Integrating Environmental Safeguards Into Disaster Management: a Field Manual

Home , 2008 Namibia floods, Ground tit, Swamp barb, Yala National Park

Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual

Volume 1: Reference material Sriyanie Miththapala

Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN

Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual

Volume 1: Reference material

Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual

Volume 1: Reference material Sriyanie Miththapala

Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN This document was produced under the project ‘Rehabilitating coastal ecosystems in a post-tsunami context: Consolidation Phase’ carried out with financial support from the Autonomous Organisation for National Parks (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales - OAPN) of the Ministry of Environment of Spain. The designation of geographical entities in this technical report, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or OAPN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or OAPN.

Published by: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Citation: Miththapala. S (2008). Incorporating environmental safeguards into disaster risk management. Volume 1: Reference material. Colombo: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN. viii + 130 pp.

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN: 978-955-8177-86-0

Cover Photo: © Earthquake damage in Pakistan, 2005 © Karl Schuler/IUCN

Design: Sriyanie Miththapala

Produced by: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN.

Printed by: Karunaratne & Sons (Pvt) Ltd. 67 UDA Industrial Estate Katuwana Road Homagama [email protected]

Available from: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia IUCN 4/1, Adams Avenue Colombo 4 Sri Lanka Phone: +(9411) 255 9634-5 Fax: +(9411) 255 9637 email: [email protected] website: http://data.iucn.org/places/asia/coastalinfo/ Contents

Acknowledgements v List of figures and tables vi Executive summary vii Why is the environment necessary for sustainable living? 1 Ecosystem well-being in Asia 4 Human well-being in Asia 8 An overview of Asian ecosystems and their status 12 Terrestrial inland ecosystems 13 Tropical lowland rain forests 13 Montane and sub-montane forests 15 Monsoon forests 16 Scrub forests 17 Tropical coniferous forests 18 Temperate broad-leaved and mixed forests 19 Grasslands 20 Deserts 22 Aquatic inland ecosystems 23 Rivers and streams 23 Ponds and lakes 25 Coastal ecosystems 26 Coral reefs 26 Mangroves 28 Seagrasses 30 Sand dunes 31 Lagoons and estuaries 32 The value of ecosystems 34 Natural hazards and natural disasters 38 The difference between natural hazards and natural disasters 39 Risk and vulnerability 39 Natural hazards 41 Geological hazards 41 Earthquakes 41 Volcanoes 45 Landslides 47 Hydrological hazards 47 Floods 47 Drought 49 Tsunamis 50 Climatic hazards 51 Hurricanes/tropical cyclones/typhoons 51 Other natural hazards 52 Wildfires 52 Disease 52 Natural disasters 54 Global warming and climate change 60 References 70 Annex 1 Ecosystem services of and threats to lowland tropical rain forests 74 Annex 2 Ecosystem services of and threats to montane and sub-montane forests 79 Annex 3 Ecosystem services of and threats to monsoon forests 83

iii Annex 4 Ecosystem services of and threats to scrub forests 87 Annex 5 Ecosystem services of and threats to tropical coniferous forests 90 Annex 6 Ecosystem services of and threats to temperate broad-leaved and mixed forests 93 Annex 7 Ecosystem services of and threats to tropical grasslands 97 Annex 8 Ecosystem services of and threats to deserts 101 Annex 9 Ecosystem services of and threats to rivers and streams 105 Annex 10 Ecosystem services of and threats to ponds and lakes 109 Annex 11 Ecosystem services of and threats to swamps and marshes 113 Annex 12 Ecosystem services of and threats to mangroves 116 Annex 13 Ecosystem services of and threats to coral reefs 119 Annex 14 Ecosystem services of and threats to seagrasses 122 Annex 15 Ecosystem services of and threats to sand dunes 125 Annex 16 Ecosystem services of and threats to lagoons and estuaries 127 Photocredits 130

iv Acknowledgments

Many people assisted with the preparation and production of this manual. The author expresses her grateful thanks to Saima Baig, Channa Bambaradeniya, Lucy Emerton, Janaki Galappatti, Ranjit Galappatti, Usman Ifthikar, Mikkel Kallesøe, Sanjeewa Lellwala, Maeve Nightingale, Thushara Ranasinghe, Ali Raza Rizvi, Rebecca Roberts and Devaka Weerakoon for content inputs and comments.

Yvanka de Soysa prepared most of the annexes in Volume 1 and Eric Wikramanayake generated some GIS maps used for illustration in Volume 2. Anouchka Wijenaike and Irushnie Wedage proof-read the document.

Many people generously provided photographs for use. They are credited individually at the end of each volume.

This document was produced and published with financial support through a grant made from the Autonomous Organisation for National Parks (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales - OAPN) of the Ministry of Environment of Spain to IUCN.

v List of Figures

Figure 1: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework 2 Figure 2: Impacts of the main drivers of ecosystem change 6 Figure 3: Current world population 9 Figure 4: World poverty distribution 10 Figure 5: Global distribution of tropical rainforests 13 Figure 6: Global distribution of temperate broad-leaved forests 19 Figure 7: Global distribution of grasslands 20 Figure 8: Global distribution of deserts 22 Figure 9: Major river basins of the world 23 Figure 10: Extent of mangroves remaining compared to coral reefs and tropical rainforests 29 Figure 11: Total economic value 36 Figure 12: Total economic value related to the MA framework 36 Figure 13a: The different elements of vulnerability 39 Figure 13b: The relationship between risk, hazard and vulnerability 40 Figure 13b: The relationship between risk, hazard and the different elements of vulnerability 40 Figure 14: Cutaway views showing the internal structure of the Earth 41 Figure 15: Tectonic plates of the world 42 Figure 16: Types of boundaries: top: Extensional; middle: Compressional; and bottom: Transform 43 Figure 17: Earthquake prone areas in the world 44 Figure 18: Cross section of a volcano 45 Figure 19: Volcano prone areas in the world - the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ 46 Figure 20: Major floods reported in 2008 47 Figure 21: Number of drought disaster reported by country: 1970-2006 49 Figure 22: Diagram of a tsunami waves 50 Figure 23: Distribution of tropical cyclones 51 Figure 24: Emerging and re-emerging diseases 52 Figure 25: Natural hazard hotspots, by risk type 53 Figure 26: Natural hazards in the Asian region, current situation 55

Figure 27: Past and future concentrations of CO2 62 Figure 28: Melting snow on Kilimanjaro 62 Figure 29: Extent of ice on polar ice cap 63 Figure 30: Diagram of El Niño conditions 64 Figure 31: Climate change and vector-borne diseases 65 Figure 32: Potential impacts of climate change 66 Figure 33: Trends in natural disasters 66 Figure 34: Incidence of floods 1950-2000 67 Figure 35: Incidence of wildfires 1950-2000 67 Figure 36: Incidence of tropical storms in the north Atlantic 68

List of Tables

Table 1: Population and poverty in Asia 9 Table 2: Economic value of Muthurajawela marsh, Sri Lanka 37 Table 3: Rapid and slow onset and cyclic disasters 55 Table 4: Some of the worst natural disasters recorded (evaluated by the number of human deaths) 56 Table 5: Some of the worst natural disasters recorded (evaluated by cost) 56 Table 6: Natural disasters in Asia in 2008 56 Table 7: Greenhouse gases 61

vi Executive summary

Environmental facets are essential components of human well-being and contribute positively to human security, providing basic materials for good life, good health and good social relations. Yet, these are being damaged and overexploited, ultimately to the detriment of humans. In addition, increasing incidence and intensity of natural disasters and climate change are having over-arching impacts on the environment. Sustainable development, often of the most vulnerable sectors of society, is thus being undermined.

One of the key reasons why this damage continues is that an integrated approach is adopted rarely in disaster risk management. For example, relief organisations may focus on damage to life and property while others examine impacts on livelihoods. Very often, ecological services and their indirect economic values are omitted completely from assessments. Adaptation to climate change is ignored.

Mainstreaming ecosystem concerns – both ecological and economical – into the development agenda and integrating them into disaster management, therefore, becomes essential. This manual attempts to provide background information and guidance for integrating environmental concerns into disaster management.

Volume 1 of the manual describes briefly the framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). The MA links clearly ecosystem well-being to human well-being, and presents the major threats imposed by human activities to the services that ecosystems provide. Volume 1 also gives snapshot views of ecosystem well-being and human well-being in Asia and a brief overview of selected ecosystems in the region. Clarification of the difference between natural hazards and natural disasters and a discussion on risk and vulnerability are presented. Climate change and its impacts on natural disasters is also discussed. At the end of Volume 1 is a series of annexes that detail ecosystem services of and threats to ecosystems described in the text.

Volume 2 describes the disaster management cycle and its phases: prevention, mitigation, preparedness, relief, recovery and rebuilding. It introduces an integrated approach to assessments that examines biodiversity, ecosystem services, economic valuation and livelihoods. Volume 2 deals with each of the phases of the disaster management cycle, lists steps and introduces questions that must be raised during each phase in order to integrate environmental concerns into disaster management. These steps and questions are designed around the framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and its identified threats.

Finally, in the third volume, an integrated summary worksheet is presented as a tool for use. Details of the techniques for each component of assessment are also presented in this volume, as well as a list of available web resources.

vii

The Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 served to focus the world’s attention on the fatalities, the damage and the destruction that natural disasters cause. Much is being done and said about the development of early warning systems, disaster management and emergency preparedness planning.

Less is being said about integrating environmental safeguards into disaster management and preparedness planning. Even less is understood about why environmental safeguards are so vital for disaster management and, indeed, for sustainable living.

Why is the environment necessary for sustainable living?

7KHEHQH¿WVWKDWZHDPDVVIURPWKH(DUWKDUHHQRUPRXV7KHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW HFRV\VWHPV1 in a narrower sense) provides us with many services.

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Provisioning services: 7KHVHVHUYLFHVFRYHUWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDQGSURGXFWV±JRRGV±REWDLQHGIURPHFRV\VWHPV6XFKJRRGVLQFOXGH IRRGZRRGPHGLFLQHVIXHODQGIXHOZRRG¿EUHDQGQRQWLPEHUIRUHVWSURGXFWV(FRV\VWHPVWKHUHIRUHSURYLGHWKH EDVLVIRUPDQ\LQGXVWULHVDJULFXOWXUHOLYHVWRFN¿VKHULHVOXPEHUDQGSKDUPDFHXWLFDOVWRQDPHDIHZ7KH\DOVR provide the basis for a multitude of livelihoods.

Regulating Services: 7KHVHDUHWKHEHQH¿WVREWDLQHGIURPWKHUHJXODWLRQRIHFRV\VWHPSURFHVVHVVXFKDVIRUH[DPSOHFOLPDWHDQG ÀRRGUHJXODWLRQ

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CONSTITUENTS OF WELL-BEING

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Security PERSONAL SAFETY Provisioning SECURE RESOURCE ACCESS FOOD SECURITY FROM DISASTERS FRESH WATER WOOD AND FIBER FUEL ... Basic material for good life Freedom ADEQUATE LIVELIHOODS of choice Supporting Regulating SUFFICIENT NUTRITIOUS FOOD and action NUTRIENT CYCLING CLIMATE REGULATION SHELTER OPPORTUNITY TO BE SOIL FORMATION FLOOD REGULATION ACCESS TO GOODS ABLE TO ACHIEVE PRIMARY PRODUCTION DISEASE REGULATION WHAT AN INDIVIDUAL WATER PURIFICATION ... Health VALUES DOING ... AND BEING STRENGTH FEELING WELL Cultural ACCESS TO CLEAN AIR AESTHETIC AND WATER SPIRITUAL EDUCATIONAL RECREATIONAL Good social relations ... SOCIAL COHESION MUTUAL RESPECT ABILITY TO HELP OTHERS

LIFE ON EARTH - BIODIVERSITY Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

ARROW’S COLOR ARROW’S WIDTH Potential for mediation by Intensity of linkages between ecosystem socioeconomic factors services and human well-being

Low Weak

Medum Medium

High Strong

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This is the link that underpins sustainability of livelihoods and of development.

Yet this link is being threatened by various actions of humans and ecosystems and the services that are obtained from them are being damaged and degraded.

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2 Over-exploitation:

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Habitat Change:

$OPRVWDOORIWKHZRUOG¶VHFRV\VWHPVKDYHEHHQFKDQJHGE\KXPDQV&KDQJHVLQWKHODVW\HDUVKDYHEHHQPRUH than in any other time in recorded history.

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Climate Change:

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Invasive Alien Species:

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Pollution:

(FRV\VWHPGHJUDGDWLRQDQGORVVKDYHKDGVHULRXVLPSDFWVRQKXPDQZHOOEHLQJLQWKH$VLDQUHJLRQ

6LQFHLQFUHDVHVLQQLWURJHQSKRVSKRUXVVXOSKXUDQGRWKHUQXWULHQWDVVRFLDWHGSROOXWDQWV RIWHQIHUWLOLVHUV have become one of the most important drivers of ecosystem change.

Other forms of water pollution such as domestic, industrial and marine pollution are further degrading ecosystems and GDPDJLQJ WKHLU VHUYLFHV 7KH DFFXPXODWLRQ RI QRQGHJUDGDEOH VROLG ZDVWH ZKLFK DWWUDFWV GLVHDVH FDUULHUV SROOXWHV groundwater and rivers and generates methane) is also adding considerably to the problem of ecosystem degradation.

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3 Ecosystem well-being in Asia

4 Asia contains some of the richest ecosystems and livelihoods. More than half the world’s biodiversity is found in WKHUHJLRQ 6RGKLHWDO 6RXWKDQG6RXWKHDVW$VLDKRXVHDERXWRIWKHZRUOG¶VIDXQDDQGRIWKH ZRUOG¶VÀRUD)LYHRXWRIPHJDGLYHUVHFRXQWULHV ZKLFKFRQWDLQZLWKLQWKHLUERUGHUVPRUHWKDQWZRWKLUGVRI WKHZRUOG¶VELRGLYHUVLW\ RIWKHZRUOGDUH$VLDQ &KLQD,QGLD,QGRQHVLD0DOD\VLDDQGWKH3KLOLSSLQHV 0LWWHUPHLHU HWDO 2IWKHµELRGLYHUVLW\KRWVSRWV¶ DUHDVULFKHVWLQELRGLYHUVLW\EXWDOVRWKHPRVWKLJKO\WKUHDWHQHG LGHQWL¿HGLQWKHZRUOGVL[KRWVSRWV ,QGR0DOD\DWKH3KLOLSSLQHVWKH+LPDOD\DQUHJLRQWKHPRXQWDLQVRIVRXWKZHVW &KLQDWKH6XQGDODQGVDQGWKH:HVWHUQ*KDWVDQG6UL/DQND DUHIRXQGLQWKLVUHJLRQ &RQVHUYDWLRQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 7RJHWKHUWKHUHJLRQKDVDELRORJLFDOGLYHUVLW\WKDWLVQRWIRXQGHOVHZKHUHLQWKHZRUOGDQGWKLVELRGLYHUVLW\ VXVWDLQVKXPDQOLIHE\SURYLGLQJHVVHQWLDOSURYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHVVXFKDVIRRGPHGLFLQHVZRRGDQG¿UHZRRGDQG regulating and supporting services such as storm protection, climate regulation, balancing gases in the atmosphere, water regulation, soil engineering, nutrient cycling, degradation of wastes and pollination.

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Driver’s impact on biodiversity Driver’s current trends over the last century

Low Decreasing impact

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High Increasing impact Very rapid increase Very high of the impact

7 Human well-being in Asia

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Along with rapid urbanisation and growth, a great proportion of the population in Asia remains vulnerable, and faces uncertain and insecure livelihoods. In many countries, there have been worsening levels of corruption, ethnic and UHOLJLRXVWHQVLRQVJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVH[FHVVLYHFRQVXPSWLRQE\WKHULFKDQGWUDI¿FNLQJLQGUXJVDQGSHRSOH

What should be done?

One of the key reasons why biodiversity and ecosystems continue to be degraded and lost is that the impacts of their loss are not assessed together. Assessments are often made in a fragmented manner, with the result that RQO\SDUWRIWKHWUXHSLFWXUHLVUHYHDOHG)RUH[DPSOHUHOLHIRUJDQLVDWLRQVPD\IRFXVRQGDPDJHWROLIHDQGSURSHUW\ ZKLOHRWKHUVH[DPLQHLPSDFWVRQOLYHOLKRRGV9HU\RIWHQHFRORJLFDODQGWKHLULQGLUHFWHFRQRPLFYDOXHVDUHRPLWWHG completely from assessments.

Mainstreaming ecosystem concerns – both ecological and economical – into disaster management and integrating them into development agendas, therefore, becomes essential. It is only then that, in the long term, disaster management becomes effective and development sustainable. In turn, good practices in disaster management and development will protect the environment.

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11 An overview of main Asian ecosystems and their status

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Terrestrial inland ecosystems

Tropical lowland rain forests (Moist broad-leaved forests)

Tropical lowland rain forests are found at elevations below 1000m QHDUWKHHTXDWRUEHWZHHQWKH7URSLFRI&DQFHUDQGWKH7URSLFRI &DSULFRUQ7KLVPHDQVWKDWWKHWHPSHUDWXUHLQWURSLFDOORZODQGUDLQ IRUHVWV GRHV QRW YDU\ DQG UDQJHV RQO\ EHWZHHQ DERXW & Tropical lowland rain forests, as their name implies, receive high DQQXDOUDLQIDOODWOHDVWFPDQGRQDYHUDJHEHWZHHQ± PRIUDLQDQQXDOO\GLVWULEXWHGHYHQO\WKURXJKWKH\HDU7KHVRLOV of lowland rain forests are impoverished.

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Rainforests of the world

13 Tropical lowland rainforests are famous for their incredible diversity and species richness. It is reported that RQHVTXDUHNLORPHWUH RI$PD]RQLDQIRUHVWPD\FRQWDLQRYHUW\SHVRIWUHHVDQGVSHFLHVRIKLJKHU SODQWV /HZLQVRKQHWDO

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Tropical rain forests are being threatened very rapidly by habitat destruction and climate change, increasingly by LQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVDQGKDYHFRQWLQXHGRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIVSHFLHV 6HH$QQH[HIRUDGHWDLOHGGHVFULSWLRQ of the services provided by and threats to tropical lowland rainforests.)

14 Tropical montane and submontane rain forests

Tropical montane rainforests, as their name suggests, grow in the WURSLFVDERYHP7KHWHPSHUDWXUHVLQWURSLFDOPRQWDQH forests are generally cooler than that of lowland rainforests. A particular type of montane forests are cloud forests in which clouds hang low near the tree canopy and provide plentiful moisture. Typically, trees in montane and cloud forests are shorter as an DGDSWDWLRQWRKLJKZLQGVDWKLJKHOHYDWLRQV6XEPRQWDQHIRUHVWV DUHIRXQGDWLQWHUPHGLDWHHOHYDWLRQVORZHUWKDQPRQWDQHIRUHVWV EXWKLJKHUWKDQORZODQGIRUHVWV7KHLUVWUXFWXUHLVLQEHWZHHQWKDW RIPRQWDQHDQGORZODQGUDLQIRUHVWV ::)

Like tropical lowland rain forests, montane, cloud and submontane forests support a high diversity of species, often with a high degree of endemicity. Montane and cloud forests, in particular, support a rich diversity of epiphytes such as orchids. Many montane and sumontane forests provide watershed protection and prevent soil erosion.

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Monsoon forests (Dry/semi evergreen broad-leaved forests)

Monsoon forests are found in tropical areas that have a long dry season followed by a season of heavy rainfall. The seasonal dry season has a huge impact on these forests, whose species are DGDSWHG WR GHDO ZLWK WLPHV RI ZDWHU VWUHVV )RU H[DPSOH PDQ\ WUHHVVKHGWKHLUOHDYHVGXULQJWKHGU\VHDVRQ+HQFHWKHVHIRUHVWV are also called tropical deciduous forests.

Monsoon forests provide a range of ecosystem services but are XQGHU WKUHDW IURP VHOHFWLYH RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ KDELWDW GHVWUXFWLRQ ±IRUH[DPSOHIURPVKLIWLQJFXOWLYDWLRQSROOXWLRQFOLPDWHFKDQJH DQGLQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHV 6HH$QQH[HIRUGHWDLOV

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Scrub forests

6FUXEIRUHVWVDOVRJURZLQDUHDVWKDWDUHZDWHUVWUHVVHGEXWWHQGWR be found in more arid regions than monsoon forests, where the dry VHDVRQLVSURORQJHG+HUHSODQWVVKRZ[HURPRUSKLF adaptations to conserve water. Animals too are able to survive water stress and many are vagile7.

When monsoon forests are destroyed, often, thorn scrubs regenerate in their place.

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,Q$VLDVFUXEIRUHVWVDUHIRXQGLQ,QGLDDQG6UL/DQND WKH'HFFDQ thorn forests) and in north western India.

Xeromorphic characters are adaptations that allow plants to conserve water. 7 Vagile animals range widely. 17 Tropical coniferous forests

7URSLFDOFRQLIHURXVIRUHVWVH[SHULHQFHORZUDLQIDOODQGPRGHUDWH temperature variability. Vegetation is adapted to deal with this YDULDELOLW\ DQG OHDYHV DUH QHHGOHVKDSHG WR UHGXFH ZDWHU ORVV during cold periods. Animals migrate to warmer areas during the cold season.

These forests are characterised by many species of conifers and large ungulates.

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Temperate broad-leaved and mixed forests

7HPSHUDWH EURDGOHDYHG IRUHVWV KDYH PDUNHG VHDVRQDO FKDQJHV in temperatures: with distinct seasons of moderately cold winters, springs, warm summers and autumns. Throughout the year, they also have marked changes in the length of day: during the VXPPHUGD\OLJKWKRXUVDUHORQJZKLOHGXULQJWKHZLQWHUWKH\DUH short. There is good precipitation throughout the year but some of it becomes unavailable when it is too cold. The soils of rain forests are nutrient rich.

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Tropical grasslands

Tropical grasslands are found in both wet and dry areas at low altitudes.

Savannahs Tropical dry grasslands of low altitude are called savannahs and are characterised by so little rainfall per annum that there is LQVXI¿FLHQWPRLVWXUHWRVXVWDLQPXFKWUHHOLIH,QVWHDGVDYDQQDKV support a multitude of grasses, some shrubs and a few scattered WUHHV DOO DGDSWHG WR FRQVHUYLQJ SUHFLRXV ZDWHU %HFDXVH RI WKH diversity of grass species, the fauna of savannahs is dominated by JUD]LQJKHUELYRUHVDVZHOODVPDQ\FDUQLYRUHVZKRIHHGRQWKH KHUELYRUHV ::)

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Patagonian steppe & grasslands Okavango flooded savannas

Major habitat type Mediterranean shrublands Deserts & xeric shrublands Tropical & subtropical grass-, shrublands, & savannas Temperate grass-, shrublands, & savannas Flooded grasslands Montane grasslands Tundra

20 Flooded grasslands 7URSLFDO ZHW JUDVVODQGV ÀRRGHG JUDVVODQGV DUH ÀRRGHG HLWKHU during a particular season or the whole year round and are found in nutrient rich soils. These are found on all the continents.

These grasslands are threatened by water diversion schemes, pollution and eutrophication.

Montane grasslands Montane grasslands are found, as their name implies, at high elevations, in both temperate and tropical regions in all continents. Flora and fauna are adapted to wet, cold conditions and strong sunlight.

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Montane grasslands are found in the Andes Mountains, east and FHQWUDO$IULFDLQ%RUQHRLQWKH:HVWHUQ*KDWVRI6RXWK,QGLD6UL /DQNDDQGWKHFHQWUDOKLJKODQGVRI1HZ*XLQHD

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21 Deserts

Deserts are characterised by very little rainfall throughout the year – LQIDFWHYDSRUDWLRQLQGHVHUWVH[FHHGVSUHFLSLWDWLRQ7HPSHUDWXUH however, varies: in some deserts, such as hot deserts, it is hot all year round, while in others – in cold deserts – it becomes cold in the winter. A characteristic of both hot and cold deserts is that WHPSHUDWXUHYDULHVZLWKLQDWZHQW\IRXUKRXUSHULRGLWLVH[WUHPHO\ KRW GXULQJ WKH GD\ DQG FROG DW QLJKW %RWK ÀRUD DQG IDXQD DUH DGDSWHGWRKDUVKFRQGLWLRQV3ODQWVKDYH[HURSK\WLFFKDUDFWHULVWLFV DGDSWDWLRQVWRFRQVHUYHZDWHU DQGDQLPDOVDOVRH[KLELWDZLGH range of behavioural and physiological adaptations to prevent water loss. The landscape is generally bare, with sparse vegetation.

'HVHUWVDUHWKHKRPHWRPDQ\QRPDGLFFXOWXUHVKXQWHUJDWKHULQJ and pastoral livelihoods. Mineral and oil deposits are found in some GHVHUWV'HVHUWIDXQDDQGÀRUDDUHWKRXJKWWRKDYHSURYLGHGWKH base for present day pastoral and agricultural societies.

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Streams and rivers

These are bodies of water that move continuously in one direction. $W WKH KHDGZDWHUV RI D VWUHDP WKH EHJLQQLQJ WKH FKDQQHO LV narrow and the water is pure and carries less sediment than downstream, as well as only a few minerals. Many such streams WULEXWDULHV RI D ULYHU MRLQ WRJHWKHU WR IRUP D ODUJHU ULYHU 7KH ULYHU VORSHV EHFRPH JHQWOHU DQG VORZ PRYLQJ DV WKH\ ÀRZ GRZQVWUHDP H[FHSW ZKHUH WKHUH DUH VWHHS URFN\ DQG UDSLGO\ ÀRZLQJUHDFKHV5LYHUVFDUU\VHGLPHQWVGRZQZLWKWKHZDWHU7KH FRDUVHUSDUWLFOHV VDQGDQGJUDYHO PRYHDORQJWKHULYHUEHGDQG WKH¿QHUSDUWLFOHV FOD\VLOWDQG¿QHVDQG PRYHLQVXVSHQVLRQ 6XVSHQGHGVHGLPHQWPDNHVWKHZDWHUWXUELG7XUELGLW\LVPRUH pronounced soon after it rains.

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23 The terrain in rivers varies with location as does temperature, which varies with altitude and latitude. The amount of water varies seasonally with rainfall or with melting snow.

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The transport of water downstream to cultivated ecosystems and provision of freshwater are two main ecosystem services provided by streams and rivers. The transport of sand and other sediments and waste products downstream from the catchment is also a less recognised service provided by rivers. Fertile deltas, beaches etc. are products of these services. Navigation is also an important service provided by larger rivers for transport of people and goods. 5LYHULQHYHJHWDWLRQVWDELOLVHVWKHVRLODQGSUHYHQWVHURVLRQ0DQ\ULYHUVVXFKDVWKH0HNRQJDQG$PD]RQULYHUV ±SURYLGH¿VKVWRFNWKDWVXSSRUWVODUJHFRPPXQLWLHV)ORRGSODLQVDORQJULYHUVDQGFRDVWVSURYLGHÀRRGSURWHFWLRQ 0DQ\ULYHUVDQGVWUHDPVSURYLGHGLYHUVHUHFUHDWLRQDOVHUYLFHVVXFKDV¿VKLQJERDWLQJDQGFDPSLQJ

5LYHUVDQGVWUHDPVDUHWKUHDWHQHGseriously all over the world by water diversions schemes – dams. According to the MA large dams have probably done more harm to freshwater ecosystems than any other human intervention. 7KH0$QRWHVWKDWWKHDPRXQWRIZDWHULPSRXQGHGEHKLQGGDPVKDVTXDGUXSOHGVLQFHDQGWKDWVL[WLPHV PRUHZDWHULVKHOGLQUHVHUYRLUVWKDQÀRZVLQQDWXUDOULYHUV+RZHYHUWKHK\GURSRZHUJHQHUDWHGE\WKHVHGDPVLV WKHODUJHVWFRQWULEXWRUWRUHQHZDEOHDQGQRQFDUERQHPLWWLQJJHQHUDWLRQRIHOHFWULFLW\ 0$

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24 Ponds and lakes

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3RQGVDQGODNHVSURYLGHSURWHFWLRQIURPÀRRGV UHVRXUFHVVXFKDVIRRG¿VKDQGUHFUHDWLRQ± such as angling, boating, camping.

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Coral Reefs

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herbivores, while corals obtain their nutrients. This kind of association is called a mutualistic association. These FRUDOVDUHFDOOHGKHUPDW\SLFFRUDOV,QGLYLGXDOSRO\SVRIKHUPDW\SLFFRUDOVVHFUHWHFDOFLXPFDUERQDWH OLPHVWRQH VNHOHWRQVZKLFKLQWLPHIRUPFRUDOUHHIV+HUPDW\SLFFRUDOVDUHDOVRNQRZQWKHUHIRUHDVUHHIEXLOGLQJFRUDOV

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Therefore, coral reefs are found ZKHUHWKHVHDLVVKDOORZ OHVVWKDQP ZKHUHWKHVHDLVZDUP EHWZHHQDQG& $QGDUHWKHUHIRUHORFDWHGZLWKLQWKHODWLWXGHRI1WR6LHRQO\LQWURSLFDOVHDV

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27 Mangroves

A mangrove is a woody plant or plant community which lives EHWZHHQWKHVHDDQGWKHODQGLQDUHDVZKLFKDUHÀRRGHGE\WLGHV for part of the time. Mangrove forests make up one of the most XQLTXH HFRV\VWHPV RQ HDUWK LQ WKDW WKH\ WKULYH ZKHUH QR RWKHU WUHHVFDQVXUYLYH±LQWKHWUDQVLWLRQ]RQHEHWZHHQWKHRFHDQDQG land. They are among the world’s most productive ecosystems.

%HFDXVHPDQJURYHVDUHIRXQGLQWKLVWUDQVLWLRQ]RQH±ZKHUHWKH tide rises and falls daily, where salinity changes with this rise and IDOO RI WKH WLGH DQG ZKHUH WKH R[\JHQ FRQWHQW LV OHVV ± ERWK WKH ÀRUD DQG IDXQD RI WKLV HFRV\VWHP KDYH GHYHORSHG YHU\ GLVWLQFW morphological and physiological adaptations.

0DQJURYHVDUHIRXQGLQODWLWXGHVRI1DQG6RIWKHJOREH and also in the mouths of estuaries and in other inter tidal DUHDV$SSUR[LPDWHO\ RQHIRXUWK RI WKH ZRUOG¶V WURSLFDO FRDVWOLQH comprises mangrove ecosystems and they are estimated to

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Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world DQG SURYLGH KXPDQV ZLWK PDQ\ JRRGV VXFK DV IRRG ¿UHZRRG fuelwood, timber and medicine, and protective, supporting and regulatory services.

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Mangroves Coral Reefs

Tropical Rainforests

Seagrass meadows

6HDJUDVVHV DUH VHHGEHDULQJ ÀRZHULQJ URRWHG SODQWV ZKLFK JURZ VXEPHUJHG H[FOXVLYHO\ LQ PDULQH FRDVWDO ZDWHUV DQG coastal wetlands. Like grasses in terrestrial habitats, they form meadows on the bed of coastal seas. They are dependent on light penetrating for photosynthesis, therefore they generally grow only in shallow waters, in estuaries and coastal seas. They cannot survive outside water, therefore, they often grow where there is shelter from a sand bar or coral reefs.

6HDJUDVV EHGV DUH LPSRUWDQW EHFDXVH RI WKHLU SURYLVLRQLQJ VXSSRUWLQJ DQG UHJXODWLQJ VHUYLFHV 6HDJUDVVHV KDYH EHHQ FDOOHG µFRDVWDO FDQDULHV¶ 2UWK HW DO /LNH FDQDULHV WKDW ZHUH WDNHQ LQWR FRDO PLQHV WR WHVW WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH DLU VHDJUDVVHV UHVSRQG WR FKDQJHV LQ WKH TXDOLW\ RI ZDWHU indicating deterioration of the environment by degrading and GHFOLQLQJEHIRUHG\LQJ7KHVHFKDQJHVDUHYLVLEOHYHU\TXLFNO\ VRWKDWLWLVSRVVLEOHWRWDNHPDQDJHPHQWDFWLRQ 2UWKHWDO 7KH\ DUH WKUHDWHQHG E\ SROOXWLRQ RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ LQYDVLYH DOLHQVSHFLHVDQGFOLPDWHFKDQJH 6HH$QQH[HIRUGHWDLOV

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30 Sand dunes

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31 Estuaries and Lagoons

Estuaries

An estuary is the last, wide part of a river before it reaches the sea, i.e., it is the tidal mouth of a river. Estuaries are, therefore, important in the movement of sediment from rivers to the sea. )UHVKZDWHUIURPWKHULYHUPL[HVZLWKWKHVDOWZDWHURIWKHVHDDQG FUHDWHVDWUDQVLWLRQ]RQHEHWZHHQODQGDQGVHD7KHUHLVDOZD\VD IUHHFRQQHFWLRQWRWKHVHDLQDQHVWXDU\ 12$$D

Lagoons

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In both estuaries and lagoons, water is brackish.

Lagoons and estuaries are productive. The provisioning service of ODJRRQVDQGHVWXDULHVDOORZIRUPDQ\¿VKHULHVUHODWHGOLYHOLKRRGV LQ WKHVH HFRV\VWHPV 7KH\ DOVR SURYLGH ORQJWHUP VXSSRUWLQJ livelihoods in the these ecosystems.

Lagoons and estuaries are under threat from both coastal erosion – which can change the physical structure of mouths and spits – changing lagoon morphology, as well as upstream pollution and K\GURORJ\FKDQJHV 6HH$QQH[HGHWDLOV

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! 32 33 The value of ecosystems

34 (FRV\VWHPV DUH FRPSOH[ DQG \LHOG D ZLGH UDQJH RI HFRV\VWHP JRRGV ZKLFK DUH XVHG E\ SHRSOH IRU IRRG construction, fuel, income and other uses. More importantly, they deliver ecosystem services that form the basis IRUKXPDQZHOOEHLQJ 6HH)LJXUH ,QVKRUWHFRV\VWHPVDUHYDOXDEOHEHFDXVHSHRSOH±OLYLQJERWKQHDUWKHP DQGWKRVHIDUDZD\GHSHQGRQWKHPIRUDYDULHW\RIUHDVRQVWRVXSSRUWWKHLUZHOOEHLQJ (PHUWRQ ,Q addition, ecosystem services underpin economic growth at the national level, commerce, trade, global markets and economic processes. These are all critical in terms of value, and also in terms of broader multipliers and OLQNDJHVDVUHJDUGVSURSRRUHFRQRPLFJURZWK(FRV\VWHPVHUYLFHYDOXHVWKHUHIRUHH[WHQGZHOOEH\RQGWKH VPDOOVFDOHKRXVHKROGOHYHO

Therefore, conserving ecosystems, i.e., investing in them because of their economic value to humans, becomes LPSHUDWLYH%XWDOWKRXJKHFRV\VWHPVDUHWUHPHQGRXVO\YDOXDEOHWRSHRSOHDQGQDWLRQDOHFRQRPLHVLQYHVWPHQW in ecosystems is not a mainstream process and is something about which there is still much argument.

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µ,I HFRV\VWHPV DUH WR FRPSHWH DJDLQVW WKHVH DOWHUQDWLYH XVHV WKHUH LV D QHHG WR SURSHUO\ YDOXH WKH YDULRXV products and services provided so they become an investment opportunity with a good chance of return. Therefore, it is important to value ecosystems so that economic comparisons can be made between maintaining ecosystems or using them for other purposes. In order to assess and value the real environmental and livelihoods LPSDFWV RI HFRV\VWHPV RQ FRPPXQLWLHV LW LV QHFHVVDU\ WR EH DEOH WR TXDQWLI\ DQG PHDVXUH HFRV\VWHP ORVV and environmental damage. It is especially important to do this for proposed land conversions to value the HQYLURQPHQWDOFRVWVRIVXFKFRQYHUVLRQVDQGWREDODQFHWKHVHFRVWVDJDLQVWWKHEHQH¿WVRINHHSLQJWKHODQG XQWRXFKHGE\GHYHORSPHQWDQGDOVRWRDVVHVVWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFLPSDFWVRIµGHYHORSPHQWV¶DVWKH\LPSDFWRQ HFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHVDQGWKHUHIRUHRQKXPDQDQGHFRQRPLFZHOOEHLQJ8OWLPDWHO\HFRV\VWHPVPXVWEHYLHZHG DVGHYHORSPHQWDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGYDOXDWLRQRIHFRV\VWHPVXVHGDVDGHFLVLRQPDNLQJWRROLQDVVHVVLQJWUDGH RIIVZLWKRWKHUHFRQRPLFVHFWRUV¶ (PHUWRQ

What is the framework for valuation?

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TEV is now one of the most widely used conceptual frameworks and deals with the following:

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DIRECT VALUES INDIRECT VALUES OPTION VALUES BEQUEST VALUE EHQH¿WVGHULYHGIURP EHQH¿WVSURYLGHGE\ premium placed willingness to pay to the use of environmental ecosystem functions and on maintaining an ensure that future goods either for direct services. environmental good generations inherit a consumption or production or service for possible particular environmental of other commodities. future use. asset and intrinsic value – the value of a species or ecosystem in its own right independent of any value placed on it by humans.

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7DEOH(FRQRPLFYDOXHRI0XWKXUDMDZHODPDUVK6UL/DQND 6RXUFH(PHUWRQDQG.HNXODQDQGD (FRQRPLFEHQH¿W Value (USD/year) Value (USD/ha/year) Flood attenuation Industrial wastewater treatment Agricultural production 110 6XSSRUWWRGRZQVWUHDP¿VKHULHV 222,222 72 Firewood Fishing 23 Leisure and recreation Freshwater supplies for local populations 42,000 14 Total

10 333LV3XUFKDVLQJ3RZHU3DULW\WKHHVWLPDWHRIWKHDPRXQWRIDGMXVWPHQWQHHGHGRQWKHH[FKDQJHUDWHEHWZHHQFRXQWULHVLQRUGHUIRUWKHH[FKDQJHWREHHTXLYDOHQWWRHDFKFXUUHQF\¶V purchasing power. 11 *'3LV*URVV'RPHVWLF3URGXFWWKHWRWDOPDUNHWYDOXHRIDOOJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVSURGXFHGLQDFRXQWU\LQDJLYHQ\HDUHTXDOWRWRWDOFRQVXPHULQYHVWPHQWDQGJRYHUQPHQWVSHQGLQJSOXV WKHYDOXHRIH[SRUWVPLQXVWKHYDOXHRILPSRUWV 12 139LV1HW3UHVHQW9DOXHWKHVXPRIGLVFRXQWHGQHWEHQH¿WV LHEHQH¿WVPLQXVFRVWV ZKLFKVKRZVZKHWKHUDSURMHFWJHQHUDWHVPRUHEHQH¿WVWKDQLWLQFXUVFRVWV 37 Natural hazards and natural disasters

7KHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQQDWXUDOKD]DUGVDQGQDWXUDOGLVDVWHUV

7KHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQQDWXUDOKD]DUGVDQGQDWXUDOGLVDVWHUVPXVWEHPDGHFOHDULQWKLVVHFWLRQ$QDWXUDOKD]DUG is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is harmful to humans and has the potential to cause damage. Natural KD]DUGVDUHWKHUHIRUHHYHQWVVXFKDVGURXJKWZLOG¿UHVF\FORQHVW\SKRRQVHDUWKTXDNHVDQGWVXQDPLV1DWXUDO KD]DUGVFDQQRWEHSUHYHQWHGEXWWKH\FDQEHH[SHFWHG KWWSZZZXQHVFRRUJVFLHQFHGLVDVWHUDERXWBGLVDVWHU shtml.).

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5LVNLVWKHSRWHQWLDORIDQDWXUDOKD]DUGWRFDXVHGDPDJH%XWULVNLVQRWHTXDODPRQJFRPPXQLWLHVDQGSHRSOH 6RPHSHRSOHDUHPRUHDWULVNIURPDQDWXUDOKD]DUGWKDQRWKHUV7KHLPSDFWVDUHGLIIHUHQWIRUGLIIHUHQWSHRSOH EHFDXVHVRPHSHRSOHDUHEHWWHUDEOHWRFRSHZLWKDQDWXUDOKD]DUGWKDQRWKHUVThe difference in the capability to cope is vulnerability.

Various elements such as social, environmental, economical and infrastructural factors affect the capability of FRPPXQLWLHVWRFRSHZLWKGLVDVWHUV .DVSHUVRQ .DVSHUVRQ )RUH[DPSOHFRQVLGHUDKRXVHWKDWKDVEHHQ built on a slope. The risk for the damage is from a landslide. The people whose house is built on this slope are, WKHUHIRUHSK\VLFDOO\YXOQHUDEOHWRODQGVOLGHV7KHSRRUDQGWKHPDUJLQDOLVHGDUHPRUHYXOQHUDEOHWRQDWXUDOKD]DUGV DVWKH\ODFNEDVLFQHFHVVLWLHVRIOLIH±WKH\DUHVRFLDOO\YXOQHUDEOH&RPPXQLWLHVZKRDUHUHVLVWDQWWRFKDQJHDQG DUHQHJDWLYHLQWKHLUDSSURDFKWROLIHDUHDWWLWXGLQDOO\YXOQHUDEOH3HRSOHOLYLQJQHDUGHJUDGHGHFRV\VWHPVDQGODFN basic ecosystem services are environmentally vulnerable.

Figure 13a: The different elements of vulnerability

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Environmental vulnerability

Vulnerability

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Preparing for natural disasters is all about reducing vulnerability.

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The uppermost part of the mantle is harder than the rest, and with the crust, forms the lithosphere14, which functions like a shell. Like a shell, this lithosphere is brittle and can fracture.

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South Sandwich trench

Landslides:

Landslides are mass movements of rock, debris and soil down a slope of land. In nature, landslides can be caused E\PDQ\HYHQWV$Q\WLPHWHFWRQLFSODWHVPRYHWKHVRLOWKDWFRYHUVWKHPPRYHVZLWKLW:KHQHDUWKTXDNHVRFFXULQ DUHDVZLWKVWHHSVORSHVWKLVVRLOFDQVOLSFDXVLQJODQGVOLGHV9ROFDQLFHUXSWLRQVPHOWLQJJODFLHUVH[FHVVLYHVQRZ and rainfall and erosion from rivers can also cause landslides.

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Floods:

Floods occur when usually dry areas on banks of rivers, streams, lakes, or coastal areas become submerged with water. Floods can be set off by severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, tropical cyclones, monsoons or melting snow. ,QFRDVWDODUHDVVWRUPVXUJHVFDXVHGE\WURSLFDOF\FORQHVWVXQDPLVRUULYHUVVZROOHQE\H[WUHPHO\KLJKWLGHV FDQFDXVHÀRRGLQJ)ORRGVRFFXULQERWKGU\DQGZHWHQYLURQPHQWVDQGLQPRXQWDLQVDQGORZODQGV,QGU\DUHDV HVSHFLDOO\WKRVHVLWXDWHGDWWKHEDVHRIPRXQWDLQUDQJHVÀDVKÀRRGLQJFDQRFFXU7KLVLVDQH[WUHPHO\GDQJHURXV W\SHRIKD]DUGUHVXOWLQJIURPLQWHQVHUDLQIDOOLQDVKRUWSHULRGRIWLPHWKDWPRYHVDWKLJKVSHHGGRZQKLOO

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7KHVH ULYHUV RI %DQJODGHVK VKDSH ERWK its terrain and the livelihoods of its people. %DQJODGHVK KDV D ODQG DUHD RI RQO\ 144,000km2 KWWSZZZHQZLNLSHGLDFRP EXW WKH %UDKPDSXWUD -DPXQD DQG *DQJHVZKLFKRULJLQDWHIDUDZD\IURPWKH ERUGHUVRI%DQJODGHVKRQHLWKHUVLGHRIWKH +LPDOD\DQUDQJHUHDFKEULQJDQHQRUPRXVFRPELQHGUXQRIIZKLFKKDVWRSDVVWKURXJK%DQJODGHVKWRUHDFKWKHVHD7KH 0HJKQDDOWKRXJKLWKDVDUHODWLYHO\PXFKVPDOOHUEDVLQGUDLQVDUHDVVXFKDVWKH0HJDOD\DKLOOVWKDWH[SHULHQFHVRPHRI the highest rainfall in the world.

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7KHÀRRGSODLQOHYHOVDUHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHVHWWOLQJRIVHGLPHQWVFDUULHGE\WKHRYHUEDQNÀRZRIÀRRGZDWHU,WLVXVXDOIRU DWOHDVWDSDUWRIWKHÀRRGSODLQVWREHÀRRGHGHYHU\\HDU,QWKHFRDVWDOUHJLRQVVXFKDVWKH6XQGDUEDQPDQJURYHIRUHVW WKHODQGOHYHOVDUHVXFKWKDWWKH\DUHÀRRGHGE\WKHKLJKHVWWLGHV DERXWPDERYHVHDOHYHO 7KHGHSRVLWLRQRIVLOWPDNHV WKHGHOWDJURZRXWZDUGVDVZHOODVUDLVLQJWKHÀRRGHGDUHDVE\YHU\VPDOODPRXQWVHYHU\\HDU+RZHYHUFRQVROLGDWLRQRI land under its own weight over the centuries partly counteracts the effect of siltation.

7KHRYHUDOOODQGSUR¿OHRI%DQJODGHVKULVHVJUDGXDOO\IURPDERXWPDERYHVHDOHYHOLQWKHVRXWKWRRQO\DERXWPLQ the north of the country. In the north east however, the land levels are very low – even below 2m in some areas. This UHVXOWVLQWKHVHODQGVEHLQJÀRRGHGIRUVHYHUDOPRQWKVDIWHUWKHÀRRGKDVSDVVHG7KHZDWHUOHYHOVLQWKHPDMRUULYHUV

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Drought:

,IÀRRGVDUHFDXVHGE\WKHH[FHVVRIZDWHUWKHQGURXJKWLVFDXVHGE\WKHRSSRVLWHWKHODFNRIZDWHU$GURXJKW LVDQH[WHQGHGSHULRGGXULQJZKLFKWKHUHLVQRVRLOZDWHU:KHQDGURXJKWRFFXUVWKHUHLVQRWHQRXJKZDWHUIRU human needs, agriculture and ecosystems.

'URXJKWVPXVWQRWEHFRQIXVHGZLWKGU\VHDVRQV)RUH[DPSOHLQ6UL/DQNDWKHQRUWKHDVWHUQQRUWKZHVWHUQ and southeastern parts of the island are fed only by a single monsoon – the north east monsoon which H[WHQGVIURP1RYHPEHUWR)HEUXDU\HDFK\HDU)RUWKHUHVWRIWKH\HDUWKHUHLVDQDQQXDOGU\VHDVRQIURP 0DUFK WR$XJXVW :KHQ WKH QRUWK HDVW PRQVRRQV DUH GHOD\HG WKHQ WKH GU\ VHDVRQ FDQ EHFRPH H[WHQGHG causing a drought.

,Q$XVWUDOLDLQODWHUDLQWKDWIDOOVEHWZHHQODWHZLQWHUDQGPLGVSULQJIDLOHG7KHDYHUDJHUDLQIDOOLQ6RXWK$XVWUDOLD WKDWUHVXOWHGZDVWKHORZHVWVLQFHFDXVLQJDGURXJKW KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL'URXJKWBLQB$XVWUDOLD

)LJXUH1XPEHURIGURXJKWGLVDVWHUVUHSRUWHGE\FRXQWU\ 6RXUFH&HQWUHIRUHSLGHPLRORJ\RIGLVDVWHUV

Number of reported droughts

0 > 10

Tsunamis :

A tsunami is a series of waves that is generated when a large body of water is displaced. The most common natural FDXVHRIDWVXQDPLLVDQHDUWKTXDNHIROORZHGE\YROFDQLFHUXSWLRQV:KHQWKHVHDÀRRUFKDQJHVDVDUHVXOWRIDQ HDUWKTXDNH PRVWO\FRPPRQO\WKURXJKVXEGXFWLRQDWSODWHERXQGDULHV ZDWHULVGLVSODFHGYHUWLFDOO\7KLVZDWHUWKHQ radiates like ripples in a pond.

Figure 22: Diagram of a tsunami waves 6RXUFHKWWSLRFXQHVFRRUJLWLF¿OHVWVXBZDYHBFKDUDFWHULVWLFVSGI

There is difference of an order of magnitude between the properties of tsunami waves and wind waves normally observed in the sea. Waves are characterised by their height, their period WKHDYHUDJHWLPHWDNHQEHWZHHQWZR wave crests passing a given point) and the wave length WKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWZRFUHVWV 1RUPDORFHDQZDYHV have heights in the range of a few a centimetres in a very sheltered area, to even ten metres at the worst of a severe storm. The wave periods observed are a few seconds in choppy seas to swell waves of periods up to 20 seconds or PRUH7VXQDPLZDYHVRQWKHRWKHUKDQGKDYHSHULRGVRIWKHRUGHURIPLQXWHV PRUHWKDQVHFRQGV DQG ZDYHOHQJWKVH[FHHGLQJNPLQGHHSZDWHU

'HHSZDWHUZDYHV ZKHUHWKHZDYHOHQJWKLVPXFKODUJHUWKDWWKHZDWHUGHSWK SURSDJDWHDWVSHHGVSURSRUWLRQDOWR WKHVTXDUHURRWRIWKHZDYHOHQJWK,QVKDOORZZDWHUZKHUHWKHZDWHUGHSWKVDUHPXFKVPDOOHUWKDQWKHZDYHOHQJWK WKHVSHHGRISURSDJDWLRQRIZDYHVLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHURRWRIWKHZDWHUGHSWK3DUDGR[LFDOO\WVXQDPL wavelengths are so large that they behave like shallow water waves even in the deepest ocean. A tsunami wave ZKLFKWUDYHOVDVIDVWDVDMHWDLUFUDIWRYHUWKHGHHSRFHDQZLOOVORZGRZQDVVRRQDVLWFURVVHVWKHFRQWLQHQWDO shelf and really come down to ordinary wave speeds as it approaches the shore. As the wave slows down it shortens and steepens. The wave height that was less than a metre in deepwater could be more than ten metres KLJKDVLWFRPHVDVKRUH7KLVQRWDQXQIDPLOLDUSKHQRPHQRQ±WKHZDYHVZHZLWQHVVRQWKHEHDFK ZKLFKGRQRW appear to be very high when they are out at sea) – also slow down and grow in height before they come ashore.

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7KHZRUGWVXQDPLFRPHVIURPWKH-DSDQHVHPHDQLQJKDUERXU µtsu’ DQGZDYH ‘nami’). Fishermen coming into the harbour after tsunami found the harbour wrecked but had not observed any disturbance in the open sea. &OLPDWLFKD]DUGV

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Hurricanes//Tropical Cyclones/Typhoons:

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Tropical cyclones are huge, rotating masses of wind and thunderstorms up to hundreds of kilometres across, which form around areas of very low atmospheric pressure over warm tropical waters. Winds can reach speeds RINPSHUKRXURUPRUH7URSLFDOF\FORQHVWKHUHIRUHSURGXFHQRWRQO\KHDY\ODVKLQJUDLQEXWDOVRJDOHIRUFH ZLQGV7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIZLQGGULYHQZDYHVDQGWKHORZSUHVVXUHRIDWURSLFDOF\FORQHFDQSURGXFHDFRDVWDO VWRUPVXUJH DUDLVLQJRIWKHVHDOHYHO ZKLFKZKHQDSSURDFKLQJWKHVKRUHFDQÀRRGFRDVWDODUHDVDQGZDVK away everything in its path.

As the cyclone moves over land, it loses energy, so coastal areas are most affected by tropical cyclones.

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Figure 23: Distribution of tropical cyclones 6RXUFHKWWSXSORDGZLNLPHGLDRUJZLNLSHGLDFRPPRQV*OREDOBWURSLFDOBF\FORQHBWUDFNVHGLWMSJ

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Disease:

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Ebola and Crimean New variant Creutzfeld- Leptospirosis Congo haemorrhagic fever Jakob disease Lyme borreliosis Inﬂuenza H5N1 SARS coronavirus Escherichia coli 0157 Lassa fever Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis Multidrug-resistant Monkeypox Yellow fever Salmonella Nipah Hendra West Nile fever Plague Riftvalley fever Cryptosporidiosis

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It is estimated that, globally,

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Floods and landslides are too many to count.

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Natural disasters

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,QFUHDVLQJWKHVHYHULW\RIDQDWXUDOKD]DUGIRUH[DPSOHGHIRUHVWLQJKLOOVORSHVZRUVHQVÀRRGVDQGRYHUJUD]LQJ by livestock worsens drought. Increase in human population: population growth, urbanisation, improperly built housing and public buildings, SRRULQIUDVWUXFWXUHPDLQWHQDQFHLQFUHDVLQJSRYHUW\)RUH[DPSOHLQFUHDVHGSRYHUW\DQGSRSXODWLRQZRUVHQWKH effects of drought and cause famine, which is a natural disaster.

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Natural disasters can be grouped according to how fast or slow they occur.

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Type of disaster Rapid onset Slow onset Cyclic/recurring Natural disasters Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, Drought, famine. Floods in some areas, HDUWKTXDNHVÀRRGV GURXJKWZLOG¿UHV landslides, cyclones.

+XPDQPDGH 9LROHQWFRQÀLFWDFFLGHQWV &RQÀLFWSROOXWLRQIURPDFLG 9LROHQWFRQÀLFW disasters ZLWKKD]DUGRXVFKHPLFDOVRLO rain. spills, biological warfare.

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Type of natural disaster Year Location No of human deaths

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Volcano Mount Tambora, Indonesia

Landslide 9DUJDV9HQH]XHOD

Flood

Famine &KLQD

Tsunami 2004 Indian Ocean

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'LVHDVH 6PDOOSR[ 20th century Worldwide > 300,000,000

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Type of natural disaster Year Location Damage in USD

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Volcano 86$

Landslide &KLQD

Flood 6RYLHW8QLRQ

Famine Australia

Tsunami 2004 Indian Ocean ,PPHGLDWHELOOLRQ

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:LOG¿UH Indonesia 17,000,000,000

'LVHDVH $,'6 2007 Worldwide 10 billion for the year.

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Type of natural Location No of human deaths and displacements Damage in USD disaster

Tropical storm 6RXWKHUQ GHDWKVDQGPRUHWKDQ 10 billion Myanmar 40,000 other people are reported missing.

(DUWKTXDNH 6LFKXDQSURYLQFH GHDWKVLQMXUHGPLVVLQJ ([FHHGLQJELOOLRQ &KLQD PLOOLRQSHRSOHKRPHOHVV though the number could be as high as 11 million.

Floods 6RXWK$VLD± 0RUHWKDQGHDWKVLQ6RXWK$VLDVLQFHWKH Not yet estimated. monsoon season PRQVRRQVHDVRQEHJDQLQ-XQHPDLQO\LQ,QGLD¶V QRUWKHUQVWDWHRI8WWDU3UDGHVK Two million displaced.

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Wars

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The impact of wars of the environment is manifold. The following description does not include preparing for war ±VXFKDVWKHWHVWLQJRIZHDSRQVDQGKD]DUGRXVZDVWHGLVSRVDO±DQGOLPLWVLWVHOIWRSRVWZDUGDPDJH8VLQJ WKH0$IUDPHZRUNDQGVRPHRIWKHPDLQGULYHUVRIHFRV\VWHPFKDQJHWKHIROORZLQJER[SURYLGHVDVQDSVKRWRI environmental damage from war.

7KHOHVVREYLRXVEXWHTXDOO\LPSRUWDQWFRQVHTXHQFHRIZDULVWKHPDVVGLVSODFHPHQWRIKXPDQVDQGDFRQFHQWUDWLRQ and steep increase in the needs of ecosystem services, as well as an increase in the drivers of ecosystem change.

Over-exploitation: 'XULQJWKH*XOI:DURIFDPHOVZHUHNLOOHG %UDXHU )URPDFLYLOZDUZDVIRXJKWLQWKH'HPRFUDWLF5HSXEOLFRIWKH&RQJR2YHUWKUHHPLOOLRQSHRSOHGLHGLQWKHZDU PRVWO\IURPGLVHDVHDQGVWDUYDWLRQ0RUHWKDQWZRPLOOLRQSHRSOHEHFDPHUHIXJHHV2QO\RIWKHSHRSOHKDGDFFHVV to safe drinking water. Many refugees hunt wildlife for bush meat and protected areas are raided for minerals and other resources. Ivory poaching is rampant and it is reported that the hippopotamus population in one national park decreased IURPWKUHHGHFDGHVEHIRUHWRRQO\LQ 'XULQJWKH9LHW1DPZDUVRXWK9LHW1DP¶VOREVWHU¿VKHU\LQGXVWU\ZDVUHSRUWHGO\RYHU¿VKHGWRVXSSO\$PHULFDQVROGLHUV

Habitat destruction: 7KH9LHW1DP:DURIWKHVDQGVFDXVHGDQµHQYLURQPHQWDOKRORFDXVW¶2YHURI9LHW1DP¶VIRUHVWVZHUH GHVWUR\HGE\WKLVZDU&KHPLFDOZDUIDUH±LQYROYLQJWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIPLOOLRQOLWUHVRI$JHQW2UDQJH±GHVWUR\HGRI9LHW 1DP¶VIRUHVWVDQGUHPDLQHGLQWKHVRLOZDWHUDQGYHJHWDWLRQORQJDIWHUWKHZDU'LR[LQDPDLQLQJUHGLHQWRI$JHQW2UDQJH is carcinogenic20 and teratogenic21, and has resulted in spontaneous abortions, skin and lung cancers, lower intelligence and HPRWLRQDOSUREOHPVDPRQJFKLOGUHQ&KLOGUHQIDWKHUHGE\PHQH[SRVHGWR$JHQW2UDQJHGXULQJWKH9LHW1DP:DURIWHQKDYH FRQJHQLWDODEQRUPDOLWLHV$QHVWLPDWHGKDOIDPLOOLRQFKLOGUHQKDYHEHHQERUQZLWKGLR[LQUHODWHGDEQRUPDOLWLHV 7KHFLYLOZDUDQGWKH.KPHU5RXJHUHJLPHLQ&DPERGLDLQWKHVUHVXOWHGLQH[WHQVLYHWLPEHUORJJLQJWR¿QDQFHZDU HIIRUWVFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGFROOHFWLRQRIIXHOZRRG$WRWDORIRI&DPERGLD¶VIRUHVWVZHUHGHVWUR\HGGXULQJWKLVSHULRG FDXVLQJVHYHUHÀRRGVZKLFKLQWXUQGDPDJHGULFHFURSVDQGFDXVHGIRRGVKRUWDJHV0DQ\ODQGPLQHVZHUHSODFHG GXULQJWKH¶VDQGDUHVWLOOSUHVHQWLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGHSUHYHQWLQJDJULFXOWXUDOXVHRIVXFKODQG KWWSZZZOHQQWHFK FRPHQYLURQPHQWDOHIIHFWVZDUKWP

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20 capable of causing cancer 21 capable of causing birth defects Global warming and climate change

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These gases function much like glass panes in a greenhouse, allowing light in, but preventing heat from escaping. This greenhouse effect, as it is called commonly, is important: without it, the earth would be too cold for humans to OLYH7KHSUREOHPLVWKDWQRZWKHUHLVMXVWWRRPXFK*+*PDNLQJWKHHDUWKWRRKRW

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What is El Niño?

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Lakes and rivers are also warming, and while wet areas are often becoming wetter, dry areas are often becoming dryer. It is predicted that tropical areas will get hotter, that arid areas will become deserts, while temperate regions could become tropical. Dry areas becoming dryer leads to increased droughts and heat waves. These, in turn, lead WRIDPLQHLQFUHDVHGZLOG¿UHVSHVWDWWDFNVDQGVSUHDGRILQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHV ,3&&

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&KDQJLQJZHDWKHUSDWWHUQVDUHDOVRUHVXOWLQJLQFKDQJHVLQWKHGLVWULEXWLRQDQGUDQJHRIVSHFLHVDQGDUHGLVUXSWLQJ the natural balance of many ecosystems, with the result that the goods and services that they provide to humans will also be changed or reduced. This will undoubtedly have a serious impact on crops, which, in turn, will lead to food shortages and eventually famine.

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In short, climate change is increasing the frequency of natural disasters.

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Dried meat preserve soaked in honey is DGHOLFDF\HQMR\HGE\WKHVeddhas, an LQGLJHQRXVWULEHRI6UL/DQND Supporting services %LRGLYHUVLW\ Tropical rainforests support the greatest +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQE\RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIODQGVODVK diversity of living organisms on earth. and burn cultivation practices, cattle ranching, 7KH\FRYHUOHVVWKDQRIWKHHDUWK¶V construction of dams for hydropower and logging pose ODQGDUHDEXWKROGRIWKHHDUWK¶V VHULRXVWKUHDWVWRELRGLYHUVLW\+DELWDWORVVDQG terrestrial species.10 GHJUDGDWLRQDIIHFWRIDOOWKUHDWHQHGELUGVRI PDPPDOVDQGRIWKUHDWHQHGSODQWV The ancient tropical forests of Malaysia are KRPHWRWUHHVSHFLHVVSHFLHVRI 6L[WHHQWKRXVDQGRQHKXQGUHGDQGQLQHWHHQSODQWDQG ELUGVVSHFLHVRIUHSWLOHVVSHFLHV DQLPDOVSHFLHVDUHNQRZQWREHWKUHDWHQHGZLWKH[WLQFWLRQ of amphibians, 300 species of freshwater This may be a gross underestimate because less than ¿VKDQGPLOOLRQVRILQYHUWHEUDWHVSHFLHV11 RIWKHZRUOG¶VPLOOLRQGHVFULEHGVSHFLHVKDYHEHHQ DVVHVVHGIRU,8&1’V5HG/LVWRI7KUHDWHQHG6SHFLHV13 ,QWKH6LQKDUDMD:RUOG+HULWDJH6LWHRI6UL /DQNDRYHURIWKHWUHHVDUHHQGHPLF ,QYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHV ,$6 FDXVHVHYHUHGDPDJHWR and many of these are rare. There are rainforests by bringing new diseases and competing with 21 endemic bird species, and a number ORFDOVSHFLHV,Q6UL/DQNDZLGHVSUHDG,$6LQFOXGH.RVWHU¶V of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians. &XUVH Clidemia hirta), and Diyapara Dillenia suffruticosa), Endemism is high, particularly for birds Mimosa invisaDQG*XLQHDJUDVV Panicum maximum).14 (QGHPLVPDPRQJPDPPDOVDQG EXWWHUÀLHVLVDOVRJUHDWHUWKDQ12 The illegal trade in timber from Ramin, an endangered Indonesian tree species, is fuelling the destruction of 'HVSLWHFRYHULQJRQO\RIWKH ,QGRQHVLDQUDLQIRUHVWVDQGGULYLQJVSHFLHVVXFKDV&ULWLFDOO\ ZRUOG¶VODQGVXUIDFH6UL/DQNDLVKRPHWR (QGDQJHUHG2UDQJXWDQV Pongo pygmaeus 6XPDWUDQ PRUHWKDQRIWKHZRUOG¶VNQRZQIURJ UKLQRFHURV Rhinoceros sumatrensis) and Malayan sun and toad species, many of which live in EHDUV Helarctos malayanus FORVHUWRH[WLQFWLRQ lowland rainforests.3 *OREDOZDUPLQJLVSUHGLFWHGWRSXWDWOHDVWRI SODQWDQGDQLPDOVSHFLHVDWULVNRIH[WLQFWLRQ

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3ULPDU\SURGXFWLRQ Estimated net primary productivity in +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQUHFHQWJOREDOHVWLPDWHVVXJJHVW WKH%DUUR&RODUDGRWURSLFDOIRUHVWRI WKDWDURXQGNP2RIWURSLFDOUDLQIRUHVW 3DQDPDLVDWOHDVWJP2\U,Q HTXLYDOHQWWRWKHVL]HRI(QJODQGDQG:DOHVLV comparison, the net primary productivity destroyed every year. In addition, a similar area is of the much larger plantations soybean damaged or degraded. and corn in central Iowa, Illinois and 2KLR86$LVJP2\U17 3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ Tropical rainforest trees have +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQE\GHIRUHVWDWLRQZLWKRXWWKH H[WHQVLYHURRWV\VWHPV EXWWUHVVURRWV buttressing root systems of trees and plants and the SURSURRWV WKDWH[WHQGGHHSLQWRWKH VSRQJHHIIHFWRIOHDIOLWWHUUDSLGUXQRIIRIUDLQZDWHU soil. The presence of leaf litter, which results in soil erosion, removing topsoil. This leads can be a foot thick, acts to minimise WRDEXLOGXSRIVRLOLQQHDUE\ULYHUEHGVFDXVLQJ the effect of raindrop impact and ÀRRGLQJDQGDIIHFWLQJIUHVKZDWHUELRGLYHUVLW\ LQFUHDVHVLQ¿OWUDWLRQFDSDFLW\E\ soaking up water and releasing it VORZO\+HQFHWKHWRSVRLOLVDQFKRUHG and its removal by rapid sediment UXQRIILVSUHYHQWHG Nutrient cycling 7URSLFDOUDLQIRUHVWVKDYHDQHI¿FLHQW +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQWKHVRLOLQWURSLFDOUDLQIRUHVWV nutrient cycle. Dead organic matter is LVSRRULQQXWULHQWVWKHUHIRUHORQJWHUPFXOWLYDWLRQ decayed rapidly by many species of of crops cannot be sustained, resulting in the decomposers and detritivores, aided abandonment of these clearings and deforestation by the moist conditions of the forest. of new areas for cultivation. &DUERQDQGR[\JHQDUHUHOHDVHGLQWR the air and nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous and other minerals are absorbed immediately by a thick mat RISODQWURRWVDQGURRWOLNHIXQJL P\FRUUKL]DH 7KHFORVHDVVRFLDWLRQ between plants and fungi ensure that there is direct nutrient cycling.

:DWHUSXUL¿FDWLRQ 5DLQLQWURSLFDOIRUHVWVGRHVQRWGLUHFWO\ +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQGHIRUHVWDWLRQLQWURSLFDO reach the soil but trickles through the UDLQIRUHVWVUHVXOWVLQUDSLGZDWHUUXQRIIOHDGLQJWR forest canopy. As water percolates ÀRRGLQJDQGVRLOHURVLRQ VORZO\LWLVSXUL¿HGE\ELRORJLFDO processes performed by bacteria, fungi and algae, before reaching the soil and ÀRZLQJLQWRVWUHDPV20 %LRORJLFDODQGJHQHWLF While domesticated plants and animals Deforestation and climate change affect the resources are bred and become susceptible to composition of rainforests causing the loss of SHVWVDQGGLVHDVHZLOGOLIHÀRUDDQG JHQHWLFDOO\GLYHUVHÀRUDDQGIDXQD IDXQDKDYHGLYHUVHWUDLWVGXHWRRXW EUHHGLQJ*HQHVRIZLOGSODQWVDUH used to strengthen varieties and to introduce disease resistance.

6HTXHVWHULQJFDUERQ Tropical rainforests are vast reservoirs +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQGHIRUHVWDWLRQLQWKHWURSLFV

RIFDUERQ FDUERQVLQNV WKURXJK&22 DFFRXQWVIRUQHDUO\RIFDUERQHPLVVLRQVGXHWR absorption and conversion to biomass KXPDQDFWLYLWLHV7KLVZLOOUHOHDVHDQHVWLPDWHGWR by trees and plants. 130 billion tonnes of carbon by 2100, which is greater than the amount of carbon that would be released by 13 years of global fossil fuel combustion. 21

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&OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ ([FHVVHPLVVLRQRIJUHHQKRXVHJDVHV +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQGHIRUHVWDWLRQLQWKH$PD]RQ into the atmosphere results in the rise UHJLRQRI6RXWK$PHULFDLQÀXHQFHVUDLQIDOOIURP of surface temperatures, which alters 0H[LFRWR7H[DVDQGLQWKH*XOIRI0H[LFRZKLOH PDMRUSODQHWDU\ZHDWKHUV\VWHPV2IWHQ IRUHVWORVVLQ&HQWUDO$IULFDDIIHFWVSUHFLSLWDWLRQ FDOOHGWKHµOXQJVRIWKHHDUWK¶WURSLFDO SDWWHUQVLQWKHXSSHUDQGORZHU860LGZHVW forests help stabilise the climate through GHIRUHVWDWLRQLQ6RXWKHDVW$VLDZDVIRXQGWR 7 DEVRUSWLRQRI&22 by trees and plants. LQÀXHQFHUDLQIDOOLQ&KLQDDQGWKH%DONDQ3HQLQVXOD

Functioning as water pumps, tropical rainforests add to local humidity through transpiration which releases ZDWHUYDSRXUWRIRUPFORXGV6RPHRI this vapour precipitates as rain over the rainforest but often, clouds are carried a great distance to precipitate as rain LQWKHPLGODWLWXGHVDVIDUDZD\DV Europe and Australia.

Flood regulation 7KHÀRUDRIWURSLFDOUDLQIRUHVWV VXFK +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQZKHQWKHIRUHVWFDQRS\LV as epiphytes) act collectively as a giant UHPRYHGWKHH[SRVHGVRLOVXUIDFHEDNHVKDUGLQ VSRQJH5DLQLVDEVRUEHGE\FDQRS\ WKHLQWHQVHKHDW5DLQIDOOFDQQRWSHQHWUDWHHDVLO\ epiphytes and percolates slowly to the soil surface and is lost rapidly from the area in WKHERWWRPRIWKHIRUHVWÀRRUDQG VXUIDFHUXQRIIFUHDWLQJDÀRRGKD]DUG thick layer of leaf litter. This method RISUHFLSLWDWLRQSUHYHQWVÀRRGLQJLQ RXWHUFOHDUHUDUHDV,QDZHOOIRUHVWHG ZDWHUVKHGRIDQQXDOUDLQIDOO is trapped and released steadily, replenishing ground water and keeping VWUHDPVÀRZLQJWKURXJKGU\VHDVRQV1 Cultural services

+RPHVIRULQGLJHQRXV Lowland tropical rainforests support There were an estimated ten million Indians living in communities many indigenous communities. WKH$PD]RQLDQUDLQIRUHVW¿YHFHQWXULHVDJR7RGD\ 6XUYLYLQJLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHLQWKH there are less than 200,000. %UD]LOLDQ$PD]RQGHPRQVWUDWHWKH remarkable diversity of the rainforest Deforestation and other factors such as the search for EHFDXVHWKH\FRPSULVHHWKQLF minerals and oil are forcing indigenous people into a groups with 170 different languages. steadily decreasing area. Many of the groups have to give up their original way of life, their culture and their Other tropical forest groups include the religion, because of the destruction of rainforests. Mentawai people of Indonesia,22 the BajauSHRSOHRIWKH3KLOLSSLQHV23 and the Wanniyala-Aetto RI6UL/DQND24 Tourism Tropical rainforests are of great 3ROOXWLRQWRXULVWVGLVWXUEWURSLFDOUDLQIRUHVWVE\ economic value in the tourism industry. LUUHVSRQVLEOHWUDVKGLVSRVDO2YHUYLVLWDWLRQUHVXOWVLQ 3RSXODUWURSLFDOUDLQIRUHVWGHVWLQDWLRQV habitat degradation. Intentional removal or addition LQFOXGHWKH$PD]RQ5DLQIRUHVWLQ RIÀRUDDQGIDXQDE\XQLQIRUPHGWRXULVWVFUHDWHVDQ 6RXWK$PHULFDWKH.HULQFL6DEODW LPEDODQFHLQÀXHQFLQJQDWXUDOVSHFLHVGLYHUVLW\ 1DWLRQDO3DUN .613 LQ,QGRQHVLDWKH 6LQKDUDMD)RUHVW5HVHUYH6UL/DQND DQG6DUDZDNLQ0DOD\VLD

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KWWSZZZFRUDOFD\RUJVFLHQFHIRUHVWVZK\BFRQVHUYHBIRUHVWVSKS KWWSZZZUDLQIRUHVWIRXQGDWLRQXNRUJV7KH'HVWUXFWLRQRI5DLQIRUHVWV KWWSUDLQIRUHVWVPRQJDED\FRPLQGRQHVLDKWP KWWSZZZPRQJDED\FRPGHIRUHVWDWLRQBUDWHBWDEOHVKWP KWWSZZZDZLRQOLQHRUJZLOGOLIHFLWHVSUHVVUDPLQSURWHFWHGKWP KWWSZZZUDLQWUHHFRPIDFWVKWP KWWSZZZFRQVHUYDWLRQRUJ)0*$UWLFOHV3DJHVEUD]LOBND\DSRBDOO\BLQBDPD]RQDVS[ KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL9HGGKDV KWWSZZZIDRRUJGRFUHS\H\HKWP 0LOOHQQLXP(FRV\VWHP$VVHVVPHQW Ecosystems and Well-being Synthesis report.:DVKLQJWRQ'&,VODQG3UHVV YSS KWWSZZZJORELRRUJJORVVRSHGLDDUWLFOHDVS["DUWBLG KWWSZZZODQNDOLYHLQIRZLOGOLIHVLQKDUDMDVLQKDUDMDSKS KWWSFPVGDWDLXFQRUJGRZQORDGVVSHFLHVBH[WLQFWLRQBBSGI %DPEDUDGHQL\D&1% 7KHVWDWXVDQGLPSOLFDWLRQVRILQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVLQ6UL/DQND=RRV¶3ULQW-RXUQDO 17 KWWSZZZHQVQHZVZLUHFRPHQVIHEDVS ,3&& &OLPDWH&KDQJH,PSDFWV$GDSWDWLRQDQG9XOQHUDELOLW\&RQWULEXWLRQRI:RUNLQJ*URXS,,WRWKH)RXUWK Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(GV0/3DUU\2)&DQ]LDQL-33DOXWLNRI3- 9DQ+DQVRQ&DPEULGJH8.&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVSS &RQGLW5'0:LQVRUDQG63+XEEHOONPP Tropical Forest: Barro Colarado, Panama, 1969-1990. Data set 5RVV60-%7KRUQHVDQG61RUWFOLII 6RLO+\GURORJ\1XWULHQWDQG(URVLRQDO5HVSRQVHWRWKH&OHDUDQFHRI 7HUUD)LUPH)RUHVW0DUDFi,VODQG5RUDLPD1RUWKHUQ%UD]LO7KH*HRJUDSKLFDO-RXUQDO136 KWWSZZZPDULHWWDHGXaELROUDLQIRUKWPO KWWSZZZVFLHQFHOLQNVFRPOHVVRQVFIP"'RF,' UVGIVGIVGIKWWSHDUWKREVHUYDWRU\QDVDJRY1HZVURRP0HGLD$OHUWVKWPO KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL0HQWDZDLBSHRSOH KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL%DMDX KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL:DQQL\DOD$HWWR KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL7URSLFDOBUDLQIRUHVWV

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Timber 6HYHQPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVRIEDPERRJURZ Deforestation: cloud forests are affected LQ&KLQD¶VPRXQWDLQV,QWKH E\WLPEHUH[WUDFWLRQDQGFRPPHUFLDO bamboo sector generated 2.2 billion logging in seven Asian countries, 86'LQFOXGLQJH[SRUWVZRUWKRYHU particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia PLOOLRQ86'DQGRI&KLQD¶V DQGWKH3KLOLSSLQHV7KLVUHÀHFWVWKH IRUHVWH[SRUWV7KLVLQGXVWU\FUHDWHV SUHVHQFHRIPDMRUORJJLQJLQGXVWULHVLQ HPSOR\PHQWIRUPLOOLRQSHRSOH these countries. Timber harvesting was LQFOXGLQJPLOOLRQIDUPHUV%DPERR UHFRUGHGIRUVL[$IULFDQDQGVL[/DWLQ LVXVHGIRUIXUQLWXUHSDSHUSO\EDPERR American countries, principally for local food, medicine, and handicrafts.1 construction use.

The southwest forests of Ethiopia have 2WKHUPDMRUWKUHDWVLQFOXGHKDELWDW VHUYHGDVPDMRUVRXUFHVRIWLPEHUIRU degradation and fragmentation through saw log, plywood, chipwood and paper road construction, mining, conversion industries during the last century. Over RIIRUHVWDUHDWRDJULFXOWXUDODQGJUD]LQJ P3P3 and 7,701m3 of ODQG¿UHKXQWLQJDQGGHIRUHVWDWLRQIRU ORJVKDYHEHHQUHPRYHGEHWZHHQ drug cultivation.3 DQGIURPWKH*HUD forest, Belete forest and Bonga forest in Oromia and southern regions, respectively.2

1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWV 17)3V The montane forests of Thailand &OHDUDQFHRIFORXGIRUHVWVIRUIDUPLQJLV KDUERXUDPXOWLWXGHRI17)3VZKLFK the most widely recorded threat, reported are used by the local communities. IURPRI/DWLQ$PHULFDQDQG$VLDQ Most of them are collected for FRXQWULHVDQGRI$IULFDQFRXQWULHV subsistence only. These include ,WLVDPDMRUGHIRUHVWDWLRQSUHVVXUHLQDOO mushrooms, honey or herbal medicine. countries with cloud forests. The cleared Only few products such as the land is used principally for subsistence chestnuts of Castanopsis are sold agriculture by resource poor farmers, seasonally in the market. although commercial production of WHPSHUDWH]RQHIUXLWVDQGYHJHWDEOHVLV Camellia sinensis grows naturally in H[SDQGLQJLQFORXGIRUHVWDUHDVLQ$VLD3 the montane forests of Thailand.4 The leaves of this shrub are used by 6LJQL¿FDQWWKUHDWVIURPSODQQHGPLQLQJ villagers to produce a Thai delicacy RSHUDWLRQVODUJHGDPVDQGKLJKDOWLWXGH known as Pak Miang. timber plantations are increasing.

$GLYHUVLW\RI17)3VLVH[SORLWHG from cloud forests. These products LQFOXGHPHGLFLQDOSODQWV H[WUDFWHG medicines include Quinine and 3\JHXP IUXLWVDQGKHUEVQDWXUDO gums, honey, spices, game meat and ornamental plants. Tree ferns and the abundant epiphytes such as orchids, EURPHOLDGVDQGPRVVHVDUHH[WUDFWHG for horticultural markets.3

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%LRGLYHUVLW\ Tropical montane rainforests harbour higher Deforestation: the primary threats to levels of biodiversity than the lowland biodiversity in montane forests are from UDLQIRUHVWV+DOIRI6UL/DQND¶VHQGHPLF shifting cultivation, especially in the ÀRZHULQJSODQWVDQGRIWKHHQGHPLF VWHHSHUVORSHVWKDWSHRSOH HVSHFLDOO\LQ vertebrates are limited to this ecoregion in Viet Nam and Thailand) are beginning to 6UL/DQND0RUHWKDQRI6UL/DQND¶V clear because of lack of land to support endemic trees, shrubs, and herbs are LQFUHDVLQJSRSXODWLRQV6XEPRQWDQHIRUHVWV IRXQGLQPRQWDQHUDLQIRUHVWV6HYHUDO LQWKH.QXFNOHV5DQJHRI6UL/DQNDDUH HQGHPLFDQLPDOVVXFKDVWKH7RUUHQWWRDG threatened by cultivation of cardamom and Adenomus dasi 5KLQRFHURVKRUQHGOL]DUG WKHH[SDQVLRQRIWHDSODQWDWLRQV11 Large Ceratophora stoddartii DQG6UL/DQND K\GURSURMHFWV HVSHFLDOO\LQ/DRVDQG :KLVWOLQJWKUXVK Myophonus blighii) are 9LHW1DP DUHDOVRVHULRXVWKUHDWV2YHU restricted to these ecosystems.7 H[SORLWDWLRQWKURXJKLOOHJDOKXQWLQJIRUD KXJHFRPPHUFLDOWUDGHWKDWVXSSOLHV&KLQD 1LQHW\RI,QGLD¶VUHSWLOHVSHFLHVDUH RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIHDJOHZRRG gaharuWKH endemic to the montane forests of the fragrant resinous wood produced by a fungal VRXWKZHVWHUQ*KDWV$OPRVWRI,QGLD¶V infection in trees of the genus Aquilaria) and DPSKLELDQVSHFLHVDUHDOVRHQGHPLFWR ZLOGOLIH HOHSKDQWDQGJDXU SRDFKLQJDV the ecoregion. well as road construction are also threats to montane forests.10 0RUHWKDQRQHKDOIRI%RUQHR¶VSLWFKHU plant species are found in its montane 6XEPRQWDQHIRUHVWVLQWKH.QXFNOHV IRUHVWV5KRGRGHQGURQVDUHFKDUDFWHULVWLF 5DQJHRI6UL/DQNDDUHWKUHDWHQHGE\ RIXSSHUPRQWDQHÀRUDDQGPRUHWKDQ FXOWLYDWLRQRIFDUGDPRPDQGWKHH[SDQVLRQ twenty Vireya species thrive here. More of tea plantations.11 WKDQELUGVSHFLHVDUHDOVRDWWULEXWHG to this ecoregion. Invasive alien species are a threat to the ELRGLYHUVLW\RIPRQWDQHIRUHVWV,Q6UL Limestone forests are forests that grow on /DQNDGHVWUXFWLYH,$6LQFOXGH*RUVH limestone hill areas. Although in southeast Ulex europaeus 0LVWÀRZHU Eupatorium Asia most limestone occurs in the lowlands, riparium), Cestrum aurantium6WUDZEHUU\ %RUQHRKDVLPSRUWDQWOLPHVWRQHIRUHVWVLQ JXDYD Psidium littorale), Naththasooriya WKHPRQWDQH]RQH (Tithonia diversifolia) and the Velvet plant Miconia calvescens).12 Watershed protection Tropical montane cloud forests have an Of all the types of tropical forest, tropical abundance of epiphytic plants that capture montane cloud forests are especially water from the condensation from clouds vulnerable to climate change. Alterations DQGIRJ7KLVµVWULSSLQJ¶RIZLQGEORZQIRJ in climate conditions will lead to the by the vegetation becomes especially replacement of cloud forests by lower LPSRUWDQWGXULQJWKHQRQUDLQ\VHDVRQDQG DOWLWXGHHFRV\VWHPVDQGWKHH[WLQFWLRQRI LQDUHDVZLWKORZUDLQIDOOEXWZLWKIUHTXHQW cloud forests currently on mountain peaks clouds. Water originating from cloud forests where they are unable to spread up slope. is also increased because water loss from vegetation wetted by rain or fog is reduced. The reduction of cloudiness over the forests 7KLVUHVXOWVLQVWUHDPÀRZVIURPFORXG ZLOOUHVXOWLQOHVVIUHTXHQWLPPHUVLRQRIWKH forest areas that are greater and more forest in the clouds and reduced capture of dependable during dry periods.3 ZDWHUE\WKHYHJHWDWLRQZLWKDFRQVHTXHQW drying out of the ecosystem. Montane forests are the most important catchments and watershed areas of the Deforestation in lowland areas also affects .QXFNOHVUDQJHLQ6UL/DQND7KURXJKWKH the hydrological role of cloud forests. Wind year, they play a key role in providing a passing over these sparse regions lifts water supply to sustain ecosystems and clouds in mountainous regions, thereby livelihoods through the year in downstream drying cloud forests.3 areas. They serve as the catchment for VHYHUDOPDMRUULYHUV11

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3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ &ORXGIRUHVWVDUHORFDWHGRQVWHHS +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQE\GHIRUHVWDWLRQ mountain slopes in high rainfall areas. logging of montane forests has 'XHWRWKHKLJKLQ¿OWUDWLRQFDSDFLW\DQG devastating effects on the landscape high organic content of their soils, cloud and surrounding ecosystems. forests reduce soil erosion and the ([WHQVLYHHURVLRQRQVXUURXQGLQJ incidence of devastating landslides.13 deforested slopes has clogged the irrigation systems of the once fertile ULFH¿HOGVRI3DOX9DOOH\LQ,QGRQHVLD14

&RPPXQLWLHVLQWKH6DEDUDJDPXZD SURYLQFHRI6UL/DQNDDUHYXOQHUDEOH WRHDUWKVOLSVDQGÀRRGVGXULQJ PRQVRRQUDLQVDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRI the instability of hill slopes due to the loss of montane forest.

*HQHWLFUHVRXUFHV An important characteristic of cloud +XQWLQJDQGDQWKURSRJHQLF¿UHV forests is that they are the natural are serious threats to the wildlife habitat of the wild relatives of many DVVHPEODJHVDQGKDELWDWVLQ6XODZHVL crop species. They are, therefore, ,QGRQHVLD+XQWHUVVHW¿UHVWR important gene pools for the continued facilitate hunting of Anoa, a kind of improvement of these plants. EXIIDOR Bubalus quarlesi), creating PRQWDQHPHDGRZV&ORXGIRUHVWV Wild plants include relatives of papaya DQGVXEDOSLQHIRUHVWVDUHVXEMHFW Carica papaya), tomato (Lycopersicon to periods of drought, during which esculentum)WUHHWRPDWR Cyphomandra WKHRLOULFKOHDYHVRIRhododendron, betacea), species of passion fruit, Vaccinium, and *DXOWKHULD easily catch avocado (Persea americana), beans of ¿UHGHVWUR\LQJZLOGÀRUDDQGIDXQD14 the genus Phaseolus, the blackberry Rubus spp. FXFXPEHU Solanum muricatum SRWDWR Solanum spp.) and SHSSHUV Capsicum spp.)3

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6HTXHVWHULQJFDUERQ Montane moist forests are also important &OLPDWHFKDQJHLVWKHELJJHVWWKUHDW

LQKHOSLQJWRVHTXHVWHU&22 from the to cloud forests, which depend on DWPRVSKHUHDQGWKHUHIRUHDUHPDMRU the stable position of clouds. carbon sinks, helping in reducing the 'HIRUHVWDWLRQLQORZHUO\LQJODQGV JUHHQKRXVHHIIHFW&XUUHQWHVWLPDWHV HYHQUHJLRQVRYHUNPDZD\LV have shown that the montane forests changing the local climate, leaving RI(WKLRSLDVHTXHVWHUQHDUO\ cloud forests cloudless. As winds

PLOOLRQNJRI&22 per annum from the pass over deforested lowlands, clouds atmosphere.2 DUHOLIWHGKLJKHURIWHQDERYHWKH mountain tops, which dries the cloud IRUHVWVRLWFDQQRORQJHUVXSSRUW the same vegetation or provide appropriate habitat for many of the rare species originally found there.

Flood regulation &ORXGIRUHVWVFDQVWRUHWKHZDWHUWKDWLV Deforestation of cloud forests stripped from clouds and release it slowly H[SRVHVODQGRQVWHHSVORSHVZKLFK to the lowland regions. In this manner, UHVXOWVLQWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀRRGVDV FDWDVWURSKLFÀDVKÀRRGVDUHSUHYHQWHG13 well as soil erosion.

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Tourist attractions Tourists are attracted by the beauty of 3ROOXWLRQWRXULVPDQGUHFUHDWLRQDFWLYLWLHV the mountain environment as well as rare affect cloud forests through trail making species characteristic of montane rainforests. and littering. Tourists also remove souvenirs from the forest. The building of &ORXGIRUHVWVLWHVZLWKVLJQL¿FDQWWRXULVP attractions such as golf courses results in potential include the Monteverde cloud the destruction of cloud forests.13 IRUHVWLQ&RVWD5LFD0RXQW6WDQOH\LQ 8JDQGD/XTXLOOR1DWLRQDO)RUHVWLQ3XHUWR 5LFR0RXQW0DNLOLQJDQG0RXQW3XORJLQ WKH3KLOLSSLQHVWKH&DPHURQDQG*HQWLQJ +LJKODQGVLQSHQLQVXODU0DOD\VLDDQG 0RXQW.LQDEDOXLQ6DEDK0DOD\VLD3

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Timber and fuelwood 7LPEHUH[WUDFWLRQLVDQLPSRUWDQWVHUYLFH 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIDOOIRUHVWUHJLRQV of monsoon forests. The principal plant LQ%DQJODGHVKSal forests are the most species in the monsoon forests of threatened due to the high demand of %DQJODGHVKLVShorea robusta, known timber, easy access and geographic commonly as Sal, hence these areas are location. Sal forests undergo rapid also known as Sal forests. Sal is one of UHGXFWLRQWKURXJKLOOLFLWIHOOLQJH[FHVVLYH the most important timber yielding plant leaf litter collection, encroachment and species and is used for railway sleepers, unsustainable collection of economically piles, beams and other load bearing parts LPSRUWDQWSODQWVSHFLHV7KHH[WHQW of bridge structures, telephone poles, of forest under encroachment is wheels and bodies of carts and other DSSUR[LPDWHO\PLOOLRQKHFWDUHV similar load carriers, motor trucks and with an estimated 100,000 encroachers structures of houses.1 threatening the area.1

7HDN Tectona grandis) is found commonly Teak is not considered a rare species in as a species in monsoon forests in India countries such as Thailand and India, but DQG,QGR&KLQD,WLVXVHGH[WHQVLYHO\LQ H[WUDFWLRQRIWHDNDWDQH[FHVVLYHUDWHKDV ,QGLDDQGSUL]HGIRULWVGXUDELOLW\7HDNLV lead to forest degradation. Illegal felling used to make furniture, boat decks, indoor RIWHDNSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKH0\DQPDU7KDL ÀRRULQJDQGEHDPVLQKRXVHV2 border is of international concern.

$SSUR[LPDWHO\P3 of wood is 6DWLQZRRG Chloroxylon swietenia) and obtained annually from the tropical dry (ERQ\ Diospyros ebenum) are now rare IRUHVWVLQ-DOLVFR0H[LFR3 VSHFLHVLQWKHPRQVRRQIRUHVWVRI6UL /DQNDGXHWRRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQIRUWLPEHU Fuelwood is the only source of cooking fuel in households of the Uttara Kannada GLVWULFWLQWKH:HVWHUQ*KDWVRI,QGLD2Q average, each household collects about ±NJRIIXHOZRRGSHU\HDULQ the form of fallen twigs or dry branches from the moist deciduous, dry evergreen and dry deciduous forests that are characteristic of the area.4

1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWV 1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWVREWDLQHGIURP +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQWKURXJKIRUHVWWR 17)3V PRQVRRQIRUHVWVDUHXVHGIRUIRRGURR¿QJ pasture conversion, which results in household ornaments and utensils, fodder IRUHVWIUDJPHQWDWLRQOLYHVWRFNJUD]LQJ and for medicinal purposes. VODVKDQGEXUQFXOWLYDWLRQDQGGDPV constructed for hydropower. 7KHH[XGDWHVOHDYHVDQGIUXLWVRIPDQ\ PRQVRRQIRUHVWÀRUDDUHSUHVFULEHG 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQ H[FHVVLYHFROOHFWLRQ by medical practitioners for ailments. of fuelwood by indigenous people, Fruits from Shorea robusta are used to RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIWUHHVIRUWLPEHUDQG treat diarrhoeal diseases and the stem poaching of animals for the wildlife trade). sap can be used to treat skin diseases. 6HUSHQWZRRG 5DXYRO¿DVHUSHQWLQD is Invasive alien species are spreading in used for the treatment of snake bites and disturbed forest areas.7 IRUWKHWUHDWPHQWRIK\SHUWHQVLRQ3ODQWV with medicinal properties are used to treat both humans and livestock.

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Services Description Threats 3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV 17)3VFRQWG In the Uttara Kannada district, mushrooms, +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQWKURXJKIRUHVWWR KRQH\DQGIUXLWVRI,QGLDQJRRVHEHUU\ Emblica pasture conversion, which results in RI¿FLQDOLV DQG%HQJDOFXUUDQWKaranda Carissa IRUHVWIUDJPHQWDWLRQOLYHVWRFNJUD]LQJ carandas) DUHFROOHFWHGLQVPDOOTXDQWLWLHVIRU VODVKDQGEXUQFXOWLYDWLRQDQGGDPV XVHDWWKHKRXVHKROGOHYHO+RQH\LVH[WUDFWHG constructed for hydropower. DQQXDOO\IURPWKHGU\GHFLGXRXV]RQHDQGVROG commercially. Other valuable food sources 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQ H[FHVVLYHFROOHFWLRQ include wild mangoes, lime, chilli peppers, of fuelwood by indigenous people, *DUFLQLD *DUFLQLDLQGLFD and Ebony RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIWUHHVIRUWLPEHUDQG Diospyros melanoxylon). poaching of animals for the wildlife trade).

*XPLVH[WUDFWHGIURP$[OHZRRG Anogeissus Invasive alien species are spreading in latifolia DQG6RDSQXW Acacia sinuata) is used disturbed forest areas.7 to make shampoos.

&DQHEDPERRDQG6LOYHUGDWHSDOP(Phoenix sylvestris) are used to produce baskets, rooms, PDWHULDOIRUURR¿QJIXUQLWXUHDQGURSHV4 Supporting services %LRGLYHUVLW\ 7KHPRQVRRQIRUHVWVRI+DLQDQ,VODQGORFDWHG 7KHGU\GHFLGXRXVIRUHVWVLQWKH&HQWUDO LQWKH6RXWK&KLQD6HDVXSSRUWDKLJKÀRUDO 'HFFDQ3ODWHDXRI,QGLDDUHXQGHUVHYHUH ELRGLYHUVLW\ZLWKSODQWVSHFLHVRIZKLFK threat from conversion to plantations are endemic to the island. Two mammal species IRUFDVKFURSVRYHUJUD]LQJE\FDWWOH WKH+DLQDQPRRQUDW Neohylomys hainanensis) H[FHVVLYHIXHOZRRGFROOHFWLRQDQGODUJH DQGWKH+DLQDQÀ\LQJVTXLUUHO Hylopetes electilis) K\GURHOHFWULFSURMHFWV+DELWDWORVVUHVXOWV DUHHQGHPLFWR+DLQDQ2WKHUQRWDEOHPDPPDOV in decreasing prey for tigers that turn to LQFOXGHWKH%ODFNJLEERQ Hylobates concolor), the OLYHVWRFNDVDVRXUFHRIIRRG5HWDOLDWLRQE\ $VLDWLFEODFNEHDU Selenarctos thibetanus), and the local people against these predations WKH+DLQDQPROH Talpa insularis). has affected the tiger population.12

7KHGU\]RQHGU\HYHUJUHHQIRUHVWVRI6UL/DQND 7KHSULPDU\WKUHDWVWRWKHGU\]RQH are home to one of Asia’s largest mammals PRQVRRQIRUHVWVRI6UL/DQNDDUHIURP WKH(OHSKDQW Elephas maximus), whose deforestation caused by agriculture, SRSXODWLRQVDUHHVWLPDWHGDW VKLIWLQJFXOWLYDWLRQVPDOOVFDOHORJJLQJ DVZHOODVRWKHUODUJHPDPPDOVVXFKDV and encroachment into protected areas. /HRSDUGV Panthera pardus DQG6ORWKEHDUV 6HYHUDOPDPPDOVLQWKHVHIRUHVWVDUH Melursus ursinus). threatened, including Asian elephants, /HRSDUGV6ORWKEHDUVWKHHQGHPLF 7KH.DWKLDUEDU*LUGU\GHFLGXRXVIRUHVWVRI 3XUSOHIDFHGOHDIPRQNH\ Semnopithecus India support the only surviving population of vetulus DQGWKH6UL/DQNDUHGVOHQGHU WKH$VLDWLFOLRQ Panthera leo persica).10 ORULV Loris tardigradus).13

7KH0DGDJDVFDUPRQVRRQIRUHVWVDUHDPDMRU +XQWLQJWRVXSSO\WKHZLOGOLIHWUDGHKDV centre of endemism in Madagascar and have depleted wildlife biodiversity in the high biological importance. Endemic mammal southeastern Indochinese dry evergreen VSHFLHVWRWKHHFRUHJLRQLQFOXGHWKH*ROGHQ IRUHVWVKRPHWRWKH&ULWLFDOO\(QGDQJHUHG FURZQHGVLIDND Propithecus tattersalli), -DYDQUKLQRFHURV Rhinoceros sondaicus), 0RQJRRVHOHPXU Eulemur mongoz), Western one of two populations of this species on IRUHVWUDW Nesomys lambertoni)*ROGHQEURZQ earth.14 PRXVHOHPXU Microcebus ravelobensis), 1RUWKHUQUXIRXVPRXVHOHPXU M. tavaratra), Invasive alien species are rampant :HVWHUQUXIRXVPRXVHOHPXU M. myoxinus), LQGLVWXUEHGPRQVRRQIRUHVWVRI6UL 3HUULHU¶VVLIDND Propithecus diadema perrieri), /DQND)HUDOEXIIDOR Bubalus bubalis) 0LOQH(GZDUGV¶VVSRUWLYHOHPXU Lepilemur is a common invasive animal in forest edwardsi) and a species of forest mouse, DUHDV&RPPRQ,$6SODQWVLQFOXGH Macrotarsomys ingens. The dry deciduous 3ULFNO\ODQWDQD Lantana camara 6LDP forests are one of the primary habitats for ZHHG Chromolaena odorata), Leucaena the island’s largest predator, the Fossa leucocephalaDQGWKH0LOHDPLQXWHZHHG Cryptoprocta ferox).11 Mikania micrantha).

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Services Description Threats Supporting services contd. *HQHWLFUHVRXUFHV :LOGVSHFLHVRIÀRUDDQGIDXQDIRXQGLQWURSLFDO &OLPDWHFKDQJHFDQDIIHFWJHQHWLFGLYHUVLW\ dry forests are genetically more diverse than through effects on breeding systems, domestic livestock and cultivated crops. Native SODQWSROOLQDWRUDQGSODQWVHHGGLVSHUVHU tropical dry forest species are adapted to low interactions and species reproduction. As a DQGVHDVRQDOZDWHUDYDLODELOLW\3UHGLFWLRQVIRU FRQVHTXHQFHJHQHWLFGLYHUVLW\ZLOOEHORVWWR climate change in the tropics include increasing LQEUHHGLQJDQGH[WLQFWLRQRIVSHFLHV temperatures and decreasing water availability, making tropical dry forest plant species 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIZLOGVSHFLHVDQG important sources of genetic diversity which destruction of their natural habitat decreases can be propagated vegetatively. Wild relatives surviving populations and reduces gene RIFURSVVXFKDVVTXDVKDUHIRXQGLQGU\ pools.3 IRUHVWVLQWKH&KDPHOODUHJLRQRI0H[LFR3 6RLOHURVLRQ In spite of the deciduous character of monsoon When monsoon forests are transformed into forests, there is always a constant leaf litter DJULFXOWXUHDQGSDVWXUH¿HOGVVRLOFRYHUDQG OD\HURQWKHIRUHVWÀRRU7KLVSURWHFWVWKHVRLO LQ¿OWUDWLRQUDWHVGHFUHDVH7KLVUHVXOWVLQ from the direct impact of raindrops which keeps soil erosion and sediment transport which KLJKLQ¿OWUDWLRQUDWHVLQWKHVRLOSUHYHQWLQJ LQFUHDVHVWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀDVKÀRRGV14 runoff and soil erosion.3

&DUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQ &DUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQLQWKHGU\HYHUJUHHQ )LUHVGXULQJIRUHVWWRSDVWXUHFRQYHUVLRQ IRUHVWVRIWKH.DQFKDQDEXUL3URYLQFHLQ LQWKHGU\IRUHVWVRI0H[LFRDUHDPDMRU 7KDLODQGLVWRQQHV&KD VRXUFHRI&22 emissions to the atmosphere contributing to global warming, which further dries tropical dry forest ecosystems. 3RWHQWLDODQQXDOFDUERQHPLVVLRQVIURPWKH burning of biomass through slash and burn FXOWLYDWLRQPD\DPRXQWWRPLOOLRQWRQQHV RIFDUERQLQFRPSDULVRQWRPLOOLRQ tonnes of carbon from evergreen forests.3 3ULPDU\SURGXFWLRQ The net primary productivity of tropical dry Teak has been shown to be sensitive to IRUHVWVLQWKH&KDPHODUHJLRQRI0H[LFRLV variations in climate. In India, depletion of HVWLPDWHGWREH0JKD\U3 soil moisture as a result of global warming is likely to cause teak productivity to decline IURPP3KD\UWRP3KD\U17 Maintenance of soil fertility The strong seasonal pattern of rainfall causes When forests are transformed through slash QXWULHQWOHDFKLQJIURPIRUHVWVRLO+RZHYHU DQGEXUQFXOWLYDWLRQRIWKHOLWWHUOD\HU WURSLFDOGU\IRUHVWVKDYHH[WUHPHO\IHUWLOH and above ground biomass is destroyed. soils due to various recycling mechanisms to )RUHVWWRSDVWXUHFRQYHUVLRQUHVXOWVLQ minimise nutrient loss from the ecosystem. RIFDUERQDQGRIQLWURJHQEHLQJORVWIURP The dense leaf litter layer prevents nutrient the above ground biomass and soil erosion leaching by surface runoff. Further, a strong UHVXOWVLQWKHORVVRIDQGNJKD\URI microbial population immobilises nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus respectively.3 and therefore, nutrients are reabsorbed into plants prior to shedding leaves during the dry season. Regulating services &OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ Monsoon forests regulate the local climate by &OHDUDQFHRIODQGLQFUHDVHVWKHVXUIDFH providing shade and moisture to farmers and DOEHGR WKHGLUHFWUHÀHFWLRQRIVRODUUDGLDWLRQ OLYHVWRFN&OLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVRQDUHJLRQDODQG back to outer space) of monsoon forests. This global scale are also regulated by the carbon effect, combined with increasing temperatures VHTXHVWUDWLRQVHUYLFHRIWKHVHIRUHVWV3 due to global warming, may produce some disturbances of monsoon circulation and seasonal variation in forests of the southeast $VLDQUHJLRQ)LUHZKLFKLVDOVRLQÀXHQFHG E\ÀXFWXDWLRQVLQWHPSHUDWXUHUDLQIDOO seasonal variation and human land use, VLJQL¿FDQWO\DIIHFWVWKHVWUXFWXUHFRPSRVLWLRQ and age diversity of forests.

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Services Description Threats Regulating services contd.

Flood regulation 7KH&KDPHODUHJLRQLQ0H[LFRLVSURQHWR When monsoon forests are transformed cyclonic events with highly erosive storms. LQWRDJULFXOWXUHDQGSDVWXUH¿HOGVVRLOFRYHU %HFDXVHRIWKHFRQVWDQWOHDIOLWWHUOD\HURQWKH DQGLQ¿OWUDWLRQUDWHVGHFUHDVHUHVXOWLQJLQ IRUHVWÀRRUWKHVRLOKDVDKLJKLQ¿OWUDWLRQFDSDFLW\ soil erosion and sediment transport which DQGWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIÀRRGVLVUHGXFHGJUHDWO\30 LQFUHDVHVWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀDVKÀRRGV31

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+RPHWRLQGLJHQRXV Monsoon forests are home to the Hmong and The biggest threat to the dry deciduous people Yao tribes of Thailand,32 the Adivasi RI&HQWUDO forest of the Narmada Valley in India is the India33 and the Veddas RI6UL/DQND34 construction of a series of dams along the 1DUPDGDULYHU1HDUO\RIWKHQDWXUDO dry forest of this region has been cleared. 7KHVHGDPVÀRRGFULWLFDOKDELWDWDQG force large numbers of people from local communities to relocate. Tourism Important tourism destinations in monsoon Tourists disturb monsoon forests by IRUHVWVLQFOXGHWKH.RPRGR1DWLRQDO3DUNLQ RYHUYLVLWDWLRQ7KLVUHVXOWVLQKDELWDW WKH/HVVHU6XQGDLVODQGVRI,QGRQHVLDYala, degradation by trampling and pollution :DVJRPXZDDQG0LQQHUL\D1DWLRQDO3DUNVLQ E\YHKLFOHV5HPRYDORUDGGLWLRQRIÀRUD WKHGU\]RQHPRQVRRQIRUHVWVRI6UL/DQND37 and fauna by uninformed tourists creates WKH*LU)RUHVW1DWLRQDO3DUNDQGWKH%HWOD DQLPEDODQFHLQÀXHQFLQJQDWXUDOVSHFLHV 1DWLRQDO3DUNRI,QGLD GLYHUVLW\+DELWXDWLRQRIZLOGOLIHVXFKDV GHHUDQGMXYHQLOH.RPRGRGUDJRQVKDV 7KH/DRV\VWHPRI1DWLRQDO3URWHFWHG been observed in the Komodo National $UHDVFRYHUVQHDUO\RIWKHFRXQWU\DQG 3DUNLQ,QGRQHVLD([SHUWVSURMHFWWKDW is recognised as one of the best designed habituation and dependency on visiting protected areas systems in the world. With tourist adversely affects wildlife. 41 large tracts of tropical monsoon forest, diverse wildlife populations and many ethnic minority +DUDVVPHQWRIHOHSKDQWVDQGRWKHUZLOG groups, Laos’ protected areas have an DQLPDOVRIIURDGGULYLQJWKDWGHVWUR\V abundance of ecotourism attractions.40 vegetation and littering by tourists threaten WKH

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Timber and fuelwood Trees that are important timber species such 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQORJJLQJDQGFXWWLQJ as Palu (Manilkara hexandra),WKHµ0XVWDUG of vegetation for timber and fuelwood, 7UHH¶ Salvador persica DQG0DUJRVDNeem H[FHVVLYHPLQLQJIRUPLQHUDOUHVRXUFHV Azadirachta indica) are interspersed among DQGRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRISODQWVSHFLHV the scrub vegetation in the scrub forests of for the ornamental plant trade. 6UL/DQND1 +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQVODVKDQGEXUQ The Soliga people in the Biligiri Rangaswarmy FXOWLYDWLRQ¿UHVWRFUHDWHJUD]LQJ 7HPSOH:LOGOLIH6DQFWXDU\LQ,QGLDGHSHQG ODQGVDQGRYHUJUD]LQJE\OLYHVWRFN 3 RQVSHFLHVVXFKDV$[OHZRRG Anogeissus latifolia 6DWLQZRRG Chloroxylon swietenia), Invasive alien species such as 5HG&DWHFKXH(Acacia sundra) and *UHZLD 0HVTXLWH 3URVRSLVMXOLÀRUD 3ULFNO\ oppositifolia for fuelwood.2 SHDU Opuntia dillennii) and Lantana camara are also spreading.4

1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWV $QLPSRUWDQW17)3RIVFUXEIRUHVWVLQ 6DPHDVDERYH 17)3V India is the fruit of Nelli/Amla (Phyllanthus LQGR¿VFKHUL which is used as a common ingredient of many medicines and tonics in traditional Indian health practices. ([SHULPHQWDOSUHSDUDWLRQVRINelli/Amla leaf, IUXLWDQGEDUNH[WUDFWVKDYHSURSHUWLHVWKDWFDQ be used to treat diseases such as diabetes, LQÀDPPDWLRQDQGDJHUHODWHGUHQDOGLVHDVH2

The Nelli/Amla fruit is used commercially to SUHSDUHSLFNOHVMDPVDQGMXLFHV,WLVDOVRXVHG to make hair dyes, shampoos, hair oil and WDQQLQVZKLFK¿[G\HVLQIDEULF

&UHROHOHPRQ Ampbypteryngium adstingens), found in the open scrub IRUHVWVRIWKHYROFDQLFFRPSOH[RI&ROLPDLQ 0H[LFRLVXVHGDVDFXUHIRUVWRPDFKXOFHUV and gastritis and Cuachalalate (Arbutus tessellate) is used to treat headaches.

+RQH\LVDVRXUFHRILQFRPHDQGVXVWHQDQFH for the Soliga community of India.2

Mineral resources 7KH-KDQJDU9DOOH\VFUXEIRUHVWRI3DNLVWDQ 6HYHUDOFHPHQWIDFWRULHVREWDLQUDZ LVDVLWHRIH[WUDFWLRQRIPLQHUDOVDQGRUHV PDWHULDOVIURPWKH-KDQJDU9DOOH\ such as coal, gypsum, clay and limestone. and destroy its scrub forest by More than 100 coal mines are situated in EODVWLQJODUJHDUHDVWRH[WUDFWWKHVH this forest and are a source of considerable raw materials. Dust particles and UHYHQXHIRUWKHJRYHUQPHQWRI3DNLVWDQDV other pollution released by cement well as the local community.7 factories settle on scrub vegetation and block plant biological processes. ([WHQVLYHFRDOPLQLQJKDVOHGWR serious habitat degradation and erosion of fertile scrublands.7

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Services Description Threats Supporting services

%LRGLYHUVLW\ The Deccan Thorn scrub forests of India 7KH%UD]LOLDQ&DDWLQJDLVKRPHWRWKH/HDU¶V KDUERXUWKHUHPDLQLQJSRSXODWLRQVRI-HUGRQ¶V PDFDZ Anodorhynchus leari DQGWKH6SL[ FRXUVHU Rhinoptilus bitorquatus D&ULWLFDOO\ PDFDZ Cyanopsitta spixii), two of the most Endangered bird species. threatened bird species in the world. More than RIWKH&DDWLQJDKDVEHHQGHJUDGHGDVD 6HYHUDOODUJHPDPPDOVRIFRQVHUYDWLRQ UHVXOWRIDJULFXOWXUDOGHYHORSPHQWFDWWOHJUD]LQJ LPSRUWDQFHLQFOXGLQJ/HRSDUGV Panthera H[WUDFWLRQRIIXHOZRRGH[WHQVLYHDQGXQFRQWUROOHG pardus &DUDFDOV Felis caracal), Indian KXPDQLQGXFHG¿UHVDQGFRWWRQFXOWLYDWLRQ JD]HOOHV *D]HOODEHQQHWWLL )RXUKRUQHG DQWHORSHV Tetracerus quadricornis), Wild dogs 7KHVFUXEIRUHVWVRIWKH'HFFDQ3ODWHDXDUH Cuon alpinus DQG%ODFNEXFNV Antilope WKUHDWHQHGE\0HVTXLWH 3URVRSLVMXOLÀRUD DQ cervicapra ¿QGUHIXJHLQWKHQRUWKZHVWHUQVFUXE invasive alien species, which invades village IRUHVWVRI,QGLDDQG3DNLVWDQ7KHVHIRUHVWVDOVR SDVWXUHVUHVXOWLQJLQWKHORVVRIJUD]LQJDUHDV KDUERXUWKH*OREDOO\7KUHDWHQHG,QGLDQEXVWDUG for cattle. This results in encroachment into the Ardeotis nigriceps DQGWKH/HVVHUÀRULFDQ SURWHFWHGVFUXEIRUHVWVIRUJUD]LQJ2WKHU,$6 Eupodotis indica).3 LQFOXGH3ULFNO\SHDU Opuntia dillennii) and Lantana camara. 7KH&DDWLQJDVFUXEODQGRIQRUWKHDVWHUQ%UD]LO provides habitat to over 1,200 species of Tillandsia xerographica, a bromeliad endemic YDVFXODUSODQWVRIZKLFKDUHHQGHPLF WRWKH0RQWDJXD9DOOH\VFUXEIRUHVWRI*XDWHPDOD LVLQGDQJHURIH[WLQFWLRQEHFDXVHRILWVH[WUDFWLRQ 7KH*XDWHPDODQEHDGHGOL]DUG Heloderma IRUWKHRUQDPHQWDOSODQWWUDGH2WKHUÀRUDWKDWDUH horridum charlesbogerti), found in the Montagua H[WUDFWHGLOOHJDOO\IRUWKLVWUDGHLQFOXGHFDFWXV 9DOOH\VFUXEIRUHVWRI*XDWHPDODLVKHOSIXOWR species of the genera Mammillaria and Melocactus.11 humans as its venom is used as an effective treatment for diabetes.10

&DUERQ $QQXDODERYHJURXQGFDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQLQD The largest potential losses of carbon from VHTXHVWUDWLRQ 1HZ=HDODQGVFUXEIRUHVWDVODUJHDVPLOOLRQ vegetation and soil are due to soil erosion, hectares is 3.4 million tonnes of carbon.12 LQWHQVLYHJUD]LQJDQGRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRISODQW species for food and fuelwood.12 Regulating services

&OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ 6FUXEIRUHVWVSOD\DUROHLQUHJXODWLQJJOREDO 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIVFUXEYHJHWDWLRQOHDGVWR FOLPDWHSDWWHUQVWKURXJKFDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQ increased land albedo, reduced shade, increased 7KHH[WHQWRIJURXQGFRYHUE\VFUXEYHJHWDWLRQ surface temperatures, a rapid decrease in soil DIIHFWVDOEHGR WKHDPRXQWRIVRODUUDGLDWLRQWKDW moisture which leads to reduced evaporation and LVUHÀHFWHGEDFNLQWRVSDFH DQGWKHIUDFWLRQRI reduced rainfall in the wet season.13 soil water that is transpired to the atmosphere. These effects drive atmospheric energy and ZDWHUEDODQFHSURFHVVHV13 Cultural services

+RPHWR The scrub forests of the Biligiri National Wildlife Ninety per cent of the scrub forests of the Deccan indigenous tribes 6DQFWXDU\LQ,QGLDDUHKRPHWRWKHSoliga 3ODWHDXKDYHEHHQGHJUDGHGDVDUHVXOWRIKXPDQ community.2 Other indigenous populations DFWLYLWLHV3DVWRUDOLVPLVDVHULRXVFDXVHRIODQG living in scrub forests include the Tagbanua of GHJUDGDWLRQWKURXJKKHDY\FDWWOHJUD]LQJDQG 3DODZDQ3KLOLSSLQHV14 and the Ramkokamekrá RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIIRUHVWSURGXFHE\SDVWRUDOLVWV RIWKH&DQHOD%UD]LO Tourism 6FUXEIRUHVWWRXULVPDWWUDFWLRQVLQFOXGHWKH 3ROOXWLRQWKURXJKWRXULVWDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDV %LOLJLUL1DWLRQDO:LOGOLIH6DQFWXDU\RI,QGLD2 the irresponsible trash disposal. 0RQWDJXD9DOOH\RI*XDWHPDOD10 and the &DDWLQJDVRI%UD]LO 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQWKURXJKUHPRYDORIFDFWXV species for ornamental purposes.

+DELWDWGHJUDGDWLRQE\WRXULVWVZKRWUDPSOH vegetation.

Invasive alien species also threaten scrub forests.

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KWWSZZZLDVDFLQFXUUVFLPDUSGI 2. 6KDQNDU80XUDOL.66KDDQNHU58*DQHVKDLDK.1DQG.6%DZD ([WUDFWLRQRI1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW 3URGXFWVLQWKH)RUHVWVRI%LOLJLUL5DQJDQ+LOOV,QGLD,PSDFWRQ)ORULVWLF'LYHUVLW\DQG3RSXODWLRQ6WUXFWXUHLQD7KRUQ6FUXE Forest. Economic Botany 52 SS KWWSZZZZRUOGZLOGOLIHRUJZLOGZRUOGSUR¿OHVWHUUHVWULDOLPLPBIXOOKWPO %DPEDUDGHQL\D&1% 7KHVWDWXVDQGLPSOLFDWLRQVRILQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVLQ6UL/DQND=RRV¶3ULQW-RXUQDO 17 *DQHVDQ5DQG56LGGDSSD6HWW\ 5HJHQHUDWLRQRIAmlaDQ,PSRUWDQW1RQ7LPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWIURP6RXWKHUQ India. Conservation & Society, 2 KWWSZZZFKHPXXQOQZVZZZSXEOLFD6WXGHQWUDSSRUWHQ6WXGUDSSGI KWWSZZZXQRUJSNXQGSVJSJUHHQSLRQHHUVFKDSKWP KWWSZZZZRUOGZLOGOLIHRUJZLOGZRUOGSUR¿OHVWHUUHVWULDOLPLPBIXOOKWPO KWWSZZZZRUOGZLOGOLIHRUJZLOGZRUOGSUR¿OHVWHUUHVWULDOQWQWBIXOOKWPO KWWSZZZQDWXUHRUJZKHUHZHZRUNFHQWUDODPHULFDJXDWHPDODQHZVQHZVKWPO KWWSZZZQDWXUHRUJZKHUHZHZRUNFHQWUDODPHULFDJXDWHPDODZRUNDUWKWPO KWWSZZZUVQ]RUJDGYLVRU\Q]BFOLPDWHFOLPFKJZNWDWHSKS ZZZIDRRUJDJDJODJOOGU\ODQGVVWDWXVKWP KWWSZZZHWKQRELRPHGFRPFRQWHQW KWWSZZZVRFLRDPELHQWDORUJSLEHSLHQJOLVKFDQHODORFDOL]DVKWP KWWSZZZZRUOGZLOGOLIHRUJZLOGZRUOGSUR¿OHVWHUUHVWULDOQWQWBIXOOKWPO

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Timber &RQLIHUVDUHYDOXHGIRUWKHLUWLPEHUDVWKH\ +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQRYHUJUD]LQJE\ are easy to fell, handle and saw into planks. cattle, logging of forests to clear land The wood is used as building and packaging for agricultural purposes and to build timber and in the making of chipboard and highways and roads. hard board.1 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQH[FHVVLYHUHVLQ H[WUDFWLRQDQGFROOHFWLRQRISODQWVIRU their ornamental value).2

,QYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVVXFKDV&URIWRQ ZHHG Eupatorium adenophorum) and -DSDQHVHFHGDU Cryptomeria japonica) are spreading.3

Non timber forest products &RQLIHUVDUHLPSRUWDQWVRXUFHVRIDZLGH ([FHVVLYHH[WUDFWLRQRIUHVLQUHVXOWVLQ 17)3V UDQJHRIQRQZRRGSURGXFWVZKLFKDUH the weakening of coniferous trees which derived from their foliage, bark, roots, seeds, become prone to disease and die. resins and cones. +DELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQRYHUJUD]LQJE\ &RQLIHUZRRGLVWKHPDLQUDZPDWHULDOIRU cattle, logging of forests to clear land the world’s paper industry and is the raw for agricultural purposes and to build material for cellophane, viscose and wood highways and roads. ÀRXUXVHGLQSODVWLFV1 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQH[FHVVLYHUHVLQ The wood, foliage and resin of conifers H[WUDFWLRQDQGFROOHFWLRQRISODQWVIRU yield essential oils, which are important their ornamental value. ingredients in perfumes, shampoos, disinfectants and cleaning products. Invasive alien species are also spreading.2

&HGDUZRRGRLOREWDLQHGIURPCedrus deodara in India has reduced the necessity WRLPSRUWFHGDUZRRGRLOIURP&KLQDRUWKH 8QLWHG6WDWHV

&RQLIHURXVIRUHVWVDUHKRPHWROLFKHQVZKLFK are used as a source of dye.

6RPHHGLEOHSURGXFWVIURPFRQLIHURXVIRUHVWV DUHHDWHQDVGHOLFDFLHV3LQHQXWVDUHDQ ingredient in gourmet dishes in Asian cuisine, VRXWKHUQ(XURSHDQGWKHVRXWKZHVWHUQ8QLWHG 6WDWHV-XQLSHUEHUULHV -XQLSHUXVFRPPXQLV var. depressa) are a key ingredient of gin.

Edible mushrooms harvested from coniferous forests are an important source of income. 7KH-DSDQHVH0DWVXWDNHPXVKURRP Tricholoma matsutake), which grows in coniferous forests of 3LQXVGHQVLÀRUDin -DSDQLVDQH[SHQVLYHGHOLFDF\4 Mineral resources 7KH&HQWUDO&RUGLOOHUDPRXQWDLQUDQJHLQ ([WHQVLYHPLQLQJRIPLQHUDOUHVRXUFHVLV ZKLFKWKH/X]RQWURSLFDOSLQHIRUHVWRIWKH DPDMRUWKUHDWLQWKH&HQWUDO&RUGLOOHUD 3KLOLSSLQHVLVORFDWHGLVIDPRXVIRULWV and results in severe habitat destruction.7 mineral wealth. Its mineral resources include JROGFRSSHUVLOYHUDQG]LQF1RQPHWDOOLF minerals such as sand, gravel and sulphur are abundant in this region.

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Services Description Threats Supporting services

%LRGLYHUVLW\ Although they are not as rich in 3ODQWVSHFLHVRIWKH7UDQV0H[LFDQ9ROFDQLF biodiversity as lowland tropical %HOWSLQHRDNIRUHVWVWKDWDUHWKUHDWHQHG rainforests, tropical coniferous forests GXHWRVHOHFWLYHH[SORLWDWLRQLQFOXGH0H[LFDQ DUHKRPHWRPDQ\ZLOGÀRUDDQG cedar (Cedrela odorata)0H[LFDQPDKRJDQ\ IDXQD7KH6DPEDU Cervus unicolor), Swietenia humilis 6KDPHODVK Fraxinus %DUNLQJGHHU Muntiacus muntjac), Wild uhdei $UL]RQDZDOQXW -XJODQVPDMRU), ERDU Sus scrofa), Asiatic black bear %DVVZRRG(Tilia mexicana)6DFUHG¿U Abies Selenarctos thibetanus DQG6HURZ religiosa), *XD\DFDQ *XDLDFXPFRXOWHUL), Capricornis sumatrensis) are some Talauma spp. and Magnolia iltisiana. RIWKHVSHFLHVWKDW¿QGUHIXJHLQWKH QRUWKHDVW,QGLD0\DQPDUSLQHIRUHVWV In deforested coniferous forests, grass species ZKLFKDOWHUWKHGLVWULEXWLRQDQGQXPEHUVRI 7KH6LHUUD0DGUHGH2D[DFDSLQHRDN UHPDLQLQJÀRUDDQGIDXQDLQYDGH/LYHVWRFN IRUHVWVRI0H[LFRKRXVHDKLJKGLYHUVLW\ JUD]LQJUHVXOWVLQGLUHFWFRPSHWLWLRQEHWZHHQ RIUHSWLOHVDQGDPSKLELDQV7KH&DQ\RQ native forest wildlife and livestock. WUHHIURJ Hyla arenicolor) and the 0H[LFDQVDODPDQGHU Ambystoma ,QYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVVXFKDV&URIWRQZHHG mexicanum)¿QGUHIXJHLQWKHVHIRUHVWV Eupatorium adenophorum DQG-DSDQHVH 7KH6LHUUD0DGUHGH2D[DFDLVRQHRI FHGDU Cryptomeria japonica) are critical threats ¿YHFHQWUHVRIHQGHPLVPIRUWKH LQWKHFRQLIHURXVIRUHVWVRIWKHHDVWHUQ+LPDOD\DV Leguminosae family.2 in Nepal.3

3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ &RQLIHURXVIRUHVWÀRRUVKDYHDOD\HURI The mountainous terrain on which coniferous ZD[\SLQHQHHGOHVZKLFKIRUPDGHQVH forests are located favours high rates of erosion network over the soil. This thick mat and and the occurrence of landslides. The removal the roots of coniferous trees provide of vegetation by deforestation for farming, mechanical stability of the soil. This agriculture and timber increases the threat of prevents soil erosion on mountain slopes.10 GHYDVWDWLQJODQGVOLGHVDQGÀDVKÀRRGV 6RXUFHRIIUHVKZDWHU Tropical coniferous forests play an Deforestation in coniferous forests worsens the LPSRUWDQWUROHDVDµUDLQWUDS¶5DLQIDOO threat of soil erosion. Intense erosion of the percolates slowly into the soil due to mountain slopes contributes to poor water retention, the dense layer of pine needles and and therefore, the lack of water availability for VWUHDPVLQWRJURXQGZDWHUWDEOHVDQG wildlife and humans. XQGHUJURXQGDTXLIHUVWKDWVXSSO\IUHVK water to nearby towns.11

&DUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQ Forty three percent of plantations in the %URDGOHDYHGWUHHVFRXOGSRWHQWLDOO\HQFURDFK tropics are of coniferous species, which are on coniferous forests due to increasing global immense sinks of atmospheric carbon.12 temperatures as a result of climate change. This will lead to a decline in coniferous species.13 Regulating services

Flood regulation 7KHH[WHQVLYHURRWV\VWHPVRIFRQLIHUV Degeneration of the barrier provided by conifers anchor the soil on mountain slopes and is due to mechanical soil compaction caused by provide a mechanical barrier to surface the cutting of skid trails, construction of roads, runoff during the wet season and this movement of logs, the pressure of heavy logging PLQLPLVHVWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀDVKÀRRGV11 machinery and trampling by animals while ZRUNLQJRUJUD]LQJ11

&OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ &RQLIHURXVIRUHVWVVHTXHVWHUFDUERQDQG &OLPDWHFKDQJHDVWHPSHUDWXUHVLQFUHDVH play a critical role in climate regulation. In tropical coniferous forests can be colonised by 3DNLVWDQWKHFRQLIHURXVIRUHVWVRIMurree GHFLGXRXVYHJHWDWLRQ&RQLIHURXVIRUHVWVGRQRW and Patriata intercept moisture laden KDYHDQH[WHQVLYHPLFURELDOSRSXODWLRQGXHWR air during the monsoon season which their cold climate. An increase in temperature GLUHFWO\LQÀXHQFHVUDLQIDOOLQVXUURXQGLQJ has the potential to alter microbial activity with regions. &RQLIHURXVIRUHVWVKDUYHVW XQH[SHFWHGUHVXOWV RIDGGLWLRQDOSUHFLSLWDWLRQGXULQJWKH monsoon season.14

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Services Description Threats Cultural services

+RPHWRLQGLJHQRXVFXOWXUHV Tropical coniferous forests are home to The traditional practice of burning down most PDQ\LQGLJHQRXVSRSXODWLRQV7KH/X]RQ of the lower stratum of the forest to provide WURSLFDOSLQHIRUHVWRIWKH3KLOLSSLQHVLVD IRRGIRUFDWWOHLVRQHRIWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQW refuge for indigenous tribes such as the threats to coniferous forests. Eighty per cent Bontoc, the Ibaloi, the Ifugao, the Isneg, RIWKHYROFDQLFEHOWSLQHRDNIRUHVWRI0H[LFR the Kalinga and the Kankana-ey. has been destroyed by burning.

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Food 7KHIUXLWVDQGQXWVRIEURDGOHDYHGWUHHV 0DMRUWKUHDWVWRWHPSHUDWHEURDG are edible. These trees are important OHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWVLQFOXGH agricultural crops for products such as KDELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQ GXHWRH[WHQVLYH apples, pears, cherries, peaches, apricots, logging, conversion of land for plums, almonds, walnuts, pecans, agriculture, clearance of land for cattle pistachios and olives. The nuts and fruits JUD]LQJDQGKXPDQLQGXFHG¿UHV RIWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGWUHHVVXFK DVZHOODVRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ RYHU DVKD]HOQXWVZDOQXWVROLYHVDQG&KLQD harvesting of tree species for non ZRRGRLOH[WUDFWHGIURPWKH$VLDQ7XQJ timber forest products such as cork and WUHH Aleurites fordii DUHDOVRLPSRUWDQW uncontrolled cutting of timber species).2 sources of oil.1 &OLPDWHFKDQJHDQGLQYDVLYHDOLHQ VSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH:KLWHELUFK Betula platyphylla) and the Dahurian birch Betula davurica) are also threats.3 Timber More than 70 tree species including the 6DPHDVDERYH .RUHDQSLQH Pinus koraiensis), the QRUWKHUQ.RUHDQVSUXFH Picea koraiensis) DQG0DQFDQDDVK Fraxinus mandshurica) DUHYDOXDEOHWLPEHUVRXUFHVLQWKHEURDG OHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWVRIWKH&KDQJEDL PRXQWDLQVLQ&KLQD4 1RQWLPEHUIRUHVWSURGXFWV 17)3V 7HPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGWUHHVDUHDVRXUFH 6DPHDVDERYH RILPSRUWDQW17)3VZKLFKDUHGHULYHG from every part of the tree and include ÀRZHUVIROLDJHEDUNVDSIUXLWVDQGQXWV

&RUNWKHVRIWVSRQJ\LQQHUEDUNRI&RUN RDN Quercus suber LVWKHRQO\SURGXFW acceptable for use as a bottle stopper for ¿QHZLQHVDQGFKDPSDJQH

&RPPHUFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWSURGXFWVVXFKDV wild honey, essential oils from foliage and tannins are derived from temperate EURDGOHDYHGIRUHVWV6\UXSIURP0DSOH Acer saccharum DQG%LUFK Betula lenta) trees provide important sources of LQFRPH&RPPHUFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWSURGXFWV from organisms associated closely with WHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGWUHHVLQFOXGH HGLEOHPXVKURRPVVXFKDV7UXIÀHV Tuber spp 6KLLWDNH Lentinula edodes) and 0RUHOV Morchella spp.) produced by fungi, as well as silk produced by caterpillars feeding on the foliage of PXOEHUU\ Morus spp. DQG2DN Quercus spp. $SSUR[LPDWHO\WRQQHVRI Tussah silk was produced each year EHWZHHQDQGLQ&KLQD7XQJ oil, obtained from the Asian tung tree Aleurites fordii ZKLFKLVQDWLYHWR&KLQD LVXVHGLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRIODFTXHU varnishes, paints, linoleum, resins, V\QWKHWLFOHDWKHUIHOWEDVHGÀRRUFRYHULQJV greases, brake linings and in cleaning and polishing compounds.1

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Services Description Threats Provisioning services contd.

Medicine 6RPHRUJDQLVPVIRXQGLQWHPSHUDWH 0DMRUWKUHDWVWRWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHG EURDGOHDYHGIRUHVWVKDYHLPSRUWDQW DQGPL[HGIRUHVWVLQFOXGHKDELWDW medicinal properties. GHVWUXFWLRQ GXHWRH[WHQVLYHORJJLQJ conversion of land to agriculture, 7KH7XUNH\WDLOPXVKURRP Trametes FOHDUDQFHRIODQGIRUFDWWOHJUD]LQJ versicolor) is used in cancer treatments DQGKXPDQLQGXFHG¿UHV DQGRYHU DQGDFFRXQWVIRURI-DSDQ¶VQDWLRQDO H[SORLWDWLRQ RYHUKDUYHVWLQJRIWUHH H[SHQGLWXUHRQDQWLFDQFHUDJHQWV,WLVDOVR species for non timber forest products used to treat pulmonary disorders and has such as cork and uncontrolled cutting been shown to have cholesterol lowering of timber species).2&OLPDWHFKDQJH properties. It is also used as an immune DQGLQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH stimulant, an antibiotic, an antiviral against :KLWHELUFK Betula platyphylla) and the hepatitis and in infections of the respiratory, 'DKXULDQELUFK Betula davurica) are urinary and digestive tract. also threats.3

7KH&KLFNHQRIWKHZRRGVPXVKURRP Laetiporus sulphureus KDVDQWLPLFURELDO DQGDQWLR[LGDQWSURSHUWLHVDQGWKH5HG EDQGHGSRO\SRUH Fomitopsis pinicola) is used to regulate fevers and for liver and spleen support.1

Supporting services

%LRGLYHUVLW\ 7HPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWVDUH 6DPHDVDERYH KRVWVWRGLYHUVHVSHFLHVRIÀRUDDQGIDXQD )RUHVW¿UHVDOWHUWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRI From autumn to spring, the Umbrella bamboos ÀRUDLQEURDGOHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWV Fargesia robusta and Yushania chungii) attract 7UHHVSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH*PHOLQ *LDQWSDQGDVWRWKHWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHG ODUFK Larix gmelinii DQGWKH6FRWV DQGPL[HGIRUHVWVRIWKH6LFKXDQJLDQWSDQGD SLQH Pinus sylvestris) that are more VDQFWXDU\LQ&KLQD WROHUDQWRI¿UHDQGQHHG¿UHIRUVHHG germination will invade cleared areas 7KHHDVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQPL[HGIRUHVWVDUH and dominate the forest.3 home to mammals such as the Endangered *ROGHQODQJXU Presbytis bieti), Lesser panda Ailurus fulgens &ORXGHGOHRSDUG Neofelis nebulosa +LPDOD\DQEODFNEHDU Selenarctos thibetanus DQG7DNLQ Budorcas taxicolor).

(QGDQJHUHGHQGHPLFSODQWVRIWKHEURDG OHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWVRIWKHHDVWHUQ +LPDOD\DVLQFOXGHPDQ\RUFKLGVSHFLHVVXFK DV:KLWH¶V&\PELGLXP Cymbidium whiteae), )DLUULH¶V3DSKLRSHGLOXP Paphiopedilum fairrieanum) and P. wardii, and maple species VXFKDVWKH(YHUJUHHQPDSOH Acer oblongum) and Acer hookeri.

7KHEURDGOHDYHGDQGPL[HGIRUHVWVRI0RXQW 6DQTLQJVKDQLQHDVWHUQ&KLQDDUHKRPHWR UDUHVSHFLHVRIÀRUDLQFOXGLQJRhododendron simiarumWKH7DLZDQUHGSLQH Pinus taiwanensis DQGWKH&KLQHVHWRUUH\D Torreya grandis).7

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Services Description Threats Supporting services contd.

Fertile soil The soil of these forests is rich in organic 'HIRUHVWDWLRQRIPL[HGIRUHVWODQGIRU matter derived from the annual accumulation agriculture results in the loss of the leaf litter RIGHDGOHDYHVIURPEURDGOHDYHGWUHHVDQG and pine needle layer and this reduces the conifer needles. A host of bacteria and fungi IHUWLOLW\RIWKHVRLO,QFUHDVHGVRLOHURVLRQUDWHV play a crucial role in slowly decomposing and GXHWRFOHDUDQFHRIIRUHVWODQGUHPRYHOD\HUV recycling the organic matter on and within the of soil, resulting in the loss of nutrients. VRLOWKXVPDNLQJLWH[WUHPHO\IHUWLOH

3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ 7KHIRUHVWFDQRS\LQWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHG The clearance of forest land for shifting DQGPL[HGIRUHVWVLQWHUFHSWVSUHFLSLWDWLRQ cultivation and poppy cultivation in the Northern resulting in the slow percolation of rainfall to 7ULDQJOHWHPSHUDWHPL[HGIRUHVWRI0\DQPDU WKHIRUHVWÀRRUZKLFKLVFRYHUHGE\DWKLFN has caused severe soil erosion, loss of habitat layer of leaf litter and pine needles. This effect and biological diversity.11 minimises surface runoff. Forest tree species buttress the soil and provide a mechanical barrier to surface runoff, thus preventing soil HURVLRQDQGWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀRRGV10 &DUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQ 7KHFDUERQXSWDNHRIWKHEURDGOHDYHG )RUHVW¿UHVDUHDPDMRUGLVWXUEDQFHLQ5XVVLDQ .RUHDQSLQHPL[HGIRUHVWLQWKH&KDQJEDL WHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGIRUHVWV7KHFDUERQ 0RXQWDLQVRI&KLQDZDVJ&P2 in 2003.12 stock in forest biomass is released by burning YHJHWDWLRQLQIRUHVWV¿UHVWKXVFRQWULEXWLQJWR 5XVVLDQWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGDQGPL[HG global warming.3 forests are huge carbon sinks because of their vast land coverage and slow rate of litter decomposition in the soil. These forests KDYHELOOLRQWRQQHVRIFDUERQVWRFNHG in forest vegetation and 74 billion tonnes of carbon stored in the forest soil.3

6RXUFHRIIUHVKZDWHU The forest canopy ensures that rainfall Deforestation of land for agriculture and cattle SHUFRODWHVVORZO\WRWKHIRUHVWÀRRUDQG JUD]LQJH[WHQVLYHORJJLQJDQGKXPDQLQGXFHG streams into the soil and underground ¿UHVGHVWUR\WKHIRUHVWFDQRS\DQGOHDIOLWWHU DTXLIHUVSURYLGLQJIUHVKZDWHUWRVXUURXQGLQJ UHVXOWLQJLQYHU\VORZVRLOLQ¿OWUDWLRQUDWHV regions. The water table depth beneath 5DLQIDOOFDQQRORQJHUVWUHDPRQWRWKHIRUHVW DPL[HGIRUHVWLQVRXWKHUQ&KLQDLVFP ÀRRUDQGLVZDVKHGRIIUDSLGO\UHVXOWLQJLQD deeper than beneath bare land.10 loss of freshwater.13 Regulating services

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Landscape and ornamental value 0DQ\VSHFLHVRIWHPSHUDWHEURDG 0DMRUWKUHDWVWRWHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGDQG leaved trees are important landscape PL[HGIRUHVWVLQFOXGHKDELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQ and ornamental plants and are used in GXHWRH[WHQVLYHORJJLQJFRQYHUVLRQRIODQG ODQGVFDSHGHVLJQ&RQLIHUVDQG for agriculture, clearance of land for cattle WHPSHUDWHEURDGOHDYHGWUHHVDUH JUD]LQJDQGKXPDQLQGXFHG¿UHV DVZHOODV SRSXODUIRUERQVDLFXOWXUHWKHWHFKQLTXH RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ RYHUKDUYHVWLQJRIWUHH for retaining the essential growth form species for non timber forest products such RIDWUHHEXWUHGXFLQJLWWRSRFNHWVL]H as cork and uncontrolled cutting of timber 3RSXODUVSHFLHVLQFOXGHWKH-DSDQHVH species)2&OLPDWHFKDQJHDQGLQYDVLYHDOLHQ KRUQEHDP Carpinus japonica), Toringo VSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH:KLWHELUFK Betula FUDEDSSOH Malus sieboldii) and Yeddo platyphylla DQGWKH'DKXULDQELUFK Betula VSUXFH 3LFHD-H]RHQVLV).1 davurica) are also threats.3

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)RRG *UDLQ 7KHZRUOG¶VPDMRUJUDLQVVXFKDVULFHZKHDW &RQYHUVLRQWRDJULFXOWXUDODUHDVKDV rye, oats, barley corn, millet, and sorghum caused the greatest loss of the world’s originated in grasslands. These grains are grasslands. Native vegetation is removed important commercially as they are part of the and replaced with farm crops, soil is staple diet in many countries and are important H[SRVHGDQGLVPDGHYXOQHUDEOHWRZLQG IRUWKHLUQXWULWLRQDOYDOXH$SSUR[LPDWHO\J DQGZDWHUHURVLRQ3HVWLFLGHVDQG RISURWHLQGHK\GUDWHGJUDVVVXSSOLHV fertilisers that affect soil composition are XQLWVRIYLWDPLQ$PJRI9LWDPLQ& added and the water holding capacity DQGJRISURWHLQ1 of the soil is lessened, reducing the moisture available to plants and animals supported by the grasslands.2

Forage for domestic livestock *UDVVODQGVSURYLGHOLYHVWRFNZLWKIRGGHUIRU +XPDQVVWDUW¿UHVLQJUDVVODQGVWR consumption, thereby supporting human PDLQWDLQJRRGJUD]LQJFRQGLWLRQVIRU livelihoods associated with meat, milk, wool livestock, to clear away debris and control DQGOHDWKHUSURGXFWV*UDVVODQGVFRQWULEXWH SHVWV+RZHYHULQWHQVHDQGIUHTXHQW¿UHV ELOOLRQ86'DQQXDOO\WRWKHHFRQRP\RIWKH induced by humans destroy vegetation 8QLWHG6WDWHVE\VXSSRUWLQJDQHVWLPDWHG and increase soil erosion. million cattle and eight million sheep.3 2YHUJUD]LQJLVDVLJQL¿FDQWWKUHDWWR 'RPLQDQWIRUDJHVSHFLHVLQJUDVVODQGVRI6UL grasslands. It is most acute when livestock Lanka include Arundinella spp. and Pollinia spp. QXPEHUVDUHKLJKDQLPDOVDUHFRQ¿QHGWR in montane grasslands, Panicum spp. and VPDOOJUD]LQJSORWVZLWKRXWURWDWLRQ7KHQ Themeda triandra in the lowland savannahs soils are eroded easily and vegetation and Cynodon dactylon, Stenotaphrum becomes sparse.2 secundatum and Bothriochloa glabrain in wet JUDVVODQGV villu grasslands).4 Supporting services

%LRGLYHUVLW\ *UDVVODQGVFRQWULEXWHRIWKHZRUOG¶V 2YHUJUD]LQJE\OLYHVWRFNDIIHFWVWKH FHQWUHVRISODQWGLYHUVLW\RIWKHHQGHPLF composition and structure of grasslands, as ELUGDUHDVDQGRIWKH:RUOG:LOGOLIH palatable and productive species decrease )XQG¶VXQLTXHHFRUHJLRQV in abundance, while poisonous species will increase and dominate the area. The alpine grasslands of the Qinghai province LQ&KLQDDUHKRPHWRIDXQDVXFKDVWKH 7KH3ODWHDXSLND Ochotona curzoniae) 3ODWHDXSLND Ochotona curzoniae), Vlangal’s DQLPSRUWDQWNH\VWRQHVSHFLHVLQWKH WRDGKHDGHGOL]DUG Phrynocephalus vlangalii), JUDVVODQGVRIWKH4LQJKDLSURYLQFHLV +XPH¶VJURXQGWLW Pseudopodoces humilis), being poisoned over large areas to VHYHUDOVSHFLHVRI6QRZ¿QFKHV Montifringilla increase forage for livestock. This spp. $VLDQSROHFDWV Mustela eversmanni), adversely affects a number of other 7LEHWDQVDQGIR[HV Vulpes ferrilata %ODFN VSHFLHVVXFKDV$VLDQSROHFDWV Mustela NLWHV Milvus migrans 8SODQGEX]]DUGV eversmanni DQG8SODQGEX]]DUGV (Buteo hemilasius *UH\ZROYHV Canis lupis) Buteo hemilasius GHSHQGDQWRQWKH DQG%URZQEHDUV Ursus arctos). 3LNDDVSUH\3LNDVSURYLGHQHVWLQJVLWHV in their burrows for other species, and The wet grasslands of the Terai belt of the their burrowing recycles nutrients which ,QGLD1HSDOERUGHUKRVWWKH9XOQHUDEOH6ZDPS enhances plant species richness. Their IUDQFROLQ Francolinus gularis). The Endangered elimination affects diverse ecological *UHDW,QGLDQEXVWDUG Ardeotis nigriceps) and processes of the grassland ecosystem. WKH/HVVHUÀRULFDQ(Sypheotides indica) are key bird species characteristic of Indian grasslands.7 Invasive alien species that threaten JUDVVODQGVLQ6UL/DQNDLQFOXGH*RUVH 3ODQWVSHFLHVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIJUDVVODQGVLQ Ulex europaeus &RFNOHEXU Xanthium WKH5HSXEOLFRI3DODXLQFOXGHPennisetum indicum DQGWKH(UHFW3ULFNO\SHDUFDFWXV polystachium:LOGVXJDUFDQH Saccharum Opuntia stricta) which invade coastal spontaneum 6LJQDOJUDVV Brachiaria JUDVVODQGVLQVRXWKHDVWHUQ6UL/DQND10 decumbens 3DUDJUDVV Brachiaria mutica) DQG&RQJRJUDVV Brachiaria ruziziensis).

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VRXUFHRIQHDUO\RIJURVV&22 and 5HKDELOLWDWLRQRIRYHUJUD]HGJUDVVODQGVFDQ WURSRVSKHULFR]RQH0XFKRIWKHVH UHVXOWLQPLOOLRQWRQQHVRIFDUERQEHLQJ emissions originate in Africa, referred to VHTXHVWHUHGHDFK\HDU12 DVWKHµEXUQFHQWUH¶RIWKHSODQHWEHFDXVH RIH[WHQVLYHEXUQLQJLQLWVVDYDQQDV2 3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ *UDVVODQGVVXFKDVVDYDQQDKVJRWKURXJKSHULRGLF 2YHUJUD]LQJZLOOUHGXFHJUDVVODQGVWR GURXJKWFRQGLWLRQVKHQFHDPDMRULW\RISODQWVOLYH sparse shrub lands and soil erosion will PRUHµLQ¶WKHVRLOWKDQDERYHLW8QGHUWKHVXUIDFH EHDVHULRXVWKUHDW6RLOIRUPDWLRQLVD RIWKHVRLOLVDWDQJOHGZHERIURRWVDQGUKL]RPHV VORZSURFHVVDQGLWWDNHV\HDUV 6RPHJUDVVURRWVJURZGRZQWRWKHGHSWKVRID WRIRUPDFPOD\HURIVRLOZKLFKFDQ metre in the soil, while the tap roots of soft stemmed be eroded easily when the web of roots SODQWVUHDFKDVIDUDVPWRDFTXLUHZDWHU7KLV LQRYHUJUD]HGJUDVVODQGVZLWKHUDQGFDQ V\VWHPRIKRUL]RQWDODQGYHUWLFDOURRWVDQFKRUVWKH no longer anchor it. soil protecting it from erosion by wind and water.

*HQHWLFUHVRXUFHV Agriculturally important grains originated 'HVHUWL¿FDWLRQUHVXOWVZKHQODQGLV in grasslands and these ecosystems are degraded severely in arid, semiarid, and the primary source of genetic resources for GU\VXEKXPLGDUHDV,QFUHDVHGSUHVVXUH LPSURYLQJFURSV5HVHDUFKLQZLOGJUDVVVSHFLHV RQGU\JUDVVODQGVVXFKDVRYHUJUD]LQJ in grasslands will, therefore, improve genetic LQWHQVLYH¿UHVDQGFOLPDWHFKDQJHOHDGV variation in crop species such as sorghum, WRGHVHUWL¿FDWLRQZKLFKZLOOGHFUHDVH ZKRVHJHQHWLFGLYHUVLW\LVHURGLQJVLJQL¿FDQWO\13 grassland productivity and water DYDLODELOLW\DQGWKUHDWHQÀRUDDQGIDXQD2 3ODQWVSHFLHVWKDWDUHYDOXDEOHIRUDJHJHQHWLF UHVRXUFHVLQFOXGH)DOVHEURPH Brachypodium 2YHUJUD]LQJE\OLYHVWRFNLVUDPSDQW sylvaticum), Bromus himalaicus and Medicago spp. LQJUDVVODQGV6DWHOOLWHGDWDUHYHDOHG 7HQZLOGUHODWLYHVRI$OIDOID Medicago sativa) have that the grasslands in Talala Taluka in been found in grasslands. Many forage species India can supportVXVWDLQDEO\RQO\ IURPWKH6WHSSHVDUHRILQWHUHVWIRUUHVLVWDQFHWR FDWWOH7KHDFWXDOFDWWOHSRSXODWLRQVL]HLV cold, arid and saline or alkaline conditions.14 ZKLFKLVWLPHVODUJHUWKDQWKH carrying capacity of Talala Taluka.

Fertile soil *UDVVODQGVJURZLQVRLOVWKDWDUHQXWULHQWULFKGXH 7KHIHUWLOHVRLOV FKDUDFWHULVWLFRI to the abundance of soil microorganisms that grasslands) result in their conversion to UHF\FOHQXWULHQWVDQGGHFRPSRVHSODQWWLVVXH6PDOO agricultural land. The productive alluvial JUDVVODQGPDPPDOVVXFKDV3LNDV Ochotona spp.) grasslands of the Terai-Duar savannah DQG=RNRUV Myospalax spp. IRXQGLQWKH7LEHWDQ in Nepal, which provide habitat to the UHJLRQVRI&KLQDWUDQVSRUWRUJDQLFPDWWHUEHWZHHQ world’s tallest grass species, have been the subsoil and the surface and their burrows and converted to agricultural terrain. No provide channels to transport water and essential PRUHWKDQRIWKHDOOXYLDOJUDVVODQGRI QXWULHQWVWRXQGHUJURXQGSODQWVWHPVDQG¿EURXV WKH*DQJHWLFÀRRGSODLQUHPDLQVLQWDFW root systems.

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3ULPDU\SURGXFWLRQ The net primary productivity of dry 'HVHUWL¿FDWLRQUHVXOWVZKHQODQGLV JUDVVODQGIRUDJHVLQ6UL/DQNDLV GHJUDGHGVHYHUHO\LQDULGVHPLDULG HVWLPDWHGWREHEHWZHHQDQG DQGGU\VXEKXPLGDUHDV,QFUHDVHG NJKD\U17 pressure on dry grasslands such as RYHUJUD]LQJLQWHQVLYH¿UHVDQGFOLPDWH FKDQJHOHDGVWRGHVHUWL¿FDWLRQZKLFK will likely decrease grassland productivity DQGZDWHUDYDLODELOLW\DQGWKUHDWHQÀRUD and fauna.2 Regulating services

&OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ *UDVVODQGVFRQWULEXWHWRWKHUHJXODWLRQ Increased global temperatures degrade RIJOREDOWHPSHUDWXUHVE\VHTXHVWHULQJ grassland ecosystems, decreasing carbon into their soils.11 WKHLUSURGXFWLYLW\DQGH[SHGLWLQJ GHVHUWL¿FDWLRQ&OLPDWHPRGHOVSUHGLFW hotter summers and warmer, wetter winters in montane grasslands, affecting VSHFLHVFRPSRVLWLRQ/LYHVWRFNJUD]LQJLV DVLJQL¿FDQWVRXUFHRIFDUERQHPLVVLRQV contributing to global warming.

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5LSDULDQZHWJUDVVODQGV JUDVVODQGV Fragmentation of wet grasslands for QHDUULYHUV UHWDLQQXWULHQWVWR[LF agriculture results in isolation of species substances and sediment, thereby restricted to wetlands and makes them LPSURYLQJWKHTXDOLW\RIZDWHU YXOQHUDEOHWRH[WLQFWLRQ entering watercourses. Cultural services

Tourism *UDVVODQGVDUHSRSXODUWRXULVWDWWUDFWLRQV Irresponsible tourism causes pollution IRUYLHZLQJJDPHDQLPDOVKLNLQJ¿VKLQJ WKURXJKLUUHVSRQVLEOHWUDVKGLVSRVDO trophy hunting, observing large KDELWDWGHVWUXFWLRQ WKURXJKFOHDUDQFH mammalian herbivores, diverse plant life of grassland areas to build hotels and DQGRSHQDLUODQGVFDSHV14 ORGJHV KDELWDWGHJUDGDWLRQ WKURXJK RIIURDGGULYLQJ DQGRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ *UDVVODQGWRXULVPDWWUDFWLRQVLQFOXGHWKH WKURXJKSRDFKLQJRIZLOGDQLPDOV 5R\DO&KLWZDQ1DWLRQDO3DUNLQ1HSDO the wet grasslands of the Knuckles UDQJHLQ6UL/DQND21 the Masai Mara22 DQGWKH6HUHQJHWLRI.HQ\D23 and the (PDV1DWLRQDO3DUNRI%UD]LO24

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Medicine &RXQWULHVZLWKODUJHGHVHUWVVXFKDV The Thar desert is known to be one of the &KLQDDQG,QGLDH[SRUWKHUEDODQG most densely populated deserts in the PHGLFLQDOSODQWV*HUPDQ\LPSRUWV ZRUOG*UD]LQJRIOLYHVWRFNVXFKDVVKHHS SODQWVSHFLHVIURPWKHGHVHUWV DQGJRDWVLVLQWHQVLYHDQGDIIHFWVVRLO RI&KLQDDQG,QGLDIRUPHGLFLQDO fertility and destroys native vegetation. SXUSRVHV1LQHW\¿YHSHUFHQWRI Many edible plant species are being disease treatments of the Thar desert replaced with inedible plants, thus in India are provided through the use changing the vegetation composition and RIGHVHUWSODQWVSHFLHV2 ecosystem dynamics of the desert.3

Derived chemicals from Hoodia gordonii of the Kalahari desert are components of commercially marketed dietary supplements. Hoodia is used by desert tribesmen who use it to control their appetite when they go into the deserts for several weeks to hunt.

Desert plants are adapted to the stressful environmental conditions RIWKHLUKDELWDW5HFHQW¿QGLQJV LQFOXGLQJFRPSRXQGVZLWKDQWL R[LGDWLYHDQGDQWLKHUELYRU\DFWLRQ IRXQGLQGHVHUWSODQWVKDYHVKRZQ that these adaptations are chemically EDVHG%LRSURVSHFWLQJRIGHVHUWÀRUD could catalyse the pharmaceutical LQGXVWU\6FUHHQLQJRISODQWVLQWKH 1HJHYGHVHUWRI,VUDHOLGHQWL¿HG GHVHUWSODQWVSHFLHVZLWKF\WRWR[LF DQGDQWLPDODULDOSURSHUWLHV)XUWKHU development of the medicinal potential of desert plants could, therefore, revolutionise modern medicine.2

Supporting services

&RROLQJWKHJOREDODWPRVSKHUH 'HVHUWVKDELWXDOO\FRROWKHDGMDFHQW *OREDOZDUPLQJLVSURMHFWHGWRLQFUHDVH global atmosphere due to the desert desert albedo, through reducing desert DOEHGRHIIHFW 'HVHUWDOEHGRLVWKH vegetation cover. This will further amplify GLUHFWUHÀHFWLRQRIVRODUUDGLDWLRQE\ WKHHIIHFWRIFRROLQJWKHQRQGHVHUW the desert’s surface back to outer DWPRVSKHUHDQGGU\LQJDGMDFHQWQRQ space.) The typical hot desert albedo desert drylands. Thus, whereas global LVRIVRODUUDGLDWLRQUHÀHFWHG climate change makes deserts drier, EDFNWRVSDFH PXFKKLJKHUWKDQWKH deserts make the global atmosphere RIWKHVDYDQQDKDQGRIWKH cooler, and the drier the desert becomes, rainforest). The albedo of snow in cold the more its cooling effect will increase. GHVHUWVVXFKDV$QWDUFWLFDFDQEH This phenomenon not only worsens DVKLJKDV'HVHUWDOEHGRFRROV GHVHUWL¿FDWLRQLQGHVHUWVEXWZLOODOWHU the air in the troposphere and this cool WKHFOLPDWHRIQRQGHVHUWUHJLRQVZLWK air is dispersed by winds over great XQSUHGLFWDEOHFRQVHTXHQFHV2 distances away from deserts to non desert dry lands, which become cooler and drier.2

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Services Description Threats Supporting services contd.

%LRGLYHUVLW\ Although plant and species richness is low, deserts 2YHUJUD]LQJRIOLYHVWRFNLVDSHUVLVWHQW contain large numbers of ancient and relic species. WKUHDWDQGFDWDO\VWIRUGHVHUWL¿FDWLRQ 0DQ\SODQWVRFFXUULQJLQ&KLQHVHGHVHUWVDUHUHOLFV Illegal hunting is a serious threat in the RIWKH&UHWDFHRXVSHULRG7KHDQFLHQWQHVVRILWV 6RXWK,UDQ1XER6LQGLDQGHVHUW(JJ ÀRUDDQGIDXQDFRPELQHGZLWKWKHKDUVKHFRORJLFDO collection and nest disturbance affect FRQGLWLRQVGHWHUPLQHVWKHXQLTXHQHVVRIWKH QHVWLQJPLJUDWRU\ZDWHUIRZO6LJQL¿FDQW ELRWLFHOHPHQWVRIGHVHUWV&KLQD¶V-XQJJDU%DVLQ SRUWLRQVRIWKH$]HUEDLMDQVKUXEGHVHUW SODLQDQG*D6KXQ*RELGHVHUWDUHKRPHWRPDQ\ DQGWKH&HQWUDO$VLDQQRUWKHUQGHVHUWV endemic plant genera such as Tetraena, Potaninia, are farmed under irrigation, causing Tugarinovia, Stilpnolepis and Synstemon.4 water and soil pollution by the use of IHUWLOLVHUVDQGSHVWLFLGHV&XUUHQWO\ The Mesopotamian shrub desert is transitional the desert biome holds on average EHWZHHQWKHGHVHUWVWRWKHVRXWKDQGWKH6WHSSHVWR an abundance of original species of WKHQRUWKDQGKDUERXUVDXQLTXHELRGLYHUVLW\7KH EXWWKHUDWHRIELRGLYHUVLW\ORVV ÀRUDLQFOXGHV8PEUHOODWKRUQDFDFLD Acacia tortillis), in deserts may double in the coming 6KUXEE\URFNURVHVSHFLHV Cistus spp.) and many decades. A decline in original species GZDUIVKUXEV5HHGVDQGUXVKHVJURZLQWKHZHWODQG WRDPHDQRIE\DQG DUHDVZKLOH3RSODU Populus euphratica) and E\LVH[SHFWHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKH 7DPDULVN Tamarix) grow along river channels. new pressures and impacts brought forward by agriculture and human land $PRQJWKHSODQWVWKDWDUHXQLTXHWRWKHGHVHUWVRI XVH RIWKHORVV IUDJPHQWDWLRQ Africa are Welwitschia mirabilis of the Namib, which DVVRFLDWHGZLWKLQIUDVWUXFWXUH is considered to be a living fossil. There is also DQGFOLPDWHFKDQJH LQDQG a great variety of woody legumes and succulent E\ 2 SODQWVZLWKWKLFNÀHVK\WLVVXHVWKDWFDQVWRUHZDWHU VWHPPHGVSHFLHVVXFKDV%DREDEV Adansonia &OLPDWHFKDQJHDQGLQFUHDVHGOHYHOV spp. &RPPLSKRUDV Commiphora spp. %RWWOHWUHHV of soil nitrogen caused by atmospheric Pachypodium spp. 3KDQWRPWUHHV Moringa spp.) and nitrogen deposition may increase the Quiver trees (Aloe dichotoma). The Madagascar thorny dominance of invasive alien plants WKLFNHWVUHSUHVHQWDXQLTXHYHU\GLYHUVHDVVHPEODJH and decrease the diversity of plant RISODQWVDQGDQLPDOVVXFKDVWKHORFDOEDREDEVDQG communities in desert regions because WKH2FWRSXVWUHH Didierea madagascariensis PRVWRI they are tougher competitors. which are found nowhere else.2 7KH6XFFXOHQW.DURR 'RPLQDQW,$6RIWKH0RMDYHGHVHUW ZKLFKLVNQRZQDVWKHZRUOG¶VPRVWH[WUDRUGLQDU\ include the grasses Bromus GHVHUWLVWKHZRUOG¶VRQO\SODQWKRWVSRWWKDWLVIRXQG madritensis ssp. rubens and Schismus completely within the desert biome and is entirely arid. arabicus and S. barbatus, as well as The number of plant species in the region is unparalleled the forb Erodium cicutarium. DQ\ZKHUHHOVHLQWKHZRUOGIRUDQDUHDRILWVVL]H$W OHDVWRIWKHVHVSHFLHVDUHHQGHPLF0RVWDUH VXFFXOHQWV2QHWKLUGRIWKHZRUOG¶VVSHFLHVRI succulent plants grows in this desert.

3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ Desert soil is covered by a biological crust composed 6RLOFUXVWVDUHDGDSWHGSRRUO\WR of a highly specialised community of cyanobacteria, physical disturbances. Domestic fungi, mosses and lichens. In deserts, these soil crusts OLYHVWRFNJUD]LQJWRXULVWDFWLYLWLHV perform many functions, such as the stabilisation of VXFKDVELNLQJDQGPLOLWDU\DFWLYLWLHV sand and dirt, promotion of moisture retention and the affect the strength of the soil crust by ¿[DWLRQRIDWPRVSKHULFQLWURJHQ7KHPRVWSURPLQHQW EUHDNLQJWKHVKHDWKVDQG¿ODPHQWV of these functions is the prevention of soil erosion as of the microorganisms in the soil. FUXVWIRUPLQJF\DQREDFWHULDKDYHDQH[WHQVLYHQHWZRUN This reduces the capability of the soil RI¿ODPHQWVWKDWVHFUHWHDVWLFN\SRO\VDFFKDULGH organisms to provide soil stability which sheath that cements soil particles together. Fungi, LQFUHDVHVWKHUDWHRIVRLOORVVVL[IROG7 lichens and mosses assist in soil stability through their K\SKDHDQGUKL]RLGVLPSURYLQJWKHUHVLVWDQFHRIVRLOWR erosion by wind and water action.

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Services Description Threats Regulating services &OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ 5HFHQW¿QGLQJVOLQNLQJGHVHUWGXVWWRFOLPDWH &OLPDWHFKDQJHLQGHVHUWVZKHUHUDLQIDOOLV regulation suggest that dust carried over oceans SUHGLFWHGWRLQFUHDVHGHVHUWGXVWÀX[ZLOOEH EORFNVDQGUHÀHFWVLQFLGHQWVXQOLJKWWKHUHE\FDXVLQJ reduced, sustaining, in turn, wet conditions a decrease in oceanic temperatures. The chilling away from deserts. Yet, due to uncertainties, HIIHFWRIGXVWZDVUHVSRQVLEOHIRURQHWKLUGRIWKH SURMHFWLRQVRIGXVWHPLVVLRQVIRUWKHQH[W drop in North Atlantic sea surface temperatures \HDUVUDQJHEHWZHHQDGHFUHDVHWRD EHWZHHQ-XQHDQGSRVVLEO\FRQWULEXWLQJ increase in dust emissions.2 to the difference in hurricane activity between the WZRVHDVRQV ¿YHKXUULFDQHVLQFRPSDUHGWR KXUULFDQHVLQ Cultural services 6XSSRUWLQJ &XUUHQWO\DSSUR[LPDWHO\PLOOLRQSHRSOHOLYHLQ 0RUHWKDQRIWKHRULJLQDOKDELWDWRIWKH modern societies GHVHUWVDQGGHVHUWPDUJLQVWRWDOOLQJRIWKH Madagascar thorny thickets has disappeared and indigenous world’s population. Deserts support indigenous WKURXJKH[WUDFWLRQRIZRRGIRU¿UHZRRGDQG populations WULEHVVXFKDVWKH%HGRXLQWULEHVRIWKH6DKDUD FKDUFRDOJUD]LQJDQGFOHDUDQFHIRUIDUPLQJ Negev and Arabian Desert, the San people of /LYHVWRFNEURZVLQJDQGKXPDQ¿UHZRRGFROOHFWLRQ southern Africa, the Herero people of the Kalahari DOVRWKUHDWHQWKHGHVHUWVDURXQGWKH+RUQRI Desert the UgyurSHRSOHRIWKH*REL'HVHUWDQG $IULFDDQGLQWKHVRXWKHUQ$UDELDQ3HQLQVXOD the Bishnois of the Thar Desert.2 IURPWKH5HG6HDWRWKH*XOIRI2PDQ2 Tourism Many desert areas south of the Mediterranean basin Land degradation in deserts is increased are popular destinations for tourists from northern through tourist activities. Trampling causes countries who are attracted by the balmy climate of DGLVWXUEDQFHRIWKHIUDJLOHGHVHUWVXUIDFH the desert. Eleven per cent of Egypt’s gross national irresponsible trash disposal affects desert LQFRPHLVIURPWRXULVP6HUYLFHVIRUWKHGHVHUW ZLOGOLIHLQFUHDVHGXVHRIZDWHUUHVRXUFHV WRXULVPLQGXVWU\DOVRFUHDWHQHZMREVDQGDWWUDFW threatens the availability of an already scarce immigration into the growing desert cities.2 UHVRXUFHDQGWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIH[RWLFÀRUD and fauna by uninformed tourists disrupts and threatens desert biodiversity.2 Knowledge of the The sparse vegetation cover, lack of thick soils and +XPDQLQGXFHGGHJUDGDWLRQWKURXJKRYHU early history of DULGLW\RIGHVHUWVSURYLGHODUJHDUHDVRIH[SRVHG JUD]LQJFOHDUDQFHRIZRRG\YHJHWDWLRQIDUPLQJ animals, people rock. The lack of precipitation that reduces chemical LUULJDWLRQLQGXFHGVDOLQLW\VRLODQGZDWHUSROOXWLRQ and earth leaching by groundwater promotes the preservation E\DJURFKHPLFDOVDQGJURXQGZDWHUH[SORLWDWLRQ and detection of fossils that allow deciphering the threatens deserts.2 evolutionary history of plants, animals and of early man. Deserts have been treasures of SDOHRQWRORJLFDO¿QGLQJV

,QWKHEDGODQGWHUUDLQVRIWKHFROG*REL'HVHUWD JUHDWGLYHUVLW\RIODWH&UHWDFHRXV PLOOLRQ\HDU old) dinosaurs and mammals have been unearthed.

Egypt’s Fayum Desert has preserved important (RFHQHDJH PLOOLRQ\HDUROG IRVVLOWUHDVXUH RIHDUO\FHWDFHDQV ZKDOHVDQGGROSKLQV DQG VLUHQLDQV GXJRQJVDQGPDQDWHHV 2

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)RRG )LVK Fish are a rich source of protein, Threats to freshwater species in rivers, YLWDPLQVDQGPLQHUDOV5LYHUVDQG VWUHDPVDQGGHOWDVLQFOXGHRYHU¿VKLQJ VWUHDPVSURYLGHKXPDQVZLWK¿VK climate change, pollution by agricultural VSHFLHVVXFKDV6DOPRQ7URXW UXQRIIDQGZDVWHZDWHUH[WUDFWLRQIRU &DUS(HO SULPDULO\Anguilla anguilla irrigation and invasive alien species such and A. japonica), Ayu Plecoglossus DV5DLQERZWURXW Oncorhynchus mykiss), altivelis 0LON¿VK Chanos chanos), &ORZQNQLIH¿VK Chitala chitala), Water 7LODSLD Oreochromis niloticus), K\DFLQWK Eichhornia crassipes) and 3LFNHUHO Esox niger DQG:KLWH¿VK 6DOYLQLD Salvinia molesta). Coregonus huntsmani).1 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGWKHXVHRI 7KH0HNRQJ5LYHUV\VWHPSURGXFHV GHVWUXFWLYH¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHVDQGPHWKRGV PLOOLRQWRQQHVRI¿VKSHU\HDU2 VXFKDVGHUULVURRWVSRLVRQVH[SORVLYHV )UHVKZDWHU¿VKHULHVLQWKH0HNRQJ VPDOOPHVKQHWVDQG¿VKWUDSVOHDGWR 5LYHUEDVLQKDYHDFRPPHUFLDO DUHGXFWLRQLQSRSXODWLRQVRIPRVW¿VK YDOXHH[FHHGLQJELOOLRQ86'DQG species. SURYLGHRIWKHDQLPDOSURWHLQ FRQVXPHGE\PLOOLRQSHRSOH3

)UHVKZDWHUVKULPS Macrobrachium spp.) found predominantly in the Indus river delta are important food species.4

Freshwater /HVVWKDQRIWKHHDUWK¶VZDWHU 3ROOXWLRQLVWKHODUJHVWWKUHDWWRULYHUV is fresh and most of that water is 6RXUFHVRISROOXWLRQLQFOXGHHIÀXHQWVIURP IUR]HQLQWKH1RUWKDQG6RXWKSROHV livestock farms, domestic and industrial 5LYHUVDQGVWUHDPVDUHDQLPSRUWDQW sewage, chemicals from manufacturing VRXUFHRIIUHVKZDWHUUHTXLUHGIRU DQGDJUREDVHGLQGXVWULHVVXVSHQGHG human consumption, sanitation, solids from mining, domestic waste, road agriculture, the survival of terrestrial construction waste and heavy metals organisms and in industries.7 IURPIDFWRULHV6HZDJHSROOXWLRQFDXVHV outbreaks of water borne diseases such 7KH$PD]RQULYHUIRUPVWKHODUJHVW DVFKROHUDW\SKRLGDQG+HSDWLWLV$WKDW basin in the world and contains affect humans. DSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHZRUOG¶V freshwater.

7KH%UDKPDSXWUDULYHUDFFRXQWV IRUQHDUO\RIWKHWRWDOZDWHU resources in India.

+\GURHOHFWULFSRZHU Many countries dependent on &KDQQHOLVDWLRQRIULYHUVUXQQLQJWKURXJK hydropower as an energy source urban areas, river diversion, deepening, UHO\RQULYHUV+\GURHOHFWULFLW\LV straightening and widening of rivers and JHQHUDWHGE\WXUELQHVWKDWH[WUDFW the clearance of riverine vegetation are HQHUJ\IURPIDVWÀRZLQJZDWHUIURP UHTXLUHGWREXLOGGDPVFRQWUROÀRRGVDQG ULYHUV0DMRUK\GURSRZHUSODQWVLQ store water in reservoirs and affect rivers. Asia include the Ertan hydropower These activities affect rivers, streams and SODQWLQ&KLQDZKLFKJHQHUDWHV WKHDTXDWLFOLIHE\FDXVLQJVKLIWVLQÀRZ 3,300 million watts annually10, the regimes, sediment deposition, changes .XNXOH*DQJDK\GURSRZHUSODQWLQ in river water chemistry and processes, 6UL/DQND11 DQGWKH'DUMHHOLQJDQG thereby altering the natural river ecology 6KLPVDSODQWVLQ,QGLD12 and hydrology.

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%LRGLYHUVLW\ 5LYHUVDQGVWUHDPVVXSSRUWGLYHUVHSODQWDQG 5LYHUVDQGVWUHDPVFRQWDPLQDWHGE\ animal life, adapted differently to various water waste contain high levels of organic environments. pollutants that result in eutrophication and the spread of harmful bacteria and .H\VSHFLHVWKDWDUHGHSHQGHQWRQWKH$PD]RQ viruses that can cause mass deaths and ULYHUEDVLQLQFOXGH3LQNULYHUGROSKLQV Inia loss of reproductive ability of freshwater geoffrensis 0DQDWHHV Trichechus manatus), species. -DJXDUV Panthera onca 3XPDV Puma concolor), 5LYHURWWHUV Lutra canadensis 7DSLUV Tapirus Invasive alien fauna that threaten rivers and terrestris)&DS\EDUDV Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), VWUHDPVLQ6UL/DQNDLQFOXGHWKH5DLQERZ 3HFFDULHV Tayassu tajacu +DUS\HDJOHV Harpia WURXW Oncorhynchus mykiss &ORZQNQLIH harpyja) and one of the largest scaled freshwater ¿VK Chitala chitala 3OHFWRVRPXVFDW¿VK ¿VKHVLQWKHZRUOGArapaima gigas, which can Hypostomus plecostomus), Walking UHDFKQHDUO\PLQOHQJWK FDW¿VK Clarias batrachus), Western PRVTXLWR¿VK *DPEXVLDDI¿QLV , Tilapia The Euphrates river is home to species such as Oreochromis mossambicus DQG*XSSLHV %DVUDUHHGZDUEOHUV Acrocephalus griseldis ,UDT Poecilia reticulate). EDEEOHUV Turdoides altirostris), Eurasian otters Lutra lutra 6PRRWKFRDWHGRWWHUV Lutra ,QYDVLYHDOLHQÀRUDWKDWWKUHDWHQULYHUV perspicillatamaxwelli 3\JP\FRUPRUDQWV DQGVWUHDPVLQ6UL/DQNDLQFOXGHWKH Phalacrocorax pygmaeus /HVVHUZKLWHIURQWHG :DWHUK\DFLQWK Eichhornia crassipes), JHHVH Anser erythropus DQG5HGEUHDVWHG 6DOYLQLD Salvinia molesta +\GULOOD JHHVH %UDQWDUX¿FROOLV).13 Hydrilla verticillata DQG&DQDGLDQ SRQGZHHG Egiria densa). The Mekong river in southeast Asia is the tenth largest river in the world with a biological diversity Warmer temperatures as a result of global FRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRIWKH$PD]RQ,WLVKRPHWR warming will lead to higher metabolic VSHFLHVVXFKDV0HNRQJ*LDQWFDW¿VK rates of species which will contribute Pangasianodon gigas 0HNRQJ*LDQWFDUSV WRWKHSUROLIHUDWLRQRI,$6LQULYHUVDQG Arapaima gigas 0HNRQJVWLQJUD\V Dasyatis VWUHDPV&ROGZDWHUVSHFLHVZLOOOLNHO\ laosensis),UUDZDGG\GROSKLQV Orcaella EHFRPHH[WLQFWLQUHJLRQVZKHUHZDWHU brevirostris)*LDQWLELV Thaumatibis gigantean) temperatures are too high to tolerate. DQG6LDPHVHFURFRGLOHV Crocodylus siamensis).14 &RPPRQO\FXOWXUHGIUHVKZDWHUVSHFLHV The Indus river delta is home to one of few species such as carp and Tilapia may grow faster of freshwater dolphin, the Endangered Indus at higher temperatures, but more food is 5LYHUGROSKLQ Platanista minor $QXPEHURI¿VK UHTXLUHGIRUWKHLUJURZWKDQGWKHUHLVDQ LQFOXGLQJWKH,QGXVEDULO Barilius modestus), Indus increased risk of disease. JDUXD Clupisoma naziri DQG5LWDFDW¿VK Rita rita) are endemic to this ecoregion.4

Movement of sediment Fast moving water in rivers can pick up, suspend 'DPVUHGXFHWKHÀRZRIZDWHULQORZHU and nutrients and move soil, sand and debris. This transport of regions of rivers and limit the transport of sediment carries important minerals and nutrients fertile sediment downstream into deltas.4 such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These particles and nutrients are carried and deposited in river &OLPDWHFKDQJHDIIHFWVUDLQIDOODQG GHOWDVEDQNVDQGÀRRGSODLQVPDNLQJWKHODQG WKHUHIRUHDIIHFWVULYHUÀRZDQG H[WUHPHO\IHUWLOH XQGHUJURXQGZDWHUVXSSOLHV6RPHULYHU EDVLQVZLOOH[SHULHQFHLQFUHDVHGÀRRGLQJ 5HSODFLQJWKHVRLOQXWULHQWVFDUULHGRXWWRVHDE\ while others will become progressively rivers each year with fertiliser would cost 1,000 drier. This will have severe effects on PLOOLRQ,QGLDQ5XSHHV17 freshwater species.

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3UHYHQWLRQRIVRLOHURVLRQ During rainstorms, unanchored soil Deforestation of riverine and forest washes into rivers affecting turbidity, vegetation results in river bank erosion. FRPSRVLWLRQDVZHOODVÀRUDDQGIDXQD The soil particles deposit on the riverbed 5LYHULQHYHJHWDWLRQVWDELOLVHVWKH in slow moving regions, thereby increasing riverbank by anchoring the soil in place ZDWHUOHYHOVDQGWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀRRGV and preventing the erosion of soil.22 Water table replenishment Most of the earth’s freshwater is The lack of sustainable agricultural XQGHUJURXQGDQGFROOHFWVLQDTXLIHUV practices harms the environment by ZKLFKVWRUHRIWKHZRUOG¶VXQIUR]HQ severely depleting water in rivers, lakes and freshwater. Water from rivers and underground water sources, increasing soil streams travels through layers of sand VDOLQLW\DQGGHVWUR\LQJLWVTXDOLW\3ROOXWDQWV DQGJUDYHOWRUHFKDUJHDTXLIHUV and pesticides washing into rivers, in turn, renewing the underground water supply. destroy downstream ecosystems such as 3HRSOHGLJZHOOVLQWRWKHVHDTXLIHUVWR coral reefs.24 pump out water for drinking, irrigation and industrial use.23 Regulating services

Flood regulation )ORRGSODLQVDUHÀDWDUHDVRIODQGWKDWOLH The construction of dams, dikes, levees DGMDFHQWWRULYHUVRUVWUHDPVWKDWDUH DQGSK\VLFDODOWHUDWLRQVRIULYHUÀRZE\ SHULRGLFDOO\RURFFDVLRQDOO\ÀRRGHG straightening, deepening and widening During wet seasons and intense storms, ULYHUFRXUVHVGLVUXSWVWKHQDWXUDOÀRRGLQJ WKHVHÀRRGSODLQVDUHLQXQGDWHGZLWKWKH F\FOHVUHGXFHVÀRZVGUDLQVZHWODQGVFXWV ZDWHUWKDWRYHUÀRZVIURPULYHUV7KLV RIIULYHUVIURPWKHLUÀRRGSODLQVDQGÀRRG water is retained in the plains and this riparian habitats, resulting in the destruction SUHYHQWVWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIÀRRGVLQ RIVSHFLHVDQGWKHLQWHQVL¿FDWLRQRI regions of lower altitude. ÀRRGV

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6XSSRUWLQJFLYLOL]DWLRQV 5LYHUVKDYHEHHQYHU\LPSRUWDQWWRWKH The lack of sustainable agricultural GHYHORSPHQWRIFLYLOL]DWLRQVDQGPDQ\ practices harms the environment by KLVWRULFDOO\LPSRUWDQWFLYLOL]DWLRQVKDYH severely depleting water in rivers, lakes ÀRXULVKHGDURXQGWKHPEHFDXVHRIWKH and underground water sources, increasing supply of water for agriculture. The soil salinity and destroying LWVTXDOLW\ 6XPHULDQVEXLOWWKH¿UVWFLWLHVRIWKH 3ROOXWDQWVDQGSHVWLFLGHVZDVKLQJLQWR ZRUOGEHWZHHQDQG%&RQWKH rivers, in turn, destroy downstream Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Indus ecosystems such as corals reefs.24 ULYHUYDOOH\ZDVWKHORFDWLRQRIWKH¿UVW FLYLOL]DWLRQRI,QGLDLQ%& $JULFXOWXUHZDVWHVRUWULOOLRQ DQG&KLQD¶VHDUOLHVWFLYLOL]DWLRQVZHUH OLWUHVRIWKHWULOOLRQOLWUHVRIZDWHU around the three large rivers, the Yellow LWXVHVHDFK\HDUZKLFKLVRIWKH 5LYHUWKH

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Transport 5LYHUVZHUHXVHGWRWUDQVSRUWFRPPXWHUVDQG ,QODQGVKLSSLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHSURMHFWV goods long before roads and railways were built. alter natural river function and habitats, as they involve water pumping, channelling, 5LYHUVDUHXVHGDVDFKHDSDQGHI¿FLHQWPHWKRG GUHGJLQJDQGJUDYHODQGVDQGH[WUDFWLRQ of transporting logs from forests to nearby paper to make deep, straight and uniformly mills and other logging industries. Other goods banked waterways that cut the river off transported using rivers include dry bulk cargo IURPLWVÀRRGSODLQ9HVVHORSHUDWLRQVFUHDWH VXFKDVJUDLQFHPHQWFRDODQGOLTXLGEXONFDUJR waves that disturb habitats and ecological such as petroleum, gasoline, chemicals and processes. Also, spills and ship collisions OLTXH¿HGQDWXUDOJDV20 pollute and severely damage freshwater species and habitats by the release of oil and 5LYHUVIRUPDFULWLFDOOLQNEHWZHHQODQGDQGVHD KD]DUGRXVVXEVWDQFHVVXFKDVFDGPLXP and provide transportation routes for humans and lead, mercury and DDT.21 PDNHLWSRVVLEOHIRU¿VKWRPLJUDWHEHWZHHQPDULQH and freshwater systems.

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:DWHUSXUL¿FDWLRQ The vegetation in lakes and ponds have the ([FHVVLYHQXWULHQWORDGLQJRYHUZKHOPVWKHDELOLW\ capacity to remove high levels of nutrients of the entire ecosystem to assimilate nutrients. especially phosphorus and nitrogen from The addition of nitrogen and phosphorus leads to DJULFXOWXUDOUXQRII7KHYHJHWDWLRQDORQJWKH eutrophication and the rapid growth of algae which edge of Lake Victoria in East Africa was found use up the lake resources thus depriving other WRKDYHSKRVSKRUXVUHWHQWLRQRITypha IUHVKZDWHUVSHFLHVRIR[\JHQDQGQXWULHQWV7KH and PhragmiteVSHFLHV DVSHFLHVRIUHHG FDQ ODNHZLGHDOJDOEORRPRI Microcystis sp. in Laguna ¿OWHUDQGSXULI\ODNHVIURPKHDY\PHWDOVVXFK ODNHLQWKH3KLOLSSLQHVNLOOHG¿YHPLOOLRQPLON¿VK DVFDGPLXP]LQFPHUFXU\DQGYDQDGLXPIURP Chanos chanos LQ4 mining areas.13 Acid rain, caused by hydrated sulphur and nitrogen Entire lakes and ponds have a natural capacity released by burning fossil fuels, is destroying to cleanse themselves. These ecosystems have WKRXVDQGVRIODNHV$SSUR[LPDWHO\NP2 of interlinked food webs in which organisms ODNHVLQ1RUZD\KDYHEHHQDFLGL¿HGUHVXOWLQJLQWKH assimilate incoming nutrients, moving nutrients ORVVRI¿VKVWRFNV6ZHGHQKDVDFLGL¿HGODNHV up from the simplest single cell bacteria to large ZKLOHLQ&DQDGDODNHVDUHDFLGL¿HGVHYHUHO\ ¿VK7KLVSURFHVVFOHDQVHVODNHVDQGSRQGV WKUHDWHQLQJDTXDWLFOLIH3 IURPH[FHVVQXWULHQWV Water Most of earth’s freshwater is underground and The lack of sustainable agricultural practices harms replenishment FROOHFWVLQDTXLIHUVZKLFKVWRUHRIWKH the environment by severely depleting water in ZRUOG¶VXQIUR]HQIUHVKZDWHU:DWHUIURPODNHV lakes, rivers and underground water sources, DQGSRQGV¿OWHUVWKURXJKOD\HUVRIVDQGDQG LQFUHDVLQJVRLOVDOLQLW\DQGGHVWUR\LQJLWVTXDOLW\ JUDYHOWRUHFKDUJHDTXLIHUVUHQHZLQJWKH XQGHUJURXQGZDWHUVXSSO\3HRSOHGLJZHOOVLQWR WKHVHDTXLIHUVWRSXPSRXWZDWHUIRUGULQNLQJ irrigation and industrial use.14

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Flood regulation /DNHVDQGSRQGVÀXFWXDWHLQYROXPH Deforested areas and farmland erode according to rainfall and climate changes, into lakes, increasing sediment and silt. WKHUHE\SUHYHQWLQJÀRRGV This reduces the storage capacity of ODNHVDQGLQFUHDVHVWKHULVNRIÀRRGV )ORRGSODLQVDUHÀDWDUHDVRIODQGWKDWOLH 7KH+DPRXQ/DNHVLQ,UDQDUHORVLQJ DGMDFHQWWRODUJHODNHVDQGDUHÀRRGHGZLWK WKHLUDELOLW\WRPLWLJDWHÀRRGVDVWKH\DUH RYHUÀRZLQJZDWHUGXULQJUDLQ\VHDVRQV GU\LQJIURPWKHGDPPLQJRIWKH+HOPDQG WKHUHE\UHGXFLQJWKHLQFLGHQFHRIÀRRGV 5LYHUDQG\HDUVRIGURXJKW3

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Tourism and recreation Lakes generate income as they are popular 7RXULVPWKUHDWHQVWKHZHOOEHLQJRI WRXULVWDWWUDFWLRQVIRU¿VKLQJFDPSLQJDQJOLQJ ODNHVEHFDXVHRIRYHUYLVLWDWLRQ and boating activities. Important lakes in irresponsible trash disposal, increased tourism include the Tonle sap lake in H[WUDFWLRQRIIUHVKZDWHUIURPODNHVIRU &DPERGLD22 Lake Inle in Myanmar,23 WKH¿YH use by tourist lodges, oil pollution of *UHDW/DNHVLQWKH86 2QWDULR+XURQ(ULH ODNHVDQGGLVWXUEDQFHRIDTXDWLFZLOGOLIH 0LFKLJDQDQG6XSHULRU 24DQG/DNH%DLNDO by tourist activities such as boating and ¿VKLQJDQGLQDGYHUWHQWLQWURGXFWLRQRI invasive alien species.

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Services Description Threats

3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Timber Forested swamps and peat swamps are a source Ramin is a valuable light hardwood of timber species such as Ramin *RQ\VW\OXV species and is threatened severely bancanus 3DSHUEDUNWUHH Melaleuca cajeputi), E\RYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ,WVGLVWULEXWLRQLV 5HG%DODX Shorea balangeran), -HOXWRQJ timber restricted to Indonesia and Malaysia, Dyera costulata), Ant rattan (Korthalsia whose peat swamp forests have ÀDJHOODULV DQG:LOGGXULDQ Durio carinatus).1 been depleted severely.2

3HDWVZDPSIRUHVWVDUHWKUHDWHQHGE\ WKHH[SDQVLRQRIIRUHVWU\RSHUDWLRQV ZKLFKFRXOGOHDGWRWKHRYHU H[SORLWDWLRQRILPSRUWDQWVSHFLHVIRU WLPEHUDQGSXOSVXFKDV5HG%DODX3 )RRG ¿Q¿VKVKHOO¿VK &RPPRQHGLEOH¿VKVSHFLHVLQWKHHDVW 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRI¿VKDQGVKULPS Kalimantan peat swamp forests include the species threatens the freshwater &OLPELQJ3HUFK (Anabas testudineus), swamps in Irrawady, Myanmar.1 6QDNHKHDGPXUUHO (Channa striata), &DW¿VK (Clarias sp DQG+HOLFRSWHUFDW¿VK(Wallago 7KHXVHRIG\QDPLWHDQGWR[LF leerii 3UDZQVSHFLHVVXFKDVWKH*LDQW chemicals to capture either live or freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) GHDG¿VKGHVWUR\VKDELWDWVDQGNLOOV DUHDOVRDVRXUFHRIQRXULVKPHQW4 RWKHUQRQWDUJHWRUJDQLVPVLQVZDPSV peatlands and marshes. )LVKVSHFLHVVXFKDV7LODSLD Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis) are found in the Yala swamp in Kenya and are used to meet the SURWHLQUHTXLUHPHQWVRILWVKXPDQSRSXODWLRQ Non timber forest products 7XEHVHGJH Lepironia articulata DUHHGIRXQG Viewed conventionally as wastelands, 17)3V LQWKHSHDWODQGVRI7KDLODQGLVZRYHQWRPDNH a vast number of swamps, marshes baskets, mats, hats and sacks. and peatlands have been destroyed and converted to agricultural lands Forested swamps, marshes and peatlands are for their nutrient rich fertile soil. In LPSRUWDQWVRXUFHVRIIUXLWVSDUWLFXODUO\EHUULHV Indonesia, peat swamps forests are DVZHOODVPXVKURRPVODWH[UHVLQVWDQQLQVDQG being cleared for timber plantations fodder for animals. and cultivation of oil palm and other commercial crops.10

3HDW IXHO 3HDWVRLOKDVEHHQPLQHGH[WHQVLYHO\LQZHVWHUQ +XPDQLQGXFHG¿UHVIRUWKH (XURSHDQG6RXWK$PHULFDIRUGRPHVWLFDQG clearance of peatland for agriculture LQGXVWULDOIXHO3HDWPLQLQJIRUXVHLQWKH destroy peat, release stored carbon KRUWLFXOWXUHLQGXVWU\LVDPXOWLPLOOLRQGROODU LQWRWKHDWPRVSKHUHDGGLQJWR industry in Europe.11 global warming. They eliminate seed banks and destroy soil. All of this may take thousands of years to be replaced naturally.12 Medicine Medicinal plants obtained from the east Viewed conventionally as wastelands, Kalimantan peat swamp forest have an economic a vast number of swamps, marshes YDOXHRI86' and peatlands have been destroyed and converted to agricultural lands Indigenous tribes in the peat swamps of east for their nutrient rich fertile soil. In Kalimantan rely on traditional herbs such as Indonesia, peat swamps forests are Kacip Fatimah (Labisia pumila) and Tongkat Ali being cleared for timber plantations (Eurycoma longifolia).13 and cultivation of oil palm and other commercial crops. 0HGLFLQDOSODQWVIRXQGLQ6RXWK$PHULFDQLQFOXGH Chapeu de couro (Echinodorus macrophyllus), which is used as a diuretic14 and in Africa, Ngoka (Thomandelsia laurifolia), which is used to treat colic, fever and diarrhoea.

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%LRGLYHUVLW\ 3HDWVZDPSVDUHH[WUHPHKDELWDWVDQGVXSSRUW Viewed conventionally as wastelands, a vast an array of diverse species adapted to living number of swamps, marshes and peatlands XQGHUVXFKKDUVKFRQGLWLRQV7KH1RUWK6HODQJRU have been destroyed and converted to 3HDW6ZDPS)RUHVWRI0DOD\VLDLVKRPHWRWKH agricultural lands for their nutrient rich fertile )LJKWLQJ¿VK Betta livida %ODFNZDWHUVQDNHKHDG soil. In Indonesia, peat swamps forests Channa bankanensis), Licorice gouramy are being cleared for timber plantations Parosphromenus anjunganensis and and cultivation of oil palm, rice and other P. ornaticauda DQGWKH3HDWVZDPSEDUE Puntius commercial crops.3 rhomboocellatus).10 ,QYDVLYHDOLHQÀRUDWKDWWKUHDWHQIUHVKZDWHU 7KHSHDWVZDPSIRUHVWVLQ%RUQHRDUHNH\ VZDPSVDQGPDUVKHVLQ6UL/DQNDLQFOXGH KDELWDWVIRUWKHHQGDQJHUHG3URERVFLVPRQNH\ 6DOYLQLD Salvinia molesta), Water hyacinth Nasalis larvatus ZKLFKLVHQGHPLFWR%RUQHR Eichhornia crassipes &DQDGLDQSRQGZHHG DQGWKH$VLDQDURZDQD Scleropages formosus), Elodia canadensis DQG*LDQW0LPRVD DSRSXODUDTXDULXP¿VK3 Mimosa pigra).12

The Irrawady freshwater swamp forests are Invasive alien fauna that threaten swamps important wetlands for migratory birds such as DQGPDUVKHVLQ6UL/DQNDLQFOXGHWKH&ORZQ WKH0RQJROLDQSORYHU Charadrius mongolus), NQLIH¿VK Chitala chitala 3OHFWRVRPXV 6SRRQELOOHGVDQGSLSHU Eurynorhynchus FDW¿VK(Hypostomus plecostomus *XSS\ pygmeus %ODFNWDLOHGJRGZLW Limosa limosa), Poecilia reticulata DQG:HVWHUQPRVTXLWR (XUDVLDQFXUOHZ Numenius arquata), Temminck’s ¿VK *DPEXVLDDI¿QLV).12 VWLQW Calidris temminckii) and the Asian openbill VWRUN Anastomus oscitans).1 Illegal hunting and habitat loss has led to the H[WLQFWLRQRINH\VSHFLHVVXFKDV6ZDPS Freshwater marshes support fauna such as the GHHU Cervus duvaucelii) in the freshwater 9LHWQDPHVHSRQGWXUWOH Mauremys annamensis) VZDPSIRUHVWVRIWKH6XQGHUEDQV13 DQGÀRUDVXFKDVUHHGV Phragmites australis), SURVWUDWHJUDVVHV Aeluropus littoralis) and 6DZJUDVVHV Cladium spp).11 Absorption of pollutants As water moves slowly through a marsh, sediment Viewed conventionally as wastelands, a and other pollutants settle on vegetation and the vast number of swamps, marshes and marsh bed. Marsh vegetation and microorganisms peatlands have been destroyed and DEVRUESROOXWDQWVDQGH[FHVVQXWULHQWVVXFKDV converted to agricultural lands for their QLWURJHQDQGSKRVSKRUXVWKDWZRXOGRWKHUZLVH nutrient rich fertile soil. In Indonesia, peat pollute the surface water. swamps forests are being cleared for timber plantations and cultivation of oil &\SUHVVVZDPSVLQ)ORULGD86$FDQUHPRYH palm and other commercial crops.3 RIWKHQLWURJHQDQGRIWKHSKRVSKRUXVWKDW would otherwise have entered the groundwater.7

6XSSO\LQJZDWHUDTXLIHUV 6ZDPSVDQGPDUVKHVUHSOHQLVKXQGHUJURXQG 6DPHDVDERYH DTXLIHUVZLWKIUHVKZDWHUDQGPRGHUDWHVWUHDP ÀRZE\SURYLGLQJZDWHUWRVWUHDPVZKLFKLVD very important function in periods of drought.

A 223,000ha swamp in Florida has been valued DWPLOOLRQ86'SHU\HDUIRULWVUROHLQVWRULQJ ZDWHUDQGUHFKDUJLQJWKHDTXLIHUV

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Services Description Threats Regulating services Flood regulation The presence of marshes in watersheds Destruction of swamps, marshes and SUHYHQWVÀRRGLQJE\VORZLQJGRZQÀRRG peatlands for agriculture destroys the water and retaining it during wet seasons. natural water retention capacity of the 3HDWODQGVIXQFWLRQDVVSRQJHVDQGFDQ land and results in the rapid release soak up rainwater during rainy seasons of water during wet seasons leading to and control water levels in rivers. GHYDVWDWLQJÀRRGV17 &OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ 6ZDPSVPDUVKHVDQGSHDWODQGVWKDW Viewed conventionally as wastelands, a cover large areas contribute to local vast number of swamps, marshes and climates by absorbing heat and peatlands have been destroyed and PDLQWDLQLQJUHJLRQDOHYDSRWUDQVSLUDWLRQ converted to agricultural lands for their thus contributing to rainfall. nutrient rich fertile soil. In Indonesia, peat swamps forests are being cleared for timber plantations and cultivation of oil palm and other commercial crops.3 Cultural services

+RPHWRLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOH Indigenous communities dependent on 6DPHDVDERYH peat swamps include the Orang Asli and the 2UDQJ-DNXQ tribes living near the boundaries of the south east Pahang3HDW 6ZDPS)RUHVWLQ3HQLQVXODU0DOD\VLD4

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3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV )RRG ¿Q¿VKVKHOO¿VKYHJHWDEOHV Mangroves are permanent or temporary 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQ VKULPSDQGRWKHU and other plant parts) KDELWDWVIRUPDQ\DTXDWLFDQLPDOVDQG DTXDFXOWXUHXQVXVWDLQDEOH¿VKLQJ are also hatching and nursery grounds for SUDFWLFHVRYHUKDUYHVWLQJ KDELWDW PDQ\PDULQH¿VK,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWXS destruction though coastal development WRRIJOREDO¿VKFDWFKHVDUHGLUHFWO\ DQGODQGUHFODPDWLRQDQGLQODQG or indirectly dependent on mangroves.1 IUHVKZDWHUH[WUDFWLRQ2,3

Timber and fuelwood All over the world, the timber of mangrove 6DPHDVDERYH ÀRUDLVXVHGWREXLOGKRXVHVPDNH furniture, rafters, fences, bridges, poles and boats.

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Medicines $ERXWGLIIHUHQWPDQJURYHÀRUDDUH 6DPHDVDERYH listed as having traditional medicinal uses for treatment of various ailments and diseases. In parts of Indonesia, traditional use of mangrove products contributes up to a half of income among the poorest households, and in southern Thailand is thought to generate products worth DOPRVWDTXDUWHURISHUFDSLWD*'3DPRQJ coastal villages.4

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Mangrove plants are sources of sodium and the ash of some species such as Avicennia is used as soap.

The barks of many species produce gums and tannins, which are still used in the Indian subcontinent for curing leather and ¿VKQHWV

,QWKH%DQJODGHVKDQG,QGLDKRQH\IURP mangroves is an important local industry.

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%LRGLYHUVLW\ %HFDXVHPDQJURYHVJURZEHWZHHQWKHODQG Mangrove deforestation for shrimp and other and the sea, mangrove species are adapted DTXDFXOWXUHRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ XQVXVWDLQDEOH XQLTXHO\WROLYHLQH[WUHPHDQGYDULDEOH ¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHVRYHUKDUYHVWLQJ FRDVWDO conditions. Mangroves, therefore, carry an GHYHORSPHQWDQGODQGUHFODPDWLRQLQODQG XQLTXHDVVHPEODJHRIÀRUDDQGIDXQDIRXQG IUHVKZDWHUH[WUDFWLRQSROOXWLRQ2,3DQGVSUHDGRI in no other ecosystem. ,$6DUHVHULRXVWKUHDWV

0DQJURYHVLQWKHVRXWKZHVWHUQ6UL/DQNDDUH EHLQJDIIHFWHGE\WKHVSUHDGRI$OOLJDWRU3RQG apple (Annona glabra) and Wormia suffruticosa.5

3URWHFWLQJWKHVKRUHOLQH Mangroves act as physical buffers between Mangrove deforestation for shrimp and other the elements and the shore, and can absorb DTXDFXOWXUHRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQ XQVXVWDLQDEOH DWOHDVWRIWKHHQHUJ\RIWKHZDYHV ¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHVRYHUKDUYHVWLQJ FRDVWDO depending on their ecological condition. development and land reclamation.2.3

3URPRWLQJDFFUHWLRQ Mangroves function much like a living groyne 6DPHDVDERYH to build up sediment, stabilising the ground DQG¿[LQJPXGEDQNV7KHUHIRUHWKH\SUHYHQW erosion. They also protect coral reefs from sedimentation.7

3ULPDU\SURGXFWLRQ Estimated net primary productivity values 6DPHDVDERYH RIXSWRJ&PGD\IRUPDQJURYHIRUHVWV LQ)ORULGD86$,QFRPSDULVRQDKHDYLO\ IHUWLOLVHGDQGPDQDJHGVXJDUFDQH¿HOGKDVD PD[LPXPQHWSURGXFWLYLW\RIJ&PGD\ Enriching nutrients It is estimated that every time the tide goes 6DPHDVDERYH RXWLWWDNHVZLWKLWDVPXFKDVWRQQHV of food for marine life each year. Regulating services

6HTXHVWHULQJFDUERQ Mangroves are important carbon sinks, and 6DPHDVDERYH VHTXHVWHUDSSUR[LPDWHO\PLOOLRQWRQQHV of carbon every year. They also provide more WKDQRIHVVHQWLDOGLVVROYHGRUJDQLFFDUERQ that is supplied to the global oceans from land.

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Tourism The foreign visitor recreational value of a 2YHUYLVLWDWLRQXVHUFRQÀLFWVZLWKWUDGLWLRQDO mangrove ecosystem in the western coast of ¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHV LHGDPDJHWRE\PRWRU 6UL/DQNDLVHVWLPDWHGDW86'KD\HDU boats): irresponsible trash disposal.

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3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Lime /LPHLVH[WUDFWHGIURPFRUDODQGXVHGIRU 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGGDPDJHWRWKHHQWLUH FRQVWUXFWLRQ/DUJHO\LOOHJDOODUJHVFDOH coral reef because the reef is blasted for mining of coral is ongoing in the region.1,2 removal of calcium carbonate.1,2

Fish and other species for food (YHU\VTXDUHNLORPHWUHRIZHOOPDQDJHG 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQPRUHWKDQRIWKH FRUDOUHHIFDQ\LHOGDQDYHUDJHRI ZRUOG¶V¿VKHULHVDUHRYHUH[SORLWHG WRQQHVRI¿VKDQGRWKHUVHDIRRGHYHU\ DUHEHLQJ¿VKHGWRWKHLUIXOOFDSDFLW\DQG year.37KHGHPDQGIRU¿VKKDVGRXEOHG QHHGLPPHGLDWHDFWLRQWRHQVXUH LQWKHODVW\HDUVDQG¿VKSURGXFWLRQ future supplies. ZRXOGKDYHWRGRXEOHDJDLQLQWKHQH[W \HDUVWRNHHSXSZLWKGHPDQGDQG 7KH*LDQWJURXSHU Epinephelus SRSXODWLRQJURZWK,Q6RXWKHDVW$VLDWKH lanceolatus DQG+XPSKHDGZUDVVH OLYHIRRGWUDGH ERWKDVIRRG¿VKDQG Cheilinus undulatus) are listed in the ornamentals), estimated at over a billion ,8&15HG/LVWDV9XOQHUDEOHDQG 86'SHU\HDULQPRVWO\LOOHJDOWUDGH4 Endangered respectively as a direct FRQVHTXHQFHRIRYHU¿VKLQJ6SLQ\ OREVWHUVDQGVHDFXFXPEHUVDUHRYHU KDUYHVWHGLQ6UL/DQND1

Activities such as coral mining and GHVWUXFWLYH¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHVVXFKDV SXUVHVHLQLQJ¿QHPHVK¿VKLQJµPR[\¶ QHWVF\DQLGH¿VKLQJDQGEODVW¿VKLQJDUH DOVRGHSOHWLQJ¿VKVWRFNV

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Medicines Many species are collected for traditional 2YHUKDUYHVWLQJRIFHUWDLQVSHFLHV VXFK PHGLFLQH,QDGGLWLRQELRSURVSHFWLQJLV as seahorses and some croakers) for ongoing for novel remedies in allopathic traditional medicine, as well as other medicine. VSHFLHVE\ELRSURVSHFWRUV

&XULRVRUQDPHQWV Molluscs and marine turtles are collected 6HYHUDOVSHFLHVVXFKDVCorallium D for making curios or trinkets. Molluscs, group of red coral) are now threatened dried sea stars and sea urchins, dried ZLWKH[WLQFWLRQGXHWRRYHUKDUYHVWLQJ10 ¿VK VHDKRUVHVDQGSXIIHU¿VK DQGGULHG 0ROOXVFV FKDQNV Turbinella pyrum) are lobsters are collected as souvenirs. RYHUH[SORLWHGLQ6UL/DQNDIRUH[SRUWWR %DQJODGHVK16L[RXWRIVHYHQVSHFLHVRI marine turtles are listed as Endangered RU&ULWLFDOO\(QGDQJHUHGSDUWO\DVD UHVXOWRIRYHUH[SORLWDWLRQIRUWKHXVHRI their shells in the trinket trade. Supporting services

%LRGLYHUVLW\ &RUDOUHHIVDUHH[WUHPHO\SURGXFWLYH &OLPDWHFKDQJHDQGDVVRFLDWHGFRUDO HFRV\VWHPVDQGDUHFDOOHGµWKH bleaching is a serious threat to coral reef rainforests of the sea.’ Despite this, they ecosystems.116HGLPHQWQXWULHQWDQG DUHH[WUHPHO\GHOLFDWHDQGWKHLUEDODQFH chemical pollution from inland development, is disrupted easily and productivity coastal development including land GHFUHDVHVZKHQVSHFLHVDUHRYHU reclamation and irresponsible tourism are harvested. also serious threats to the biodiversity of coral reefs.2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIFHUWDLQ species disrupts the balance of coral reef ecosystems, often with a decrease in species diversity.13

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3URWHFWLRQIURPVWRUPVDQGWLGDO &RUDOUHHIVSURYLGHDSK\VLFDOEDUULHU±D &RUDOPLQLQJ LQFOXGLQJPLQLQJRILQODQG surges ZDOO±DJDLQVWWLGDOVXUJHVH[WUHPH GHSRVLWV DQGEODVW¿VKLQJGHVWUR\V weather events, ocean currents, tides reefs, as does irresponsible coastal and winds. development. Mining of inland resources such as sand is also destroying coral reefs and reducing their protective service function.

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5HFUHDWLRQWRXULVP %HFDXVHRIWKHLUHDV\DFFHVVYLVLWLQJ 6QRUNHOOLQJGLYLQJDQGERDWLQJFDQ coral reefs is an important recreation for cause direct physical damage to reefs. snorkellers, scuba divers, recreational 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQRIUHHIVSHFLHVDVIRRG ¿VKHUPHQDQGEHDFKORYHUV IRUDTXDULDDQGDVFXULRVFDQWKUHDWHQ WKHVXUYLYDORIVSHFLHV&DUHOHVVDQG LUUHVSRQVLEOHEXLOGLQJRILQIUDVWUXFWXUH sometimes directly onto reefs or too close WREHDFKHVULYHUPRXWKVDQGODJRRQV results in increased sedimentation and leaves the infrastructure vulnerable to GDPDJHIURPH[WUHPHZHDWKHUHYHQWV Another indirect effect of tourism is often the irresponsible disposal of sewage and solid waste.

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5DMDVXUL\D$ =DKUL + 9HQNDWDUDPDQ . ,VODP = DQG - 7DPHODQGHU 6WDWXV RI FRUDO UHHIV LQ 6RXWK$VLD %DQJODGHVK&KDJRV,QGLD0DOGLYHVDQG6UL/DQND3SLQ'6RXWHUDQG2/LQGHQ HGV Coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean Status Report 2006ZHGHQ&25',2 %URZQ%('XQQH53DQG736FR¿P &RUDOURFNH[WUDFWLRQLQWKH0DOGLYHVFHQWUDO,QGLDQ2FHDQOLPLWLQJWKH damage, Coral Reefs 14 KWWSZZZSDQGDRUJDERXWBZZIZKDWBZHBGRPDULQHEOXHBSODQHWFRDVWVFRUDOBUHHIVFRUDOBLPSRUWDQFHLQGH[FIP 6KDPLQ75$)),& 7KH+RQJ.RQJWUDGHLQOLYHUHHI¿VKIRUIRRG75$)),&(DVW$VLDDQG::) %XUNH / 6HOLJ / DQG 0 6SDOGLQJ Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia :DVKLQJWRQ '& :RUOG 5HVRXUFHV Institute. 72 pp. %DLOOLH - DQG % *URRPEULGJH &RPSLOHUV DQG (GLWRUV 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals *ODQG 6ZLW]HUODQGDQG&DPEULGJH8.,8&1 :DEQLW]&7D\ORU0*UHHQ(DQG75D]DN From Ocean to Aquarium&DPEULGJH8.81(3:&0& 120 +XQW%DQG$9LQFHQW 7KHXVHRIPDULQHRUJDQLVPVLQWUDGLWLRQDODQGDOORSDWKLFPHGLFLQHSSLQ60LWKWKDSDOD HG Conserving Medicinal Species: securing a healthy future&RORPER(FRV\VWHPVDQG/LYHOLKRRGV*URXS$VLD,8&1 SS 9LQFHQW$ /LYHIRRGDQGQRQIRRG¿VKHULHVLQFRUDOUHHIVDQGWKHLUSURWHFWLRQPDQDJHPHQW3SLQCoral Reef Conservation ,0&{WpDQG-'5H\QROGV HGV &DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV KWWSZZZLXFQRUJ :LONLQVRQ& Status of Coral Reefs of the World, 2004 9RO 7RZQVYLOOH$XVWUDOLD$XVWUDOLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI0DULQH 6FLHQFH[LYSS 1\EDNNHQ-: Marine Biology: an Ecological ApproachUGHG1HZ

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3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV Food 6HDJUDVVPHDGRZVDUHQXUVHU\DUHDV Inland and coastal pollution, causing IRUPDQ\FRPPHUFLDO¿QDQGVKHOO¿VK sedimentation and turbidity3GUHGJLQJ species as well as other species.1 Fish, DQGFRDVWDOGHYHORSPHQW clams and mussels are harvested as a eutrophication4DVDUHVXOWRILQGXVWULDO source of protein from seagrass DQGGRPHVWLFSROOXWLRQSRUWMHWW\ meadows all over the world.2 and harbour developmentPRRULQJ SURSHOOHUVDQGMHWVNLVLQYDVLYHDOLHQ VSHFLHV ,$6 7GLVHDVH7RYHUJUD]LQJ7 and climate change.

)RUWKHDTXDFXOWXUHDQGDTXDULXP 3RO\FKDHWHZRUPVDUHKDUYHVWHGIURP 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGGDPDJLQJ trades seagrass meadows as broodstock collection practices. Other threats IHHGIRUDTXDFXOWXUH$TXDULXP¿VKDUH same as above. also harvested.

+RXVLQJLQVXODWLRQDQGWKDWFKLQJ Until the last century, in Europe, dried Not used currently. VWXI¿QJDQGSDFNLQJ seagrass material was used as housing LQVXODWLRQ8QWLOUHFHQWO\VHDJUDVVHV were also used to thatch roofs in rural coastal areas in Europe and the UK as DVXEVWLWXWHIRUVWUDZ%HIRUHWKHDGYHQW of plastic, seagrasses were used as VWXI¿QJIRUSLOORZVDQGXSKROVWHU\DQG for packing.10

For preventing erosion 6HDJUDVVHVZHUHXVHGWRELQGVRLO No immediate threat. in embankments, such as in the GLNHVRIWKH1HWKHUODQGV3UHVHQWO\ seagrasses are being used in sand dune restoration in Australia.10 Regulating services

3UHYHQWLQJSROOXWLRQDQGVHGLPHQWDWLRQ 7KHOHDI\µFDQRS\¶RIVHDJUDVVHVVORZV 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGGDPDJLQJ of coastal waters down water currents, trapping particles, collection practices inland and coastal nutrients and pollutants washed from pollution – causing sedimentation and inland waters to coastal seas.11 turbidity3GUHGJLQJDQGFRDVWDO GHYHORSPHQWHXWURSKLFDWLRQ4 – as a result of industrial and domestic SROOXWLRQSRUWMHWW\DQGKDUERXU developmentPRRULQJSURSHOOHUVDQG MHWVNLV,$67GLVHDVH7RYHUJUD]LQJ7 and climate change.

6WDELOLVLQJWKHÀRRURIFRDVWDOVHDV The underground stems of seagrasses 6DPHDVDERYH help stabilise the sea meadows preventing sand from being washed away and churned up by wave action.12

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6XSSRUWLQJFRDVWDO %HFDXVHRIWKHLUWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOVWUXFWXUH 2YHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGGDPDJLQJFROOHFWLRQ biodiversity in the water, seagrass meadows provide practices inland and coastal pollution – causing SURWHFWLRQIRUMXYHQLOH¿VKDQGPDQ\PDULQH sedimentation and turbidity3GUHGJLQJDQGFRDVWDO larvae. They house hundreds of other GHYHORSPHQWHXWURSKLFDWLRQ4 – as a result of species as well, such as algae, sponges, LQGXVWULDODQGGRPHVWLFSROOXWLRQSRUWMHWW\DQG round worms, marine worms and even harbour developmentPRRULQJSURSHOOHUVDQG threatened species such as manatees and MHWVNLV,$67GLVHDVH7RYHUJUD]LQJ7 and climate dugongs that feed directly on them.13, 14 change.

3ULPDU\SURGXFWLRQ 6HDJUDVVHVUDQNZLWKFRUDOUHHIVDQG 6DPHDVDERYH mangroves in their productivity.14

Enriching nutrients in 6HDJUDVVHVDUHLPSRUWDQWLQWKHGHWULWDO 6DPHDVDERYH coastal waters food chain. When all the organisms found in the three dimensional habitat of seagrasses, as well as the seagrasses die, the released nutrients enter the marine system as carbon and other nutrients.3 Cultural services

6XSSRUWVWUDGLWLRQDO ,QPDQ\FRXQWULHVWUDGLWLRQDO¿VKLQJ 0RRULQJSURSHOOHUVDQGMHWVNLVDUHHPHUJLQJDVD ¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHV practices are supported by seagrass PDMRUWKUHDWWRVHDJUDVVPHDGRZVWhen boats PHDGRZV,Q$XVWUDOLDDQG3RO\QHVLD ±HLWKHUIRU¿VKLQJRUUHFUHDWLRQ±HQWHULQWRDUHDV $ERULJLQDODQG3RO\QHVLDQWUDGLWLRQDO where there are seagrass meadows, their propellers ¿VKLQJDQGKXQWLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGULWXDOV FDQVODVKOHDYHVDVZHOODVWKHUKL]RPHVRI are associated with seagrass meadows.14 seagrass, leading to fragmentation of the habitat, which, in turn, leads to erosion.36LPLODUO\ irresponsible mooring and recreation can endanger these habitats.

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%LRGLYHUVLW\ 6DQGGXQHVDUHHVVHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWVRI 6DPHDVDERYH([FHVVLYHWUDPSOLQJRI coastal vistas and coastal biodiversity. sand dune vegetation by tourists causes They also harbour endangered species GHDWKRIWKHÀRUDDQGFDQUHVXOWLQHURVLRQ such as marine turtles – who must lay of dune sites. their eggs on sandy beaches and return WRWKHVLWHVZKHUHWKH\ZHUHERUQ&RDVWDO 6SHFLHVVXFKDV3ULFNO\3HDU Opuntia sand dunes with natural vegetation such dillenii DQG0HVTXLWH 3URVRSLVMXQLÀRUD) are DV*RDW¶V)RRW Ipomea pescaprae) and spreading in sand dunes and beaches and Spinifex littoreus are ideal nesting sites.4 destroying natural vegetation. Cultural services

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Services Description Threats 3URYLVLRQLQJVHUYLFHV *RRGV )RRG )LVK Lagoons and estuaries are important 0DMRUWKUHDWVWRODJRRQVDQGHVWXDULHV VRXUFHVRI¿VKDQGSURYLGHHPSOR\PHQW include pollution by wastewaters from IRUFRDVWDOUHVLGHQWVLQWKHDTXDFXOWXUH urban areas, industries and agricultural LQGXVWU\DQGRUQDPHQWDO¿VKHULHV7KH UXQRIIHXWURSKLFDWLRQZKLFKUHVXOWVLQ DYHUDJHDQQXDO¿VKSURGXFWLRQLQWKH R[\JHQGHSOHWLRQDQGGHDWKRIÀRUDDQG 5HNDZDODJRRQ6UL/DQNDLVNJKD1 IDXQDLQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVFOLPDWH The Negombo lagoon has a high change and habitat destruction.4 SURGXFWLYLW\IRU¿VKHULHVSURGXFLQJ NJKD\UDQGLQYROYLQJPRUHWKDQ The construction of the Kapuhenwala IDPLOLHVIURPYLOODJHV2 FDXVHZD\LQWKH5HNDZDODJRRQKDV reduced greatly the volume of water (VWXDULHVRIWHQFDOOHGµWKHQXUVHULHVRI entering and leaving the lagoon. The WKHVHD¶DUHSDUWLFXODUO\LPSRUWDQWDV causeway impedes sea water entering QXUVHU\DUHDVIRU¿VKHULHVEHFDXVHWKH\ the lagoon reducing the production and DUHH[WUHPHO\IHUWLOHGXHWRWKHDEXQGDQFH TXDOLW\RIVKULPSDQG¿VKWKXVDIIHFWLQJ of nutrients brought in from upstream and WKHOLYHOLKRRGVRI¿VKHUPHQ1 tidal sources.3

The most abundant and commercially LPSRUWDQWSUDZQVSHFLHVLQWKH5HNDZD ODJRRQLVWKH:KLWHVKULPS Penaeus indicus).1 Timber and fuelwood Estuaries provide timber resources for 0DMRUWKUHDWVWRODJRRQVDQGHVWXDULHV building houses, making furniture, rafters, include pollution by wastewaters from fences, bridges and boats and fuelwood urban areas, industries and agricultural for populations living in coastal areas.3 UXQRIIHXWURSKLFDWLRQZKLFKUHVXOWVLQ R[\JHQGHSOHWLRQDQGGHDWKRIÀRUDDQG IDXQDLQYDVLYHDOLHQVSHFLHVFOLPDWH change and habitat destruction.4 Supporting services %LRGLYHUVLW\ Organisms found in lagoons and estuaries Invasive alien species that threaten the DUHXQLTXHDVWKH\FDQWROHUDWHERWK ODJRRQVDQGHVWXDULHVRI6UL/DQND freshwater and varying levels of salinity. LQFOXGH3RQGZHHG Najas marina &DWWDLO Typha angustifolia DQG3RQGDSSOH 7KH¿YHODJRRQVRIWKH%XQGDODZHWODQG Annona glabra). LQ6UL/DQNDDUHLPSRUWDQWLQWHUQDWLRQDOO\ as homes to large populations of migratory In New Zealand, invasive species have birds, that visit from regions as far away as displaced commercially important mussel 6LEHULD5HVLGHQWDQGPLJUDWRU\ELUGV EHGVFDXVLQJVLJQL¿FDQWHFRQRPLFORVVHV LQFOXGHWKH*UHDWHUÀDPLQJR to mussel farmers.3 Phoenicopterus ruber WKH6SRWELOOHG SHOLFDQ Pelecanus philippensis), the *OREDOZDUPLQJDQGFOLPDWHFKDQJHZLOO /HVVHUDGMXWDQW Leptoptilos javanicus) UHVXOWLQWKHULVHRIVHDOHYHOV6DOLQLW\LQ DQGWKH%ODFNQHFNHGVWRUN lagoons and estuaries will increase and Xenorhynchus asiaticus). affect species composition, favouring some species while damaging others. Fish species found in the lagoons of (VWXDULHVLQFORVHSUR[LPLW\WRXUEDQ %XQGDOD1DWLRQDO3DUNLQFOXGHWKH areas are affected by land alterations 6KRUW¿QQHG(HO Anguilla bicolor), the VXFKDVLQ¿OOLQJGUHGJLQJFKDQQHOOLQJ 6QDNHKHDGJODVVSHUFKOHW Ambassis and installations of harbor works including gymnocephalus)0LON¿VK Chanos seawalls and groynes.3 chanos DQG0XUUHO Channa striata). 7KH%XQGDODODJRRQVDUHDOVRKRPH WRWKHODUJHVWUHSWLOHVLQ6UL/DQNDWKH 0XJJHUFURFRGLOH Crocodylus palustris), WKHVDOWZDWHUFURFRGLOH C. porosus), WKH,QGLDQ3\WKRQ Python molurus) as well as the Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coreaceae).7

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7UDSSLQJQXWULHQWVDQG¿OWHULQJ Estuaries trap nutrients brought in from The dredging and diversion of rivers decreases pollutants WKHRFHDQLQÀRZLQJULYHUVDQGODQG the volume of water entering lagoons. When These nutrients are dispersed throughout ODJRRQVDUHQRWÀXVKHGSHULRGLFDOO\GHSRVLWHG the estuary by tidal movement, wind and silt and sediment builds up creating an acidic FXUUHQWVDQGWKLVFRQVWDQWPL[LQJRI HQYLURQPHQW6KULPSVUHTXLUHDKDELWDWZLWK nutrients creates a productive habitat for DS+RIDQGDVDQG\EHGIRUJURZWK0RVW ÀRUDDQGIDXQD10 organisms in lagoons are adapted to saline, basic conditions and the increase in acidity is (VWXDU\SODQWVDQGPLFURRUJDQLVPV¿OWHU unsuitable for their growth.1 SROOXWDQWVDQGVHGLPHQWVE\¿OWHUIHHGLQJ activity and break down of heavy particles.4

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Flood regulation Wetlands that fringe many estuaries act 5LVLQJVHDOHYHOVGXHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHFDQ as natural buffers between land and the DOVRÀRRGODJRRQEDQNV7KHORVVRI RFHDQDEVRUELQJÀRRGZDWHUVDQG protective and regulative function of lagoons dissipating storm surges. Estuarine plants and estuaries will leave coastal communities stabilise shorelines preventing soil erosion more vulnerable to natural disasters. DQGÀRRGGDPDJH4 &OLPDWHUHJXODWLRQ Estuaries and lagoons regulate the climate Increased precipitation caused by climate E\WKHLUFDSDFLW\WRVHTXHVWHUFDUERQDQG FKDQJHZLOOLQFUHDVHÀRRGLQJRIODJRRQVDQG their high primary productivity.12 estuaries and reduce their protective and regulatory functions. Cultural services

Tourism Estuaries and lagoons are important 7RXULVWDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVLUUHVSRQVLEOHWUDVK tourist attractions for recreational activities. GLVSRVDOLQWURGXFWLRQRIH[RWLFVSHFLHVRYHU 3RSXODUWRXULVWGHVWLQDWLRQDVVRFLDWHGZLWK visitation and disturbance of wildlife, pollution ODJRRQVDQGHVWXDULHVLQFOXGHWKH%XQGDOD IURPMHWVNLVDQGERDWVWKUHDWHQODJRRQV 1DWLRQDO3DUNWKH+RRJKO\5LYHU(VWXDU\ and estuaries. in India13DQGWKH0HJKQD5LYHU(VWXDU\ LQ%DQJODGHVK14

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The IUCN Asia region covers 23 countries, stretching from Pakistan in the West to Japan in the East, Indonesia in the Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia

South to Mongolia in the North. IUCN maintains offices in IUCN Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri 4/1 Adams Avenue Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. The Asia Regional Office is in Colombo 4 Sri Lanka Bangkok, Thailand. Phone: + 94 11 2559634 Fax: +94 11- 2559637 IUCN’s seven regional thematic programmes, known collectively E-mail: [email protected] http://data.iucn.org/places/asia/coastalinfo/ as the Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group (ELG), are based in two clusters: one in Colombo, Sri Lanka (environmental © 2008 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of economics, marine and coastal, species conservation), and Nature and Natural Resources one in Bangkok, Thailand (environmental law, forests, protected Opinions expressed in this paper do not necessarily areas, wetlands and water resources). reflect the official views of IUCN or its members.