль- ная женщина, добивающаяся положения в обществе за счет внешних данных wannabe – Madonna’s fans who declared either verbally or in the way they dressed “I wanna be like Madonna” – фанаты Мадонны It Decade – the time when people paid attention to things, clothes, money – «Ид-декада» (в то время наибольший интерес был обращен к материальной стороне жизни)
68 Me Decade – the time when people began to pay attention to their inner personal development – «Эго-декада» (была направлена на внутреннее развитие человека) guru – someone, who knows a lot about a particular subject – гуру; coach potato – one who is addicted to watching TV and lying on a coach – домосед, телеман yuppie – young, upwardly-mobile, professional – молодой подвижный профессионал, карьерист post Greemham – time after the protest against storing nuclear weap- on – время после протестов против хранения ядерного оружия post fried potato skin – время после появления нового блюда «жаре- ные картофельные очистки» Diane Keaton – an actress in 70s – Диана Китон Big Apple – New York City (in association with Big Stem, i.e. Broad- way) rhyming slang – slang based on rhyme; it was developed by Cockney – рифмующийся слэнг the Knowledge – the definite UK source of contracts within the film TV, video, commercial production industries chipper whine – lively, cheerful, perhaps slightly drunk man with a high sound of complaining DC Marten’s – rubber sold boots – любимая обувь любителей модного Кокни, обувь на высокой резиновой подошве Jools Holland – squeeze musician now the most popular pianist and bard-leader in the UK – известный британский пианист.
Assignments I. Divide the article into logical parts and give headings to each of them.
II. Answer the following questions. 1. What is a boxword? 2. Whom can we call yuppie? 3. How does slang fashion indicate the era? 4. What are the reasons for usage designer cockney? 5. What are the areas of usage of word style? III. Word the central idea of the text.
IV. Find topical sentences in each paragraph of the text.
69 V. Find the equivalents to the following words and word combinations (pair work).
a) English-Russian 1. superhack a деньги 2. fogey b фанат 3. boozer c бедная молодежь 4. brat d «качок» 5. constituent e жаргон недалеких 6. psychobabble f наемный писака 7. wannabe g пивнушка, паб 8. body-popper h избиратель 9. dosh i старомодный 10. nouveaux pauvres j молодой
b) Russian-English 1. идеальная парочка a aspiring 2. прибыльный b Sloane Ranger 3. джинсы-клеш c inconspicuous 4. стиль d dinky 5. молодая женщина, добивающаяся e foody положения за счет внешности 6. гурман f cred 7. честолюбивый g Mayfair Mercs 8. молодая любительница h flared jeans деревенской жизни 9. незаметный i inexplicable 10. необъяснимый j lucrative
VI. Paraphrase the following sentences using slang and jargon from the text. 1. There was a lot of talk about circumstances and getting to know one- self. 2. it is a confusing word. 3. so rich people will talk to taxi-drivers while in a taxi. 4. Designer cockney comes from the music hall rhyming slang to slang of chief-officers on programs like “Minder” and “The Police Squad”. 5. The macho talking speeded up during the Falklands an I’m-all-right-Jack version of the word-wide famous song sung by Chas’n’Dave in pubs where no one drinks Perrier.
70 VII. Choose the most exact translation of the sentences given below. 1. Seventies NYC was kinda nervy. a) nYC в 70е гг. был слегка раздражающим b) nYC в 70е гг. был очень раздражающим c) nYC в 70е гг. был совсем не раздражающим 2. The converse of the street is the drawing room. a) разговор с улиц переходил в гостиные. b) уличный стиль разговора – это гостиная. c) разговор с улиц переходил в гримерные. 3. This is the first rule of consumer-style politics: always keep abreast of the wave. a) Это первое правило политики потребления: всегда оставаться на гребне волны. b) Это первое правило политики потребительского стиля: всегда будь на гребне волны. c) Это первое правило политики потребления: всегда будь в авангарде.
VIII. Give estimation of the information contained in the text. 1. What is your attitude toward slang? 2. How often do you personally use slang and in what situations? 3. if you had a chance to live in the 70s, 80s or 90s, what decade would you choose and why? 4. Could people live without slang at all.
IX. Home assignment. 1) Translate part 5 of the text, paying attention to grammatical structures. 2) Write an annotation to the text. 3) make up a plan of the lesson on the material of the text (average reading).
Viewing the film
Watch the first fragment of the film “My Fair Lady” about the meeting of Mr. Pickering, Mr. Higgins and Eliza and do the assignments below.
First viewing
I. Divide the fragment into logical parts and give headings to each of them.
71 II. Answer the following questions. a) Who are the main heroes of the film? b) Have you noticed any peculiarities in Eliza’s speech? c) What was the reason of the accident between Eliza and Freddy? d) Why did Mr. Higgins write down Eliza’s words? e) What talent did Mr. Higgins have? f) What science was Mr. Higgins good at? g) What did Mr. Higgins say about the English language?
Second viewing
I. Insert the words and word combinations. a) i’ve not done nothing wrong by speaking to the ______. b) Tell him where he comes from. If you want to go . c) i can change . Here take this tuppence. d) simple phonetics. ______. That’s my profession, also my hobby. e) remember that you are a human being with a soul and the divine gift of ______.
II. Complete the following dialogue. Higgins: but stop this noise! Pickering: Come, come! He can’t touch you. You have a right ______.
Eliza: I am ______? I am The Hoxton Man: do you know where I come from? Higgins: ______. The Hoxton Man: Well, who says I didn’t! Blimey, you know everything, you do. The Mother: Well, sir, do you think you could ______. Higgins: I don’t know if you noticed it, madam, but its ______, perhaps we can take ____ to. Hapton Court. Well, that’s where you live, isn’t it? The Mother: What impertinence!
III. Translate sentences into Russian. a) Two bunches of violets trod into the mud. b) You just show me what you wrote about me. But that ain’t proper writ- ing. I can’t read it. c) really, sir. if you are a detective, you need to begin protecting me against molestation by a young woman until I ask you.
72 d) He who utters such disgusting and depressing noise he has no right to be anywhere- no right to live.
IV. Who said this: a) You go on without paying. Two bunches of violets trod into the mud. A) Eliza B) Higgins C) Mother D) Freddy b) i can place a man within six miles. A) Pickering B)Higgins C) Hoxton Man D) Eliza c) go on about your business, my girl. A) Eliza B) Pickering C) Mother D) Freddy
Explain the following words and word combinations: flover; tuppence; keep off the curb; one’s Bible oath; shut up; tec; boohooing; busy body; unmanly coward
Part II. Idioms
Text 1. Idioms
Pre-reading assignments I. Before reading the text given below express your opinion on the concept “idioms”. II. Read the text and do the assignments.
The English language is full of idioms (over 15,000). Native speakers of English use idioms all the time often without realizing that they are doing so. This means that communication with native speakers of English can be quite a confusing experience. The word “idiom” is polysemantic. It is used to denote a mode of expression peculiar to a language, without differentiating between the grammatical and the lexical levels. It may also mean a group of words whose meaning is difficult or impossible to understand from the knowledge of words considered separately. For example: To get one’s fingers on something. We use idioms to express something that other words do not express as clearly or as cleverly. We often use an image or symbol to describe
73 something as clearly as possible and thus make our point as effectively as possible. For example, “to dive into work” suggests the idea of becoming completely involved in an activity or a subject. Idioms tend to be informal and are best used in spoken rather than written English. But of course it doesn’t mean that idioms are not used in literature. You can meet a great number of idioms in Modern American literature. For example: to be in somebody’s shoes. Sometimes idioms are very easy for learners to understand because there are similar expressions in the speakers’ mother tongue. For example: Like a bird with broken wigs. Sometimes you can guess the meaning of new idioms from context. For example,, what do you think these idioms mean “to be fogged by something”? And after giving a context the meaning is easy to understand: Owning things is good. More money is good. More property is good. More is good. The average person is so fogged up by all this; he hqs no perspective on what is really important anymore. However, idioms can often be very difficult to understand. You may be able to guess the meaning from context but if not, it is not easy to know the meaning. For example: Much as we tried to call and visit, he held us at bay, Insisting that fight was something he needed to do by himself. Here “to hold somebody at bay” means not to let one interrupt somebody and to keep him from coming too close. The English language is also rich in idiomatic expressions and idiomatic phrases which, are taken literally and would be utterly confusing to modern speakers. They are a source of endless trouble to people for whom English is a second or temporary language. For native speakers, the intended sense is learned during childhood by inference from the context: they have no need to analyze the exception which proves the rule into its linguistic constituents. Sometimes the elements of these expressions have a fixed grammatical form, as for instance in the following, where the noun is usually plural: “Parent” thing. In other forms the grammar rules are free to change. Phrases or even sentences are sometimes turned into nouns and adjectives by a combination of conversion and composition. E.g.: a back-to-school week, a blond-haired, hazel-eyed, two years younger brother, what ‘s-bugging-my-generation list.
74 Assignments I. Answer the following questions. 1. What is an idiom? 2. What are reasons for using idioms? 3. How often are idioms used in our everyday speech? When do people usu- ally use them?
II. Paraphrase. 1. There’s no thrill quite like a Whitewater thrill! 2. roberto invited his pen pal Thomas to travel to Costa Rica to take on some breathtaking rapids.
An idiom is a kind of figurative speech. The words in an idiom mean something different from what they actually say.
III. Paraphrase each of the idioms below (rewrite each idiom in your own words to explain what it really means). 1. are you pulling my leg? ______2. she’s going bananas. ______3. We’re in the doghouse now. ______4. Has the cat got your tongue? ______5. Will you please get off my back? ______6. He’s an old stick in the mud. ______7. You’d better button your lip. ______8. You’ve got me over a barrel. ______9. i have a bone to pick with you! ______10. It’s a bad idea to rat on your friends. ______11. Last night I slept like a dog. ______12. I went out on a limb for you. ______
75 13. She let the cat out of the bag. ______14. She put her foot in her mouth again. ______15. Time flies when you’re having fun. ______
Text 2. Idioms and fixed expressions – general
Read the text and do the assignments below. Idioms are fixed expressions with meanings that are usually not clear or obvious. The individual words often give you no help in deciding the meaning. The expression to feel under the weather, which means ‘to feel unwell’ is a typical idiom. The words do not tell us what it means, hut the context usually helps. Tips for dealing with idioms: Think of idioms as being just like single words; always record the whole phrase in your notebook, along with information on grammar and collocation. This tin-opener has seen better days. [It is rather old and broken down; usually of things, always perfect tense form]. Idioms are usually rather informal and include an element of personal comment on the situation. They are sometimes humorous or ironic. As with any informal ‘commenting’ single word, be careful how you use them. Never use them just to sound ‘fluent’ or ‘good at English’. In a formal situation with a person you do not know, don’t say: “How do you do, Mrs. Watson. Do take the weight off your feet” [sit down]. Instead say “Do sit down” or “Have a scat”. Idioms can be grouped in a variety of ways. Use whichever way you find most useful to help you remember them. Here are some possible types of grouping. 1. Grammatical get the wrong end of the stick [misunderstand] verb + object pull a fast one [trick/deceive somebody ] be over the moon [extremely happy/elated] verb + preposition phrase feel down in the dumps [depressed/low] 2. By meaning e.g. idioms describing people’s character/intellect He’s as daft as a brush [very stupid/silly]. He takes the biscuit [is the extreme / the worst of all].
76 3. By verb or other key word e.g. idioms with make I don’t see why you have to make a meal out of everything [exaggerate the importance of everything]. I think we should make a move. It’s gone ten o’clock [go/leave]. Now check yourself!
Assignments I. Complete the idioms in these sentences with one of the key words given, as in the example. If you are not sure, try looking up the key word in a good dictionary. clanger, ocean, plate All the promises these politicians make! It’s just pie in the sky (big promises that will never materialise). 1) The small amount of money donated is just a drop in the ………………… compared with the vast sum we need, (tiny contribution compared with what is needed). 2) You really dropped a …………………….. when you criticised the Americans last night; that man opposite you was from New York! (said something inappropriate/embarrassing). 3) i can’t do that job as well; I’ve got enough on my …………………… as it is. (have more than enough work).
II. Use a good general dictionary or a dictionary of idioms to see if it can help you decide which version of these sentences is in the normal grammatical form for the idiom concerned, as in the example. Check the meaning too, if you are not sure. Example: You bark / are barking up the wrong tree if you think I did it. 1) Holland is springing / springs mind as the best place to go for a cycling holiday: it’s very flat. 2) That remark is flying / flies in the face of everything you’ve ever said before on the subject. III. How would you organise this selection of idioms into different groups? Use some of the ways suggested before, plus any other ways you can think of. be in a fix hold your tongue odds and ends child’s play be out of sorts stay mum rough and ready hold your horses give or take be up to it a fool’s errand
77 Text 3. Idioms describing people
Read and practice I. Positive and negative qualities positive negative She has a heart of gold She’s as hard as nails [very kind, generous]. [no sympathy for others]. He’s as good as gold He is a rather a cold fish [generous, helpful, well-behaved [distant, unfriendly]. used generally for children]. Note also: He’s such an awkward customer [difficult person to deal with]. She’s a pain in the neck. Nobody likes her. [nuisance, difficult].
II. People’s ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ qualities fast slow He’s very quick off the mark. I was a bit slow off the mark. He always gets things before The job had been filled by the everybody else. time I got the forms. You’ve asked him to marry you! Come on! Hurry up! You’re such You’re a fast worker! You only a slow-coach! met him three weeks ago!
III. How people relate to the social norm She’s a bit of an odd-ball [very strange, peculiar, strange]. He’s really over the top [very exaggerated in behaviour]. He’s round the bend, if you ask me [absolutely crazy/mad].
IV. Who’s who in the class? Idioms for ‘people in the classroom’
teacher’s pet Mary’s top a real know-all a bit of a a lazy bone of the class big-head
78 Assignments I. Try to complete these idioms from your memory if possible. a) she does a lot of voluntary work; she has a heart … b) Don’t expect any sympathy from the boss; she’s as hard …
II. What do we call… a) an irritating person who knows everything? b) a person who is the teacher’s favourite?
III. For which parts of your body might a problem person… a) get on… b) be a pain in…
IV. Which idioms do you think these drawings represent?
V. Try to guess from the context what the underlined idioms mean. a) Don’t get angry with him. His heart’s in the right place. b) Joe’s a bit of square peg in a round hole here. I think he should get a job which suits his character better. c) a: Hey! I’m talking to you! B: Sorry, I was miles away.
Text 4. Idioms connected with problematic situations
Problems and difficulties
idiom literal phrase to be in a fix = be in difficulty to be in a tight corner = be in a situation that is hard to get out of to be in a muddle = be confused/ mixed up
79 Reacting in situations Three pairs of more or less opposite idioms. to take a back seat to take the bull by the horns [not to do anything; let others act [act positively to face and attack instead] the problem] to stir things up to pour oil on troubled waters [do/say things that make matters [do/say things that calm the situa- worse] tion down] to keep one’s cards close to one’s chest to lay one’s cards on the table [hold back information] [be very open, state exactly what your position is]
Idioms related to situations based on ‘get’ a) This has to be done by next week; we must get our act together before it’s too late [organise ourselves to respond; informal]. b) We need a proper investigation to get to the bottom of things [find the true explanation for the state of affairs]. c) it’s quite difficult to get people to sit up and take notice [make them pay attention]. d) i’m trying to get a grasp of what’s happening; it’s not easy [find out / understand].
Some idioms connected with easing the situation a) The government and the unions have buried the hatchet for the time be- ing. [made peace/ stopped fighting each other] b) all that trouble last year was just swept under the carpet in the end. [ignored/ deliberately forgotten, without solving it] c) You should say sorry. It would go a long way. [would help a lot]
Text 5. Idioms connected with using language
Assignments I. When looking up idioms (or any type of words) in your dictionary, it is often a good idea to look at what is just before and just after the information you are looking for. In this way you can pick up some related
80 words and/or expressions which you can record together. For example, if you look up take the bull by the horns in a dictionary, you will probably also find these idioms: (to be/act) like a bull in a china shop [be very clumsy]. (to talk) a load of bull [talk nonsense].
Look up these idioms using the words underlined as your key word and see what other idioms or useful phrases you can find around them in the dictionary. a) let the cat out of the bag b) to pour oil on troubled waters
II. Choose a suitable idiom 1) i think I’ll just…………………...………….. and let everyone else get on with sorting matters out. 2) no, please, don’t say anything; you’ll only……………………………… ………………………………….………. 3) it’s been a long, hard struggle, but I think at last we can see …………………………………………..
III. Here are some more idioms connected with situations. Can you paraphrase their meaning, as in the example? 1) it’s not working; we’ll have to go back to square one (to back to the be- ginning again). 2) The teachers want one thing; the students want the exact opposite. I’m sure we can find a happy medium. 3) We were on tenterhooks all night waiting for news from the hospital. They finally rang us at 6.30 a.m.
IV. What questions could be asked to get these answers? 1) Well, we’ve buried the hatchet for the moment, but I’m sure it’s not for good. 2) Yes, it’s been a real turning-point in my career.
V. Home assignment Give examples of idioms from the books you read.
81 Text 6. Idioms connected with using language
I. Idioms connected with communication problems
II. Good talk, bad talk 1) The boss always talks down to us. [talks as if we were inferior] 2) my work-mates are always talking behind my back [saying negative thins about me when I’m not there]. 3) it was just small talk, nothing more, I promise [purely social talk, noth- ing serious]. 4) let’s sit somewhere else; they always talk shop over lunch, and it bores me rigid [talk about work]. 5) Hey! Your new friend’s become a real talking-point among the staff! Did you know? [subject that everyone wants to talk about]. 6) it’s gone to far this time. I shall have to give him a talking too [reproach/ scold him].
III. Talk in discussions
82 1 start the discussion 5 finish the discussion 2 say exactly what I think 6 say stupid things 3 say it in new words 7 come to the important part of the matter 4 say things a long, indirect way 8 say intelligent, reasonable things Assignments I. How do you understand this? Explain. JOE: So that’s what I’m going to do, take it all away. ANN: What about – JOE: And if they don’t like it they can just go and do what they like. ANN: If she – JOE: Not that I have to consult them, anyway, I’m in charge round here. ANN: I wonder whether it – JOE: You see, I’m the kind of person who can take a hard decision when it’s needed. It seems that Ann can’t get ……………………………………………………….. MADGE: I don’t expect someone wish your intelligence to understand this document. ERIC: Thank you. Madge seems to be talking…………………………………………………………
II. Fill the gaps to complete the collocations. 1) she is very direct and always ...... her mind 2) i get bored with small ...... ; let’s get down to serious maters. I’m in love with you. 3) The boss gave me a real…………….… to after that stupid mistake I made. Still, I was in the wrong. 4) You’re behind the times! Darren’s girlfriend was last week’s ………………..…….. point. III. Give idioms opposite to the following. the discussion
talk start
get to / come to
83 Part III. Jargons
Text 1. Jargon
Jargon is terminology, much like slang, that relates to a specific activity, profession, or group. However, we should differentiate slang and jargon as well as jargon and terms used in this or that sphere of activity. There are different types of jargon: professional terms or technical language, used by people of different professions to communicate with, each other; patter- language, used for secret communication, that can be also artificial;thieves Latin or the language of thieves; schoolboy slang – words used by young people, very close to slang, also has the purpose to hide the information. People use jargon for different reasons. One of them is that they do not want other people to understand what they are sneaking about. For example, the jargon of thieves: – How long did that cook you – Since eight in the morning, over 12 hours. – You didn’t unbutton then? – After 12 hours of it? Me? They got a lot of dancing to do before they get anything of me. Jargon is used to express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group, and can have the effect of distinguishing those belonging to a group from those who are not. Newcomers or those unfamiliar with a subject can often be characterized by their incorrect use of jargon, which can lead to amusing malapropisms. That is why it is advised not to use jargon if you do not know the meaning. Jargon can be distinguished from terminology in that it is used only in oral speech and only in some particular groups of people. Jargons have only limited expression in the profession’s publications. Many jargon terms have non-jargon equivalents which are used in publications or when addressing non-specialists; other jargon terms, particularly those which are used to characterize or even ridicule non- specialists, have no such equivalents. Jargon is used in different field: in sports, in technical professions. The rise of information technology and the Internet created many overlapping jargons used by nerds, geeks and hackers to communicate, the very proper usage of these words being a major prerequisite for inclusion in these groups (Hogging. mail, net, etc.). Many jargon words come to be used outside the professional sphere in which they first appeared, thus becoming ‘slang words’. A peculiar place is occupied by cant, a secret lingo of the underworld – of thieves and robbers.
84 The present-day function is to serve as a sign of recognition: he who talks cant gives proof of being a professional criminal, e.g. Ain’t a lifer, not him! Got a stretch in stir for pulling a leather up in Chi means: “He was not sentenced to imprisonment for life: he only has to serve for having stolen a purse up in Chicago”. Many jargon words have entered the standard vocabulary: kid, queer, fun, bluff, fib, humbug, they have become dejargonized. In literature jargonisms are used mostly in dialogues to characterize a person through his speech and to create a realistic background. Nowadays jargonisms play an important role in everyday communication. They characterize people through their speech, the way they speak, and of course through the words they pronounce. One need not learn all complicated linguistic definitions, one need not even be a linguist in order to get some general information about a speaker, his field and even background. That it why we can say that knowing a thing or two about jargonisms can be very important and useful for everybody.
Examples of baseball jargons:
air mail – for a fielder’s errant throw that sails high over the player to whom he intended to throw it. For example, if the third baseman were to throw the ball over the first baseman’s head and into the stands, he is said to have “air mailed” the throw; aspirin tablet – for a fastball that is especially hard to hit due to its ve- locity and/or movement; away – for “outs”. If there are two outs in an inning, players may say there are “two away”; Games played at an opponent's home field are "away games". The visit- ing team is sometimes called the "away" team; bag – for a base; bench jockey – a player, coach or manager with the talent of annoying and distracting opposition players and umpires from his team’s dugout with verbal repartee. Especially useful against those with rabbit ears; dead ball – the ball becomes “dead” (i.e., the game’s action is stopped) in cases of fan or player interference, umpire interference with a catcher, and several other specific situations. When the ball is dead, no runners may advance beyond bases they are entitled to, and no runners may be put out. The ball becomes “live” again when the umpire signals that play is to resume;
85 diamond – the layout of the four bases in the infield. It’s actually a square 90 feet (27 m) on each side, but from the stands it resembles a parallelogram or “diamond”; frozen rope – a hard-hit line drive; high cheese – a fastball thrown high in the strike zone; men in blue – the umpires; no room at the inn – sometimes said by a play-by-play announcer when the bases are loaded and the pitcher cannot afford to walk the batter. All the spaces are taken; salad – an easily handled pitch.
Examples of computer jargons:
CAD – Computer Aided Design; particular software design program, esp. architectural; comp – an abbreviated form of “computer”; facemail – a method of communication involving a face-to-face discus- sion; gesture recognition – interpreting body movements into text, as a com- mand (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc); hypertext – a text organised in a nonlinear fashion, with links between pages providing possible directions in which to read on; GUI – Graphical User Interface; any interface that uses graphics to in- teract with the user. In modern parlance, is typically synonymous with WIMP: An interface based on the desktop metaphor that usually contains icons, menus and windows; IDIOT error – a way technical support people use to describe a less- than-competent user. The characters resemble the word “Idiot”; interface – parts of the computer that we work with; two different sub- systems transmitting one piece of information to another; give and take of information; KISS – Keep It Smile Stupid. Rule of thumb for software designers and network administrators – to minimize dispersion and error proneness, keep your designs small; LIFO – last in first out structure. A stack; nanotechnology – cellular, microscopic level of technology; newbie – (also nOOb and newb) a newcomer to a certain computer topic or program, usually seeking out help from more experienced users. Usu- ally, newbie/newb is neutral, where noob/nOOb is derogatory;
86 novice – a computer user that actually knows nothing, but boasts that they can figure it out; treeware – paper version of something. For example “Bill Gates is read- ing the Tree Ware version of the New York Times”; wetware – a sentient organic being. Usually used for humans, but with an implicit wider scope; white box (computer hardware) – homebrew computer system.
Examples of Political Jargon
This jargon politicians throw around so carelessly, one might wonder if they believe anyone believes anything they say. No one should trust them; most only pretend to represent the people. They like to control, but politicians are not in control of anything but their own fantasies of power. People have to be fooled into making it all possible, putting political reality together. Political reality is a joke on the people, what media makers want to call reality. Some examples of/political jargon: Double Dissolution In a government with a bicameral legislature (2 units) a double dissolution involves dissolving or disbanding both legislatures at the same time and holding new elections at the same time. Muckraker Someone who locates and distributes unfavorable information about politicians, companies or celebrities. Grown In Office Generally used a derogatory term for long-time politicians who were elected on one set of principles, but then reverse themselves as they spend more time in office. Big Lie The theory that the electorate will buy any falsehood, presuming it is large enough. Term originally coined by Hitler.
Assignments I. As you read the text look for the answers to the questions. a) What is the difference between jargon words and slang? b) Jargon words can be subdivided into 2 groups. What are they? c) Do you know the reasons of using jargonisms?
87 d) is it possible jargonisms become literary and enter the standard vocabu- lary? e) Where do we use jargon words? (call the spheres of using jargon)
II. For discussion. Give your own opinion to the following statements (use conversational expressions). a) Jargon can give a person a sense of belonging to a specific group; b) Jargon can be a good thing as long as it is not abused; c) Jargon is an integral part of world’s languages.
III. Translate the sentences and give neutral words to jargonisms. a) You should consult with the teacher to make a klashe decision. b) Do you have a pet? Yes, I have a little puss-puss-vaska. c) The memaloose of the leader shocked everybody. d) in Russian popular tales leloo – is always a negative character. e) You should cover your head before entering a lekleese. f) stop abusing each other.Shut your labooses! g) He is a criminal.-Put him into a skookum house! h) oh! I forget my note-book at home. Please, give me pepah. i) – Be calm... Konaway I do is just for you, my dear. j) – Mark, you should obey your parents. You are still a tenas.
IV. Guess to what class the following jargons belong. a) muckraker, Big Lie, CAD, men in blue, frozen rope, full house; b) KISS, air mail, big fly, MM1, salad, white box, novice, don, face mail; c) Widget, banjo hitter, aspirin tablet, IDIOT error, LIFO, GUI, green light.
V. Home assignment Write an essay on the topic: “Jargon words I come across in my everyday life”. Give examples.
Text 2. Captain Stormfield’s Visit to Heaven (extract)
One night I was swinging along at a good round gait, everything taut and trim, and the wind in my favor – I judged I was going about a million miles a minute – it might have been more, it couldn’t have been less – when I flushed a most uncommonly big one about three points off my starboard bow. By
88 his stern lights I judged he was bearing about northeast-and-by-north-half- east. Well, it was so near my course that I wouldn’t throw away the chance; so I fell off a point, steadied my helm and went for him. You should have heard me whiz, and seen the electric fur fly! In about a minute and a half I was fringed out with an electrical nimbus that flamed around for miles and miles and lit up all space like broad day. The comet was burning blue in the distance, like a sickly torch, when I first sighted him, but he begun to grow bigger and bigger as I crept up on him. I slipped up on him so fast that when I had gone about 150,000,000 miles I was close enough to be swallowed up in the phosphorescent glory of his wake, and I couldn’t see anything for the glare. Thinks I, it won’t do to run into him, so I shunted to one side and tore along. By and by I closed up abreast of his tail. Do you know what it was like? It was like a gnat closing on the continent of America. I forged along. By and by I had sailed along his coast for a little upwards of a hundred and fifty million miles, and then I could see by the shape of him that I hadn’t even got up to his waistband yet. Why, Peters, WE don’t know anything about comets, down here. If you want to see comets that ARE comets, you’ve got to go outside of our solar system – where there’s room for them, you understand. My friend, I’ve seen comets out there that couldn’t even lay down inside the ORBITS of our noblest comets without their tails hanging over. Well, I boomed along another hundred and fifty million miles, and got up abreast his shoulder, as you may say. I was feeling pretty fine, I tell you; but just then I noticed the officer of the deck come to the side and hoist his glass in my direction. Straight off I heard him sing out –”Below there, ahoy! Shake her up, shake her up! Heave on a hundred million billion tons of brimstone!” “Ay-ay, sir” “Pipe the stabboard watch! All hands on deck!” “Ay-ay, sir!” “Send two hundred thousand million men aloft to shake our royals and sky-scrapers!” “Ay-ay, sir!” “Hand the stuns’ls! Hang out every rag you’ve got! Clothe her from stem to rudder-post!” “Ay-ay, sir!” In about a second I begun to see I’d woke up a pretty ugly customer, Peters. In less than ten seconds that comet was just a blazing cloud of red- hot canvas. It was piled up into the heavens clean out of sight–the old thing seemed to swell out and occupy all space; by Mark Twain
89 Assignments I. Underline jargons, which can be found in the text.
II. What sphere do jargons from this text belong to? Why did Mark Twain use this kind of jargons in this context?
III. Translate the jargons from the text using a dictionary.
IV. Make up a dialogue, which contains jargons.
V. Write an annotation to text 2.
90 UNIT IV
ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
Part I. The Crumbling of the Ecosystem of Language and Culture
Text 1. The Erosion of the Linguo-cultural Ecosystem
Pre-reading assignments 1. Do you think all languages are used equally? 2. How do you understand the term “endangered languages”? 3. Read the text and do the assignments below.
The destruction of the natural environment and of the global ecosystem is fundamentally linked to the issue of extinction faced by a large number of distinct languages developed by linguo-ethnic groups around the world. The term “ecosystem” is used here to refer to an ecosystem encompassing human beings and the environment with which they constantly interact. The “environment” includes not just the natural world but the human society/ world of which we ourselves are constituents and, also, the non-physical world (religious/mythological, mental/spiritual, and the ‘other’ worlds) we have constructed for ourselves. It is a subjective and collective environment, in the construction of which language plays a crucial role. Hence the ecosystem of culture which centres on the language involved particularly in cognition and perception, that is, the “linguo-cultural ecosystem”. The destruction of this linguo-cultural ecosystem seems analogous in some ways to that of the natural ecosystem. Just as the diminution of biodiversity that accompanies the destruction of the natural environment saps the vitality of the world of living things, the diminution of linguistic and cultural diversity may cause a decline in the intellectual variety of humankind. The number of languages currently spoken in the world is in one estimate 6,760. These range in scale from major languages (like Chinese and English)
91 to languages with only one last speaker (like Eyak in Alaska). Some 96% of these languages (around 6,500) are spoken by only 4% of the world’s population, while a mere 4% are spoken by 96%. We may say that the former 96% are truly small languages, which are becoming extinct at a pace that surpasses the rate of extinction of animal and plant species. Their existence is marginal or is being marginalized. The key measure of a language’s viability is considered not so much the number of people who speak it as the extent to which children are learning it as their native tongue. Once the process of native-language acquisition stops, the chain of transmission is broken. The situation may be likened to that of a natural species that has lost its reproductive ability. According to Prof. Michael E. Krauss’ prognosis, half of the present 6,000-plus languages now in existence will have disappeared by 2100, and as many as 95% will be either extinct or on the verge of extinction. This means that only some 300 languages, 5% of the present total, seems to have their survival assured at least for the time being. Krauss groups the existing languages into three categories: (1) “moribund” languages that children have already stopped acquiring as mother tongues, 25-50%; (2) “endangered” languages which children are still learning as mother tongues but which at the current rate appear to face the possibility of becoming moribund by the end of the 21st century, 40-75%; and (3) “safe” languages for which the near future seems assured, 5-10%.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions 1. What is the key measure of language viability? 2. What does the ecosystem of culture center on? 3. What analogy is drawn between natural destruction and cultural de- cline?
II. Do you know these important terms? Give explanations to each of the following words: a) viability b) cognition c) distinct d) extinct e) marginal f) moribund
92 III. True or false T F 1. According to Professor E. Krauss’ prognosis, around 3 300 now existing languages will have disappeared by 2 100. 2. There are three main categories of disappearing lan- guages: moribund, endangered and safe. 3. Around up to 670 word languages are supposed to be safe.
IV. Discuss the following points 1. only 4% of all world languages are spoken by 96% of world’s popula- tion. What pluses and minuses does that statistics show? 2. Diminution of linguistic and cultural diversity is increasing. How can it hurt humankind? 3. linguo-cultural ecosystem is an essential part of human environment. How important is it in formation of human society?
V. Role Play Set two groups of students. The first group should play the role of linguists who are assured in the fact that humanity should switch on universal languages, such as English, and promote them among all nations and nationalities for better communication and cooperation, pointing out that the minor languages can be simply treated as humanity’s past languages. The second group should play the role of linguists who consider each language to be a unique cultural unit, which can never be marginalized, but used and supported as major languages.
VI. Home assignment Find the examples of moribund, endangered and safe languages. Name at least 5 for each category.
Text 2. The Lack of Concern about Linguistic Extinction
Pre-reading assignments I. Answer the following question 1. How can you comment on the title of the text? II. Read the text and do the assignments below This picture of languages in peril may be viewed in various ways. Opinions may vary as to whether it is a simply one-way path to extinction,
93 now that newly revitalized varieties of endangered languages are reported to be emerging here and there (though very insecurely). Language, like the air we breathe, is generally not the object of conscious attention or concern unless it has become too severely “polluted.” Accordingly, awareness of the problem of endangered languages is in short supply, not just among the general public, government officials, and academics in general, but even among linguists. Although the pace and rate of linguistic extinction is claimed to be far greater than that of biological extinction, in the case of biological species, it is relatively easy to recognize that each type of plant or animal life has its own value and function. People thus react sensitively to the loss of biodiversity. In the case of languages, by contrast, it may understandably be harder for a person to feel the same sense of crisis. Extinction is apt to be seen as a natural fate that different languages have to suffer at different times. Especially if it is a matter of one ethnic group being eroded by another, resulting in the extinction of its language as its members shift to the other group’s language, the loss may not be taken as the extinction of the group itself. Another factor for the lack of concern would be that language is commonly seen as little more than a tool for communication, despite the fact that it has several other functions including cognition and perception (below). Furthermore, the widespread attitude toward minority languages may also be relevant. Speakers of major tongues may still cling to one degree or another to the stigmatizing notion that minor languages, especially those that are unwritten, are “backward” or “inferior”.
Assignments I. Divide the text into logical parts and give the headlines to each of them
II. Single out new words and give their synonyms
III. How do you understand the following (express your opinion) a) language has become too severely polluted. b) language is more then the tool for communication.
IV. Home assignment Make up summary of Text 2.
94 Text 3. Language as the Last Stronghold of a Culture
Read the text and do the assignments below. Communication is an important function of language, but it is far from the only one. Language is an integral part of a group’s culture and social existence. Here “culture” is a group’s distinctive way of (1) perceiving the environment (natural, social, and non-physical) or the totality of realia of which the group’s members themselves are a part, and (2) ecologically interacting with and adapting to this environment, a process that is linked overall to the form in which the perceptions exist, or, in-’other words, how the environment is categorized and how the categories are handled in thinking and linguistic expression. Language not only helps us to perceive the environment, but it informs the unique culture of the group, rooted in various aspects of its past. Even in the languages of groups whose material and technological cultures are simple, we find tapestries of profound observations and perceptions regarding the environment and ingenious or resourceful methods of adapting to it, striking us with the breath of human wisdom. In this sense a language is primordially infused with the culture. Language is a part of culture. And at the same time a whole culture is enshrined in or built into language. But they are often considered in contrast to each other, in term of “language vs. (nonlinguistic) culture.” For one thing, the potential diversity of languages is, structurally speaking, wider and greater than that of culture, and the degree of correlation between language and culture is not so strong. In other words, language has a certain autonomy allowing it to function somewhat separately from culture. Groups with stone-age level cultures may possibly have languages of a high grammatical complexity. It is not the case that simplicity of a culture corresponds to simplicity of a language, or complexity of a culture to complexity of a language. Once an ethnic group loses its own language as such, even if some fragments of its material culture (e.g., ethnic costumes, crafts, or whatever) live on, they may represent little more than a lingering twilight, and the culture may possibly have been lost or, at least, may not be functioning any longer as an organic it used to be. Besides serving as a tool for perception, ratiocination (i.e. rational thinking), and communication, language exerts a great power in forming people into groups. Many of the world’s modern nation-states have used languages as a uni fying force, while depriving ethnic minorities of their languages has become
95 a powerful means for the eradication of their identities. When an ethnic group loses its language, it does not merely lose its distinctiveness and pride, but in fact it ceases to exist as a coherent cultural unit. It would then be reasonable to say that language is the last stronghold of a culture.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions. How do you understand the word “stronghold”? How is the language infused with the culture? What does the author mean by the word “culture”?
II. Make up a scheme of the main functions of the language and discuss it with other students.
III. True or false T F 1. Communication is the only function of language. 2. When an ethnic group loses its own language, the cul- ture will not be lost. 3. When an ethnic group loses its language, it does not merely lose its distinctiveness and pride, but in fact ceases to exist as a coherent cultural unit. 4. Simplicity of a culture corresponds to simplicity of a language and complexity of a culture to complexity of a language. 5. Groups with stone-age level cultures may possibly have languages of a high grammatical complexity.
IV. Home assignment Write an essay “Language is a part of culture”.
Text 4. Intellectual and Scientific Assets
When a language disappears from the face of the earth, however, the loss is not limited to the individuals or the ethnic group that previously used it. If we consider that each language, infused with a unique culture, represents a distinct system for creating as well as comprehending the world, then the disappearance of any language represents a loss of intellectual heritage for humanity as a whole.
96 Surely the ability of the world to sustain diverse cultures, each supported by its own language, is an indicator of the health of the linguo-cultural ecosystem. And as genetic diversity is a key to the biological vigor and survival of a species, linguistic and cultural diversity may be a key to the intellectual vigor and survival of humankind. The loss of biodiversity and destruction of the natural ecosystem may jeopardize the survival of humanity, the loss of linguistic and cultural diversity may lead to its intellectual decline. Linguistic diversity not only offers a glimpse into a group’s unique cosmology, but it also shows us that the human mind is capable of perceiving the environment in various and often surprising ways. Many endangered minor languages may have the potential of providing data unobtainable anywhere else. Their loss is irretrievable in the light of the volume and quality of that invaluable data. Remember that at least 50% or most 95% of the languages of the world are progressively declining and dying out before they can offer many of their clues to various linguistic and cultural issues. Now that many exotic languages are rushing toward extinction and their unique linguistic features are being wiped out by expanding major languages or lingua francas, one may feel an indescribable sense of sorrow, irritation, and mortification.
Assignments I. Comment the following statements. 1. The disappearance of any language represents a loss of intellectual heri- tage for humanity as a whole. 2. linguistic and cultural diversity may be a key to the intellectual vigor and survival of humankind. 3. Human mind is capable of perceiving the environment in various and often surprising ways.
II. Match the words in the left column with the definitions in the right one. 1. mortification a) destruction 2. irretrievable b) so extreme and unusual that it is almost impos- sible to characterize it 3. indescribable c) scientific study of the universe and its origin and development 4. vigor d) sth you can never make right or get back 5. jeopardize e) to risk harming or destroying sth/sb 6. infuse f) unbelievable 7. cosmology g) process of making sb feel ashamed or embarrassed h) energy, force or enthusiasm i) to make sb/sth have a particular quality
97 III. Role Play Arrange the conference devoted to the protection of declining exotic languages. Find information about such languages and try to prove that their unique features and peculiarities help humankind survive.
Text 5. Endangered languages and Linguistic Researchers
The decline or extinction of a language hinges on complex political, economic, social, and psychological factors. Accordingly the preservation of a language is not something that can be controlled by any single institution or policy. And what linguists can do is limited. There are, however, some ways in which linguists can contribute to their preservation. They can work with the community to create a writing system based on scientific analysis and take on the job of teaching and propagating it. They may cooperate, in compiling a dictionary and grammar, making educational materials of various kinds, training teachers, and developing a curriculum. Compiling linguistically accurate records of near-extinct languages is highly important work for linguistic researchers, and can also figure prominently in the preservation or revival of those languages. The work basically consists of producing a detailed account of that language, including a systematic description of the grammar based on adequate phonological analysis, compilation of a dictionary with as much detail as possible and the audio and video recording of stories, songs, etc. and everyday conversations. Along with such documentation through fieldwork, it is also important to collect and make use of existing records (field notes, sound recordings, transcriptions of recordings, and other materials). It is not usual that words, phrases, and passages, which were recorded two or three generations ago suddenly bring back an old person’s memories like a faded old picture and bring up items that had been overlooked during interviews with current speakers, providing more than supplementary information. Discovering and collecting such past records and utilizing them for our work before it is too late is especially important for endangered languages for which research has been lagging. While interest in endangered languages is spreading internationally, time is very short for earnestly and effectively studying living languages, considering the speed at which they decline and disappear. Compared to
98 the vast number of minority languages urgently awaiting linguistic survey and research, the number of researchers is critically small. More young students or native speakers need to be recruited and fostered who will be committed to descriptive works on endangered languages, and linguists must complement each other by sharing information and perspective, pooling their data, aggregating and publishing the results.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions. 1. How can linguist tribute to preservation of a language? 2. What is the role of compilation for linguistic researchers? 3. What are the constituents of linguistic compilation?
II. Give synonyms or definitions to the following words: a) preservation b) revival c) utilizing d) lagging e) recruit f) pooling data g) aggregate
III. Comment on the following statements. 1. Preservation of the language is not something that can be controlled by any single institution of policy. 2. Discovering and collecting past records and utilizing them is especially important for endangered languages for which research has been lag- ging. 3. more young students or native speakers need to be recruited and fos- tered who will be committed to descriptive works on endangered lan- guages
IV. Home assignment Write an essay about a researcher’s work on compiling records of near- extinct languages.
99 Part II. Education for Multilingualism and Multi-literacy in Ethnic Minority Communities
Text 1. Current Situation in Ethnic Minority Communities
Almost one-third of the world’s 6,000 languages are spoken in Asia. A study of language and education policies and practices in the region, how- ever, reveals that in most countries, a limited number of languages are as- sociated with power and privilege while the rest are tolerated, ignored or suppressed. Nowhere are these differences more clear than in education. Although there are exceptions, most formal education systems tend to unde- rutilize the knowledge and experience that ethnic minority children bring to school. Following are some of the situation which exist: • Only Language of Wider Communication (LWC) allowed; (this extreme is rarely seen now). • LWC used as Medium of Instruction (MOD, Minority Language (ML) allowed informally LWC used as MOI, ML used to explain new concepts, as needed. • ML used for special classes. Instruction is in the LWC except during “Culture Time” classes. • ML used to introduce children to school. • ML used as initial MOI with rapid transition to LWC.
The Need for Policy and Program Change Three types of action are needed if linguistic and cultural diversity is to be preserved and if ethnic minority communities are truly to be included in “Education for All”: 1) new language and education policies that affirm and protect language diversity and provide linguistically and culturally appropriate education for ethnic minority communities; 2) new models of development that meet the needs of all segments of so- ciety and that encourage integration, rather than forcing assimilation of ethnic minority groups into the majority society and 3) new education programs that enable ethnic minority learners to achieve their educational goals without forcing them to sacrifice their linguistic and cultural heritage. Such programs would: • provide a strong educational foundation in the language the learners know best, enabling them to build on the knowledge and experience they bring to the classroom;
100 • provide a good bridge to speaking and listening, reading and writing the new language using sound educational principles to build the learners' fluency and confidence; and • encourage and enable them to use both/all their languages to continue learning. Research studies have demonstrated repeatedly that a strong foundation in the first language and a carefully planned process of bridging to the new language is an important factor in minority language learners' success in education.
Assignments I. Answer the following questions 1. What are the situations existing at schools for ethnic minority children? 2. What is an important factor in minority language learners’ success in education? 3. What are the programs for achieving educational goals of children?
II. True or false T F 1. Most formal education systems tend to utilize the knowledge and experience that ethnic minority children bring to school. 2. Almost one-third of the world’s 6,000 languages are spoken in Asia. 3. Four types of action are needed if linguistic and cultural diversity is to be preserved and if ethnic minority communities are truly to be included in “Education for All”. 4. New education programs should enable ethnic mi- nority learners to achieve their educational goals without forcing them to sacrifice their linguistic and cultural heritage. 5. A study of language, education policies and prac tices reveals that in most countries, a limited num- ber of languages are associated with power and privilege while the rest are tolerated, ignored or suppressed.
101 III. Give your own idea of the following statements 1. only Language of Wider Communication (LWC) is allowed at schools for ethnic minority children. 2. ml used for special classes. Instruction is in the LWC except during “Culture Time” classes. 3. new models are suppose to meet the needs of all segments of society and that encourage integration, rather than forcing assimilation of ethnic minority groups into the majority society.
Text 2.Variety of MLE programs in Asia
At this point, most MLE programs in Asia are found within non-formal education systems and are the result of “grassroots” movements—local communities usually supported by NGOs and occasionally by universities. However, a limited number of programs have also been initiated in primary schools with varying degrees of support from local, state or national governments. Programs are established for children and adults, in some cases to help ML speakers bridge into the LWC for education and/or employment, and in other cases to help learners bridge back into their heritage language, usually as part of a larger language revitalization movement. Four categories of MLE programs can be identified (Malone, 1998). (Type 1) Programs for ML children who must learn the LWC to succeed in formal education. MLE classes for ML children begin in the children’s heritage language and later add the LWC. Examples of Type 1 programs are the elementary classes that have been established in over 300 languages in Papua New Guinea, the Kalinga language program in the Philippines and the Dong language program in China. The Dong program, now in its third year, was planned specifically to provide a strong foundation in the ML and good bridge to Chinese. Dong language and culture will remain a vital part of the curriculum throughout primary school. (Type 2) Programs for ethnic minority children for whom the LWC has become the first language. The purpose of Type 2 programs is to help ethnic minority children who have lost most of their heritage language learn to speak, read and write that language. This type of MLE language revitalization program may be established outside the formal system as after-school or weekend classes or incorporated into the “Culture Time” component of the school curriculum.
102 An example of a Type 2 program in the formal system is the Chong language revitalization program in Thailand. In this program, ML classes begin in Grade 3 and focus on helping the children become comfortable using oral Chong, then help them bridge into reading and writing that language. Because the Chong orthography is based on Thai script with only a few adaptations, the children are able to transfer from Thai into Chong literacy relatively quickly. (Type 3) Programs for young people and adults with no previous education who are monolingual in their heritage language (ML). Successful MLE classes for monolingual adults begin by introducing them to literacy in their heritage language. As they gain fluency in reading and writing that lan guage, they are introduced to the oral LWC but bridge to LWC literacy only when they have developed confidence and oral fluency in the new language, a process that may take several years. An example of a successful program of this type is the Central Subanen adult literacy program in the Philippines. According to reports, the adult learners in this program have become bilingual and bi-literate (their own language and Filipino). (Type 4) Programs for young people and adults who are bilingual in their heritage language and the LWC and have learned to read and write the LWC. The purpose for this type of MLE program is to help bilingual adults, who have some LWC literacy skills, bridge back into literacy in their heritage language. Members of the minority Community may attend these classes for a variety of reasons: to read their sacred texts and/or traditional literature, to write letters to family members, to re-establish their ties to their heritage language and culture or to prepare for teaching in their community’s MLE program.
Features of Strong MLE Programs Sustainable MLE programs can be divided into four general stages although the length and specific activities of each stage are context-specific. Stage 1–Beginning Literacy An early emphasis in Stage 1 of children’s (but not adults’) programs is on oral language development. Children’s activities involve talking about familiar people, places and activities, singing songs, acting out stories and playing games. The learners (children and adults) are introduced to reading and writing in their LI, which is also used as medium of instruction (MOD. Curriculum and reading materials are based on topics that are familiar to the learners and relevant to their lives.
103 Stage 2–Fluency Emphasis now is on gaining fluency in reading and writing theLI , which is still used as the MOI. Also at this stage, teachers introduce the learners to oral L2 (no reading and writing yet). Stage 3–Bridging As the learners have attained fluency in L1 literacy and are gaining confidence in usingL 2 orally, they begin bridging to L2 literacy. The duration of the bridging process is determined by several factors, among them the degree of difference (oral and written) between L1 and L2, the availability of reading materials in both languages, the teachers’ educational level and quality of training and supervision, the availability of instructional materials that focus on the bridging process and the age and previous education of the learners. Careful attention to the bridging strategy, good instructional materials and good training and supervision of the teachers help to ensure that the learners will succeed at this stage. Stage 4–On-going education At this stage, minority language learners should be able to continue learning in both their first and second languages, either in the formal or non- formal education systems or through informal learning.
Assignments I. Tell whether supposition about the theme of the text is correct. If the supposition is correct probe it.
II. Find the basic words and collocations of the article related to MLE programs.
III. Look through the text and tell: whether there is detailed information about categories of MLE programs? 1. is there information about stages of acquiring EM languages? 2. is there information about advantages of its programs? 3. are there examples of successful using MLE programs? 4. is there information about the age of learners to each type of programs?
IV. Do you know these interesting words and phrases? Give synonyms or explanations. a) bridging b) bi-literate c) Diglot reading materials
104 d) on-going education e) grassroots f) Duration g) revitalization
V. Express your opinion and discuss. 1. Do you believe that all the programs described in the article will help the learners to become bilingual and bi-literate? 2. What do you think about bilingualism among children? 3. is that really necessary to learn heritage language?
VI. Role Play Divide the group into 4. Each group is supposed to make a presentation of one type of MLE programs.
Text 3. Challenges to developing MLE programs in multilingual context
Most people agree that it makes little sense to force children or adults to learn in a language they neither speak nor understand. Why, then, has there not been more support for MLE? The following reasons are frequently given why MLE “can’t be done”: “Supporting diversity will foster divisiveness and lead to ethnic conflict.” Some LWC speakers claim that linguistic and cultural diversity leads to ethnic strife, arguing that a single language and culture are necessary for national unity. A glance at recent and current history shows the opposite more often true: it is when their language and ethnicity are suppressed that people more likely to rebel. Consider the Bangladeshis who fought a war and gained independence over the issue of language or the Basques and Catalonians who are even now agitating against what they perceive as linguistic and cultural imperialism. Compare those situations with Papua New Guinea where the government has initiated early education in over 300 of the country’s 820 languages. PNG celebrates its diversity rather than considering it a problem. “Learning in one’s first language will mean less success in learning a second language.” The argument here is that Ml learners need as much time as possible in the LWC, even if they do not speak and understand it in the beginning – that giving time to learning the ML will result in poor learning
105 of the LWC. In fact, the argument that it’s better to “submerge” learners directly in the LWC, even though they neither speak nor understand it makes so little pedagogical sense that one must assume that educators making such an argument have other reasons for resisting MLE. “Some ethnic minority languages lack writing systems.” Indeed, many smaller ethnic languages have not yet been put into written form. A misconception verbalized by some of those who use this argument is that developing a writing system requires designing a new script, an impossible task in countries with large numbers of languages. However, as experiences throughout the world have demonstrated repeatedly, existing scripts can be adapted to a variety of languages (e. g., Roman script for writing Indonesian and Vietnamese and Davanagari script for writing Hindi and Nepali.) With the help of linguists, minority language communities throughout Asia and elsewhere have adapted scripts from related languages to develop their own writing systems. “There are too few mother tongue speakers qualified to teach in the schools.” ML communities without access to quality education may lack people with the qualifications normally required for teaching in the formal education system. The best solution, of course, is to provide quality education in the minority communities so that ML speakers can become professional teachers. Until that happens, a common practice throughout Asia and in developing countries around the world is to equip non-professional ML speakers as teachers, providing them with careful pre-service training and on-going supervision and support. In some cases the ML speakers serve as teaching assistant (e. g., in BRAC’s pilot “Education for indigenous Children” program in Bangladesh) and in some cases as teachers for early primary grades (e. g., PNG’s ML elementary classes which make up the first years of formal education). “There are no instructional materials that “fit” all the minority language communities.” Simply translating an LWC curriculum into minority languages is likely to result in content that is unfamiliar and inappropriate to ethnic minority learners. Developing curricula for many different ethnic groups may appear to be an impossible task but again, solutions have been found. One that is quite promising is to prepare curriculum frameworks for each grade level that ML teachers can adapt to their own contexts by selecting topics (e. g., for teaching math concepts) that are familiar and interesting to the learners in their community. An excellent example of a centrally produced curriculum frameworks comes from the Department of Education in Papua New Guinea.
106 “The minority languages lack graded reading materials that can be used in their schools.” The minority communities lack graded reading materials that enable new learners to gain reading fluency and encourage them to continue reading. However, experiences in many countries have demonstrated clearly that with appropriate training, minority language speakers can produce excellent reading materials. Locally developed materials are especially enjoyable and stimulating to new readers because they are about people, places and activities that are familiar to them. “The minority communities lack funding to support their programs.” Even when community members offer their homes and other local buildings for use as classrooms and volunteers as teachers and writers, the community will likely need financial support to print instructional and reading materials and purchase classroom supplies. However, these costs are minimal compared to the long-term costs of the inappropriate system currently in place. Cooperative efforts in which a variety of outside agencies and organizations work together creatively with the minority communities is the best way to ensure that the necessary resources will be found.
Conclusion Education for All that is truly for “all” must not leave the minority feeling rejected by the majority or force minority learners to abandon what they already possess – their community – centered knowledge and experience and their linguistic and cultural heritage. Better that the majority – government agencies, NGOs and academic institutions – support ethnic minority communities in developing education programs that celebrate who they are and what they have been given and, in doing so, provide them with “training for life”.
Assignments I. Divide the text into logical parts and find the key sentence in each of them.
II. Give synonyms or definitions to the following words and phrases: a) to foster divisiveness b) ethnic conflict c) to rebel d) ethnic strife e) national unity f) suppressed language and ethnicity
107 g) submerge h) linguistic and cultural imperialism
III. Read paragraphs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 of Text 3. What information do you find common in these paragraphs? Could these parts be unified into one? What title would be appropriate to all of them?
IV. What kind of discussion will follow the reading? a) suggestions for solving the situation in indigenous countries in the sphere of MLC b) lack of material c) ethnic strife
V. Prove the following statements. 1. Cultural diversity leads to ethnic strife. 2. it is better to submerge learners. 3. existing scripts can be adapted to a variety of languages. 4. ml communities lack people with qualified education. 5. Translating an LWC curriculum is inappropriate to LM learners. 6. ml speakers can produce excellent reading materials. 7. The community needs financial support.
VI. Home assignment Give your idea of “Education for all” and make a report about co-living of ethnic majorities and minorities. Share your ideas of supporting ethnic minorities and providing appropriate education
108 VOCABULARY abreast alongside each other and не отставая, на уровне facing in the same direction adoption the decision of beginning to принятие; усвоение use something aggregate assemble обирать в одно целое, объединять, соединять; сосредоточивать altered changed измененный, переработанный argot slang or jargon peculiar to a арго; жаргон particular group, especially (formerly) a group of thieves assert allege, maintain утверждать; заявлять, декларировать assess make a judgment about the оценивать, определять nature or quality of sb/sth assume suppose, to take for granted; допускать, предполагать accept without proof availability suitableness, suitability годность, полезность, пригодность blandishment flattery intended to coax or уговаривание, cajole упрашивание, обольщение bluff fraud, lie, deceit блеф, ложь, неправда, обман boom a period of high economic 1) бум, резкий подъём growth characterized by ris- деловой активности; ing wages, profits, and prices, 2) шумиха full employment, and high levels of investment, trade, and other economic activity
109 boozer bar, alehouse пивная, пьяница borrowed sth. taken for a time being заимствованный with the intention of return- ing it, taken as a credit (loan) burglar housebreaker, cracksman, человек, незаконно picklock, yegg проникший в помещение; взломщик cant specialized vocabulary of жаргон, арго; a particular group, such тайный язык; as thieves, journalists, or профессиональный lawyers; jargon жаргон caress a gentle touch or embrace, ласка one given to show affection cognation affinity, connection, relation, родство; сходство, likeness близость, подобие coiffure haircut; hairdress причёска collocation word combination; a group- сочетание слов; ing together of things in словосочетание a certain order, as of the words in a sentence compendious concise, succinct краткий, сжатый confer consult обсуждать, совещаться; вести переговоры convention contract, agreement, cov- соглашение, enant договорённость, договор convergent moving towards or meeting сходящийся в одной at some common point точке conviction 1) opinion, credo, creed, 1) убеждения, взгляды, gospel; воззрения; кредо; 2) persuasion, belief 2) убеждённость, твёрдая вера courtesy politeness; good manners учтивость, обходительность, вежливость, любезность
110 covetousness greedy, acquisitive, grasp- жадный, алчный; ing, avaricious жаждущий dandle fondle, pet ласкать, баловать; нежить, холить; качать на руках deteriorate worsen, impair, degenerate ухудшать; портить; повреждать; diminish decrease, lessen убывать, уменьшаться domain sector, sphere, field; a field 1) территория, зона, or scope of knowledge or область, район; activity 2) сфера drip an inane, insipid person скучный человек, зануда dullard moron олух, тупица, дурень elucidate clarify объяснять, разъяснять, растолковывать emerge arise; to come into view, появляться; всплывать; as from concealment or выходить obscurity encompass 1) bring about , accomplish; 1) выполнять, 2) circumscribe осуществлять; 2) окружать; заключать endangered in danger of extinction языки, находящиеся под languages languages угрозой исчезновения exposure appearance or presentation контакт, before the public соприкосновение, непосредственное общение fink informer, blackleg, strike- неприятный человек, к breaker которому относятся с презрением; информатор, доносчик, агент flair skill, talent, inclination, талант, склонность, tendency, aptitude способность flap commotion, insurrection , возбуждение; тревога, unrest , tumult беспокойство; паника
111 flaunt show off 1) выставлять себя напоказ, рисоваться; щеголять; 2) игнорировать, презирать fossilize to become or cause to be- становиться come antiquated or inflex- старомодным, ible несовременным, неспособным к развитию или прогрессу; закоснеть gait manner of walking or run- темп (осуществления, ning; bearing протекания) gaudy garish, meretricious, tawdry безвкусный, кричащий, яркий gimmicky any clever device, gadget, содержащий уловки, or stratagem, especially one ухищрения used to deceive grasp of lan- the way the language can способ быстрого guage be easily perceived and восприятия, понимания understood языка gurgle purl, babble булькать; журчать hail come from происходить, быть родом halcyon serene, placid безмятежный, спокойный, тихий hoist raise, lift поднимать hype to market or promote (a крикливо product) using exaggerated рекламировать; or intensive publicity превозносить, расхваливать immersion the sate of being completely погружение involved into sth. incentive motive побуждение, стимул inconspicuous not easily noticed or seen; не привлекающий not prominent or striking внимания, незаметный, неприметный
112 inferior 1) subjacent, subordinate; 1) подчинённый; 2) minor, secondary 2) частность; нечто неважное, второстепенное infuse to inspire; emotionally вдохновлять, charge воодушевлять; привносить; незаметно внушать invert to reverse the position; инвертировать; turn upside down переворачивать; выворачивать на изнанку irretrievable irreparable, irremediable невозместимый, невосполнимый, необратимый, непоправимый jabber talk, chatter; mutter , болтовня; бормотание mumble jeopardize risk, to put in danger; подвергать опасности, imperil рисковать jerk an abrupt movement резкое движение, толчок, рывок jocular humorous шутливый; комический; забавный lag to hang back or fall behind 1) отставать; in movement, progress, запаздывать; development 2) плестись, медленно тащиться, волочиться learn by rote grind, cram зубрить lecher profligate, libertine (разг.) распутник lingering sluggish, slow, tedious, медлительный, wearsome неактивный, затяжной, долгий loo toilet; lavatory, water closet уборная, туалет lucrative profitable прибыльный, выгодный, доходный, рентабельный
113 lust a strong desire or drive страстно, сильно желать mainstream the main current осподствующие, общепринятые взгляды malapropos inopportune , inappropriate некстати, не вовремя,; несвоевременный, неподходящий, неуместный mandatory compulsory обязательный, принудительный marginal close to a limit, especially a крайний, маргинальный lower limit Mon Dieu My Lord! Боже мой! (French) moribund extinct, obsolete languages умирающие, languages выходящие из употребления языки nerd (slang) a boring or unpopular тупица, идиот, зануда; person отталкивающий тип payola bribe взятка, подкуп, взяткодательство peril endanger, risk, hazard подвергать опасности perishable transitory бренный, непрочный, тленный pertinent relating to the matter at уместный; подходящий; hand; relevant имеющий отношение, относящийся к делу prerequisite supposition, condition предпосылка; предварительное условие profound deep, absolute, perfect абсолютный, полный, совершенный proposition a proposal or topic present- предложение, план, ed for consideration проект, утверждение
114 psychobabble the language that people заумная, непонятная (language) use when they talk about речь their feelings and emotional problems, that sounds very scientific, but really has little meaning queer 1) strange, odd; 1) странный, 2) questionable , suspicious необычный; , dubious; 2) сомнительный; 3) counterfeit, forged подозрительный; 3) фальшивый, поддельный recruit to raise or strengthen by усиливать, наращивать; enlistment удерживать на высоком уровне reluctant not eager; unwilling; disin- делающий что-л. с clined большой неохотой, по принуждению; сопротивляющийся rigidly severely, strictly строго, сурово scrabble to write in disorderly man- писать неразборчиво ner seduce to win over, attract, or lure пленять, покорять sexism gender discrimination сексизм, дискриминация по половому признаку slip up to make a blunder or mis- совершить ошибку take snigger snicker хихикать, посмеиваться stab a sudden sensation вспышка, внезапный прилив startle frighten, shock испугать; поразить, сильно удивить strenuous requiring or involving the энергичный; активный use of great energy or effort swap exchange менять, обменивать
115 taut tightly stretched; tense напряжённый, взвинченный, натянутый tedium boredom, ennui скука; утомительность topsy-turvydom confusion, disorder неразбериха, кутерьма, “дым коромыслом” torrent an overwhelming flow of стремительный поток; thoughts, words, sounds, etc масса , натиск tranquillity serenity, calmness, quietness спокойствие; уравновешенность; невозмутимость trim settle, adjust согласовывать, урегулировать upmarket designed for or used by дорогой, высокого people who belong to a high качества social class or have a lot of money urge prompt, impel , induce заставлять, побуждать validity legalit , lawfulness 1) юридическая сила, юридическая действительность, законность, юридическое действие; 2) аргументированность, вескость, мотивированность, обоснованность viability vitality, vital capacity жизнеспособность; жизнестойкость vigour substantial effective energy действительность, or force законность, легальность vivid distinct, clear, producing ясный, чёткий, very clear pictures in mind отчётливый voucher a person or thing that гарант, поручитель; vouches for the truth of some свидетель statement zut alor not likely!; what next! no big вот ещё!, подумаешь! (French) deal!
116 LITERATURE
1. abD (Asian Book Development). Endangered Languages, Vol. 34, Number 2 – UNESCO, 2004. 2. Dr. Duarte Silva. School of Education. – Stanford University, 2000. 3. Du Cann, Charlote. A Word in Your era //[email protected]/ [24.04.06 13:35] 4. english as a Global Language // http://www.wikipedia.org/ [11.12.07 21:05] 5. english Teaching Forum. TESOL (English Language Teaching). – April, 2001. 6. http://www.andrews.edu/ [01.01.07 22:15] 7. Kabakchi, V.V. In English about Russia and the Whole World. – St. Pe- tersburg, 2001. 8. McCarthy, Michael. English vocabulary in Use. – Cambridge University Press, 1999. 9. McCrum, Cran. The Story of English. – New York:Penguin Books, 1998. 10. Non-Verbal Communication //http://www.wikipedia.org/ [05.11.07 20:45] 11. Prather, Johnnie. World English, Harcourt, Brace International. Orlan- do, EL 32 887, USA 12. Sean Coughlan. English as a ‘World Language’// BBC News Education report. – Edinbourgh, 2000. 13. Кочеткова И. К. English (Active Communication). – М., 2005. 14. Пиз А. Язык Жестов. – М., 2006.
117 О.Ю. Шубина, В.Ш. Хасанова, Н.В. Курганова
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