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Home , Yala National Park

Leopards & other Wildlife of Yala

Photography Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne & other Wildlife of Yala

Articles and Images on the Wildlife of Yala

Compiled & edited by Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

with contributions from (alphabetically listed) Lal Anthonis Karen Conniff Chandra Jayawardana Namal Kamalgoda Andrew Kittle & Anjali Watson Chandrika Maelge Sriyanie Miththapala Adrian Neville Shyamala Ratnayeke Ravi Samarasinha Charles Santiapillai, Rajnish Vandercone & S. Wijeyamohan Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Data Sheets designed by Chandra Jayawardana, Nadeera Weerasinghe, Nilantha Kodituwakku & Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Leopards & other Wildlife of Yala

Photography Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Leopards & other Wildlife of Yala

Design and Layout

Design Consultant Chandrika Maelge (Jetwing Eco Holidays)

Production and Layout Copyline (Pvt) Ltd © Copyright Individual contributions should be The intellectual copyrights are cited as follows. asserted of the authors and Samarasinha, R. (2004) Using photographer. Certain articles have photographic identification to study been reproduced with the permission the Leopards of Yala in “Yala, Leopards of LMD, Serendipity, Serendib and and other Wildlife” compiled & edited Ayubowan. The photographic images by Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne. are the copyright of Gehan de Silva , : Published by Wijeyeratne ([email protected], Jetwing Hotels and Jetwing Eco www.jetwingeco.com) and cannot be Holidays under the Jetwing Research reproduced without his express Initiative. permission. Images Published by Jetwing Hotels and The images in the book are a Jetwing Eco Holidays combination of digital still images and (www.jetwingeco.com) under the those taken on slide film Jetwing Research Initiative. First (transparencies). All of the images on Edition June 2004. slide film are on Fuji Provia 100 or occassionaly on Fuji Sensia 100. The Citation images in the book have not had any Yala, Leopards and other Wildlife subject matter added or removed, (2004). Articles and images. Compiled through digital manipulation. & edited by Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne with contributions from various authors. Photography by Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne. Published by Jetwing Hotels and Jetwing Eco Holidays under the Jetwing Research Initiative. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

A medley of styles

It is inevitable that in a compilation of writings from a dozen or so authors, there will be a multiplicity of styles. This is even more pronounced as the style of writings vary from a light, ‘magazine’ style (notably by Gehan) to a style which is semi-technical. Rather than homegenise the writing into one style, the different tones of the articles have been maintained to cater to the tastes of a wide audience. In a few cases, the more technical articles have been toned down to make it more intelligible to a popular audience. The use of or abscence of the scientifc or Latin name has also been dictated by the style of the writing. In the more technical articles, the scientific names have been retained. n

Acknowledgements

This book would not have been Samarasinha and the enigmatic Finally, I wish to thank my wife possible without the support of US also assisted by reviewing the Nirma and my two daughters my colleagues at Jetwing. I text. Any errors which remain Maya and Amali who have extend special thanks to Hiran are mine. always given me ‘space’ to Cooray and Lalin de Mel of pursue my publishing efforts. Jetwing Hotels for their The naturalist guides of Jetwing encouragement. Chandrika Eco Holidays, Mola’s jeep Maelge’s efficiency as Team drivers at the Yala Safari Game Leader of Jetwing Eco Holidays Lodge and the trackers of Yala created room for me to National Park have given me undertake such a venture. The the benefit of their time and contributors responded knowledge. The staff at the Yala graciously to my invitation for Safari Game Lodge have always articles and were most prompt made me and my guests feel at with their texts in a matter of a home. My thanks to Sathi and few weeks. Thanks to the design Anjali Watson for the use of team at Copyline for turning the their map. Many tour operators, book around in a record six clients and media personnel months from initiation to have accompanied me on my completion! Dr Sriyanie game drives. They have Miththapala helped greatly by complied patiently with my two undertaking the final round of usual requests, ‘Don’t move and copy editing and proof reading. don’t talk’ and occasionally a Vijita de Silva, Ravi third, “Don’t even breathe”.

Yala National Park

Contents

Articles Yala National Park An introduction to the yala national park ...... 20 One evening in yala...... 28 Yala, a photographer’s paradise ...... 30

Leopards No elephants for me, please, I’ll take leopards! Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation ...... 36 An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala ...... 42 Using photographic identification to study the leopards of yala ...... 50 A thumbnail sketch of some leopards of yala ...... 54 The cubs of kota bendi wewa ...... 56 Gmc 5, a star performer ...... 64 Leopard watching in yala ...... 68

Elephants The asian elephant ...... 84 Studying the tuskers of yala ...... 98 Clash of the titans ...... 104

Other Animals Sloth bears ...... 112 The golden jackal ...... 116 of yala...... 120 Reptiles of yala ...... 130 ...... 136

Contents |

Birds Yala the understated birder’s paradise ...... 148 Watching shorebirds around yala ...... 164

Butterflies Butterfly watching in yala ...... 176 Butterfly watching reports from yala ...... 180

Dragonflies Dragonflies of yala and tissamaharama ...... 186

Plant Life A few common trees of yala ...... 192

Information Contributing data to leopard research ...... 204 Signing up as a contributor of video and/or still images ...... 206 Data sheet for contributions of video footage ...... 208 Data sheet for logging contributions of still photographs ...... 210 Data sheet for recording information of leopard sightings ...... 212 Accommodation at yala ...... 216 Bibliography ...... 220 The contributors...... 225 The writers ...... 228 18 Yala National Park

19 An introduction to the yala national park CHANDRA JAYAWARDANA

The Ruhunu National Park, The recorded history of the Yala area event. But no one really knows for popularly known as Yala dates back to about 500 BC. A young certain what factor or combination of prince, named Rohana from factors triggered this relatively rapid National Park is located in the neighboring India, established the city abandonment of the area. South-east of Sri Lanka lying and kingdom of ‘Rohana’ in the Subsequently, the jungle took over this between longitudes and ‘revenue division’ of Magama Pattu, once populated area which is now a latitudes of 600 16’- 600 25’N thus recording the beginning of the sanctuary for wildlife. Rohana dynasty. History further 0 0 and 81 22’ - 81 32' E records that in 307 BC a fugitive prince The area remained a free hunting area respectively, along the coastal Mahanaga, established an independent for ‘sportsmen’ until 1900, when it was belt, east of Tissamaharama, in sovereignty, making Magama, a small declared a Game Reserve for controlled the District. It is hamlet near the Kirindi Oya mouth, hunting. Mr. H.H. Englebrecht, a Boer his capital. The remnants of dagabas prisoner of war, was appointed as the situated about 300 km from (stupas) and ancient artificial reservoirs first Warden. The British did not Colombo, and is the premier (tanks or ’wewas’) with a cascading release him to return to his native national park of the 15 national system of water flowing from one tank South Africa on account of his refusal to another, are present in the area. to swear allegiance to the British parks in the country. ’Yala’ is in These, built by competent civil Crown. The area remained a Game fact a complex of National engineers, indicate the existence of an Reserve till 1938, when a section of it Reserves comprising five Blocks advanced agricultural civilization in the was declared a National Park, the (97,881.3 hectares), including a area, encompassing the area of the Yala present day, Yala Block I. protected areas. There are over 40 well Strict and three documented archeological sites and Yala lies in the Arid Zone of the Sanctuaries covering an area of hundreds of ancient, cascading type country, where the annual rainfall is 151,778.8 hectares. Of the five ‘wewas’. However, after about the 10th less than 1,000 mm. The area Blocks, only Block I is set aside century AD there seemed to have experiences the North-east monsoon occurred a sudden de-population from about November to January and a for game viewing, at present, an bringing the golden era to an end. spell of short inter-monsoon rains area of 14,100.6 hectares in Wars among minor kings, famine and again in March and April. The rest of 20 extent. disease may have contributed to this the year is dry with a severe 21

An introduction to the yala national park | Chandra Jayawardana

from July to mid October. The annual herbivore and an estimated 400 to 500 Stripe necked mongoose and the Grey mean temperature is about 270 C and elephants inhabit all five Blocks of the mongoose along with the Ring-tailed occasionally could rise up to about 370 Park. The elephants are also believed Civet (Small civet), Common palm cat C. to engage in seasonal movements in (Toddy cat ) and the endemic Golden and out of the Park to areas of palm civet are other smaller carnivores The Yala Protected Area Complex can Lunugamvehera, Uda Walawe, found here. The Jackal is the only wild be thought of as comprising broadly of Bundala, Kumana, Lahugala and Gal member of the order Canidea, found seven major habitat types. Oya. in Sri Lanka. The is the only species of bear found in the Country. It

 Sand dunes dominated by Spinifex The Park is dominated by Spotted is best seen during the Palu season littoreus, Ipomoea pescapre and Launea , which can be seen in large (June and July), on Palu trees feeding sarmentosa. numbers especially after the monsoon on the sweet yellow berries. Among the

 Scrub forest, chiefly thorn scrub, rains. Spotted Deer can be seen also in monkeys, the Grey Langur and the dominated by Maliththan, large numbers during dawn and dusk endemic Toque Monkey can be seen. Kukulkatu, Kukurumana, in the open plains. During the hot The Slender loris, being mostly Lunuwaraniya, Ranawara, etc. afternoons, they seek the shade of the nocturnal, is hardly ever seen. The

 Forest cover with dominant trees forest to avoid the severe heat. The Indian porcupine and the Pangolin are such as Palu, Weera, Satin, Kon, Spotted Deer form the major food two other nocturnal mammals which Milla and Wood Apple. resource for the leopard. Sambhar, the are rarely seen.

 Herbaceous cover dominated by largest member of the deer family, can Thora, Katupila and grass species. be seen in the dune areas or in the Around 230 species of birds, including

 Riverine forest dominated by vicinity of in small numbers. indigenous, endemic and migrant Kumbuk, Mee, Helamba, Thimbiri The Barking Deer is rather difficult to species, have been recorded. The and Epiththa. view, being a shy animal. Mouse Deer raptors are well represented and

 Fresh water bodies (artificial) and too can be seen occasionally. The Wild visitors are likely to see the Changeable lagoons fringed with Pig, which helps to keep the area clear Hawk Eagle and Serpent Eagle. species of Avecennia marina, of dead carcasses, and the Wild Luminitzera racemosa, Rhizophora Buffalo, together hold their own at the Basking crocodiles are a common sight mucronata, etc. numerous water holes and in open at water holes. The two threatened

 Rocky outcrops with several rock areas (plains) of the Park. species, the Marsh and the Estuarine pools. crocodiles are found here, although it Among the carnivores, the leopard is is mainly the Marsh which is There are 280 species of trees and the major attraction. It is estimated encountered here. All five of the plants including many medicinal plants that there are about 35 of them in threatened species of sea turtles visit in these different vegetation types.. Block I. Becouse leopards are top the shore for nesting. All five of the There are 24 fresh water holes of which predators, the can be seen relatively fatally poisonous snakes of the country the Buttuwa Wewa, Mahaseelawa Wewa, easily during daylight in Yala, one of and non poisonous snakes such as the Palatupana Wewa, Wilapala Wewa, the few places in the world where one Python are present, but difficult to see. Koma Wewa and Gonagala Wewa retain can do so. The scrub jungle, open areas Three endemic geckos and five species a little water during the drought for and the rocky outcrops offer an of skinks are also found in the Park. the thirst-stricken animals of the park. excellent habitat for the leopard. Other The Park also harbors two species of predators found here include the fresh water terrapins and the elegant The Park is a refuge for 32 species of , Rusty-spotted cat and the Star tortoise. Among the other 24 mammals. The elephant is the largest Jungle cat. The Ruddy mongoose, tetrapod (four legged) reptiles there are the Land monitor and a few lizards.

The butterfly fauna is well represented by about 40 species. Common amongst them are the members of the family Danaidae (crows, tigers and leopards). thirteen species of have been recorded.

A varied matrix of eco systems has resulted in a high diversity of fauna and flora. The evenings and mornings are the best times to visit the Park. Valuing the advice of the wildlife guides, avoiding noise and keeping to the roads are mandatory when viewing wildlife. No litter please. Help to keep the Park clean. n

25

One evening in yala...... GEHAN DE SILVA WIJEYERATNE (This article was first published in the 2004 first quarter issue of Ayubowan, the newsletter of Jetwing)

It was noon and the Goda over, purposefully. A few The naturalists joined us for lunch and Kalapuwa shimmered and minutes later my wife Nirma I picked their brains. A Sloth bear had been visiting Welmal Kema, a water glinted like a silver mirror pointed out to our children, an hole set in granitic gneiss. On our under the hot noon day sun, elephant, on our left. The year evening game drive we headed off to which bakes the sand dune- 2003 was going to end on a Welmal Kema with Priyantha, one of ridden southern coastal strip of strong note and 2004 was going the local jeep drivers at the wheel, and Lionel, an experienced tracker. Lionel st Sri Lanka. It was the 31 of to get off to a good start. examined the tracks on the sand near December 2003 and less than Instinct told me that I was going Welmal Kema and announced that a half a day was left of the old to have another good visit to the Sloth bear mother and cub had crossed year. I turned, just before the Game Lodge. A safe prediction, the road. A few minutes later he announced that another Sloth bear had gates of the Yala National Park, as I have never had a passed through recently. We slowed into the final kilometer leading disappointing visit. Set with the down and proceeded cautiously. It was to the Yala Safari Game Lodge. country’s premier national park going to be another, “If only we had come a few minutes earlier”. Wrong. On my left was the national on one side, the sea on another Straight out of a script, the male was park and on my right, a plain and the Goda Kalapuwa, on the road, but moved in and interspersed with scrub and salt on the other, the location of the vanished into the scrub. We moved on tolerant Maliththan trees. A Game Lodge is unmatched. and waited at the water hole. The Sloth bear ambled in, in no hurry, drank, large bird, flying against the Friendly staff, dining under the and sauntered over the rocks and glare of the sun caught my eye. I stars with backlighting from the disappeared from view into the scrub pulled over wondering what swimming pool, game drives under a large Palu tree. bird could present so large a and nature walks - all these Surely it could not get any better? But silhouette. A Black-necked made visits to the Game Lode it did. We came across leopard pugs on Stork, one of the rarest and ever invigorating. the Akasa Chaitiya Road. The tracks 28 largest birds in Sri Lanka, flew were very fresh, and were superimposed on jeeps tracks made recently. It was probably a sub adult who had begun an early evening patrol. It had retreated into the jungle, perhaps on hearing our approach. We decided to run the length of the road again and were interrupted by a family of elephants who crossed the road. Elephant families are female- dominated. The adult females were jealously guarding two young, who may have been only a few years old. Two adults stood side by side with a calf in the middle and stared at us defiantly. Sand was kicked and sprayed over their body in a show of force. ‘Come no closer’ was the message. The two adults rumbled like thunder. They then clasped their trunks and in a very unusual display joined the tips of their trunks, as if communicating in hushed whispers. A loud trumpet from the other side of the road explained their unusual anxiety. More elephants were on the other side. We moved away, allowing the rest of the family to merge together without obstruction.

Over dinner, I chatted with guests. The stars shone brightly overhead. A wild pig visited the buffet and was chased away. A Common palm civet, a nocturnal hunter, slunk through the grounds. An Indian nightjar churred and a Collared scops owl hooted from the Bahunia trees. The year 2003 ended on a wild note.

Over the next few days, we had four leopard sightings, amongst a clutch of thrilling wildlife encounters. The year 2004 will see me back at the Yala Safari Game Lodge, as many times as I can 29 find reasons to keep going back. n Yala, a photographer’s paradise NAMAL KAMALGODA

Ruhunu National Park or Yala hundred species of birds, as it is fondly known, is a migratory and resident. This wildlife photographer’s national park has also got a paradise. Yala is home to a wide good road network, with water variety of photographic subjects. holes within easy viewing from For instance, Yala is home to the road. This is an ideal recipe elephants, leopards, bears, to make Yala a true wildlife buffalos, deer, plenty of birds, photographer’s paradise. butterflies, etc. What is even better is that most of these Getting an early start will help. Leopards, in particular, are seen early subjects are, to some degree, morning or in the evening. Bring some habituated to vehicles. Yala has water and snacks, as one never knows had a long history of human how long you will have a willing visitation and protection. Thus subject. Bring plenty of film, the middle of the jungle is not a practical animals and birds have place to run out of film. Freedom Cafe developed a degree of tolerance near the park entrance and the wildlife to vehicles. Landscape shop at the Yala Safari Game Lodge are your last chance. If you use photographers need not feel left professional film, buy it in Colombo. out, Yala has some stunning Wear coloured clothes, greens beaches, awe inspiring rocky and browns are preferable. If you are outcrops, scenic water holes, driving yourself, drive at a slow steady pace, and you will see a lot more. open plains, lagoons, shrub Approach animals and birds slowly and jungle and riverine forests. Yala they are less likely to be frightened by 30 is also home to over two you. 31 32 Yala, a photographer’s paradise | Namal Kamalgoda

The next factor is noise. This has to be kept at a minimum. Sudden braking or engines revving, and chatter from within the vehicle are all sure-fire ways of disturbing your potential subject. If you have to talk, whisper. Keep noise down to the level of the sound of the camera shutter.

I noted earlier that animals and birds are habituated to vehicles, but I did not mention humans. Most animals seem to tolerate vehicles better then humans. Pointing hands, sticking heads out of windows and popping out of sunroofs will not help. The latter is not only a good way to chase an animal or bird away but it is also against the This bag, when draped across the these water holes. Keep yourself park rules. All creatures have a comfort vehicle windowsill and the camera informed of the latest animal zone for vehicles and humans. Usually rested on it, offers remarkable stability. movements by asking either the the comfort zone for vehicles is less In Yala, you may often see seasoned Wildlife Department guide or the than for humans. As long as all body wildlife photographers driving around naturalists at the Yala Safari Game parts are inside the vehicle, noise is it with platforms attached to their Lodge. (There is a useful wildlife at a minimum and you approach windows. This is not to rest their sightings news board at the Game slowly, you are likely to have longer and elbows on, but to hold the beanbag. Lodge). This will give you a head start closer sightings. Basically, if the quality in your search. of your sightings are better, it will lead Lighting in Yala can be tricky. to better photos. If your subject is on Throughout most of the year, the One single factor will determine your the wrong side of the photographer, lighting is good, but light fades fast in long-term ability as a wildlife drive past, turn at a safe distance and Yala, so be prepared to use fast film, photographer and that is patience. You come back prepared for the photo assuming your lens is not fast. Fast film can not expect to be lucky all the time session. has more grain, but is more useful in nor can you hurry wild animals. I had low light conditions. Modern fast films to wait hours in the hot sun for my best Camera-shake is the wildlife such as 400 ISO are relatively low in leopard sighting. Never alter the photographer’s worst enemy. Because grain. This is fine, if you are not behaviour of your subject. Don’t photography is permitted only from planning to publish your images. For disturb nesting birds or provoke within the vehicle, it prevents the use most photographers a slightly grainy elephants to charge for a photo. Use of tripods (unless you are in one of the image is better then no image at all. In common sense when you intrude into safari jeeps) . So steady your camera the dry season dust can also be a their lives. with a beanbag or rest your hands on problem in Yala, so remember to cover the window. What is a beanbag, you up your equipment with a soft cloth. The last but most important lesson is may ask? It is a small pillow-shaped bag Remember that in the dry season life is to enjoy yourself and enjoy the bounty full of, what else but dried beans, concentrated around the waterholes, so of Yala. n 33 although rice is a common substitute. be prepared to spend sometime at 34 Leopards

35 No elephants for me, please, I’ll take leopards! Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation SRIYANIE MITHTHAPALA

The other day, in my continuous always lost in metabolism and waste the late and great mammalogist, John and losing battle to keep my products, each trophic level can Eisenberg wrote ‘The removal of a top support a smaller number of animals carnivore from an can have an bookshelves in order, I found than the previous trophic level. This impact on the relative abundance of three management plans written results in decreasing groups of herbivore species . . . In the absence of for the conservation of numbers that form a pyramid, known predators, usually one or two herbivore elephants in Sri Lanka. I shall as the ecological pyramid of numbers. species come to dominate the community. At the lowest and most numerous level, The consequence is often a direct alteration not write about their content are the primary producers, plants (see of herbaceous vegetation near to the base of (which, over three successive Figure). At the next level, lower in the food web. Top carnivores have an decades, was much the same) numbers but higher on the pyramid, important role to play in the structuring of nor how much of these plans are the primary consumers, herbivores. communities and ultimately of . Next come the secondary consumers, Thus, the preservation of carnivores becomes have been implemented (on a carnivores, still fewer in numbers. At an important consideration in the discipline scale of 1 to 10, possibly 0). the very apex, very scarce in number, of conservation biology.’ What I shall present in this essay are the top carnivores – a single, ‘reigning’ species of predator. In 1989, Since Eisenberg’s far seeing is the point of view that observation, catch-phrases and terms although much attention has have been coined to highlight this role been paid to this charismatic of predators. Top carnivores have been species, our focus in Sri Lanka called ‘keystone species’ like keystones in ancient buildings (prior to concrete should be directed instead to its and the advent of lintels), which, top carnivore - the leopard, because of their position, held up the Panthera pardus. wall over the door and with it, the entire room. Top carnivores, like In an ecosystem, all species that eat the keystones, are believed to ‘hold’ or same type of food such as herbivores, ‘maintain’ the ecosystems in which they which eat plants, belong to a single exist. 36 trophic level. Because some energy is 37 38 Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation | Sriyanie Miththapala

Because they ‘maintain’ the ecosystems the 1950s to the early 1960s, trophy elephants and are now attempting a of which they are a part, top carnivores hunters killed more than 3,000 tigers. hodgepodge of projects to conserve function much like umbrellas, which Mercifully, these practices were halted biodiversity in Sri Lanka, our provide shade, to afford protection to and made illegal in the 1960s and neighbour India decided some thirty the ecosystem. 1970s. years ago to focus on their top carnivore, the tiger, Panthera tigris. In the 1990s, another catch phrase More insidious was an ever-burgeoning entered the terminology of human population, which stripped In 1973, based on the conservation biology: ‘top down forests to make way for its recommendations by a special task conservation’ indicating that the development; fragmented ecosystems force of the Indian Board for Wildlife, processes that maintain ecosystems are so that once contiguous forests lay in the Indian government, then lead by exerted from the topmost level of the bits and pieces; and then degraded Indira Ghandi, launched Project Tiger ecological pyramid to the bottommost most of what was left. Large, vagile (far at Corbett National Park. Its aims level. ranging) carnivores such as tigers who primarily were to maintain a viable are known to travel 8 –24 kilometres in population of tigers in India and to I do not believe that it is an issue search of prey and have home ranges preserve for future generations areas whether one uses the phrase keystone in the far East that extend up to 1,000 that carried tigers as being biologically species or top-down conservation. square kilometres were suddenly important. Specifically, the government What is important is that it has been ‘cabin’d, cribb’d, confin’d’ in isolated banned habitat destruction, habitat proven that predation, as renowned big patches which restricted their degradation, poaching of any species cat specialist John Seidensticker says, movements and exposed them to new including prey species (which ‘plays a pivotal role in structuring and and menacing dangers: direct conflict contributed to a decrease in the prey preserving biodiversity in terrestrial with humans and their that base), , and harvesting of communities’ and that ‘critically led to poisoning, hunting and killing; forest products in these areas. It endangered populations of top exposure to new diseases from relocated entire villages to set aside carnivores are indicators of . . . livestock; death due to road accidents nine reserves, with extensive buffer declining ecosystem[s].’ because highways were built between zones to ensure the increase of tiger habitat patches; and increased populations. These reserves have since Notwithstanding their critical role in poaching as a consequence of an ever increased in number to 23. ecosystems, historically, large spiralling demand for skins and for carnivores have faced multiple threats body parts that are used in traditional Since its inception, scientific and long- from humans. Often, cats such as medicine. term research has been carried out in pumas (Puma concolor) in North many Project Tiger reserves not only to America, were viewed for several Isolated populations were also at risk of find out details of tiger biology and centuries as serious threats to livestock homogenisation of their genetic ecology, but also on the biology and and considered vermin. Bounties were diversity because they were unable to ecology of its prey species. India now placed on their heads and they were disperse and breed outside their natal has an extensive database of knowledge hunted and extirpated in many areas areas. of its top carnivore, so that solid of the US. Other top carnivores, such scientific management plans can be as tigers in Asia, were threatened There is no doubt about it - top formulated and implemented not at because they were considered prized carnivores are in trouble. the level of ecosystems, but at the level game species during the period of the of landscapes i.e., not working within British Raj. This ‘sport’ continued into Unlike us Sri Lankans, who have spent National Parks but on a national scale 39 the 1960s and it is reported that from decades theorising and focusing on and regional scale, to ensure the Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation | Sriyanie Miththapala

conservation of not only its top distribution, home range size and use, travel daily? We know their home carnivore, but also a multitude of other dispersal patterns, habitat use and prey ranges in Yala National Park, but what native and endemic species. selection in the rest of the country. We are their home ranges in other parks, have no national picture of the leopard in other habitats? We know that Project Tiger, like all projects, has its – what we have is piecemeal shooting, spearing, snaring and flaws and periods during which it has knowledge. poisoning leopards is increasing in Sri limped along, faltered, stopped and Lanka, but do we know whether there started again. There are endless In the ‘90s, my doctoral research are specific threats in specific areas? debates about the science of research showed that the Sri Lankan sub-species carried out in some national parks and (Panthera pardus kotiya) is unique We need to know these answers, the national estimates of tiger genetically and morphologically. We because each bit of research fits like a populations which have been obtained know that in other parts of the world, piece in a jigsaw puzzle to give us the by census, not sampling (the latter is the leopard is a highly adaptable cat, entire picture. We need to learn about the more rigorous, repeatable and which lives in a variety of habitats from this unique sub-species across its entire scientific method of estimating the cold Russian far east, to the humid range in Sri Lanka, so that we can populations). Project Tiger is by no cloud forests of Malaysia, to the deserts develop the big picture that transcends means a perfect model. Yet at the end of Namibia. We know that in most park boundaries and ecosystems. We of the day, Indian scientists and parts of the world it eats medium sized need to know these answers because of wildlife managers, have data on which hoofed mammals but can also the reality conveyed in the axiom ‘good to base their efforts of biodiversity preferentially eat primates or even conservation is based on good science’. conservation. Because the current small mammals when hoofed mammals Without data, we have no basis for trend in conservation biology has are scarce. We know that unlike tigers, conservation. shifted from the conservation of it can live in close proximity to ecosystems to the conservation of humans. It is essential that the conservation of landscapes that cut across state and the leopard, our top carnivore does not national boundaries, Indian scientists With such a diversity of habitats in our follow the path of the conservation of and wildlife managers are able to island, is our unique subspecies of the elephant, our flagship species in contribute effectively and meaningfully leopard as adaptable in these different Sri Lanka. We need to ensure that the to global efforts of saving the tiger and habitats? We know that there are road map for the conservation of to global efforts of biodiversity leopards outside national parks, living leopards is not only based on good conservation. on the edge of survival, as we have science, but is results-driven, not heard of reports from Hantana of activity-driven. We need a goal and a We, Sri Lankans, on the other hand, leopards coming into villages to prey vision for the conservation of leopards know very little about our top on dogs. But do we know exactly where which we should all work towards, carnivore, the leopard. Except for a else they are, in what kinds of habitats using a holistic approach that includes seminal study in the 1970s by John they live and how many of these all stakeholders. For several decades, Eisenberg and his collaborators on the leopards there are in the whole island? Sri Lanka has suffered from the ecology of leopards in Wilpattu Apart from counts from Yala National affliction of preparing conservation National Park, a study in the 1980s by Park, do we have scientific estimates of plans that are rarely implemented. We Charles Santiapillai and others in Yala leopard populations in other protected suffer from the disease of excessive National Park and ongoing studies in areas? Do we know whether Sri Lankan workshops and flurries of activities that Yala by Andrew Kittle and Anjali leopards switch prey in lean times? are never sustained. We need to break Watson, and also by Ravi Samarasinha, Apart from Yala National Park, do we from that stranglehold for the 40 we have scant knowledge of the exact know how far and where leopards conservation of leopards. 41 An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala ANDREW KITTLE AND ANJALI WATSON

The following information is and poaching. This article In Yala National Park, Block I, there based on the results of an focuses on the demographic are about four (3-5) resident adult male leopards, each one having a home intensive study that spanned a elements of the Yala leopard range that overlaps the home ranges of 20-month period from October population. The resident approximately five females. Adult 2000 to June 2002. Involving population numbers are specific males share portions of their home both day and night time to the time period of the study. ranges with other adult males; however, they also possess ‘core areas’ which are fieldwork. This research has However, it is posited that this not shared. Males frequently patrol provided an insight to a number population will remain relatively their territories, often repeatedly using of important aspects of this arid stable with only minor certain roads or pathways. They use zone population of leopards. fluctuations if habitat conditions scented secretions as well as urine and even faeces to mark important areas of The scope of the study included in Block I remain as they are. their range. This form of non-visual population size and communication allows leopards to ‘talk’ demography, home range We shall continue our study of leopards to each other without actually meeting in other selected sites on the island, in face to face. It is thought that this attributes, feeding ecology and differing habitats. It is only with reduces the number of meetings and behaviour. This information is knowledge of leopard populations in therefore, aggressive interactions essential for the development of the varying habitats in which they are between animals. Adult male leopards an efficient and informed found, that a conservation strategy can hunt for themselves, but they are also be developed for the Sri Lankan frequent scavengers, eating the kills conservation strategy – leopard. made by individual females within something that will be required their range. in Sri Lanka in the near future if this magnificent feline is to be Adult Males Adult male leopards in the study area Adult Females safeguarded from the combined occupy home ranges, on average, 38 Adult females in Yala National Park, pressures of habitat square km. These are considerably Block I inhabit small home ranges (on 42 fragmentation, encroachment larger than adult female home ranges. average, 15 square km of core area) 43 An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala | Andrew Kittle and Anjali Watson

due to the relative abundance of prey young male will make several forays and year-round access to freshwater. from his mother’s home-range, during There are approximately 19 adult which he effectively scouts out the lay females resident within this Block each of the land and the structure of the of whose home range is overlapped by population in the surrounding area. at least one adult male. Unlike males, These forays can last for a few days to female leopards do not have to search several weeks, but initially, the young far and wide for new territory after male always returns to the natal area. they reach adulthood; instead they The young males are, by necessity, settle down either within the range of entering the home-ranges of their mother or in an area adjacent to established adult males and frequently hers. The most important role that a crossing paths with other young males female leopard plays within the on a similar search for unoccupied population, is as a provider. Starting territory. Consequently, the probability with her first litter – usually of two or of conflict is increased. This is a vitally three cubs – at the age of 33-36 important time for these sub adult months, a female leopard will spend animals and mortality is often high most of her life providing for her during this age period. The age of young. She will remain with each set of dispersal for this age of animal is often cubs between 16 and 24 months, at dependent on prey abundance and which time she will give birth to the habitat quality. In our study area, next litter. Females prefer rocky areas dispersal occurred at approximately 26 with caves and ledges for cub rearing months of age, with variation between and these outcrops are often included locales. within an individual’s home range. Female leopards are generally regarded as better hunters than their male Cubs counterparts as they must hone their Most leopard cub litters consist of two skills in order to provide continually or three animals born after a 90–105 for their cubs. day gestation period. In Yala National Park, Block I there does not appear to be a particular birth season and young Sub-adults are born throughout the year. During Generally, leopards are considered sub- the first couple of months, the cubs are adults from approximately 18–36 hidden away in a den area, which is months of age. During this time, they usually located in a rocky outcrop in gradually stop relying upon their close proximity to water and prey. mother and begin to seek out a home Leopard cubs are dependent on their range of their own. For females, this mother’s milk for the first two months means staying within or next to their of life before being introduced slowly to natal or birth area. For males, however, meat. It is difficult to determine the this means dispersing from the natal mortality rates of young cubs as they area in search of available land in are infrequently seen during the early 44 which to establish himself. Usually, a stages of life; however it is estimated 45 An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala | Andrew Kittle and Anjali Watson

that almost half of the cubs born die 17 litters were observed. At the very as observers are of them! With the within the first year. Cubs rely entirely end of the study period, another litter exception of kill sites or rock sightings, upon their mothers for food. However, was born in the north west of the park most observations made at close they tend to be very curious creatures and the two cubs (one male, one proximity for long periods of time and can be seen frequently stalking all female) have been seen by many involve this age and sex class. When manner of animals from peacocks to visitors. they get older these animals generally tortoises, pond herons to land become more secretive, which is a monitors. When first born, leopard necessary trait for survival. n cubs are a light grayish colour, only Sightings attaining the typical spotted tawny The most frequently seen leopards in Under the Jetwing Research Initiative, yellow coat after approximately three Yala National Park, Block I are young Andrew Kittle and Anjali Watson were months. In addition, they have blue- males, either cubs or sub-adults. They hosted at the Yala Safari Game Lodge for hued eyes, which similarly change to are much less elusive than either adult over a year, during the conduct of their the traditional yellowish hue, as they animals or their female siblings and study on the leopards of Yala. 46 get older. During our study, 23 cubs in often appear as interested in observers 47