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Appendix 3 Further Reading

Since the completion of Etan Kohlberg’s D.Phil. dissertation in 1971 there has been a marked increase in the number of studies devoted to subjects discussed there. This appendix, jointly prepared by the author and the editor, lists some of these studies; oth- ers may have been inadvertently omitted. The material is arranged in two sections, in conformity with the main themes of the dissertation chapters included in this volume. The first section contains studies on the Companions, with a particular focus on their role during the fitna and the effects of the fitna on Sunni and Shiʿi theology and political thought; this section also includes a limited number of titles on concepts associated with the Companions such as the prophetic tradition (sunna) and the doctrine of consensus (ijmāʿ). Studies listed in the second section deal with the doctrine of the imamate in Imāmī Shiʿism until the end of the Buwayhid period. Five of the selected titles (numbers 38–40, 47, 54) are translations of Arabic primary texts. Several of the titles mentioned here also appear in the Bibliography.

§1. The Companions

1. Abd-Allah Wymann-Landgraf, U. F. Malik and Medina: Islamic Legal Reasoning in the Formative Period. Leiden, 2013. * The views of Malik b. Anas (d. 179/795) on the prophetic tradition, hadith and consensus are discussed on pp. 94–137. 2. Afsaruddin, A. Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legiti- mate Leadership. Leiden, 2002. * Chapter 4 presents the Sunni-Shiʿi debate on the merits of the Compan- ions versus the Prophet’s family, based primarily on al-Jāḥiẓ’s (d. 255/869) al- ʿUthmāniyya and its refutation by Jamāl al-Dīn Ibn Ṭāwūs (d. 673/1274–5) en- titled Bināʾ al-maqāla al-fāṭimiyya fī naqḍ al-risāla al-ʿuthmāniyya. 3. Andersson, T. Early Sunni Historiography: A Study of the Tārīkh of Khalīfa b. Khayyāṭ. Leiden, 2017. * Chapter 8 provides an analysis of Khalīfa b. Khayyāṭ’s account of the battles of the Camel and Ṣiffīn. 4. Ansari, M. “Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī”. Translated by A. Bouri. In Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Edited by W. Madelung and F. Daftary. Leiden, 2007–. * His life and especially his role in the arbitration of Siffin are briefly examined.

5. Anthony, S. The Caliph and the Heretic: Ibn Sabaʾ and the Origins of Shīʿism. Leiden, 2012. * Chapter 3 examines Sayf b. ʿUmar’s account of the Battle of the Camel. 6. Bahramian, A. “ʿĀʾisha. Part 1: Biography”. Translated by M. Melvin-Koushki. In Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Edited by W. Madelung and F. Daftary. Leiden, 2007–. * A brief account of ʿĀʾisha’s involvement in the Battle of the Camel. 7. ____. “ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ”. Translated by F. Negahban. In Encyclopaedia Islamica On- line. Edited by W. Madelung and F. Daftary. Leiden, 2007–. * Examines the decisive role of ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ in the confrontations between Muʿawiya and ʿAli b. Abi Ṭlib including the Battle of Siffin. 8. Brown, J. A. C. The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon. Leiden, 2007. * Examines the historical developments concerning the emergence of the hadith collections of al-Bukharī and Muslim as the best representations of the prophetic tradition in Sunni Islam. 9. ____. Hadith: Muḥammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Second edition. Oxford, 2017. * Chapter 4 summarises the Shiʿi views on hadith, including the position of the Imams versus the Companions. 10. Crone, P. Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh, 2004 (published in the U.S. under the title God’s Rule: Government and Islam. Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought. New York, 2004). * Chapters 1–11 deal with the political thought of the major currents of the first two Islamic centuries after the conquests. Various issues pertaining to the battles of the Camel and Siffin are addressed in chapter 2: “The First Civil War and Sect Formation”. 11. ____ and M. Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge, 1986. * Chapters 2 and 5 examine various ideas pertaining to the conception of the caliph as religious authority, as discussed in the early extant sources. 12. ____ and F. W. Zimmermann. The Epistle of Sālim b. Dhakwān. Oxford, 2001. * The early Murjiʾa and events surrounding the battles of the Camel and Ṣiffīn are dealt with on pp. 186–194, 219–250. 13. Djaït, H. La grande discorde. Religion et politique dans l’islam des origines. Paris, 1989. * An account of the major events from the death of the Prophet to Muʿawiya’s accession. About a quarter of the book (pp. 159–259) is taken up with the battles of the Camel and Ṣiffīn.

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14. El-Hibri, T. Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs. New York, 2010. Paperback edition, 2018. * Chapter 6 comprises an account and analysis of the battles of the Camel and Ṣiffīn. 15. El Omari, R. “Accommodation and Resistance: Classical Muʿtazilites on Ḥadith”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 71.2 (2012): 231–256. 16. ____. The Theology of Abū l-Qasim al-Balkhi/al-Kaʿbi (d. 319/931). Leiden, 2016. * Chapter 6 presents this Muʿtazili theologian’s views on the question of who should lead the Muslim community after the Prophet’s passing. 17. El Shamsy, A. The Canonization of Islamic Law: A Social and Intellectual History. Cambridge, 2013. * Focusing on al-Shafiʿi and the tradition associated with him, this monograph provides an engaging account of the transformation of Islamic law during its formative period through the lens of scriptural canonization. Chapters 1–3 explore the intellectual context of 2nd/8th century Medina and Iraq where al-Shafiʿi developed his ideas regarding the authority of the prophetic tradition, hadith authenticity and consensus. 18. Gimaret, D. La doctrine d’al-Ashʿarī. Paris, 1990. * The last two chapters (pp. 517–566) briefly examine al-Ashʿarī’s conception of the prophetic tradition and present his critical perspectives on the Shiʿi conception of the imamate. 19. Hagler, A. M. “The Echoes of Fitna: Developing Historiographical Interpreta- tions of the Battle of Siffin”. PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2011. 20. Hallaq, W. B. “On the Authoritativeness of Sunni Consensus”. International Jour- nal of Middle Eastern Studies 18 (1986): 427–454. 21. ____. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge, 2005. * The Companions as a source of legal authority are discussed on pp. 102–121, 194–206. 22. Hansu, H. “Debates on the Authority of Hadith in Early Islamic Intellectual His- tory: Identifying al-Shafiʿi’s Opponents in Jimaʿ al-ʿIlm”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 136.3 (2016): 515–533. 23. Hinds, M. Studies in Early Islamic History. Edited by J. Bacharach, L. Conrad and P. Crone. Princeton, 1996. * Chapters 1–4 address various issues pertaining to the first century of the Hijra including the murder of the Caliph ʿUthman and the Battle of Siffin. Specifically, chapter 3, “The Ṣiffīn Arbitration Agreement”, analyses the text of the two extant versions of the agreement; chapter 4, “The Banners and Battle-Cries of the Arabs at Ṣiffīn”, similarly focuses on two manuscripts of a text that describes the dispo- sition of troops at Ṣiffīn.

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24. Hodgson, M. The Venture of Islam, vol. 1. Chicago, 1974. * Sections of particular relevance are “The Early Muslim State, 625–692” (pp. 187–230) and “The Islamic Opposition, 692–750” (pp. 241–279). 25. Husayn, N. “The Rehabilitation of ʿAli in Sunni Ḥadith and Historiography”. Jour- nal of the Royal Asiatic Society 29.4 (2019): 565–583. * A study of some of the ways in which Sunni scholars attempted to create an image of ʿAli in line with their central doctrines through selective use of extant materials found in the hadith and historical literature. 26. Jabali, F. The Companions of the Prophet: A Study of Geographical Distribution and Political Alignment. Leiden, 2003. * Chapters 1–2 present a historical overview of the various definitions provided for “Companion”, debates concerning the Companions’ probity (ʿadala), and their stances during the fitna. This monograph also provides a comparison between the background of the Companions who settled in Iraq, Syria and Egypt and those who took part in the battle of Ṣiffīn. 27. Kennedy, H. The Caliphate: A Pelican Introduction. London, 2016. * Chapter 1 provides an overview of the concept of the caliphate as well as the major events unfolding during the caliphates of Abu Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿUthman and ʿAli. 28. Lowry, J. E. Early Islamic Legal Theory: The Risāla of Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al- Shāfiʿī. Leiden, 2007. * Chapter 4 presents al-Shafiʿi’s conception of and arguments for the authority of the prophetic tradition. 29. Lucas, Scott C. Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunnī Islam: The Legacy of the Generation of Ibn Saʿd, Ibn Maʿīn, and Ibn Ḥanbal. Leiden, 2004. * Following a survey of Shiʿi views on the Companions, chapter 6 explores 3rd/9th century Sunni approaches that led to the doctrine of the collective probity (ʿadāla) of the Companions as one of three foundational principles of Sunni Islam. 30. Madelung, W. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cam- bridge, 1997. * This comprehensive history of the conflict between the Banu Hāshim and Quraysh during the reign of the first four caliphs includes a detailed account of the battles of the Camel and Ṣiffīn (pp. 141–183, 184–238). 31. Melchert, C. Hadith, Piety, and Law: Selected Studies. Atlanta, 2015. * The first five chapters include studies on the lives and works of three early Sunni scholars and their hadith compilations as well as their methods of hadith authentication.

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32. ____. “The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth”. In Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shiʿi Practice and Thought, edited by S. al- Sarhan, chapter 3. London, 2020. 33. Motzki, H. Die Anfänge islamischer Jurisprudenz. Ihre Entwicklung in Mekka bis zur Mitte des 2./8. Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, 1991. English translation by M. Katz as The Origins of Islamic Jurisprudence: Meccan Fiqh before the Classical Schools. Leiden, 2002. * An analysis of the earliest phase of Islamic jurisprudence based principally on the Muṣannaf of ʿAbd al-Razzāq (d. 211/826), with a critique of Schacht’s ap- proach. 34. Multiple Authors. “ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib”. In Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Edited by W. Madelung and F. Daftary. Leiden, 2007–. * The events surrounding the battles of the Camel and Siffin are surveyed in the section “Caliphate” written by A. Bahramian and translated by M. Melvin-Koushki. 35. Muranyi, M. Die Prophetengenossen in der frühislamischen Geschichte. Bonn, 1973. * An examination of the role of the Companions in the early period and their contribution to the literature of hadith. 36. Nagel, T. Das Problem der Orthodoxie im frühen Islam. In Studien zum Minderhei tenproblem im Islam, vol. 1. Bonn, 1973. * An analysis of the term “sunna” as referring to the first three caliphs is provided on pp. 7–44. 37. ____. Was ist der Islam? Grundzüge einer Weltreligion. Berlin, 2018. * Brief introductory remarks on Sunni and Shiʿi Islam as well as the events pertaining to the fitna are to be found on pp. 300–311 from chapter 10: “Was sind Sunniten?” as well as pp. 332–349 from chapter 11: “Was sind Schiiten?” 38. al-Qāḍi al-Nuʿmān. Disagreements of the Jurists: A Manual of Islamic Legal Theo- ry. Edited and translated by D. J. Stewart. New York, 2015. * Chapter 7 comprises an elaborate refutation of the doctrine of consensus by a prominent Ismaʿili jurist of the 4th/10th century. 39. al-Shafiʿi, Muhammad ibn Idris. The Epistle on Legal Theory. Edited and translated by J. E. Lowry. New York, 2013. * The pertinent sections of The Epistle include al-Shafiʿi’s discussions on the authority of the prophetic tradition as a binding source besides the Qurʾan (pp. 62–81); the authority of uncorroborated transmitted reports as sources of the prophetic tradition (pp. 268–335); reliance on the opinions of the Compan- ions (pp. 430–433) in legal matters; and the status of consensus (pp. 334–339 and 433–435).

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40. al-Shīrāzī, Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm. Kitāb al-Lumaʿ fī uṣūl al-fiqh; le Livre des Rais il- luminant les fondements de la compréhension de la loi: Traité de théorie légale musulmane. French translation and annotation by É. Chaumont. Berkeley, 1999. * al-Shīrazī’s justifications for the doctrine of consensus along with Chaumont’s useful annotations are found on pp. 227–251. 41. Shoshan, B. Poetics of Islamic Historiography: Deconstructing al-Ṭabarī’s History. Leiden, 2004. * Chapters 5–8 offer a critical reading of al-Tabari’s account of four related epi- sodes in Islamic history: the Saqīfa, ʿUthman’s murder, the Battle of Siffin, and Ḥusayn’s martyrdom. 42. Siddiqui, S. Law and Politics under the Abbasids: An Intellectual Portrait of al- Juwayni. Cambridge, 2019. * Chapter 6 analyses the doctrine of consensus as espoused in the writings of al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085). 43. Stewart, D. J. “Consensus, Authority, and the Interpretive Community in the Thought of Muḥammad b. Jarīr al-Ṭabarī”. Journal of Qur’anic Studies 18.2 (2016): 130–179. * An examination of al-Ṭabarī’s use of the term ḥujja (lit. “proof”) as a means of shedding light on his conception of consensus. 44. ____. “Ejmāʿ”. Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition. Edited by E. Yarshater. New York, 1996–. 45. ____. Islamic Legal Orthodoxy: Twelver Shiite Responses to the Sunni Legal System. Salt Lake City, 1998. Paperback edition, 2007. * Chapters 4 (“Adoption of Consensus”) and 5 (“Rejection of Consensus”) are of particular relevance. 46. ____. “al-Sharif al-Murtaḍ (d. 436/1044)”. In Islamic Legal Thought: A Compendi- um of Muslim Jurists, edited by O. Arabi, D. S. Powers and S. A. Spectorsky, chapter 9. Leiden, 2013. * Pages 169–195 include an analysis and translation of al-Murtaḍ’s discussion on consensus as outlined in his al-Intiṣār. 47. al-Tabari, Muhammad b. Jarīr. The History of al-Tabari, vol. 17: The First Civil War. Translated and annotated by G. R. Hawting. Albany, 1996. * See the Translator’s Foreword. 48. van Ess, J. “L’autorité de la tradition prophétique dans la théologie muʿtazilite”. In Kleine Schriften, edited by H. Biesterfeldt, vol. 2, part 6, chapter 14. Leiden, 2018. 49. ____. “Neue Fragmente aus dem K. an-nakṯ des Naẓẓām”. In Kleine Schriften, edited by H. Biesterfeldt, vol. 2, part 6, chapter 12. Leiden, 2018.

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* These fragments, complementing van Ess’s earlier study of al-Naẓẓām (see the Bibliography), contain al-Naẓẓām’s criticism of the Companions. 50. ____. “Political Ideas in Early Islamic Religious Thought”. In Kleine Schriften, edited by H. Biesterfeldt, vol. 2, part 6, chapter 7. Leiden, 2018. * This chapter includes discussions concerning the significance of the battles of the Camel and Siffin in relation to political ideas debated in early Islamic thought. 51. ____. Prémices de la théologie musulmane. Paris, 2002. English translation by J. M. Todd as The Flowering of Muslim Theology. Cambridge, 2006. * Chapter 4 presents an insightful analysis of the events unfolding during the rule of the four “rightly guided” caliphs—including the battles of the Camel and Siffin—and their ensuing political and theological consequences upon Sunni and Shiʿi thought. 52. Watt, W. M. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. Edinburgh, 1973. * Pages 9–20 present an overview of the Kharijites, their doctrines and involvement during the caliphate of ʿAli including the battles of Siffin and al-Nahrawān. 53. Weiss, B. G. The Search for God’s Law: Islamic Jurisprudence in the Writings of Sayf al-Dīn al-Āmidi. Revised edition. Salt Lake City, 2010. * The book provides a lucid analysis of the views of the influential Shafiʿi-Ashʿarī thinker Sayf al-Dīn al-Āmidi (d. 631/1233) on legal theory, including the authority of the prophetic tradition (chapter 4: “The Qurʾan and Sunna”) and consensus (chapter 5: “The Ijmāʿ”). 54. al-Yaʿqubi, Ibn Wāḍiḥ. The Works of Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī: An English Translation. Volume 3, pp. 821–882. Edited by M. S. Gordon, C. F. Robinson, E. K. Rowson and M. Fishbein. Leiden, 2018. * A translation of al-Yaʿqubi’s (d. after 295/908) account of the battles of the Camel, Ṣiffīn and al-Nahrawān as narrated in his History (Taʾrīkh). 55. Zaman, M. Q. Religion and Politics under the Early ʿAbbāsids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunnī Elite. Leiden, 1997. * Chapter 2 includes a discussion of the attitude of the early ʿAbbāsids and the Murjiʾa to the Companions and in particular the first four caliphs. 56. Zysow, A. The Economy of Certainty: An Introduction to the Typology of Islamic Legal Theory. Atlanta, 2013. * Chapter 3 provides an insightful analysis of the doctrine of consensus as discussed amongst medieval Sunni scholars.

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§2. The Doctrine of the Imamate

57. Abdulsater, H. Shiʿi Doctrine, Muʿtazili Theology: al-Sharif al-Murtaḍ and Imami Discourse. Edinburgh, 2017. * Chapter 6 provides a summary analysis of al-Murtaḍ’s views on prophecy and the imamate. 58. Amir-Moezzi, M. A. “Early Shīʿī Theology”. In Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theol- ogy, edited by S. Schmidtke, chapter 4. Oxford, 2016. 59. ____. Le guide divin dans le shîʿisme originel: Aux sources de l’ésotérisme en islam. Paris, 1992. English translation by D. Streight as The Divine Guide in Early Shiʿism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Albany, 1994. * A detailed study of the early doctrines and beliefs of Imāmī Shiʿism. 60. ____. La preuve de Dieu: La mystique shi’ite à travers l’oeuvre de Kulaynî IXe–Xe siècle. Paris, 2018. * A perceptive study of the figure of the imam and an annotated translation of extracts from the Kitāb al-ḥujja forming part of al-Kulaynī’s Uṣūl al-kāfī. 61. ____. La religion discrète: Croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l’islam shi’ite. Paris, 2006. English translation by H. Karmali, D. Streight, D. Bachrach and A. Jacobs as The Spirituality of Shiʿi Islam: Beliefs and Practices. London, 2011. * A collection of seminal articles on various dimensions of Shiʿism. Chapters 1, 3–4, and 7 are of particular relevance to the doctrine of the imamate. 62. ____. “Shiʿite Doctrine”. Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition. Edited by E. Yarshater. New York, 1996–. 63. ____ and C. Jambet. Qu’est-ce que le shî’isme? Paris, 2004. English translation by K. Casler and E. Ormsby as What is Shiʿism? An Introduction. London, 2018. * The first six chapters examine various dimensions of the concept of the imamate with particular reference to the esoteric elements in Shiʿi Islam. 64. Ansari, H. L’imamat et l’Occultation selon l’imamisme: Étude bibliographique et histoire des textes. Leiden, 2017. * An illuminating study of the religious and historical evolution of hadith literature on the imamate and the Occultation, partially based on a reconstruction of early lost works. 65. ____ and S. Schmidtke. Medieval Imāmī Thought in Transition: An Archaeological Inquiry into Texts and Their Transmission. Cordoba, 2020. * Most of Part One consists of an in-depth study of al-Sharīf al-Murtaḍā’s theological thought and the transmission of his oeuvre. 66. Bar-Asher, M. M. “The Authority to Interpret the Qurʾan”. In The Study of Shiʿi Islam: History, Theology and Law, edited by F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda, chapter 7. London, 2014.

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* An analysis of the imam’s authority as the interpreter of the Qurʾan as con- ceived in Shiʿi exegetical tradition. 67. ____. Scripture and Exegesis in Early Imāmi Shiism. Leiden, 1999. * Chapter 4 provides a detailed exposition of the doctrine of the imamate as reflected primarily in the 3rd–4th/9th–10th century Imāmi Shiʿi Qurʾan commen- taries of Furāt al-Kufi, al-Qummi and al-ʿAyyāshī. 68. Bayhom-Daou, T. Shaykh Mufid. Oxford, 2005. * Chapters 3–4 present al-Mufīd’s conception of the imamate, based on historical and rational arguments. 69. Dakake, M. M. The Charismatic Community: Shiʿite Identity in Early Islam. Albany, 2007. * Chapters 1–8 discuss the central place of walāya in Shiʿi Islam. 70. Gleave, R. “Recent Research into the History of Early Shiʿism”. History Compass 7/6 (2009): 1593–1605. * Provides a useful analytical survey of some of the recent scholarship in Euro- pean languages on early Shiʿism including a number of studies on the development of the doctrine of the imamate up to the late 4th/10th century. 71. Haider, N. Shiʿi Islam: An Introduction. Cambridge, 2014. * Chapter 2 provides a brief introduction to Shiʿi conceptions of the imamate. 72. Kohlberg, E. “Imam and Community in the Pre-Ghayba Period”. In Authority and Political Culture in Shiʿism, edited by Said A. Arjomand, 25–53. Albany, 1988. Re- produced with minor revisions in Chapter 10 of the present volume. 73. ____. “The Term ‘Muḥaddath’ in Twelver Shiʿism”. In Studia Orientalia Memoriae D. H. Baneth Dedicata, edited by J. Blau et al., 39–47. Jerusalem, 1979. Reproduced with minor revisions in Chapter 13 of the present volume. 74. Lalani, A. Early Shiʿi Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. London, 2000. * Chapter 4 presents the views attributed to the fifth Imam, Muhammad al-Baqir, concerning the doctrine of the imamate. 75. McDermott, M. J. The Theology of al-Shaikh al-Mufīd. Beirut, 1978. * Chapters 4 and 5 present a succinct and useful explanation of al-Mufīd’s theological perspectives on prophecy and the imamate. 76. Modarressi, H. Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shiʿite Islam. Princeton, 1993. * An important account of the development of early debates amongst Shiʿi scholars on the imamate, addressing questions such as the imams’ divine designation, the process of succession, and the function and scope of authority. Particular attention is paid to the views of Ibn Qiba al-Razi (d. before 319/931). 77. Momen, M. An Introduction to Shiʿi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʿism. New Haven and London, 1985.

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* Chapters 7–8 introduce the doctrine of the imamate and the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. 78. Newman, A. J. The Formative Period of Twelver Shiʿism: Ḥadith as Discourse Be- tween Qum and Baghdad. Richmond, 2000. * A study of early developments in Imāmi theology regarding the qualities of the imams and the scope of their knowledge as primarily reflected in the three earliest extant Imāmi hadith compendia. 79. Sander, P. Zwischen Charisma und Ratio: Entwicklungen in der frühen imāmitischen Theologie. Berlin, 1994. * An enquiry into the development of Imāmi theology prior to the onset of the Occultation, including discussions concerning various conceptions of the imamate in this period. 80. van Ess, J. Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra. Eine Geschichte des religiösen Denkens im frühen Islam. Berlin and New York, 1991– 7. English translation by J. O’Kane as Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Leiden, 2017–9. * The main currents and personalities of the early Shiʿa including various views on the imamate are discussed in vol. 1, pp. 233–403 (= vol. 1, pp. 268–473 in the English translation). 81. Vilozny, R. Constructing a Worldview: Al-Barqī’s Role in the Making of Early Shiʿi Faith. Turnhout, 2017. * The unique relationship between the Imam and the Shiʿa as God’s elect is among the topics discussed in Chapter 2 (“Election”).

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