Aspects of Social Life Revealed in Beowulf.
A thesis submitted to the faculty
of
o:f'
ments for t of Arte.
May 1910. Bibliography.
An English Kiacellany. - Article by F. B. Gummere on The Sister's Son. Anglia. v. 29 p. 417 ff. Die Vergnuegungen der Angelea.chaen.
Moritz Heyne:- (1) Ueber Lage und Construction der Halle Heorot. (2) Edition of Beowulf. Stopford A. Brooke:- The History of Early English 0 Li tera"ture. -~ Manners and during the
Walter Morrie Epic. and Romance. Francie B. GuTimlere:- (lt Germanic Origins. (2) The Oldest English Epic. Transactions of American Philological Association. v. 13. Appendix pp. XXI ff. Article by F. A. March on The World of Beowulf. Ada Broch: - Die Stellung der Frau in der Angel saechsischen Poesie. Contents. Introduction. Claes of people portrayed. Prominence of social life. The hall. Description. Feasting. Gift-giving. Flyting. Songs of ecop. Formality. Duration of festivities. Out-of-door arr.uRements. Horses - Racing. HEiwking. Swimming. Dress. Fondness for treasure. Ornamentation of dwellings.
ft ft drinking cups •
..... - - - Ornamentation of armor • .. " person. Gift-giving. Treasure valuedfor age. Family relations. Husband and wife. Uncle and nephew. Father and son. Mother and son. Father and daughter. Mother and daughter. Sister and brothers. Brothers. Claims of kinship. Friendship. Individual. Communal. Comitatus. Leader and followers. King and subjects. Reception of strangers. Summary. -1-
Aspects of Social Life Revealed in Beowulf.
The men portrayed in the poem Beowulf were primarily warriors. The terms for man and warrior are inter-changeable and very numerous: secg, wiga, haeled-,
~' etc. But the interbellum life was distinctly social, as it well might be in the case of the claee here in presented to the notice. lone of theee men seem to have been troubled with questions as to the source of their livelihood. Indeed, how could they be? The king had property in abundance and he bestowed it liberally upon hia retainers. The only two households which we enter are royal, and no one beneath a thane ie consider ed worthy of epic mention. There is not even a whisper of common people, unless we infer what we can from the title,S' applied sparingly to the king: folcea hyrde, (1), four times; rrcee hyrde (2), twice; hringa hyrda (3) and f'raetvm hyrde, (4) each once. God is once called wuldree hyrde (r); Grendel ie fyrena hyrde (*) only once. But merely the title, not the shepherd himself, appears
(1). 611, 1833, 1850, 2982. (2). 2028, 3081. (3). 2246. (4). 3134. (T-). 932. ($). 751. -2-
and we are likely to feel that he was as non-existent as "The ~ate Mr. Null" or •Marjorie Daw.• For all we know, these common people, eo entirely beneath the notice of the gleeman and hie audience, may have led a life very different from that which this paper will con sider. But there is so much to be said of the life which we oa.n see that it seems :futile to conjecture on the unseen. Thie social life centered in the festivity in the hall, a daily occurrence. (3).Wlt.i/e. we see only king's households, yet we know that much the same manner of life was observed in the homes of the earls, tho naturally on a less pretentious scale. Aside from the fine old sword of Hrethel, Hygelac presents Beowulf seven thousand pieces, a house, and a prince's seat, - bold ond brego - stol. (1). Bold ia also used of Heorot (2); of Hygelac'a hall (3~, the very scene of the presentation to Beowulf; and of Beo\vulf's home, the gift-seat of the Geats, when he has become king (4). All this implies that Beowulf was expected while he was still pr~"ce, not king, to give gifts and use a hall in a way similar to the ruler.
(3). 88. (1) 2197. (2) 998. (3, 1926 (4) 2327. -3-
And it is fair to assume that the other nobles did the same. It would seem that much time was spent in the hall, for it is variously named the meeting plaoe of the
people, f2!.2.-stede (5); reception room, 1 eB't-~ (6);
place of gifts, gif-heall (7); drinking hall , win-~ (8), etc. Hrothgar's hall, Heorot, tho said to be greater than the children of men had ever heard of {9), can pro
bably serve as a fair example of the ~-raced. The respects wherein it differed from the usual hall were doubtless size and richness, not general arrangement or purpose. Heyne seems to have said the last word on the
subjec~ (1), so that a partial transcript of his des cription will suffice here. The hall, built of wood, was one large room, oblong in shape, with glassless windows in or near the roof, and a door at each end. In the center rose a single supporting column nea.r which at least in Heorot - was the .sif_-etol. Thie had room for the king, the queen, and the king's nephew. At the king's feet sat the thyle, "a combination of master of ( 5) 76. (8) 994 I( (7) 838 (8) 698 (9) 69 f. (1) ~eber Lage und Construction der Halle Heorot.
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the revele, orator, poet laureate and jeeter" (2). Opposite the throne was a bench of honor, to be occupied by the king's sons and royal guests (3). Around three walls (4) were benches where the retainers sat during the feasting and merrymaking. No mention is made of tables in connection with Heorot, but Hygelac•s and Heremod'e retainers are referred to ae table-companions, beod geneatas (1). Tables would not have been especially use
1 ful during the drinking if', as Wright says (2 ), the cups were so formed as not to stand upright. And drinking seems to have had the chief place in the banquet; there is not one reference to any sort of food, tho several liquors are in constant evidence. Nor is any mention made of a hearth in Heorot. Hrothgar's retainers are not even
called hearth-companions, heorct~gen~atas, as are BygelafA (t) and Beowulf's (4°). We can hardly conclude from this fact, however, that the Danes were without fire in their halls, while the Geate made themselves comfortable! The decorations of the room will be mentioned later (5). Outside the hall were benches where strangers could sit While they awaited audience with the King. The thot
(2) Gummere: Germanic Origins. P• 107. (3). See 11.1189 ff. (4) Heyne. p. 49. (1) 343, 1714. (2') Domestic Manners. p.6. (3') 261, 1581 (4') 2181,2419,3181. (5) See pp. l'f herein. • -5-
comes irresistibly that these ea.me benches would have afforded excellent viewpoints for spectators of wrest ling matches or discus-throwing or other forms of amuse ment which we expect to find-but do not - as in the
Odyssey (1 ). Of the royal abode aside from Reorot we see but little. There ie the bryd-!?.!!!:, which was the queen's bower and perhaps also contained the king's sleeping apartment (2). Mention is made, too, of a separate house where Beowulf and his men were lodged their second night in Daneland (3). Thie may have been the usual quarters for guests. If the treasure was not kept in the hall, it was probably in a separate building under special guard (4). The other domestic buildings for provisions, for preparation of food, for shelter of animals (I), with the watch tower on the shore (I), complete the royal burg. But we .return to the hall, the center of the daily social life. Aside from the distribution of treasure, discussed elsewhere (2), there was much feast ing and drinking. So prominent a place did this latter feature occupy that the path to the hall was ~-stig (3~
(1) Odyssey IV. 626 f; VIII, 104 ff. 1 I{) ( 2) 66.S-!lf. (3) 1300 ff. ( 4 ) Heyne p. 53 • ( l') Heyne pp. 47, 43 (2~ See pp. 2/ ff. herein. {3') 925.
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t I
the plain on which it stood wae medo-wang ( 4), and the hall itself was --medo-heal (5), --medo-a"i~ (8), medu-eeld---- (7), beor-~ (8); win-a8h (9), win-reced (10), !!!!!. sale (11), It is probably only by accident that it was
not spoken of also as ealo~reced, as ale was one of the
usual drinks. The seats are ~-~ (12), as well as medu-benc {13). These different liquors seem to have been served indiscriminately, for in the beor-eele (14),
ecir ~d (15), (a sort of beer) is poured into ealo waege (1). Ale-terror, ealu-scerwen (2) seizes the Danes outside the hall when they hear the noise of mead-benches (3) falling in the wine-hall (4). The warriors of Hrothgar have often, drunken with beer - beore druncne(5)
boasted over their ale cups (6) that they would await Grendel in the beer hall (7), only to find the meai hall
(8) stained with blood the next morning. Wiglaf remembers the pledges made in the beer hall (9) by drinkers of
mead (10). Wea~htheow passes the mead cup (11) at the beer drinking (12). Mead is mentioned eighteen times; beer, ten; wine, nine; ala, seven; and wared and lict" each once. The particular beverage mentioned in any (14) 492 (&) 484 (4) 1644 (15) 495 (~) 2636 (5) 484,639 ( 1) 494 ( 10') 2634 (6) 69 ( 2 )· 770 ( ll!) 625 (7) 3066 (3) 777 (121 618. (8) 482,492,1095,2636. (9) 655 (4') 772 (10) 715,994 (B') 480 (11) 696,772,2457. (6') 481 ( 12) 1030. 2868. (7'} 482 (13) 777,1053,1068, 1903,2186 -7-
given line seems to have been determined by the exig- enciee of alliteration. Drinking in Heorot could not be dispensed with, even when Hrothgar and his court were very sad at the supposed death of Beowulf (1). On ordinary occasions in the hall, that ie, when there was no reason for special thanksgiving and rejoicing, we know that the feasting and gift-giving were prominent, for Hrothgar purposed to build him a mead hall, - heal-reced (2), medo-a'e~n (3) - where he would give gifts (4). He did not fail of hie promise but gave out rings and treasure at the feast (5). Beside these two features, the warriors often boasted of what they would do (6) and vowed to support their king (7). They discussed matters of public in tereet(8). One of the number might arouse the others to aggressive hostility against an enemy, as in the case of Ingeld's warrior (9). There were often fly tings, or "contests of wit" (1~. Beowulf is subjected to this test by Hunferth (2'). "We may fancy that some deed of Beowulf, or a member of hie kin, was sung amid
(11) Gummere: Germanic Origins ( 1) 1648 f . p. 114 (2) 68 (2') 500 ff. (3) 69 (4) 71 ( 5) 80 f. ( 6 ) 480 ff. '643 rr. 14o6ff. (7) 2635 ff. (8) 171 ff. (9) 2042 ff. -8- the enthusiasm of the warriors and their guests, with shouts of applause and remembered delight of battle, with copious flowings of the ale - ••.••• Lolling at his chieftain's feet, heated with liberal potatione, the thyle, jealous and vexed, tries to jeer and scoff the guest out of countenance" (1), and the well known taunt and silencing reply follow (2).
There was very frequently the ~ clear eong of the scop" to the accompaniment of the harp (3). These songs might be of the creation (4) (an interpolation); of present sorrows (5); of fonner battles (6). It was evidently the custom to listen quietly to these songs
(7), which ca~e at intervals (1), tho the intervals were filled with drinking, joyous converse and laughter (2). It is interesting to note in passing that songs and narration we.re made use of outside the hall . The morning after Beowulf' s first victory, the warriors, as they ride to and from the mere, recall events suggested by the occasion (3'). And three references are made to the voicing of individual grief in song. Hildeburh, the acop tell us, sorrowed for her eon in song (4);I Hrethel's
(3) -Baer wa::'ea hearpan swag, swntol sang scopes. 89 f. (4) 90 ff. ( 5) 149 ff. (6) 1064 ff. (7) llAl. (1) Seep h'Wflum sang, 406 . (2) 612 f, 644 ff. (3')_ 8~9 ff. l41} 1119. ,• -9-
sorrow for his son, accidentally shot by a brother, is likened to that of an old man who, when he sees his son
on the gallows, voices his grief in a sarig sang (5) or
eorh-J eoct' (6). Beowulf• s wife singe a geomor-~ at her husband's funeral (7). And on the same occasion twelve princely warriors ride around his barrow , speaking their sorrow, mourning their king, singing their song (1). We notice considerable formality at the hall festivities. Here, as in much of the life, there was a touch of medieval courtesy and ceremony. Beside the thyle, already mentioned (2), there was a herald whose duty was apparently to approach visitors, find out their nrune and errand, and ask the king' s permission to present them (3). Wulfgar held this position at Heorot. It ia a certain thane's duty to pour mead (4), a service that the queen and her daughter shared when they were present tho their aorvice was occasional rather than continu•4 {5); that is, Wealhtheow handed the cup around the hall just once before she took her seat beside her husband, while the thane, it appears, must keep the cups f'ull
( 11). There probably were several who served in thi a
(5) 2448 (6) 2461 (7) 3151 (1) 3173 f. (2) See pp. 3,, l herein. (3) 335 ff. (4) 494 ff. ~~:~ ~1~2ff. 2017 ff. -10-
capacity (2), of whom the beloved Aeschere was one (3),
Great honor was attached to thene offices, as they were all held by men of high rank. Appa.rently thanes in addressing the king were expected to stand in a prescribed position, for when Wulfgar approached Hrothgar to present Beowulf's request for- an interview, he "Went until he etood at the King's shoulder; he knew the requirement for men of noble birth, (4). Herellf'od slew hie table-companions, those that were at his shoulder (5). Wiglaf sits at his dead king's shoulder (6), These may mean nothing more than near, but it ia more likely that they refer to some definite position. Beowulf, on his first appearance at Heorot, stopped probably almost ae soon as he wqs within the hall, to make hie first speech. (7). Special occasions seem to have differed but little from the daily assembly. They may rave been of longer duration. Sometimes the hall wae more elaborately decorated, ae was Heorot for the celebration of Beowulf's victory over Grendel (1), The statement that Hygelac's hall was made ready (21) for the welcome of Beowulf may (2) 1241 (3) 1324 ( 4) 358 f'. (5) 1714 f. (6) 2854 (7) 404 (1) 992 ff. (2') 1978. -11- 0
mean nothing more than that the benches were aet in order. 1'he benches were apparently brot out for the feasting and
the~ part of them removed during the rest of the festivi ties (3). Perhaps merely the tables - if there were any were removed. and the benches put into different places • The men eat on the benches during the singing of the scop (4). When the warriors sleep in the hall, the benches are cleared away and their place taken by beds and pi llows (5). Beowulf gives a concise account of the cele brati on of his victory. "When morning came and we had eat down to the feast, the friend of the Scyldinga generously requited me for that strife with gold and many treasures. There was song and merriment; the hoary Scylding, after many questions, told of far times; now the warrj]_or awoke the joy of the harp, the pleasure-wood; now he framed a song, true and sad; now the great heart- od king recounted fitly a wondrous story. Bow again the hoary warrior in the bonds of age began to bewail hie youth and strength in battle; his heart welled within him when, old in winters, he tbot of their number. (3) 491 ff. D {4) 1067 r., 1182, etc. (5) 1240 f. -12- 'O
Thus the day long we took our delight there." (1). The festivities at Heorot terminate with the approach of evening on the three days that we are guests there. The signal for their cessation was given by the king himself. On the first day "the uproar rose until the son of Healfdene suddenly wished to seek his evening's rest. He knew that a.n attack on the high hall was intended by the monster when they could no
longer see the sun' a light." ( 11). This early breaking up of the assembly might be supposed to be due only to the dread of attack after night fall, did not the ea.me thing happen the next day when they were making merry over Beowulf's signal victory with never a thot of fur ther attack. "Afterward evening came and Hrothgar, the ruler, betook him to his rest in hie house." (2) And the third day, when all possibility of evil hap has
been removed and there is abundant reason, if ever, for prolongation of the geast, we are told: "The helm of night darkened dusky over the company. The warriors all arose; the white haired, aged prince of the Scyldings wished to seek his couch."(3). ( 1) 2102 ff. { l') 645 ff. I {2) 1236 ff. {3) 1790 ff.
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Nothing is said of any such custom in the land of the Geats. But small mention is made of out door a.muse- ments. We might expect that big, powerful, active men like these ancestors of ours would have celebrated such a. welcome event aa Beowulf's victory by vigorous mani festation of joy, such aa, for example, racing, discua throwing, hawking and hunting; but almost no reference ie made to them. To judge from this one poem, we may be forced to conclude that men to whom war was mere play - sweorda gelac (1), beadu-lace (2) - would find such pastimes altogether too tame and that they would prefer for the most part a more decided contrast to their usual business of warfare. The morning after Beowulf 'a victory over Gren del, however, the many men who came from far and near to see the wonder of the moneter's•arm suspended aloft in
Heorot ( 11) allowed the horses they rode to cavort and race (2'). But they seemed to take much more delight in the reminiscences of the guma gilp-hlaeden, gidda gemyndig
(1) 1041 (2) 1562 ( 1') 841 (2') 865,917 -14-
se-d:e eal-fela eald-geaegena worn gemunde, word ocf"er fa.nd socte gebunden (3).
That horses were highly prized is evident fromlll the fact that eight were presented to Beowulf by the
gratef'u.l Hrothgar (4) aa a part of the re~ard; and Beo wulf considered four of them, along with other treasure, a fitting gift to Hygelac (5). It ia interesting to note in the same connection that he gave the 1{ing' s wife three of these eight horses (6), evidence apparently that women aa well as men had use for horses, presumably for riding, since they were sadol-beorht (7). Beowulf seems to h ave kept only one of the horses for himself, - whether because he already had many others we cannot be sure. From the racing mentioned above, we may gather that swift horses were in favor; we are told that one of the signs of desolation was that no swift steeds pawed the court. (1). Hrothgar rode in stately wise - geatolf'c (2) to the mere inhabited by Grendel's mother, mounted
(5) 2164 (6) 2175 (7) 2176 (1) 2265 (2) 14-02 -15-
on a horse with plaited mane (?) - wicg vrunden-fea.x. (3). The coast guard was on horse-back (4), too, and the king in time of war rode to the fray (5). These horses might be white (6) or fallow (7). As Hart. points out (8), the horse does not figure "aa a friend in time of need" and "is not in the important action." No:\'"is there any chariot racing nor driving for pleasure. There probably would have been scant pleasure in riding over most of the roads of that day and locality. The reference to the stag in the description of the mere inhabited by Grendel and his mother seems to point to the hunting of this animal with doge (1). The name (2) given Hrothg~r's great hall may be a f'urther indication of the same thing. Perhaps boars were also hunted, aa images of them adorn helmets (3~. Two brothers are named Eefor (4~ and Wulf (5'). The wolf himself, how- ever, appears only as an animal of prey, and that but once (6~. There was no bounty on wolf skins in those days. Dogs are not mentioned except in connection with this stag. (1) "The Oall of the Wildw that rang in Anglo- Saxon ears was not Jack London's! (3) 1401 ( 1) 1368 (4) 234 (2) Heorot, stag. 78. (5} 1040 ff. (~0 303,1113, 1329 (e > 857 (4') Boar. (7) 8R6,2166 ( 5') 2965 f. (8) !allad and Epic p.175 (6') 3028. 11> 1369. -16-
In tl1e time of woe when the swift horses no longer stamped in the court yard, the good hawk did not awing t hru the hall, ne god hafoo geond sael swinget'(1).
~uat what this signifies we can hardly say. In all the indoor revelry of the poem, the hawk is not mentioned. And surely hawking belongs out of doors! The raven is once the harbinger of dawn (2); he has given his name to one forest, Ravenswood {3); but his two other . appearances (4) are in his usual epic :runction of bird of prey. He is once accompanied by the eagle.
Another outdoor amusement is swiIIL~ing. Beovrulf ta a !llasterfUl swimmer, as he proves entirely to his own satisfaction and that of hie hearers when he answers Hunferth's taunt (6). The hero's friend Breoa was also skilful in "stirring the water vdth his arms. (7)" and 'measuring the sea streets (7)" They brave the ~inter'a waves - wintrya wyl~e (8) aeven nig)lta - eeofon niht - (8) - in/spite of the protesta- tiona of their friends. When mere boys - cniht
(1) 2264 {5) 3027 (2) 1802 ( 6) 506 ff. (3) 2926, 2936. (7) 513 f. (4) 2449, 3025. (8) 516 f. -17-
weeende (1) - they had boasted that they would risk their lives out on the ocean (2), and ao they fulfil their boast when they have come to young manhood. From the endurance they show on this occasion one would infer years of practice. This skill in swimming stands Beowulf in good stead on two later occasions of importance,- the attack on Grendel"s mother (3) and the fight w~re Hygelac fell. ( 4). We might expect that peoples who lived so near the sea and were so found of it would get pleasure - and profit - from various forms of fishing. But Izaak Waltons do not appear. Inhabitants of the water seem to have been whales (5) and other monsters which were killed in self-defence (6) or for mere thot of the hurt they had done or might do.(tJ Thia would seem to conclude the list of out door amuseMents, unless we infer that some of the terms for battle had been transferred from mock to real encount ers. Did the children play games called beadu-lac (J.'), head-or: lac (2'}, eweorda. gelac (3'), ecga. gelac (41) or lind-Elega (5~ ? There is one mention of archery where (1) 535 (7) 1430 ff. (2) 537 ( J.') 1582 (3) 1495 ff. ( 2') 584, 1975 (4) 2361 (3') 1041 (5} 10 ,540. ( 4'} 1169 (6) 540 ff. ( 5') 1074, 2040. -18-
Haethoyn misses hie mark and ahoota his brother (6). What our friends wore on all these occasions it ie imppssible to determine from this poem. Descrip- tions of personal appearance are wholly of jewels and annor. Could we think that their attire was as limited as re- ferences to it, we should consider them worthy rivals
of our own ~noble savage." We can hope that the weaving
was for some other purpose beside tapestry (7) and of some more warmth giving material than peace (8).
A characteristic of the people which plays an
important part in their life is the fondness for tre~aure which has about it a certain nafvete quite different from modern love of riches. Beowulf and his followers take frank delight (1) in the gifts presented them by Hrothgar, and they praise the giver and the gifts on the way from Heorot to the ship (2). Thia is in the hero ' s youth. But age brings no diminution of love of gold, for we hear the aged Beowulf say that he will be able to die nore easily if he can first look upon the treasure (3). These hardy warriors \'lere lavish in their uae of gold for ornamentation, tho we see no fine sense of (8) 2440 (7) 996 (8) 1943 (1) 1881 ff. (2) 1885. (3) 2750 ff. -19-
beauty. Heorot ia frequently called the gold hall, gold
~ (4), and gold decked, gold-fall (5). Thia gold was evidently applied both externally and internally, for we are told that Beowulf and hie company can see the hall
from a distance, beautif'ul and gold decked - geatolic ~ g_old-fab. ( 6). Reference seems to be also to ~e exterior when Grendel comes up until he can see Heorot, the gold hall ol men decked with gold, - gold - eele gumena, raattum fahne (1). On the other hand, where we read that the hall rose broad and gold decked and that the guest slept within, reced hlivade
geap ond gold-fa:h., gaeet inne swaef, (2) we think of the interior where Beowulf slept hie last night in the land of the Danes. The floor is shining - fagne flor (3); the hangings gleam with gold (4'). Sinc fage sele (51) might refer to either exterior or interior. The steep, gold decked roof upon which Hrothgar gazes (61 may also be either outside or in; since it is possible that the king stopped outside the hall to make his con gratulatory speech to Beowulf. It seems.more likely that
(4) 716, 1254,1640,2084. (41) 995. (5) 308, 1801. ( ~5') 167. ( 6) 308. (61) 927 f. ( 1) 716 (2) 1800 f. ( 3) 72 • -20- he was within, but certain it ia that he did not enter then to stay, for later (7) we are told that he came to the hall after the decorations had been arranged. The mead benches are gold geregnad (1), and the cups passed -<.11-0.:;le "'- about in the hall are decorated -Aealo-waege (2); golden faeted waege (3); and valuable deore (4). The love of ornamentation is also displayed in the armor. Coats of mail are mounted with gold, golde gegyrwed(5); helmets are gold decked, gehroden golde (6), hyrsted golde (7), gold-fal! (8); shields are faette (9); swords are mounted in gold, - golde (aQ) gegyrede, set with jewels - · wraettum gebunden (11), f&h ond faeted ll2) and have gylden hilt (13). Saddles may be seallWUm fa:h({4); and bridles, faeted(l5). Both men and women wear many jewels. Wealh theow's crown is golden (16). She is gold-hroden (17) when she comes to the hall to greet Beowulf. And her daughter, Freawarn, is likewise gold-hroden (18) when she helps her mother serve on the same occasion. Beowulf presents to queen Hygd the necklace which had been given
I him by Wealhtheow (1), and the same necklace is about (7) 1009. (1) 778 (8) 2812 (16) 1164 (9) 333 (17) 615,R41 (2) 495 ( 18) 2028 (3) 2254 (10) 2193, 1901. ( 11) 1532 (I') 2173 ff. (4) 2255 (12) 2702 (5) 553 (13) 1R78 (tH .304 (7) 2256 (14) 1031 (' S-1 If) 3 t -21-
Hygelac's beck when he meets his death (2). Hrothgar presents Beowulf, among other things, rings and bracelets (3). About to die, Beowulf takes from his neck a cir clet which he presents to Wiglaf (4). It was an indication of desolation that a woman was bereft of her gold (5). Ongentheol.QJ rescues hie captive wife who is golde berofene (6). At her marriage she was gold-hroden(7) . The Geats, in reckoning the misery that will be attendant upon Beowulf's death, speak of the maidens as no longer wearing the ring jewel about the neck but being sad of heart and bereft of th~ir gold (8). That men wore jewels ia also constantly evidenced by the king' s distribution of beagas, hringae, sine and gold, a distribution that seems to have oooured every day, for we read: "And each day at the giving of treasure •••• "V) And again when Beowulf returns to Geatland, he and hie men go to the place where Hygelac is distributing rings (2'). At any rate the occurrence is so frequent that the king is called beag-~ (3l, beag~ brytta (q~, hrimga hyrde (51), hringa :fengel(61), sincea brytta (rT)
( 2) 1203 (1) 1090 f. (3) 1195 ff. (2') 1971. ( 4) 2810. (3') 1103 (5) 2932, 8017 ( 41) 35,352, 1488. (6) 2932 (51 2246 (7) 1949 (61 2346 (8) 3017 (7') 608, 1171, 1923, 2072. -22-
~-~ (8), sinca baldor(9); gold-gyfa (10) and gold
~ (11). And the hall, among other names, is styled gif-heal- - (12) and --beah-sele (13). The king's seat there- in is the gif-etol (14). A king who did not thus dis- tribute gifts failed in hie duty, as in the case of Here mod (15) and of the perverse man instanced in Hrothgar's sermon ( 16). The giving of gifts seems to have been an indispensable part of nearly every ceremony. Hrothgar plans to give Beowulf gifts for his good intent(l); he promises gifts if the hero is victorious (2), a promise which he generously fulfils by fairly showering him with presents after his successful emcounters (3), and by gifts to the companions (4). Beowulf presents the man who has guarded his ship a precious sword (5). The Danes have in earlier days carried gifts to the Geats (6), possibly by way of tribute; and Beowulf's deeds in behalf of the Danes will always be reme~bered, says Hrothgar, in frequent gifts (7). King Hrethel gives his grandson, Beowulf, treasure (a'). Young princes distributed gifts bountif'ully to win a following for (8) 1013,1343,2312. ( 15) 1720 f. (9) 2429. qa > 1750 f. ( 10) 2653 (1) 385 (11) 1172,1477,1603,2420,2585. (2) 6fll f.1381f. (12) 839. (3) 1021 ff.1193ff. ( 13) 1178. 1888 ff. (14) 168,2328. ( 4) 10 51 tf.f. (5) 1901 f. (A) 378 f. (7) 1861 -r. {8') 2432. tir.ie of need (9). Perhaps Beowulf has done t.hia very thing, for he is called hringa cl"engel (10). Treasure is givon aa surety in a pact, as for example in the
pledge of peace between Finn and Hengeat (11). Hrothgar
has settled Ecgtheow's feud with the Wulfinge by send ing them treasure (1). When Beowulf returns to his own country he gives his king and queen many of the presents
bestowed upon him by Hrothgar (2) and receives gifts from Hygelac (3). Warriors were sometimes bot from other peoples (4). Now as to what these gifts were. In the first place, there was much treasure from distant lands (5); and in the second place, treasure was prized for its age. It is ealde madmaa (6) with which Hrothgar buys peace for EcgtheoDL The dragon has held his treasure
for three hundred years (7) and it was old when he be gan to guard it (8). Weapons are handed down for gene rations. The burnie which Beowulf wears when he goes to Daneland is an heirloom from hie grandfather, Hrethel. (9'). His sword in his last fight is gomel faf (lcf), probably the one left by Hrethel and presented by Hygelac
(9) 20 ff. (10) 1508. (6) 472. (11) 1098 ff • . (7) 2279 f'. (8) 2233, 2775, • (1) 4701Jf • 3053. (2) 2164 ff. (91} 454 (3) 2191 dff'. ( 10') 2683, 2564. (4) 2497 (5) 37, 2871. -24-
to Beowulf on the latter's return from Heorot (1). Hie helmet in the fight with Grendel's mother, perhaps the v ery one that had been presented him that day by Hroth gar (2), was wrot by a smith of long days before, ;D:rn-dagum (3). His companions on the first undertaking have swords which are heirlooms (4); the swords which Hrothgar presents them are also prfe lafe (5). Hrunting,
lent by Hunferth to Beowulf, is eald l~f (6) and eald geetreon (7). The hilt of the sword in the hall of Grendel's mother, used so effectively by Beowulf, is
~ laf (8) and the ancient work of giants, enta aer
&ewe~r£ (9). The blade prePented by Beowulf to the ship~ guard wae yrge-laf (10), such that the recipient was thereafter the more worthy on the mead benches (11). Wiglaf receives from his father a great amount of all eortw of battle gear ( l'). Beowulf' would leave hi a aromor to his son if he had one (i), in lieu whereof he leaves it to Wiglaf (3~. The treasure consisted of many things beside the rings, necklaces, bracelets, cups and armor already mentioned. There were breost-weord""unge (4'), which may
(1) 2192 (8) 1689 ( 1') 2'24 f. (2) 1031 ff. (9) 1680 ( 2') 2730 ft'. (3) 1452 (10) 1904 (3') 2812 f. (4) 796 ( 11) 1903. (4') 2505. (5) 1054 ( 6) 1489 (7) 1459. -25-
have been some sort of brooch. A golden standard, segn gylden, ia raised aloft over Scyld's head when he goes on hie last journey (5); Hrothgar gives to Beowulf a eegn gylden (6) and (?) a hroden hilte-cumbor (6); and in
the hoard of the dragon is a ~ eall-gylden, (7) the brightest of beacoms, beacna beorhtoet (8). An enumera tion of Beowulf's reward for the first victory includes
a golden standard (6) and (?) an embroidered war banner (8); a helmet {9); a coat of mail (9); a mighty treasure sword (l); eight horses (2) with gold decked bridles (2), and on one a skilfUlly wrot saddle, decked with treasure (2); twisted gold (3); two bracelets (3); rings (3); a magnificent necklace (3); and gold plates (4). What the treasures are in the home of Grendel and hie mother we are not told• merely that they are many (5). The treasure guarded by the dragon contains armor (6), drinking cups (7) and other vessels (8), rings (9), bracelets (IO), jewels (11), gold spirals (12), wonder:f\11 things on the walls (perhaps hangings) (13), and a gold standard (14). Another valued possession was land. Land, with
earlahip and wisdom, is given man by the mi~hty God ( 15 ). (5') 1614. (12) 2414. (5) 47. (61) 2259, 2763 (13) 2760 (6) 1022 f. (71) 2255, 2762 (14) 2768 (7) 2768. (S') 2254,2761,2776 (15) 1727 f. (8) 2778 (91 2285,3054,3165 (9) 1023 (10) 2764 (I) ( 1024 (11) 2414,2750. (2) 1036 ff. (3) 1194 ff. (4) 2103 -26-
Both Hygelac and Beowulf have inherited lond,eard, edel riht (16); the same probably that are referred to as being left by Hrethel to his sons at hie death (17). Since Beowulf had been treated during Hrethel'a life as a son (1), it is reasonable to suppose that he would be remem- bered aa a eon at the king's death. Hygelac gave Beowulf lond, eard, effel-~ (2). Beowulf bestowed wic-atede, a dwelling-place, upon Wiglaf. (3). The passage here referred to seems to say that at Weohatan'e death his property waa allowed by Beowulf to go into the possession of the eon, Wiglaf, implying that Beowulf might have taken it back into his own control, had he so chosen.
~He (Wiglaf) remembered then the honors which he {Beo wulf) had formerly given him, the rich dwelling-place of the Waegnumdinga, every folk-right, as hie father had possessed ." (3). In prophesying the evil to come upon the earls for their cowardly desertion of Beowulf in hie final time of need, Wiglaf declares that every man shall forfeit his right of property in Geatland (1).I Hygelac re\varda the brothers Eofor and Wulf, who betwe_en them slew the hostile Swedish king Ongentheo~ with
(16) 2197 ff. {17) 2471 f. (1) 2434 (2) 2493 f. ( 3 ) 2607 ff. ( 11) 2887 ff. -27-
hund ci"uaenda landea ond locenra beagra, a hundred thousand pieces' worth of land and linked rings
(21). It would seem from these passages that the land belonged to the kings, who occasionally bestowed some upon a follower for exceµtional service. Family relations, as we are permitted to sea them, are most pleasant. Hrothgar and hie wife seem to be on terms almost of equality, Beowulf's welcome is not complete until queen Wealhtheowappears in her usual f'unction of hostess and die~enser of good cheer (3~. After she has passed about among the warriors, greeting them (1) and Beowulf (2), handing them the treasure cup (2), thanking God for Beowulf's arrival, (3) she goes, the free born folk-queen - freolicu !.Q.!£-cwen (4) - to sit beside her lord. And she apparently remains, an honored hostess, until Hrothgar gives the signal for cessation from merrymaking (5). It would seem, too, that the king and queen at least sometimes occupied the same apartMents, for we read, "The lord of wsrriors would seek his rest beside the queen,(6)
(2') 2995 ff. (4) 642 (3') 614 f'f. (5) 648 ( 1) 615 (6) 665 f. (2) 62b t3J (. :Z3 -28- and next morning it ia from the queen's bower that he t starts to the ball, accompanied by hie wife (7). The
1 fact that the apartments are called bryd-bur (7 ) instead of hyra bur may indicate that usually their romma were separate. Again the high position accorded the queen appears in the scene of rejoicing after the victory. As just mentioned, she accompanies her husband to the ha.11 ; then apparently both withdraw temporarily while many men and women deck the wine hall tl). Tho the king appears at the banquet (2) before ahe does, and the festivities begin without her as on the previous day, still her part is important. She comes forth beneath her golden crown (3) and again presents the cup to Hrothgar (4), with words of congratulation that Heorot is clean sed (5). She has been inf'ormed of the speeches made before her arrival (6), and she too has gifts to bestow upon the hero (7). She makes a speech of presentation as self-sure as Hrothgar' s own (8). And like the king, she has the habit of gift-giving to the subjects, as Beowulf tells Hygelac in his account of the happenings
(7') 921 ff. (5) 1177 ( 1) 994 (6) 1176 (2) 1010. (7) 1193 ff. (3) 1164 (8) 1217 ff. (4) 1170 -29- '
in the land of the Spear-Danes (1). The next day when Beowulf and hie brave, warlike men (2) triumphantly bring to Heorot Grendel's head, the queen again le present (3). In the only other household that the poem entess
the queen serves wine (4) as did Wea~theow. She too
shares gift-giving with her husband (5), and Beowulf apparently considers it his duty and pleasure to give gifts to her aa well as to hie king (6). The collar that he presents Hygd (6) is worn by Hygelac at his last battle (7). Thryth was tamed by love for her husband, Offa (8), from a dire death-dealer (9) to a queen famed for goodness (10). And there ia affection in the lament of Beowulf's wife at hie death (11). Ip the poei tion of the '"'i vea of the thanes in their homes corresponded to that of the queens in the kings' halls, they might well consider themselves fort- unate. Marriage was sometimes intended to terminate a :fe.Ud between two peoples. Wealhtheow ie called the
( 1) 2019 (7) 1203 (2) 1642 (8) 1955 (3) 1650 (9) 1933 (4) 1983 ( 10) 1953 (5) 1931 (11) 3151 (6) 2173 ff. peace-bringer of peoples - fridu-sibb folca (1); her daughter ie betrothed to Ingeld, eon of the king of the Heatho-beards, that thus a deal of death feuds may be ended (2). But the end aimed at is not always attained, as Beowulf tells ue in the case of Ingala (3). That a king sometimes married a second time seems to appear from the domestic history of Hygelac, as we get it in fragments from the poem. For before the events with which the poem deals, he had a daughter old enough to be given in marriage (4) and yet we are told that Hygd, his queen in the poem, is very young-swid-e geonE (Y) - and has lived only a few years in the city
1 (2 ). Sometimes, too, a man's affection for hie wife coihls,
1 a s in the case of Ingeld (3 ). Divorce is not mentioned. When we compare this relation with the ideals i n Modern days, we notice ~ost of all the absence of love as a sentiment to be fostered in and for itself. There are no lovers. No reference is made to love as a deter- mining factor in marriage. Thryth marries at her father's
1 command ( 4 ), tho she comes to love her husband. Wealh theow' s prominence is that of queen rnther than of wife.
( 1) 2018 ( 11) 192'/ (2) 2025 ff. (2') 1929 f. (I) 20 8 ff. ( 3') 206 f'. ( 4) 2998. ( 4') 1951 -31-
Of course, as Gum.mere reminds us, (5) the "monks, who wrote down our old literature, would be shy of' such material." It is hard to believe, however, that along with the sanctity of the married state which we judge from this poem to have prevailed, there waa not also personal aff'eotion before as well as after marriage (1). No details of the wedding ceremony are given,
and Beowulf~s marriage is not considered worthy of mention. The first and only intimation that we get of hie having a wife is in the reference to her lament at hie death. As sacred a relation as any was that of uncle and nephew. Beowulf' is Hygelac'e sister's son (2). Thie kinship demanded loyalty and honor. It is not mere ly because Hygelac is king that he receives gifts from Beowulf on the latter's return home, but because he is the hero's uncle. The cordial welcome accorded him is, we feel, prompted by deep personal affection, not simply by a perfUnctory desire to honor a subject who has die tingui shed himself by deeds of valor. The king, probably about Beowulf's own age (I), is delighted at hie return,
(5) Germanic Origins p. 147. (1) See p. ~9 herein f'or the love of Thryth a.nd Beowulf's wife toward their husbands. (2) 374, 1848. (11) 1832, 1844. -32-
orders the hall to be made ready (2), greets him with
solemn and noble words (3 )J thanks God for hie safe re turn (4), seats him beside himself (5), eagerly questions him of his adventure (6), and tells him how anxious he has been (6). In the course of the feast Beowulf gives a detailed account of his victories (7). When he reaches in his narration the point where Hrothgar eave him trea sure, he orders some of the gifts to be brot in (e), and bestows a liberal portion on Hygelac and the queen (9), saying that he has few (10) close kin beside (11). Hygelac in turn presents Beowulf a sword, money, and a hall (12). Much later, Beowulf avenges Hygelac's death by killing the slayer (1), referring to the uncle as Hygelac mrn (2'). "To Hygelac, mighty in battle, wa.e his nevrphew very faith:f'ul and each waa mindful of the other's weal; " (31 so the obligations were mutual. The two were companions in war, lind-geeteallas. (4) Hygelac was himself called the nefa of Swerting (5'). Here the word evidently means eon. It ie signifi- cant that the same term was used in the two senses. Hi.1dcburh's eon was given to the flames on hie uncle's
(2} 1976 (8) 2152 (3) 1980 f. (9) 2163 ff. (4) 1998 (10) Which in the prevailing figure ~f (5) 1Cl78 litotes would mean no. (6) 1986f:f. (11) nl51 f'. (7) 2001 ff. (12) :?192 ff. (1) 2502 (2') 2435 ( 31) 2170 ff. ( 4') 1974 (5') 204 -33-
f'uneral pile ( ). When Heardrod' o death is e oken of, he is called Hereric' s ne hew, rat er than Hy e a.e ' s eon.
(7 ). Sigernund, a horo with hom Beo rulf is thot orthy
of cornparioon, waa accomp nied in any of his de 1:· -sof prowess by Fitela, hie son and ne hew, to hom he told
some adventures thnt he acnrcely mentioned to other (8 , "as they ere ever close ornpaniona in every strife." ( ) . Sometimes, lowever, this eac ed rel tion a not fa U1fully adl:ered to. Hrothgar and Hrotbulf, his ne he , ait aide by aide, e ch loy 1 to the ot er and
!!__ lli at peace ( 0 )~ t e ~ lli i yin at tl.e eace did no endure. And ooh t 1 11 he a ord given h by 1 nephew One !~ , -11 a th t ne hev' e ne.he (3)' with hie rother h rebelled ga net One a (4). dgi a, bother of • nm·n, later tt ck and ki ah e u cle, One ( ) • Gumm ere th nko th t the 1 e b t een youth nd hie other' s (not ather ' a rother eci - y close. He contr ts the thlessn a o Hro u f to
i .:.~ th r's broth r, Hroth r, e lde ity 0
B o 'f to hi other' rother, Hy e c. He t te ( ) (7) ( ) 1 ls~ G (4) 2382. { 239 . -34-
further that Beowulf would have been following precedent had he accepted Hygd'a offer at her husband's death to marry her and be king, but that Beowulf belonged to a new order which "holds to the sentiment of nephew-right but .rejects its privileges." (1). However this may beJ
~ertain it is that the bond between uncle and nephew was closer in those days than in ours. The relation of father and son seems also to have been very happy, for Hrothgar in thanking Beowulf says: •wow, Beowulf, best of men, I will love thee in my heart as a son;" (2) and he gives the hero the treasured \Var gear which 'vould have otherwise been handed down to his son Heoroweard (3). Beowulf has previously been cared for some~ime by hie grandfather who loved him like a son.
(4). An old man sorrows to see his son on the gallows (5) and his house desolate (6). HretheJ dies of griea over the death of his son, Herebeald, (I) accidentally slain by another son, Haethcyn. {2'). Men are usually introduced and frequently called by their father's name. Beowulf speaks of Ecgtheow long before giving his own na.rne.(3~. Ingeld is spoken of first simply as Froda's son. (41). Hunferth ia eon of
(1) Article in An English M~cellany on The Sisterts Son. PP· 133 ff. (2) 947 ff'. (3) 2161 ff'. ( 4) 2434 ( 5) 2447 (6) 2456. ( l') 2470 2438 !~8 ~8~s;'~~e~ 43 ( -35-
Ecglaf (5); Wigla, of Weohstan (B); Hrothgar of Healf uene (7); Breca of Beanstan (8); Finn of Folcwalda (9); It will be noticed that these names are conveniently alliterative, and also that such lines as
Beowulf maffelode, beam Ecg~eowes (10) and Unferct macfelode, Ecglafes bearn ( 5). show a Miltonic sense of the effectiveness of proper names; so that they should perhaps be considered on th~ir metrical merits rather than as revealing the relation of father and eon. A mother took pride in her son, were he the sort of man that the times honored. Hrothgar, in con gratulating Beo1rulf on his victory over Grendel, recog nizes this fact by saying that his (Beowulffl mother, if she still lives, will surely sAv that God was gracious to give her such a eon (1). WealJitheow is anxious about her eons ' future, fearing that Hrothear•e nephew will be a menace to them as he has given some indications of being (2); and in her presentation speech to Beowulf, she asks his protection for her son (3). In the battle of Finnsburh, Hildeburh was bereft of her "dear" eons, (4)
(5) 499 (1) 743 ff. (6) 2803 (2) 1181 ff. 1P29 ff. (7) 344 (3) 1227 f. (8) 524 (4) 1075 ff. (9) 1090 (10) 529,958. etc.etc. • -36-
in whom she has previously taken great delight (4). She subordinates her maternal affection, however, to the nephew-uncle right when she bide her son be burned on Hnaef's pyre. (5). To Grendel's mother, tho by no means a fair representative of womankind, is yet probably attributed something of the feeling that human mothers were recog nized as having for their sons. In the eyes of the people she is entirely justified in seeking vengeance
for Grendel's death ( 11). She i a mindful of the injury done her therein (7); to avenge it she will go on a journey fraught '¥ith sorrow (3'). There is a note of
pathos in her desire to avenge her only son, anga~
eaferan (4~. Not much is said of the relation between father · and daughter. The king chooses a husband for hie daughter. Thryth marries Offa at her father's request (S); Hygelac marries his only daughter to Eofor who has killed a hostile
king in battle (6~; so apparently Hrothgar has arranged the betrothal of Freawaru and Ingeld (70. King Hrethel cares sufficiently for his daughter to take her eon,
(5) 1115. (5~ 1951 (1-f.}, 101Sff• ( 1') 1257 ff., 12f9,1334. (6') 2998 f. 1340, 1547, 2119 ff. {7') 2027. (21 1260 ( 3') 12SO ( 4') 1548. - 37-
- Beowulf, to hie court and love him as a son. But apparently a father ' s love for his daughter did not always keep him at peace with her husband. It was strife between father-in-law and son-in-law that wrot the ruin of Heorot (1), perhaps the same that is mentioned in Beowulf' s story of Ingeld (2). The one occasion on khich we see mother and daughter together, they seem to be close companions; for Wealhtheow is assisted in serving by her daughter
(3). If we could get gli~pees of the life within the brYd-bur, we should undoubtedly learn much more of this phase of family life. But no private, domestic life is shown anywhere in the poem. There is but brief mention of the relation between sister and brothers. Hildeburh loved her bro- there, for she mourned deeply for them as well as for her eons when they died in battle (11. Perhaps the eienificance attached to the relation of a man and his oiater' s son is partly due to a close bond between brother and sister. Brothers were closely bound. Hrothgar eaya
( l) 84. (2) 2064 ff. (3) 2022 (11) 1075.
I -38-
that his brother was better than he (2). Heorogar had given Hrothgar his breast armor, instead of bestowing it on his own son Heoroweard (3). A bitter taunt
Q. which, coupled with the a.ccue11tion of cowardice, Beowulf hurls at the jealous Hunf'llrth is that he has slain his "own brothers", his "chief kin." Hrothgar' s sons Hrethric and Hrothmund, sit together at the feast in Beowulf' s honor.(5). Herebeald's accidental death by hie brother's badly aimed arrows (6), could not be atoned for with treasure and must remain unavenged (7). Eofor kills the Swedish king Ongentheow who has laid low his (Eofor' e) brother Wulf (1). Ohthere'e banished sons, Eanmund and
Eadgile, seek re~ge together with the Geate (2). The claims of kinship were very exacting and must be met even at great sacrifice. "To him who think eth well, nothing can set aside kinship." (3) . When all others desert_.,Wiglaf, Beowulf's cousin (4), stands by him (5) in the struggle against the dragon, tho hie shield is burned from him (6) and hie hand is scorcht (7). Beowulf helps Eadgile in war against Onela, who had killed Heardred, Beowulf's cousin and king (8).
(2) 489 (7) 2442 ff. (3) 2161 ff. (1) 2974 ff'. (4) 588 f. (2~ 2380 ff. (5) 1191 (3') 2601 f. (6) 2438 ff. ( 4') 2603, 2608. (50 See alao p. ~3 herein. (61) 2674 (71) 2698 (8) 2392 ff. -39-
The moat frequent demand on ldn was the neceasi ty of tak ing vengeance for the injury or death of a relative.
Vengeance was as prominent a motive as it is among our ovm mountain whites to-day, where a mother will flaunt before her eight eons the blood-stained garment of her husband slain in feud and remind them with all the force at her command that they must not reet night or day until the slayer is slain (1). Grendel's mother is perfectly justified, in the eyes of her foes, for her attempt to take vengeance on her son's slayer. That there was nor- mally harmony among kin 1a indicated by the fact that sib means either peace (2) or relationship (3). We find also friendship entirely independent of kinship, who it is chiefly what Hart terms communal friendship (4). We see no David and Jonathan. I like to think, however, that at least the germ of a "man and
man" (4) friendship is discoverable in 1vhat is told us of Beowulf and Brece.. They were friends from childhood up; and their swimming match, for the result of which
Hunffrth taunts Beowulf so bitterly ( 11), we.s e. friendly race, probably differing from many others they had he.d ( l) Story told by Mrs. Ida Vose Woodbury, Field Secre tary of the American Missionary Association. (2) 154, 1858. (3) 950,2432. ( 4) Ballad and Epic p. 164. ( l ' ) 506 ff. only in extent. According to Beowulf's version, neither was trying for supremacy over the other (2), but they were merely fulfilling a boyish vaunt that they would some day risK their lives out on the ocean. (3) But certainly there is aburldance of communal friendship. Wea~theow asserts that at Hrothgar's court "each earl is true to the others." (4). The Danes feel keenly the loss of their companions in Grendel's raids {5); perhaps their sorrow is not altogether untinged with the fear that a similar fate may be theirs. Every man is wild with joy at the safety assured him and hie friends by Beowulf (6). These men are companions of old, eald gesfc.tae (7). Theil,anes of Finn, bereft of their friends - fro ondum befeallen (1) - seek homes elsewhere. The owner of the treasure now guarded by the dragon had been bereft by death of all his kinsfolk and friends and had grieved bitterly at hie loss (21). The welcome accorded Beowulf and his companions by the harbor guard of the ! Geate (3) may be taken as an indication of the joy with which they are greeted by al their follow countrymen. (2) 541 ff. (3) 535 ff. (4) 1229. (5) 128 f. (6) 838 ff. (7) 854. (1) 1127 (2~ 2234 ff. (~) 1915 ff. -41-
This man has been eagerly w~tching a long time for the
re t urn o f th e d ear ones, l c~ofr a manna (4"). Thi a communal
friendship was a natural outgrowth of the co~itatue. Fidelity to a leader would inevitably roault in loyalty to fellows. It is ae if the people were all one great family. The loyalty expected between kin was also ahmm by men
to their leader, be he the head of a small band, o~ the
king. The fourteen (1) thanes who accompany Beowulf stand by him from first to last. They do not quaver at the thot of awaiting, tho a small company - in fact, only half the number that Grendel had carried away at one time (2) - of awaiting the moneter•e attack on Heorot, altho they have no hope of ever reaching home again (3). When Beowulf ie fighting Grendel's mother in her roofed hall (4), Hrothgar and hie men go back homeward thinking that the hero has been slain (5). But Beowulf's companions "eat there sick at heart and stared on the mera; they wished and yet did not expect to see their dear lore himself." (6). And when he appears, they rejoice greatly to see him safe (7), loosen hie helmet and butnie (8) and start back toward Heorot (9),
Hondecioh, who was devoured by Grendel (4) before Beo
~1.llf made way with the monster. The political life ie outside the scope of this paper, but it must be remarlced that the relation of king to subject seems to have been distinctly friend ly and paternal. He is their sincee brytta (5); their
~-dryhten (6),-2.!!.!!!!-dryhten (7), eige-dryhten {8); beorn-cyning (9), ~-cyning (10), !.91.2,-cynin_g {11); foloes weard (12); folcea hyrde (13); ~-wine foloa
(14); leod-fruma, (1'); leod-gebyrgea (2'); and other w similar titles. He eorro~ bitterly when his subjects meet misfortune. Because of Grendel's raids upon
Heorot, Hrothgar ei ts dejected, unblicte (31); he feels great distress and sorrow of heart, wraec micel,modea
( 1) 1638 ( 10) 54. (2) 1834 f. (9) 2149. ( 3) 1480 ff. (11) 2734,2874 (4) 2077 (12) 2514 ( 5) 606 etc. (13) 611,1833,2645, (~) 360,863,1605,2723,3177. 2982. (7) 436,1230,1250,1979,2282, (14) 430,2358,2430. 2605,2648,2850,2806,3/50. 1 (8) ( 1 ) 2131 391. (2') 269 (3') 130. -43-
brec~a {4); he continually broods hie grief (5). He is
especially affected by the lose of Aeschere (6); that was the bitterest of sorrows that had long beset him. {7). Beowulf gave up his life for his people. Occasionally, as in the case of Heremod, a ruler became a great grief to his people, aldor-ceare (8). But this seldom happened. He is proud of .the increase in numbers of his following (9) and laments their decrease (10). He is a hero among heroes, pre-eminent for his courage and generosity. The very term for king, cyning, means child of the tribe.
The people are the king's b~od-geneatas(l); hie heorcf-geneatae (2); and hie eaxl-gesteallas (3). The subject of Scyld have, at hie death, sorrowf'ul souls and mourning hearts, geomor sefa., murnende mode ( 4'"). Wiglaf' s fidelity to Beowulf (5') was that of retainer to lord, even more than cousin to cousin. The Geats mingle the sound of their weeping with the crackling of the flames of Beowulf's fUneral pyre. (o'). The people show great respect to Hrothgar in their manner of approach and address; and even in their (4) 170 ( 1) 343, 1714. (5) 189 f. (2) 261,1581,2181, (e) 1307 ff, 1323 ff. 2419, 3181. (7) 2130 f. (3) 1327,1715. (8) 907. ( 4') 49. (9) 22. ( 5') 2874 ff.Se.e F-31 hei-e171. (10) 476 ff. ( 6') 3140 ff. -44-
high praise of Beowulf among themselves, we are assured that their declaration that no one wae worthier of a
kingdom than he (7) was in no sense blame of Hrothgar
(8)' for he was a. good king, - !!:..£ d"a'et waee god c_yning (Sf. And again we are told that it was their custom to be ever ready for the fray at home or in war, whensoever their king might be in need (9). When he speaks in the hall, they keep silent (1). Heremod'e warriors are reluctant to recognize hie evil ways, for they had expected to see him thrive as his father's eon (2). However, when his evil course is no long endurable, he is ttseparated from the joya of men. tt ( 3). In Beowulf's last fight, hie close companions hond-gesteallan (4) - forget their duty in their fright at the dragon's appearance and flee into the •voods (5). Thia cowardly failure to help the lord who has given them
treasur~ and the very armor they stand in (A) will, according to Wiglaf, bring dishonor upon them and all their kin (7).I Gummere says of the comitatus (8):l "The cor:rita-• tus was evid:antly one of the great moral factors in I (7) 882 ( ( 4) 2597 (8) 863f (5) 2598 ff. (9) 1247 ( 6) 2866 f. ( 1) 1700. (7') 2885 ff. (2) 911 (8') Germanic Origins_, ( 3 ) 904 f'f'. , 171 ff. PP• 261 ff. -45-
Germanic life and achievement. Interwoven with the aenee and pride of kindred, and patterned after the family com pact itself, the system fostered a definite oblif- ation
and inspired mutual devotion of prince and warrior •••••• Generosity and the foremost place in valor are the duty of the prince; absolute 61delity and devotion mark the clansman." He :further calls attention to the two sorts of the oomitatus, - one a relatjon entered into for a specified time, as Beowulf and his fourteen companions; the other a life service, as in the case of the retainers of Hrothgar ( 1).
The same courtesy which so largely prevails in all the relations of kinsbip, marriage and friendship is noticeable in the reception of strangers from other peoples. That the Scyldinga would have received Beovrulf and his followers had they been exiles seems evident from the questions and remarks addressed to them by Hrothgar's herald (2). They had received Beowulf 'e father when +h..e... he was an exile. ( 3 } • The court of, ,Gea ta i a sot by the
banished eons of Ohthere from over the sea (11). Geatland
is invaded by the uncle against whom these brothers had (1) Germanic Origins p. 263 (2) 333 ff. (3) 483 ff. I ( 11) 2380 ff. -46-
rebelled (1) and king Heardred is killed (2), - rather dear payment for having beon hospitable, partially com pensated by the death of one of the brothers in the same battle (3). Beowulf and his men, when they arrive at the land of the Danes, tho unknown to the coast guard and come, he is sure, in response to no invitation from Hrothgar (4), are still questioned by him as to their identity with the utmost courtesy and compliment (5). Beowulf replies with equal courtesy, tho with great eelf aesurance and never a doubt of his welcome, stating the name of hie king (6) and of his father (7), but not his ovm.. The coast guard, who prides himself on hie ability to judge a man by his speech (a), is favorably impressed and says he will guide them toward the king and will bid
his folJowers keep the strangers' ship sa~e from attack I (1). He is as good as bis word and accompanies them to a spot whence they can see Heorot (Z), where with a word of Godspeed he takes hie leave and returns to hie post (3'). (We e~ould notice here Guri..mere's remark: "The courteous challenge of the strEµid-ward as Beowulf 'a ( 1) 2380 ff. (2) 2386,2203 ff. ( l') 292 ff. (3) 2612 (2'} 308. ' " (4) 245 ff. (3') 316 ff. (5) 247 a.~. (6) 261 (7) 263 ( Q) 288. -47-
ship comes to shore, and the highly parliamentary answer of the chieftain, - these must be outward flourishes of the story, added by the monkish poet who was fain to let some bit of southern color fall upon this passing somber legend of the north." (4)) The Geats proceed to the hall, outside of which they stack their weapons and sink exhausted on the benches (5). Attracted perhaps by the noise of the weapons, Wulf'gar, the herald, appears and asks with identical courtesy and compliment the same question previously put by the coast guard (1). To him Beowulf states hie name and asks ppportunity to make known hie errand to the king himself {2). Wulfgar ie as favorably impressed as the coast puard and hastens to deliver the message to Hrothgar and to beg him to honor them with an inter view (3 ). Up to this point, all the courtesy has been between utter strangers. But now the welcome has a different basis when Hrothgar states that it is a friend he is receiving (4!). The courtesy now shown, however, can hardly exceed that which hae preceded. Vlulfgar makes {4) Germanic Origins. P. 103. 325 ff. ~i~ 333 ff. (2) 342 ff. {3) 361 ff. (4') 372,576. ..,
-48-
haste to summon the Geats into his lord's presence,
allowing them to retain their helmets and coats of ~ail, but requesting them to leave shields and epeare {5'). A few remain to guard the weapons (61; the rest accompany Beo·rulf inside (1). As eoon as they have entered, Beo wulf greets Hrothgar (2), introduces himself (2), states the purpose of his visit (2), cites an instance of hie prowess (3) that the king may know it is no reed's strength that is offered him, asks as his only boon that he and hie comrades may undertake the fight with Grendel unaided by the Danes (4), declares his intention of fighting without sword or shiild (5), enters upon a some what sentimental statement of the possibility of defeat
(6), and concludes with the request that ln case of his death his armor be sent to Hygelac (7), and the sigh that Fate will have her way (8). Hrothgar is delighted
at Beowulf~e offer, recalls ho~ he himself had bPen o f
a fl qistance t o Ecg tLeor (5'} 391 ff. ( 6) 445 ff. 400. (7) 452 ff. ~11 402 (8) 455 (2) 407 ff'. (9) 458 ff. (3) 419 ff. {10) 473 ff. (4) 427 ff. {5) 437 -49- In the midst of the joyous welcome, Hunf:trth, the thyle (2), jealous at the high honor so promptly accorded Beowulf, taunts him with having been beaten in a swimming match (3,. Beowulf explains the circumstance (4) and silences Hunfrrth effectually by reminding him of his fratricide (5) and broadly hinting that 1..PHun- ffrth were ae brave as hie language would imply, there would have been no need for a stranger to come to the rescue of Heorot (6). Thie incident over, the merrymalring continues until evenfall,when the king and his followers retire, leaving Heorot entirely to Beowulf and his company,-a trust never before given to any man (7). A:fter his glorious victory, Beowulf ia natur ally highly honored with gifts (l~ and geast (Z). To Hrothgar's speech of congratulation, the hero graciously replies that he has done gladly hat he hae done (31. Hunftrth realizes that he can no longer doubt Beowulf's might (4'). Tne other Geata are also generously rememb ered (51 and payment ie made for Hondscioh whom Grendel had swallowed with such relish (6'). Beowulf and his men I ( 1) 489 f. ( I ) 10~/ (2) I See p. r herein (;L) ( 3) 506 'ff. 1010 ( 4) 535 ff. (3J 1sr I (5) 588. (II) '(ftff (6) 591 ff. (S.!) 1 oS"tff (7) ~ .s-1o t f' ({,/) 10 s-s- -50- are fUrther honored by being given a special resting place (7). Next morning he is conducted to the king's apartment (8), where he makes courteous inquiry as to whether hie host has had a good night's rest (9). On hearing of Hrothgar's new sorrow (10), he wastes no time in idle words of consolation but asks the king to hurry with him on the monster's track. Again there is victory, followed by feasting and gift-giving, and care for the hero's every need (12). After it all, Beowulf is eager to return home (1). When all preparations for the return have been made (2), he goes to Hrothgar, thanks him for his hospitality (2), offers to return if there is ever need for him again (2), and promises welcome to the king's eon if he will come to the court of the Geata (~) . Hrothgar does not seek to detain hie guest and benefactor, tho he is so reluctant to part with him that he weens upon his neck (3). When Beowulf and his men auproach the shore, they are courteously addressed again by ~he coPst guard (4). Beowulf gives a precious sword for the care of the ship (5), and iS off. With a "Bon voyage" ,.. e take our leave of him. (7) 1301 ( 1) 1806 (8) 1311 (2) 1814 ff. (9) 1321 (3) 1873 (4) ( 10) 1891 ff. 1323 (5) 1901 ff. (11) 1391 ff. ( ( 12) 1795 ff. -51- Gummere remarks (6): "Our typical German, like Plato's ideal horse, is a very difficult ~atter to define and draw; and, indeed, he ha_s been drawn i~every shade from absolute savagery to a graceful and accomplish ed person, as unlimited in courtesy and intellect as in muscular development, who 'cultive sea jardin~, lea vertua et lea arts~" But a study of this poem acquaints us with men whom we may be proud to claim as our ancestors, - men of loyalty, courage, hospitality, generosity (1), surnria ing courtesy, and decided personal uprightness. (e ) Gerrnani c Origins P. 17 il) "While we may justly place much of this generosity to the credit of an almost communal system of property, enough of the virtue is left to deserve our admiration." Gummere: Germanic Origins. p. 163.