Notes and References

Introduction

1. See Martin Kolinsky, Law, Order and Riots in 1928-1935 (London: Macmillan, 1993) and David E. Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control: The Royal 1919-1939 (Manchester UP, 1990). 2. Martin Kolinsky, 'The Collapse and Restoration of Public Security', in Michael J. Cohen and Martin Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s: Security Problems, 1935-1939 (London: Macmillan, 1992). 3. Memorandum by Secretary of State for the Colonies, 'Palestine. Arab Grievances', 10 January 1936, CP 3 (36), CAB 24/259, Public Record Office (PRO), Kew Gardens, London. 4. Michael J. Cohen, 'TIle -Palestine Nexus: 1935-1939', Bar-llan Studies in History 111, ed. by Michael J. Cohen (Ramat Gan, : Bar-Han University Press, 1992), pp. 67-79. 5. See file on Development of Haifa Port, 1942 in FO 921/11, PRO. 6. See Chapter 10. 7. See Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War vol. III: The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), pp. 373-9: the prime minister's disagreement with a paper by Sir , dated 6 May 1941, which advocated abandon• ing Egypt to reinforce the defences of the UK and of Singapore. 8. Quoted in John Connell, Wavell, Scholar and Soldier: To June 1941 (London: Collins, 1964), p. 232. Wavell noted that oil had to be shipped to its destina• tion; that tankers, supply ships and convoys had to be protected by air and sea power; and that in turn the deployment of those forces depended on oil. 9. Peter R. Odell, Oil and World Power (Penguin, 1979), 5th ed, pp. 73-4. 10. Ibid., p. 83. 11. Ibid.; Fiona Venn, Oil Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London: 1986), pp. 92,95. Yusif A. Sayigh, The Arab Economy (Oxford UP, 1982), stated (p. 49) that in 1946 Iraq, Kuwait and together received a total revenue for their oil exports of only 20 million dollars. 12. 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', report by COS Cttee, 5 December 1939 W.P. (39) 148 (Also paper no. COS (39) 146), CAB 66/3, ff. 338-9. 13. 'Military Policy in the Middle East', 15 January 1940, W.M. 14 (40), CAB 65/5. The war cabinet approved the COS recommendations in principle. 14. Brock Millman, 'Toward War with Russia: British Naval and Air Planning for Conflict in the Near East, 1939-40', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 29 (1994), pp. 261-83. 15. Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 339. 16. F. W. Deakin, The Brutal Friendship: Mussolini, Hitler, and the Fall of (Penguin, 1962), pp. 41,109,183,203; Venn, Oil Diplomacy, p. 85. 17. Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World atAnns (Cambridge UP, 1994), p. 199. 18. Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939-1941 (London: Heinemann, 1983), p. 358; Robert Rhodes James, (London:

220 Notes and References 221

Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986), pp. 217-18. 19. Sir Llewellyn Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, vol. 1 (London: HMSO, 1970), p. 497. 20. Ambassador Schulenburg report to German Foreign Office, 26 November 1940, reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and in World Politics: A Documentary Record, vol. II, 2nd edn revd and enlarged (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1979), p. 561; see also Weinberg, A World At Arms, pp. 199-205. 21. Documents on German Foreign Policy, (DGFP) Series D, vol. IX, doc. no. 523, 22 ; see also doc. no. 479, which is a record of part of a conversation between Mussolini and Hitler on 18 June 1940. 22. In a conversation with Goering on 23 October 1942, he admitted that he had failed to raise the issue at the time. See Deakin, The Brutal Friendship, pp.81-2. 23. 'Axis Naval Policy and Operations in the Mediterranean, 1939-May 1943' by Vice Admiral Eberhard Weichold, pp. 4-5, ADM 199/2518. 24. Fuehrer Conferences on Naval Affairs, Brassey's Naval Annual 1948, p. 134; ADM 199/2518, p.15. 25. Fuehrer Conferences, p. 142. The German Naval Staffs 'Evaluation of the Mediterranean Situation', dated 14 November 1940, stressed the importance of dominating the Eastern as well as the Western Mediterranean for the outcome of the war: Ibid" pp. 154-5. 26. Directive no. 18 of 12 November 1940, doc. no. 323, DGFP, series D, vol. XI; Directive no. 21 'Barbarossa' of 18 December 1940 made the decisive commit• ment, but stated that: 'The main employment of the Navy remains, even during an Eastern campaign, clearly directed against England.' Fuehrer Conferences, p.159. In directives issued some eight months later, he indicated that it was only after the defeat of the Soviet Union that the shift in resources from the army to enhance the size of the navy could take place. 27. DGFP, vol. XI, p. 528. 28. Ibid., p. 530. 29. In May 1943, he told Grand Admiral Doenitz that 'we are not capable of an operation of this kind since it would require first class divisions. Occupation of without the consent of the Spaniards is out of the question, since they ... would carry on guerrilla warfare in our rear.' Fuehrer Conferences, p. 329. 30. N. H. Gibbs, Grand Strategy, vol. I: Rearmament Policy [History of the Second World War) (London: HMSO, 1976), p. 809; Keith Feiling, The Life of (London: Macmillan, 1946), p. 314; Michael Howard, The Continental Commitment: the dilemma of British defence policy in the era of the two world wars (London: Temple Smith, 1972), pp. 114-16. See also R. A. C. Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1993). 31. Charles Loch Mowat, Britain Between the Wars 1918-1940 (London: Methuen, 1955), p. 593. See also Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement, pp. 4-5, 9. For an account of the influence of Sir Maurice Hankey, secretary of the Cabinet, on Chamberlain's policy towards , see Lawrence R. Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez: Britain's Mediterranean Crisis, 193~1939 (Cambridge UP, 1975), pp. 94-7; see also Christopher Seton-Watson, 'The Anglo-Italian Gentleman's Agreement of January 1937 and its Aftermath', in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Lothar Kettenacker (eds), The Fascist Challenge and the Policy ofAppeasement (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983), p. 276, who mentions that Sir Joseph Ball, a 222 Notes and References

prominent member of the ConselVative Party headquarters, had links with Dino Grandi, the Italian Ambassador in London. 32. Harold Macmillan, Winds of Change, 1914-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 483. 33. Mowat, Britain Between the Wars, pp. 620-1. 34. Robert Boothby wrote to Churchill on 9 , reporting on the situation in the House of Commons on that historic day. Churchill's active supporters were led by Amery and included Boothby, Winterton, Hore-Belisha, Hammersley, Law, Macmillan, Tree, Nicolson, King-Hall and six others. One of them, Clement Davies, a leading Liberal, kept in contact with the Labour leaders Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood. See Churchill private papers, CHAR 2/392B, f. 146, Churchill College Archives, Cambridge University. Printed in full in Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour, pp. 302-3. 35. Chatfield had previously selVed as Chief of Naval Staff from 1933 to November 1938. He was succeeded by Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse until his illness in March 1939, and then by Admiral Sir , who selVed until his death in October 1943. The Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, then became Chief of Naval Staff. 36. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. II: Their Finest Hour (London: Cassell, 1949), p. 16. 37. See Eden diary entries for 19 June 1941 and 6 February 1942, AP 20/1/21 and AP 20/1/22, respectively, Avon Papers, University of Birmingham; see also The War Diaries of Oliver Har.ey 1941-1945, ed. John HalVey (London: Collins, 1978), p. 15. 38. He worked through Major-General H. L. Ismay, who as Churchill's represen• tative, became a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee in May 1940. Ismay was also Deputy-Secretary (Military) to the war cabinet. See The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking Press, 1960). 39. Eden's memorandum, The Case Against Partiton', 15 September 1944, P(M) (44) 11, CAB 95/14. 40. See Michael J. Cohen, Palestine: Retreat from the Mandate (London: Paul Elek, 1978), pp. 46-9. 41. See Nicholas Bethell, The Palestine Triangle (London: Futura, 1980), p. 68. 42. See Chapter 10 for a discussion of his telegram of 9 November 1942 to the Colonial Secretary and minister of state, , FO 921110. See also J. C. Hurewitz, The Stmggle for Palestine (New York, Greenwood, 1968; originally published 1950), pp. 141-2. 43. See Cohen, Retreat, pp. 174-5; Bethell, Palestine Triangle, pp. 162-3. 44. Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel (Bloomington/London: Indiana UP, 1973; originally published 1965), p. 258. 45. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 311-14; and Churchill, extract from Hansard, 9 July 1941, CAB 95/8. See also Gilbert, Finest Hour, pp. 110 1-2, 1125-7 regarding Churchill's reaction to Harriman's telegram of 3 July 1941 on shortcomings in salvaging tanks and overhauling American aircraft engines, and so on. General Sir , who had been GOC Palestine 1938-9, and Vice Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1940-1, was sent to the Middle East as 'Intendant-General' at the beginning of June to coordinate the three selVices and the representatives of the relevant Whitehall departments in the Middle East such as Ministry of War Transport, as well as with Egyptian Government. Haining was responsible to Secretary of State for War. However, the position lapsed after some months as most of the problems concerning shipping, Notes and References 223

transport, military repairs and co-ordination with the Americans were handled by the three services without requiring Haining's overall direction. See Connell, Wavell, p. 431. 46. George Kirk, The Middle East in the War, Survey of International Affairs 1939-1946 (Oxford UP, 1952), p. 22. 47. Ibid.

2 British Strategic Policy, 1936-8

1. Two Italian divisions were sent to in September 1935, and construction of a coastal road to the Egyptian border was started. See Michael J. Cohen, 'British Strategy in the Middle East in the Wake of the Abyssinian Crisis, 1936-39', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s, p. 22. Moreover, the lack of air defences made Cairo and seem partic• ularly vulnerable to Libyan-based bombers of the Regia Aeronautica. Seven hundred aircraft were sent to Libya at that time, according to a report of the British naval attache in , 29 October 1935, FO 371/19158, cited by Meir Michaelis, 'Italy's Mediterranean Strategy, 1935-1939', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East, p. 49. 2. A film celebrating the Italian victory was sent to Egypt in 1937. Ciano's Diary 1937-1938 (London: Methuen, 1952), (trans), p. 39, recorded Mussolini's anger at the stupidity of his Ministry of Popular Culture. 3. See Michaelis, 'Italy's Mediterranean Strategy, 1935-1939'. 4. Martin Kolinsky, Law, Order and Riots in Mandatory Palestine, 1928-35, pp. 209-14; George W. Bauer, Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia and the League of Nations (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1976). 5. See Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939, (DBFP) 2nd series, vol. XV, nos 336, 337, 338. 6. 'The Naval Strategical Position in the Mediterranean', DPR 3/9/35, AIR 8/188; see also Lawrence Pratt, 'The Strategic Context: British Policy in the Mediterranean and the Middle East, 1936-1939', in Uriel Dann, The Great Powers in the Middle East 1919-1939 (New York/London: Holmes & Meier, 1988), pp. 14-15. 7. CID, Defence Policy and Requirements sub-committee (DPR (DR) 9, 12 February 1936, c.P. 26 (36), Cab 24/259, f. 276. 8. CP 105(36), cm 1224-B (also paper no. COS 452), 'Staff Conversations with the Locarno Powers', Memorandum by the COS sub-committee, 1 April 1936, Cab 24/261, f. 383. 9. See Robert Frankenstein, 'The Decline of and French Appeasement Policies, 1936-9' in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Lothar Kettenacker (eds), The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 236-45; Christopher Seton-Watson, 'The Anglo-Italian Gentleman's Agreement of January 1937 and its Aftermath', in ibid., p. 268. 10. 'Possible Italian Designs on Arabia as a Result of Italy's Success in Abyssinia' CP 135 (36) Memorandum by Eden, 9 May 1936, Cab 24/262, ff. 131-2. Eden also noted that Ibn Saud had 'recently concluded what is virtually a defensive alliance with Iraq' (f. 132). With reference to this treaty, D. Cameron Watt has written: 'The Iraqi government turned for a time to the pan-Arab option, concluding in April 1936 the so-called "Arab Entente" with Saudi Arabia and Yemen. This, however, was largely a pact of gesture, the professed aim ... never getting beyond a formal exchange of words.' 'The Saadabad Pact 224 Notes and References

of 8 July 1937', in Uriel Dann (ed.), The Great Powers in the Middle East 1919-1939, (New YorkILondon: Holmes & Meier, 1988), p. 339. See also Joseph Kostiner, 'Britain and the Challenge of the in Arabia: The Decline of British-Saudi Cooperation in the 1930s', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s, p. 136. 11. Kostiner, 'Britain and the Challenge of the Axis Powers', pp. 138-9. The British suspected that Fuad Hamzah, who had contacts in Rome, was receiv• ing Italian money. After his visit to Rome in August 1938, Italy sent a small military mission to Saudi Arabia, and in July 1939 the two countries signed an arms agreement. See also Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966, trans.), pp. 10, 14. 12. In July 1939, Germany agreed to supply the Saudis with rifles and credit for further purchases of arms, but the outbreak of war prevented delivery. See Kostiner, 'Britain and the Challenge of the Axis Powers', pp. 139-40, and Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 54-9. 13. 'Problems Facing HMG in the Mediterranean as a Result of the Italo-League Dispute', 11 June 1936, CP 165 (36), Cab 24/262. 14. Callum A. MacDonald, 'Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures 1934-38', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 13, no. 2 (May 1977); Claudio G. Segre, 'Liberal and Fascist Italy in the Middle East, 1919-1939', in Uriel Dann (ed.), Great Powers in the Middle East, pp. 207, 211 n.41; Lawrence R. Pratt, East of Malta, p. 126: the BBC service started in . 15. See Laila Morsy, 'Military Clauses of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, 1936', International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 16 (1984), p. 84. It should be noted that although the sanctions did not curtail Mussolini's aggressive behav• iour, they did contribute to the serious deterioration of the Italian economy. See Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 111-12. 16. The introduction of conscription in Germany, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, was announced in March 1935. 17. On 6 March 1936 Mussolini decided in principle that Italy would withdraw from the League of Nations and would align itself with Germany. At the end of the month, an agreement was reached between the heads of the Italian and German secret police to co-operate against Communism and Freemasonry. See Esmonde M. Robertson, Mussolini as Empire-Builder (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 204, and Michaelis, 'Italy's Mediterranean Strategy', pp.50-I. 18. Britain, France and Italy met at Stresa in April 1935 to form a common front against Germany in response to Hitler's introduction of conscription the previ• ous month. But towards the end of May Mussolini stated that he would not accept protests from Britain and France about his future actions in . He also made it clear that the maintenance of Austrian independence was the key to friendly Italian-German relations. 19. See Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 55-60. 20. cm, DP (P) 18, (Also paper no. COS 691) Mediterranean, Middle East and North-East Africa Appreciation by COS (Chatfield, Newall, Gort) 21 February, 1938, p. 62, CAB 16/182. 21. Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 52-4. 22. cm, DP (P) 18, Mediterranean Appreciation 21 February 1938, CAB 16/182, p. 71. Pratt, 'The Strategic Context', p. 20: 'the now took up ... the idea first advocated by Basil Liddell Hart, the leading publicist in the campaign against a continental role for the army, of a strategic imperial reserve based in Notes and References 225

the Middle East, and the first land reinforcements left England for Egypt in the spring of 1938.' 23. CP 316 (37), 'Defence Expenditure in Future Years', 15 , p. 7, Cab 161182. See also CP 24 (38), 'Further Report on Defence Expenditure in Future Years', 8 February 1938, p. 11, ibid. 24. Gibbs, Grand Strategy, vol. I, pp. 647-8, 800; Robert J. Young, In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military Planning 1933-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1978), pp. 212-13. 25. See DBFP, 2nd series, vol. XV, nos 287, 298, 319, 339, 342, 360, 368, 369, 409, 413.; Cmd. 5072, 1936; Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 36-8. 26. The Montreux Convention of July 1936 revised the clauses of the 1923 Lausanne convention on the Straits, allowing Turkish sovereignty to be reasserted over the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. See J. C. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, vol. II, pp. 480-6; DBFP, second series, vol. XVI, ch. VI; Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 141-4; Watt, 'The Saadabad Pact', pp. 340-1. 27. The Anglo-Turkish Guarantee Agreement and the Armaments Credit Agreement were signed on 27 May 1938. See Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 146-7. 28. Ibid., pp. 138-40, 145-50. 29. Documents Diplomatiques Franfais (DDF) (2e serie), tome IX (21 mars-9 juin 1938), doc. no. 509: Corbin to Georges Bonnet, minister of foreign affairs. 2 June 1938. He also noted that Britain and Canada had sold some military aircraft to in 1937 and 1938, and that an RAF officer had been sent to Turkey to train civilian pilots and to advise on the organization of civil avia• tion. 30. DDF (2e serie) tome IX (21 mars-9 juin 1938) doc. no. 67: French military attache at Ankara to M. Daladier, minister of national defence, despatch 28 mars 1938. He expected Turkey to be neutral if war broke out because its two commitments were to the Balkan and Saadabad pacts. But, he emphasized, only the former had a military dimension, and it was very limited. It would come into force only if Bulgaria attacked one of the other Balkan pact members: Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece. Of more importance was the close• ness of German commercial, cultural and military relations with Turkey, yet Turkish leaders and press were disquieted by the Anschluss, which seemed to portend a Drang nach Osten. In his view, England's influence in Turkey had grown steadily since the Abyssinian crisis; but during that time Turkish rela• tions with France were poisoned by the Hatay question. 31. DDF (2e serie), tome IX, doc. no. 500: Compte rendu of weekly interminister• ial meeting (representatives of the armed services and of foreign ministry) of 1 June 1938 presided over by M. Rene Massigli, director of political affairs. 32. On 18 July 1936, two weeks after the vote to lift sanctions against Italy, General Franco led the Spanish army in revolt against the Republic and the civil war began. 33. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 508-9, 522-7; see also Seton-Watson, 'The anglo-Italian Gentleman's Agreement', pp. 273-80. 34. Paul Stafford, 'The Chamberlain-Halifax Visit to Rome: a reappraisal', English Historical Review, vol. 97, no. 386 (January 1983), pp. 64-5. 35. Elizabeth Monroe, The Mediterranean in Politics (Oxford UP, 1938), p. 241; Ciano's Diary 1937-1938 (London: Methuen, 1952), pp. 76, 79, 87, 106; and Ciano's Diary 1939-1943, ed. Malcolm Muggeridge (London: Heinemann, 1947, trans.), pp. 48-9. 36. Ciano's Diary, 1937-1938, p. 195. 37. Ibid., pp. 191,200-2; Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 528-31. 226 Notes and References

38. See Howard, The Continental Commitment, pp. 101-2, pp. 117-19. 39. DPR 23/9/35, AIR 8/188. See also Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 202-11. The same reluctance appeared again in December 1935, see Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, 2nd series, vol. XV, nos 331, 361. Vansittart's comment on French air resources was: 'the cupboard is remarkably bare', p.459. 40. Documents Diplomatiques Fran~ais (DDF), 1er serie, tome XII (21 aout- 15 octobre 1935), doc. no. 324, 30ctobre 1935. 4l. Ibid., doc. no. 466, 15 octobre 1935. See also docs nos 132 and 326. 42. Ibid., docs nos 255, 277, 307, and 324. On their side, British officials saw the French as unreliable. See Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, 2nd series, vol. XV (3 October, 1935-29 February, 1936), see nos 27, 43, 81, 98, 115. Regarding the first document, dated 5 October 1935, Sir Robert Vansittart, the permanent under secretary to the Foreign Office, considered that Laval's intention was 'to leave a loophole for French inaction if we got into trouble'. 43. Robertson, Mussolini, p. 150. 44. The French saw the Anglo-German naval agreement as an act of appeasement endorsing German violations of the Treaty of Versailles. See DDF, ler serie, tome XI (1 juin-20 aout 1935, documents 83 and 181, 17 and 24 juin 1935. They were concerned that it would enable the Germans to exceed the size of the naval forces permitted in the treaty of Versailles by a factor of four. This would necessitate a corresponding (very costly) increase in the size of the French navy. 45. DDF, 1er serie, tome XI, doc. no. 179,29 juin 1935 Gamelin-Badoglio prod:s• verbale; see also Robertson, Mussolini, pp. 150, 163-4. 46. cm DP(P) 18 Mediterranean Appreciation by COS, 21 February 1938, p. 48, CAB 16/182. 47. Ibid., p. 54. The force was specified as five battalions of infantry (3270 rifles); six squadrons of cavalry (1300 sabres); 3 companies of tanks (36 tanks); seven batteries of artillery; and some of the 50 aircraft the French had in the region. 48. Martin Kolinsky, 'The Collapse and Restoration of Public Security', p. 155. 49. 'Staff Conversations with France and ', 8 April 1938, DP(P) 24, p. 4, CAB 16/183A. 50. Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 472, 625. 51. Minutes of 309th meeting, 10 February 1938, p. 9, CAB 2/7. 52. cm DP(P) 32 (also paper no. COS 765), 'Appreciation of the Situation in the Event of War with Germany', 4 October 1938, p. 5, CAB 16/183A. The paper was signed by Newall, Gort, and Roger Backhouse. 53. For a biting comment on the government's approach, see (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, vol. I: 1933-1940 (London: Leo Cooper, 1972), pp. 129, 164, and 169, entries for 13 January, 3 October and 7 November 1938 (hereinafter Pownall Diaries). 54. DP(P) 24 'Staff Conversations with France and Belgium', p. 5. 55. cm minutes of 319th meeting, 11 April 1938, p. 11; CID conclusions were approved at the cabinet meeting on 13 April 1938, CAB 2/7. See also Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 627, 635. 56. Viscount Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey (London: Hutchinson, 1951), p. 195: when as C-in-C Mediterranean he wanted to study the war plans in September 1938, 'I found they consisted of no more than plans for the dispatch of the fleet to the Far East.' 57. CAB 2/7. See also DDF, 2e serie, tome IX (21 mars-9 juin 1938), docs nos 237 Notes and References 227

(25 avril), 258 (29 avril) - minutes and final communique of the Franco-British conversations of 28/29 April- and docs 278 (4 mai), 290 (6 mai). See also CP 269 (38), Record of the Anglo-French Conversations, 24 November 1938, CAB 24/280. On intelligence errors concerning the possibility of a knock-out blow from the air, see F. H. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. I (London: HMSO, 1979), pp. 78-80, 110,299-302,308-9. 58. DP(P) 27 Staff Conversations, 28-9 April, 1938, p. 8, CAB 16/183A. 59. Discussion of CID paper no. 1432 B, 'German-Czech Relations: Review of Plans for an Emergency', cm minutes, 326th meeting, 2 June 1938, CAB 2/7. For the French Ambassador's view, see the despatch of M. Andre-Charles Corbin in London to M. Georges Bonnet, minister of foreign affairs, doc. 509 (1 juin 1938), DDF (2e serie), tome IX. 60. 348th cm meeting, 24 February 1939, CAB 2/8; Gibbs, Grand Strategy, p. 422. 61. Cab 56 (38), 22 November 1938, f. 252, CAB 23/96. 62. CP 269 (38), Record of the Anglo-French Conversations, 24 November 1938, f. 270, CAB 24/280. 63. See Howard, The Continental Commitment, pp. 126-8; Antony Adamthwaite, France and the Coming of the Second World War (London: Frank Cass, 1977), pp.250-3. 64. Cab 16 (39), 30 March 1939, f. 162, CAB 23/98. The Secretary of State for War had informed the cabinet on 18 March that 'Germany had just seized in the complete equipment of 38 infantry and 8 mobile divisions': Cab 12 (39), f. 59. 65. The rumours were first discussed in cabinet on 18 January 1939, Cab 1 (39), f. 12, CAB 23/97. They were considered in the following week by the Foreign Policy Committee and the COS, and discussed again in cabinet on 25 January, Cab 2 (39), ff. 56-64. See also Hinsley et aI., British Intelligence, pp. 82-3; Donald Cameron Watt, Too Serious A Business: European Armed Forces and the Approach to the Second World War (London: Temple Smith, 1975), p. 128. 66. Cab 3 (39), f. 1l0, CAB 23/97. See also Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 653-6; Young, In Command of France, pp. 213-25. 67. 'The Situation in Egypt', Memorandum by the Foreign Secretary, 10 January 1936, CP 6 (36), CAB 24/259. 68. 'The Military Aspects of an Anglo-Egyptian Treaty', enclosure to COS paper no. 430 (Cm 1212-B) in CP 25 (36),7 February 1936, f. 269, CAB 24/259. See also Morsy, 'Military Clauses', p. 75. 69. Ibid., ff. 269-70. 70. As private secretary to Makram Obeid Pasha, the Wafdist finance minister, Osman Pasha had been involved in the treaty talks which ended in failure in 1930. More than a decade later, in 1943, Osman became minister of finance in succession to Makram, when the latter broke with Nahas. In 1946, Osman was assassinated. 71. 'Anglo-Egyptian Treaty Conversations', CP 131 (36),8 May 1936, CAB 24/262. 72. 'Anglo-Egyptian Treaty Negotiations', Memorandum, 8 June 1936, CP 156 (36), CAB 24/262. 73. Cmd. 5360, Treaty series no. 6 (1937); a summary is given in appendix V, DBFP, 2nd series, vol. XVI. See also M. E. Yapp (ed.), Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt: The Diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935-1937 (British Academy/Oxford UP, 1997), pp. 25-30, and Appendix 3. 74. See Gamal Abdul Nasser, Philosophy of the Revolution (Buffalo, N.Y.: Smith, Keynes & Marshall, 1959); Anwar el-Sadat, Rel'Olt 011 the Nile (London: Allan 228 Notes and References

Wingate, 1957); el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978); and P. J. Vatikiotis, Nasser and his Generation (London: Croom Helm, 1978). 75. MEC, Killearn Diary, 1936, p. 229.

3 Political Uncertainties in Egypt during the

1. Cited in Elie Kedourie, Politics in the Middle East p. 167. 2. Killearn Diary, 14 April 1934, p. 79. 3. Before Egypt, Lampson's diplomatic experience was mainly in the Far East. He selVed in Tokyo (1908-10), Peking (1916), Siberia (1920), and as minister to China 1926-33. The final phase of his career, from 1946 to 1948, was as Special Commissioner in South-East Asia. 4. See Lord Strang, The Foreign Office (Allen & Unwin, 1955), pp. 112-14. Smart selVed as Oriental Secretary, then Counsellor, in Cairo from 1926 to 1945. 5. See Lampson to C. J. Norton, 4 January 1940, enclosed seven-page memoran• dum by Napier on the Press activities in the embassy, FO 371/24619, 1159, f. 418. See also Lampson to FO 13 July 1940, ibid., 11675 f. 226, and Cairo to Ministry of Information, 2 May 1941 (encloses copy of a report of the public• ity section of embassy, covering period September 1939 to ): Publicity Section of British embassy, dated 7 March 1941, J 1541, FO 371/27443 (Propaganda in Egypt and ME). 6. See the undated memoirs of Brigadier R. J. Maunsell, head of Security Intelligence Middle East (SIME) 1939-44, for comments on the workings of the European Department of the Egyptian ministry of the interior, pp. 2, 4, 5. Department of Documents, Imperial War Museum. 7. Artemis Cooper, Cairo in the War, 1939-1945 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1989), p. 33. 8. See P. J. Vatikioitis, The from Muhammad Ali to Sadat (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2nd edn, 1980), p. 277 and ch. 15. Vatikiotis obselVed (p. 272): '[The) ... latent conflict between party politicians and the palace had been endemic to Egyptian political life ever since the first attempts by notables in the legislative assemblies of the period 1876-1913 to curb the power of the Khedives.' 9. Kedourie, Politics in the Middle East, p. 177; Vatikiotis, Histol)', pp. 273-6; M. E. Yapp, The Near East Since the First World War (London: Longman, 1991), pp.52-3. 10. See Vatikiotis, History, pp. 277-89; Kedourie, Politics in the Middle East, pp. 183-4; Yapp, The Near East, pp. 52-7; Peter Mansfield, A History of the Middle East (Penguin, 1992), pp. 188-91. 11. Referring to Farouk's 'nocturnal jaunts' with Italian companions, and the re• engagement of Verucci as palace architect, Lampson wrote 'this Italian band in the Palace ... must almost certainly be utilised by the Italian Legation and propaganda agencies as sources of information and means of suggestion.' Lampson to Halifax, 3 February 1939, FO 371/23304, J567, f. 164. See also Barrie St Clair McBride, Farouk of Egypt (London: Robert Hale, 1967), pp. 100--1. 12. Yapp, The Near East, p. 55. 13. See Kedourie, Politics in the Middle East, pp. 181-2. 14. Yapp, The Near East, pp. 55-6. 15. Alaa ai-Din AI-Hadidy, 'Mustafa AI-Nahhas and political leadership', in Charles Tripp (ed.), Contemporary Egypt: Through Egyptian Eyes (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 73-8. Notes and References 229

16. Killearn Diary, 28 January 1935, pp. 29-30. 17. Ibid., 16 and 18 April 1935, pp. 92-5. 18. Ibid., 25 April 1935, p. 101. 19. Ibid., 14 May 1938, p. 90. A tutor with the impeccable academic background of Eton and Oxford was sent from England to educate the king, but Farouk shunned and ignored him. 20. 'Political Review - April 1939', prepared by the Foreign Office, Appendix I, pp. 6-7, cm DP(P) 44 (also paper no. COS 843) European Appreciation 1939-40,20 February 1939, CAB 16/183A. 21. 'He [Farouk] was much affected by Italy's seizure of , the land from which the present with some pride claims to originate, and this event has certainly indisposed him against Italy.' Lampson to FO, 12 May 1939 (Review of political situation in Egypt during the last four months), f. 210, J2047, FO 371/23305. 22. Halifax to Hore-Belisha, 12 May 1939, Jl850/12/16, FO 371/23330: 'A collapse in the Egyptian morale would leave them [the troops] "in the air" and would in fact make our whole position impossible. The general prevalance before hostilities of lack of confidence in our power of affording protection, if followed by really serious air attacks ... might well lead to such a collapse, and it is this facet of Lampson's repeated representations which continues to cause me anxiety ... .' 23. Minute by FO official, 23 August 1939, on memorandum by HM Charge d'Affaires to GOC in C Egypt, 5 August 1939, J3186/21/16, FO 371/23334: 'This report shows that a law we got passed in December 1937 for the regis• tration of arms by foreigners has remained a dead letter. Russell Pasha, the police commander, told me the other day he thought most of the foreign men had weapons. Lord Hankey visited me yesterday to express his ... fears about the Italian personnel in the Zone (nearly 500) ... Sir Miles Lampson advised me also to remind the Embassy of the need for complete readiness with the plans for rounding up enemy aliens etc., which were origin• ally drafted in 1935.' 24. See minute by D. V. Kelly, 27 June 1939, J2430/21/16, FO 371/23331. Lampson to FO 16 June 1939: Lampson expressed disagreement with the GOC in C, BTE, who stated that the Indian Brigade would not be required if the Middle East Reserve Brigade was sent to Egypt from Palestine at the outset of war. Ibid., J2374/21/16. 25. WO to GOC in C Egypt, 11 July 1939 informing him that the Middle East Reserve Brigade was to be sent from Palestine to Egypt not later than 20 July, J2737/21/16, FO 371/23333. The decision to send Force Heron from India was made in the same month, and Lampson reported on the delight of the Egyptian prime minister: Lampson to FO 22 July 1939, J2889!21/16. 26. See Paul Harris, 'Egypt: Defence Plans', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East. 27. cm DP(P) 18 (Also paper no. COS 691) Mediterranean, Middle East and North-East Africa Appreciation by COS (Chatfield, Newall, Gort) 21 February, 1938, CAB 16/182. 28. CID minutes of 315th meeting, 25 March 1938, discussion of the situation in the Mediterranean, Middle East and North Africa, CAB 2/7. Notwithstanding Hitler's coup in Austria, it was decided to proceed 'with the despatch of the additional army and air forces to Palestine and Egypt in accord with the Cabinet decision of 7th February 1938.' 230 Notes and References

The possibility of an overland route from Mombassa to Egypt for reinforce• ments was to be considered by the Middle East (Official) subcommittee, as were measures (mainly financial subsidies) to influence minor powers and Arab states. See also memorandum by D. V. Kelly, 2 March 1939, Jl414/G, FO 371123328. 29. 'Egyptian Defence Questions' Report by COS (Newall, Gort, Backhouse) 15 March 1939, J1196/G, FO 371123327. 30. In the summer of 1938, the Foreign Office reached agreement with the Egyptian government: the latter would undertake to provide the facilities at Alexandria in exchange for reductions in the financial obligations of the 1936 treaty. See Pratt, East of Malta, pp. 120-2. 31. cm, minutes of 307th meeting, 20 January 1938, p. 10 CAB 2/7. 32. Harris, 'Egypt: Defence Plans', pp. 70-73; Cohen, 'British Strategy', p. 33. 33. 348th CID meeting, 24 February 1939, discussion of Defence Plans: European Appreciation, 1939-40 (Cm paper no. DP(P) 44), CAB 2/8. Lord Chatfield stated that 'It would be better to suffer losses in the Mediterranean and Middle East than to allow the Japanese to gain undisputed control of sea communica• tions in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific.' He added that combination of Britain's 12 capital ships and France's 7 outweighed the German/Italy combin• ation by 19-6; so that 9 capital ships could be sent to the Far East. See also, ibid., 355th CID meeting, 2 May 1939 discussion of the report by the Strategical Appreciation subcommittee on the European Appreciation, 1939-40 (Cm paper no. DP(P) 49). 34. The diminished reliability of the police also gave rise to the idea of creating a civilian defence force under British military direction. It was staffed by ex-offi• cers and ex-NCOs of the Egyptian police force. See minute by P. L. Rose, 4 March 1939, J807, FO 371123326. He wrote: 'the less our emergency arrange• ments are linked to and therefore liable to be hindered by the Egyptian Government the better.' 35. Israel Gershoni, 'The Muslim Brothers and the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936-39', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 22, no. 3 (July 1986), pp. 369-73; James Jankowski, 'Egyptian Responses to the Palestine Problem in the Interwar Period', International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 12, 1980, pp. 1-38, and 'The Government of Egypt and the Palestine Question, 1936-1939', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 17 (1981), pp. 427-53. 36. Gershoni, 'The Muslim Brothers', pp. 385-6; James Jankowski, 'Egyptian Regional Policy in the Wake of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936: Arab Alliance or Islamic Caliphate?' in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Bri(ain and the Middle East, pp. 89-93. 37. Killearn Diary, 5 October 1938, p. 169. 38. Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 88-9; Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel 1917-1948 (BloomingtoniLondon: Indiana University Press, 1973), pp. 177, 190. 39. Killearn Diary, 31 October 1938, p. 186. 40. Lampson to FO, 16 January 1939, 'Review of the Political Situation in Egypt during the last two months', f. 99, J377, FO 371123304. 41. Ibid., f. 98. See also letter from Sir R. Gordon-Finlayson, HQ British Troops in Egypt to Lampson, 3 March 1939, which commented on the dangers to Britain's strategic interests in the Middle East arising from the nationalistic attitudes being inculcated among Egyptian youth. E3416, FO 371/23194. 42. Lampson to Halifax, 24 and 26 April 1939, E3029/6/31 and E3084/6/31, nos 124 and 125, pp. 137-8, FO 406/77. 43. Cab 27 (39), 10 May 1939, f. 166, CAB 23/99. Notes and References 231

44. Pratt, East of Malta, p. 67. 45. Segre, 'Liberal and Fascist Italy in the Middle East', p. 207 and n. 41. 46. Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 86. See also C. A. MacDonald, 'Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures, 1934-1938', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 13 (May 1977), pp. 195-207. 47. Hurewitz, St/Uggle, pp. 86-8; Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 27-9. 48. Hurewitz, St/Uggle, pp. 89-90; Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 29-36. The latter source mentions the visit in July 1937 of the Mufti of Jerusalem to the Reich Consul-General Dohle in Jerusalem, and the activites of the Nazi envoy to , Fritz Grobba. 49. See Lampson's Annual Report for 1939, FO 371/24632, J582/582/16, 22 February 1940. 50. Killearn Diary, 21 December 1938, p. 218. See also the entry for 19 January 1939, p. 16; and Lampson to Halifax, 3 February 1939, FO 371/23304, J567. Lampson suspected that the king had approved of Sidky's statement. 51. Lampson to Halifax, 3 February 1939, f. 166, J567, FO 371/23304.

4 Palestine 1936-8: the Reshaping of British Policy

1. The New Zionist Organization split from the mainstream Zionist Organization in 1935. 2. Jabotinsky's speech on 23 December 1929 was regarded as inflammatory by the high commissioner, Sir John Chancellor. See file '1930 Activities of Jabotinsky', CO 733 186/3,77086. Jabotinsky died in London in 1940. 3. Report of the Palestine Royal Commission, HMSO, 1937, Cmd. 5479, p. 279. 4. Enclosed with letter to Colonial Secretary, 5 March 1932, CO 733/215 9750/9. In the letter, Wauchope also expressed his concern about the 'extreme poverty of the fellaheen'. 5. In making the estimate he took into consideration the problem of Arab unem• ployment. CO 733/257/12 157376, f. 18. 6. File S25/31, Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem. 7. Memorandum of 1 October 1936 by the Colonial Secretary, CP 269 (36), CAB 24/264. 8. 'Control of Immigration into Palestine', CP 46 (38), 24 February 1938, CAB 24/275. The maximum was not to be announced, but was not to exceed 8300 persons. 9. See 'Palestine: The High Commissionership', Memorandum by the Colonial Secretary, CP 232 (37), CAB 24/271. Ormsby-Gore wrote that Wauchope had lost the confidence of both parties to the conflict and of British officials in Palestine. 10. There were 51 700 German-Jewish immigrants to Palestine from 1933 to 1939 out of a total of 204000 authorized immigrants. See Francis R. Nicosia, The Third Reich and the Palestine Question (London: LB. Tauris, 1985), Appendix 7. The figures do not include so-called 'illegal' or clandestine immigrants. 11. See Table XVI, p. 540 in Paul R. Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz (eds) The Jew in the Modem World (OUP, 1980). See also Szymon Rudnicki, 'From "Numerus Clausus" to "Numerus Nullus'" in Antony Polonsky (ed.), From Shtetl to Socialism: Studies from Polin (London/Washington, 1993). 12. See Barbara MacDonald Stewart, U.S. Government Policy on Refugees from Nazism, 1933-40 (New York, London: Garland, 1982); David Wyman. Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis 1938-1941 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), Irving Abella and Harold Troper, None is Too 232 Notes and References

Many: Canada and the of Europe, 1933-1948 (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1983); Michael Blakeney, Australia and the Jewish Refugees 1933-1948 (Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985); Colin Holmes, John Bull's Island (London: Macmillan, 1988). 13. Report of Royal Commission, pp. 280-2. 14. Wauchope despatch to Colonial Secretary, included in Thomas memorandum to cabinet, 'Arab Grievances', CP 3 (36), CAB 24/259; see also despatches from Wauchope to Colonial Secretary, 7 and 21 December, Appendix II-IV. A dunum is a quarter of an acre. 15. cm Summaries for January and February 1935, E1311, FO 371118957. 16. cm Summary 30/10/35, E6729, FO 371118957. 17. Translation of the Arab Memorandum, CP 3 (36) Memorandum of 10 January 1936 by J. H. Thomas, Colonial Secretary, Appendix 1, CAB 24/259. 18. Ibid.; see also despatches from Wauchope to Colonial Secretary, 7 and 21 December, enclosed in Appendices II-IV. 19. The proposals were defeated in the House of Lords on 26 February 1936, and in the House of Commons on 24 March. 20. Ibid. Regarding the restrictions on land sales, Thomas noted that 'legislation to protect owners against themselves is an entire innovation'. The cabinet approved of the measure on the lot viable at its meeting 15 January 1936, CAB 23/83. 21. Ibid.: Appendix III, despatch of 7 December 1935. Wauchope referred to outside events having an impact on the attitudes of Palestinian Arabs: the Abyssinian crisis, and 'recent disturbances in Egypt which have reacted adversely upon Arab public opinion in Palestine', suggesting to them that riotious behaviour would lead to political concessions. 22. Rice memorandum of 14 December, 1935 with covering letter by Wauchope, dated 21 December, appendix IV, ibid. See also the Report of the Royal Commission, p. 87, quoting the Report on the Administration of Palestine for 1935. 23. Qassam, who had escaped from after being involved in the revolt against the French in the 1920s, founded a branch of the Young Men's Muslim Association in Haifa. He preached a violent pan-Islamic creed, and contributed to the radicalization of Arab politics. His gang committed a series of murders in the early 1930s, and resumed activities in November 1935, killing a Jewish policeman 10 days before they were trapped near Jenin. 24. The murders which touched off the violence in April 1936 may have been committed by members of his gang: see Tegart Papers, Box I, file 3c and Box II, file 4, Middle East Centre, St Antony's College, Oxford. The killing of a senior government official, Lewis Andrews, in September 1937, was commit• ted by one of their members. Qassem's example has inspired more recent Islamic extremists, particularly the terrorist wing of the Hamas movement of the 1990s based mainly in Gaza. 25. See H. A. R. Gibb, 'TIle Islamic Congress at Jerusalem in December 1931', in Arnold J. Toynbee (ed.), Survey of International Affairs 1934 (Oxford University Press, 1935); and Barry Rubin, The Arab States and the Palestine Conflict (Syracuse UP, 1981), pp. 42-4. 26. See Elie Kedourie, 'Great Britain and Palestine: The Turning Point', in the Modern World and Other Studies (London: Mansell, 1980), p. 141; Kedourie, The Bludan Congress on Palestine, September 1937', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 17, no. 1 (January 1981), pp. 107-19; J. C. Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 88-9; Rubin, The Arab States, pp. 92-4. Notes and References 233

27. Rubin, The Arab States, p. 101. The impact on Muslims in India was monitored regularly by the British government, see CP 204 (38) Appreciation of the Political Situation by the Government of India, 21 September 1938, CAB 24/279, f. 46; and CP 245 (38) Appreciation of the Political Situation by the Government of India, 24 October 1938, ff. 320-1: 'The Working Committee of the All-India Moslem League met in Karachi in the second week of October. ... As regards Palestine, the Conference urged the British Government to cancel the Balfour Declaration, withdraw the partition scheme, and confer full independence upon Palestine. It uttered a warning that if the present pro-Jewish policy is continued, the Moslems of India will look upon Britain as the enemy of Islam and will "adopt all measures that may be devised by the Cairo conference for the protection and freedom of the Holy Land of Islam. ,,, 28. See Martin Kolinsky, 'Premeditation in the Palestine Disturbances of August 1929?', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 26, no. 1 (January 1990), pp. 18-34; Martin Kolinsky, Law, Order and Riots in Mandatory Palestine, 1928-1935, pp. 164-8; Yehuda Taggar, The MUfti oflemsalem and Palestine Arab Politics, 1930-1937 (New York and London: Garland, 1986), pp. 208-11. He employed similar tactics in the Lebanon and in Iraq, according to 'a very prominent Moslem personality in the Lebanon' who wrote a memorandum, 'Note sur I'activite de I'ex-Mufti de Jerusalem au Liban', March 1938, PREM 1/352, f. 186: 'Au Liban, iI souleve les musulmans contre les chretiens, et les chretiens contre Ies Fran~ais, tandis que, devant les autorites fran~aises, iI proteste de son amitie pour la France. En Iraq, il intrigue et fomente des coups d'Etat, tout en se disant Ie partisan fidele de tout Gouvernement au pouvoir.' 29. See Zvi Elpeleg, The Grand Mufti (London: Frank Cass, 1993), pp. 41-4. See also Tegart Papers, Box I, file 3a regarding the Mufti's contacts with his rela• tive Abd al Qadir al Husayni, who was organizing armed bands in the Jerusalem district. 30. Report by General J. G. Dill, GOC Palestine and Trans-, to WO, 30 October 1936, in CO 733 317/1 75528174, ff. 230, 234; H. J. Simson (Dill's Chief of Staff), British Rule, and Rebellion (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1937), pp. 47-8, 64, 104-5; AIR 5/1244, ch. 24, 'Military Lessons of the Arab Rebellion in Palestine, 1936', General Staff, HQ, British Forces in Palestine and Trans-Jordan, February, 1938. p. 167. 31. See cabinet meeting 9 July 1936, Cab 51 (36), CAB 23/85. See also Michael J. Cohen, 'Sir Arthur Wauchope, the Army and the Rebellion in Palestine, 1936', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 9, no. I (January 1973). 32. CP 238 (36), Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 9 September, 1936, enclosing a letter from the High Commissioner dated 4 September 1936, CO 733 297/5, 162098. 33. Meeting of 10 June 1936, Cab 41 (36), CAB 23/84. 34. Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 'Palestine', CP 178 (36),20 June 1936, CAB 24/263. 35. Cohen, Retreat, p. 19; minutes of cabinet meetings on 9 and 15 July 1936, CAB 23/85. 36. Meeting of 16 July 1936, Cab 52 (36), CAB 23/85. The High Commissioner's telegram to the Colonial Secretary was dated 11 July. 37. Appendix I, despatch of August 22 from High Commissioner to Colonial Secretary, enclosure in the latter's Memorandum on the Palestine Situation, CP 225 (36), CAB 24/263, f. 336. 38. Peirse despatch, 15 October 1936, CO 733 317/1 75528174. 234 Notes and References

39. Meeting of 2 September 1936, Cab 56 (36), CAB 23/85, ff. 200-21: discussion of four documents on Palestine, including exchange of telegrams with High Commission on Nuri Pasha's attempt at mediation CP 227 (36) and 235 (36). See also letter of 2 September 1936 to prime minister Baldwin from John Simon, Home Secretary, who chaired the cabinet meeting, ff. 317-22, PREM 1/352. Simon wrote: 'We were urged to go slow earlier [avoid intense military pressure 1because we had no treaty with Egypt, but now we have got one' (f. 319). 40. 'The Mufti's proclamation arising out of the Nuri conversations has had the worst effect everywhere here': Ormsby-Gore to Wauchope, letter of 1 September 1936, appendix II, f. 228, CAB 23/85. 4l. Letter of 3 September 1936, f. 314, PREM 1/352. Simon chaired the cabinet meeting in the absence of the prime minister. 42. Report of Royal Commission, p. 101. 43. See Kedourie, Turning Point', pp. 107-9. 44. See Dill telegram of 26 October which was reported to cabinet meeting of 28 October 1936, Cab 60 (36), f. 13, CAB 23/86. 45. Arab Higher Committee's statement of 7 November 1936 cited in Report of Royal Commission, pp. 102-3. 46. Letter of 12 January 1937 to Colonial Secretary, annex to Memorandum on 'Palestine Situation' CP 30 (37), f. 159, CAB 24/267. 47. Memorandum on 'Palestine. The Land Question', 20 June 1930, PREM 1/102, f.227. 48. Annex IV to Memorandum on 'Palestine Situation', CP 30 (37), CAB 24/267. 49. For Coupland's discussion of partition with the Zionist leader, Chaim Weizmann, see Norman Rose, Chaim Weizmann, a Biography (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986), pp. 319-20. 50. Report of the Royal Commission, pp. 381, 385. 51. Cab 30 (37), ff. 11-12, CAB 23/89. The cabinet decided that the matter of a continuining British military presence in Haifa was not to be discussed when the report of the Royal Commission came before the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations. Some members of the Cabinet also had their eyes on a land-link in the south between Egypt and Trans-Jordan. See Cohen, Retreat, p. 6 and his article 'The Egypt-Palestine Nexus', p. 69. 52. Statement of Policy of July 1937, Cmd. 5513. The 98th session of the Council of the League of Nations endorsed the position of the British government, and advocated that the latter should investigate the question of partition in detail. 53. See Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 77-8, and Cohen, Retreat, pp. 34--8. Opinion was sharply divided at the Zionist Congress in August 1937, which accepted parti• tion in principle but not the proposed boundaries. 54. The leaders of the Christians of Lebanon were also in favour of a Jewish state, see Cohen, Retreat, p. 33 and Rubin, The Arab States, p. 84. 55. Wauchope to Cosmo Parkinson, Colonial Office, 14 July 1937, Annex to CP 193 (37), f. 406, CAB 24/270. See also Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 78-9. 56. CP 174 (37), telegram to CIGS, 29 June 1937, CAB 24/270. 57. See Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 89-93. Ormsby-Gore's memorandum 'Policy in Palestine', CP 269 (37), spoke of 'the comparative failure of the B1udan Conference and the more moderate attitude of the new Iraqi Government ... Ibn Saud, though known to be opposed to partition, has maintained a "correct" attitude in spite of embarrassing pressure.' f. 169, CAB 24/272. 58. General A. P. Wavell, who had taken over as GOC from General J. G. Dill in Notes and References 235

mid-September 1937, was succeeded by General R. H. Haining in April 1938. 59. Ormsby-Gore's memorandum 'Policy in Palestine', 9 November 1937, CP 269 (37), CAB 24/272. 60. Rendel and his wife visited Saudi Arabia as Ibn Saud's official guests in March 1937: The Sword and the Olive (London, 1957), pp. 97, 106ff. See also Kedourie, Turning Point, pp. 160-3. For a critical examination of Rendel's various memoranda concerning Palestine from September 1936 to April 1937, see Kedourie, Turning Point, pp. 114-18. Kedourie's criticism of Rendel's later memoranda is to be found on pp. 129ff. See also Cohen, Retreat, pp. 32, 39-43. 61. CP 281 (37), 19 November 1937, CAB 24/273. The wording of the memoran• dum was that Ibn Saud 'would probably agree ... to abandon his old claims to Akaba and Ma'an, and his new claim to a corridor to Syria'. 62. See the appendix to CP 289 (37), 'Policy in Palestine', 1 December 1937, ff. 104-9, CAB 24/273. For example, Ormsby-Gore pointed out that there was little evidence of inter-Arab co-operation. Kedourie, Turning Point, p. 117, endorsed the point and commented on the Foreign Office contention that 'from a presumed racial unity ... it could not possibly be argued that the Arabs should be treated as one political unit, pursuing a single coherent policy.' 63. CAB 23/90, ff. 247-57. 64. Weizmann letters to Ormsby-Gore, 10 December, 1937 and to Sir John Shuckburgh, Colonial Office, 31 December 1937 in Weizmann Letters, vol. XVIII, pp. 253-6, 281-6; and Weizmann to MacDonald, 8 January 1938, Malcolm MacDonald Papers, Durham University, Dept of Palaeography and Diplomatic. 65. MacDonald interview with Weizmann, 4 July 1938, Minutes by M.M., PREM 11352, ff. 155-61. 66. CP 190 (38), 'Discussions on Palestine', Memorandum by Colonial Secretary, 21 August 1938, ff. 268-9, CAB 24/278, f. 266. 67. Minutes of the meeting, 7 September 1938, PREM 11352, f. 96. 68. Cab 49 (38), in CAB 23/96, ff. 25-6. 69. CP 250 (38) Palestine. Final Draft of the Statement of Policy, Memorandum by Colonial Secretary, 5 November 1938, ff. 28-33, CAB 24/80; published as Cmd. 5893; author's emphasis. 70. Telegram of Colonial Secretary to high commissioner, 14 October 1938, conveying conclusions of a cabinet committee, and despatch from MacMichael to Colonial Secretary, 24 October 1938, WO 32/9618, ff. 22-9. Five military commanders were appointed. 71. See CP 5 (39), 'Palestine, 1938 - Allegations against British Troops', report from General R. M. Haining, GOC Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1 December 1938. 'Hostile Propaganda in Palestine: Its Origins and Progress in 1938', CAB 24/282, ff. 51-4. 72. See Martin Kolinsky, 'The Collapse and Restoration of Public Security' p. 161. 73. 'Mediterranean, Middle East and North-East Africa' Appreciation by the COS, 21 February 1938, CAB 16/182, CID DP(P) 18, CAB 16/182, p. 75. The Appreciation was signed by Admiral Lord Chatfield, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall, and Lt.-General Viscount Gort. 74. Ibid., pp. 1-2. 75. Committee of Imperial Defence (CID) Minutes of 315th meeting, 25 March 1938, CAB 217, p.3. 76. Ibid., p. 4. Turkey was included at the suggestion of the Foreign Office official, then Chief Diplomatic Adviser, Sir Robert Vansittart. 236 Notes and References

77. Ibid., p. 5: Sir John Simon said 'it would be unfortunate to spend £300,000 on the construction of temporary huts to accommodate troops which might be recalled as soon as they got there.' 78. Ibid. The Air Ministry took a similar view. Lord Swinton stated: 'the Air Staff ... still recommended the despatch of additional air forces, but with a some• what reduced scale of reserves.' 79. MacDonald to PM, 7 September 1938, PREM 1/352, f. 84. At the cabinet meeting of 19 October, MacDonald said that the transfer of a brigade from Palestine to Egypt during the Munich crisis, 'had had a bad moral effect'. But at the next meeting, 26 October, he reported that the situation was improving as reinforcements were available, CAB 23/96. 80. Ibid., ff. 89-90, minutes of the meeting enclosed in MacDonald's letter to the PM. 81. Ibid., f. 94.

5 The Policy of Appeasement: the White Paper on Palestine and Jewish Refugees

1. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 307-8. Although not specified, airfields were, in practice, included. 2. See Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 422-4, for the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 (articles 4, 5, and 6 [annexure D, and pp. 487-92 for the treaty with Egypt, (articles 7, 8, and annex to article 8. Article 11 referred to the continuity of the administration of the , including arrangements for its defence). On Egypt's contribution to the war, a memorandum by General R. O. Stone, 20 April 1943, pointed out that 'some 20,000 Egyptian troops are employed on essential defence and security tasks which would otherwise have to be under• taken by British and Allied personnel. This represents an important contribution to our war effort' (FO 141/855, 1/4/43G). 3. While relying on the Iraqi government for the maintenance of order, the COS saw the need, in 1938, for a battalion from India to protect the air base at Dhibban, and for subsidies to be given to the tribes along the route from Basra to Baghdad. The possibility of transferring additional forces from India to counter unrest in Southern Iraq was also mentioned: COS Appreciation, 'Mediterranean, Middle East, and North-East Africa', 21 February 1938, CAB 16/182, p. 126. 4. Ibid., p. 126. See also the discussion in the Committee of Imperial Defence meeting of 17 February 1938, in CAB 2/7, on the 'Strategical Aspects of the Partition of Palestine' as the Woodhead Commission, appointed in January to explore the feasibility of partition, was about to visit Palestine. See also Michael J. Cohen, 'The Egypt-Palestine Nexus: 1935-1939', p. 70. 5. COS Appreciation, p. 119. 6. Ibid., p. 121. The pipeline from Iraq to Haifa was opened in January 1935. 7. CAB 2/7, minutes of cm meetings, 20 January and 10 February 1938. In April 1939 Mussolini, determined not to be outdone by Hitler, invaded Albania and reinforced his garrison in Libya with another 30000 troops. 8. Wavell to CIGS, 14 August 1939, f. 117, WO 201/2119. 9. Lampson to FO, 16 October 1939, and D. V. Kelly's minute on it, 21 October 1939, FO 371/23336, J4250/21/16. 10. DP(P)18; COS Appreciation, February 1938, pp. 13-14, CAB 16/182. See also Paul Harris, 'Egypt: Defence Plans' pp. 64-5. 11. Ibid.; COS Appreciation, p. 48. 12. cm DP(P) 32, (also paper no. COS 765), Appreciation of the Situation in the Notes and References 237

Event of War with Germany (as a result of German aggression against Czechoslovakia); 4 October 1938, p. 5, CAB 16/183A. 13. Ibid. 14. cm DP(P) 33, (also paper no. COS 770) 'The Czechoslovakian Crisis', 23 September 1938, CAB 16/183A, Annex A:'Measures to be taken if break with Germany [apart from general mobilization),. The measures included: 'The return of the three units of the British garrison in Egypt temporarily in Palestine, and the move of the Middle East Reserve from Palestine to Egypt.' Egypt was also to be reinforced from India. 15. CIGS to Haining, 21 September 1938, f. 97, WO 106/2033. 16. Halifax stated at the cabinet meeting of 19 October 1938 that 'one ofthe most satisfactory features of the recent crisis had been the attitude of the Egyptian Government which had responded admirably in every way', Cab 49 (38), f. 11, CAB 23/96. 17. cm DP(P) 44 (also paper no. COS 843) European Appreciation 1939-40, 20 February 1939, CAB 16/183A, Appendix I 'Political Review - April 1939' (prepared by the Foreign Office: p. 70. Part I, 'Political Summary', pp. 6-7, based on Foreign Office Appreciation (Appendix I). 18. Ibid., p.13. 19. Ibid., p. 11: India agreed to provide one infantry brigade group each for Egypt, the Anglo-Iranian oilfields, Singapore and Burma; and one battalion for Aden, and two for Hong Kong. The 'Quarterly Survey of the Political and Constitutional Position in British India for the period from 1 November 1938 to 31 January 1939', CP 63 (39), stated: 'The interest of the Muslims in the Army, service in which is of mater• ial and political importance to the Punjab especially, discourages them from participation in propaganda [inspired by Gandhi] against recruiting or against India assisting in a war. But sympathy with the Arabs of Palestine and in some degree with the tribes on the frontier ... would make the [Muslim] League hostile to the Army being used for purposes considered to be prejudicial to Islam', CAB 24/284, f. 110. 20. See the cabinet discussion on 19 October 1938, CAB 23/96, ff. 8-9 where Earl Winterton. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and chairman of the Inter• Governmental Committee on Refugees, spoke of the aggravation of the problem by new refugees from the Sudeten German areas, and the Colonial Secretary reported on 'the limited possibilities of settling refugees in the Colonies'. 21. Hershel Edelheit and Abraham J. Edelheit,A World in Turmoil: An Integrated Chronology of and World War II (New York: Greenwood, 1991), chronology for 1938. 22. Cab 56 (38), ff. 255-6, CAB 23/96. 23. Ibid., f. 257. The motion agreed to in the House of Commons was 'that this House notes with profound concern the deplorable treatment suffered by certain racial, religious and political minorities in Europe and, in view of the growing gravity of the refugee problem, would welcome an immediate, concerted effort amongst the nations, including the USA, to secure a common policy', Hansard, Commons, Fifth Series, vol. 341, cols 1428-83, debate of 21 November 1938. 24. Cab 59 (38), f. 389, CAB 23/96. 25. Ibid., f. 390. The Home Secretary, Hoare, agreed. See also A. J. Sherman, Island Refuge: Britain and the Refugees from the 171ird Reich (London: Frank Cass, 2nd edn, 1994); M. Ford, 'The Arrival of Jewish Refugee Children in 238 Notes and References

England 1938-39', Immigrants and Minorities, vol. II (1983), pp. 135-51; Norman Bentwich, They Found Refuge (London: Cresset Press, 1956), p. 38. 26. For example, Britain notified the USA on 17 November 1938 that it was willing to relinquish some of its annual quota of 65000 immigrants in favour of German refugees, most of whom were Jews. The State Department refused the offer. See Arthur D. Morse, While Six Million Died (London: Secker & Warburg, 1968), pp. 234-5. 27. See Colin Holmes, John Bull's Island, pp. 162-3, 184; Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1979), pp. 81-2. 28. Hansard, Commons, vol. 341, cols 1313-18. The question was asked by Elinor Rathbone, an Independent MP, who was an ardent campaigner on behalf of the victims of Nazism. When Sir Samuel Hoare, the Home Secretary, spoke in the debate later that evening, he gave two reasons why Jewish immigration into Britain was to be limited. One was mass unemployment, and the other was 'there is the making of a definite anti-Jewish movement', which led him to the conclusion that 'I have to be careful to avoid ... mass immigration' (Ibid., cols 1468ff). This approach was denounced as kowtowing to Moseley's fascist movement by Colonel Wedgwood in a debate two days later, see 24 November 1938, cols 2052-4. Winterton closed the debate for the government. He was dismissive of Wedgwood, and was critical of the thoughtful suggestions of Labour spokesman Herbert Morrison (cols. 2101-7). 29. See cabinet discussion on 19 October 1938, CAB 23/96, ff. 8-9. This point was elaborated in the cabinet's discussion of 'the Jewish problem' on 16 November 1938, Cab 55 (38), ff. 221-30. 30. Ibid., col. 1314. 31. CP 269 (38) Visit of British ministers to Paris, 26 November 1938, CAB 24/280. On the British Guiana scheme, see Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue (New York: Waldon, 1970), pp. 74-6, 81, 105, 109-11. On Australian refugee policy, see Blakeney, Australia and the Jewish Refugees 1933-1948. 32. Meeting on 11 October 1938, with Colonial Office representatives and H. L. Baggallay of the Foreign Office also present, E6217/G, FO 371/21864. 33. E6572, f. 161, FO 371121865. See also Documents on British Foreign Policy, 3rd series, vol. V, 4 April-7 June 1939, no. 295, record of conversations between Halifax and the Romanian foreign minister, M. Gafencu, 26 April, 1939, pp.342-3. 34. Minute of 22 October 1938 on MacDonald's memorandum P (38) 2, 20 October, concerning the discussions at the Colonial Office during MacMichael's visit, E6572, FO 371121865. 35. 14 November 1938, E6824, FO 371121865. 36. Minutes of the first meeting of cabinet committee on Palestine, 24 October 1938, E6379/l/31, f. 12, FO 371/21865. 37. Ibid., f. 24; see also Kedourie, 'Turning Point', p. 169. 38. Ibid., f. 25. 39. Cab 54 (38), 9 November 1938, CAB 23/96. 40. FO to Sir E. Phipps (Paris embassy), 8 November 1938, E6504, FO 371/21865. See ibid., E6572, for Oliphant's minute of 1 November on his talk with the French ambassador. 41. CP 4 (39), f. 41, CAB 24/282. 42. CP 29 (39),30 January 1939, f. 25, CAB 24/283. 43. Ibid., f. 121. Notes and References 239

44. CP 18 (39), 23 January 1939, f. 147, CAB 24/282. 45. CP 7 (39), COS 824, 'Strategic Importance of Egypt and the Arab Countries of the Middle East', 16 January 1939, f. 75, CAB 24/282. 46. Cab 60 (38), f. 443, CAB 23/96. 47. CP 89 (39), 'Draft Conclusions of Tenth Meeting of Cabinet Committee on Palestine', 20 April 1939, ff. 104-5, CAB 24/285. 48. Ibid., f. 106, 'Draft Conclusions of Tenth Meeting of Cabinet Committee on Palestine', 20 April 1939. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir John Simon agreed, saying 'The international situation was the governing factor.' 49. Ronald W. Zweig, 'The Palestine Problem in the Context of Colonial Policy on the Eve of the Second World War', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s, pp. 206-16. 50. Ibid., p. 208. The need for reform was spurred by Indian nationalism and unrest in the West Indies, as well as by pressures for economic development and educational improvements. For analyses of some of these issues, see arti• cles by Martin Kolinsky: 'The Demise of the Inter-University Council for Higher Education Overseas', Minerva vol. 21, no. 1 (Spring 1983), pp. 37-80, and The Growth of Nigerian Universities 1948-1980: the British Share', Minerva, vol. 23, no. 1 (Spring 1985), pp. 229-61. See also Martin Kolinsky, 'Federation and Partition in the Transformation of Empire', in Cornelia Navari (ed.), British Politics and the Spirit of the Age (Keele University Press, 1996), pp. 159-73. 51. CP 89 (39), 'Draft Conclusions of Tenth Meeting of Cabinet Committee on Palestine', 20 April 1939, ff. 103-4, CAB 241285. See also MacDonald's recorded interview on Thames TV, 9 December 1976 (in his Papers at Durham University, 9/10/22) where he again linked decisions on the Arab and Jewish causes with the deteriorating European situation. 52. See Israel State Archives, Jerusalem, papers of George Antonius 65/file 570, Informal Discussions with Arab Delegates, first meeting held at St James's Palace on 10 March 1939, notes by H. F. Downie, Colonial Office, p. 12. 53. See E8033/6/31, Foreign Office Memorandum on the McMahon-Hussein correspondence, 31 December 1939, no. 123, pp. 267-352, FO 406/77. 54. McMahon himself had made it clear on two occasions, in a letter to Sir John Shuckburgh of the Colonial Office, 12 March 1922 and in a letter to The Times, 23 July 1937, that his intention was to exclude Palestine from the area of Arab independence. Weizmann wrote a letter to The Times, 22 March 1939, protesting that the Jewish delegation had not been consulted on the interpretation of the corre• spondence during the St. James's conference. 55. Cab 9 (39), 2 March 1939, f. 339, CAB 23/97. 56. CP 56 (39), 'Minutes of the sixth meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Palestine', 23 February 1939, CAB 24/284. 57. Antonius papers, 65/files 299 and 374, 7th and 8th meetings of the UK-Arab Delegations, 16 and 18 February 1939. 58. Cab 9 (39), 2 March 1939, f. 340, CAB 23/97. 59. Antonius papers, file 374: Conferences on Palestine, February-March 1939, UK-Arab Delegaton meetings, 14th meeting, 17 March, pp. 16-18, and file 570, Informal discussions with Arab Delegates, First meeting, p. 10, second meeting, p. 5. 60. Meeting of 2 March 1939, f. 341, CAB 23/97. 61. Meeting of 2 March 1939, CAB 23/97. 62. Cab 10 (39), 8 March 1939, f. 392. 240 Notes and References

63. Ibid., f. 391. 64. EI979/6/31, telegram 15 March 1939, no. 114, p. 130, FO 406/77. 65. Cab 10 (39), 8 March 1939, f. 393. He advocated a system of cantonization. 66. Cab 11 (39), 15 March 1939, f. 7, CAB 23/98. 67. Feiling, The Life of Neville Chamberlain, p. 400; Mowat, Britain Between the Wars, pp. 637-9; Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement, pp. 200-2. 68. Cab 12 (39), 18 March 1939, f. 65, CAB 23/98. 69. Cab 12 (39), 18 March 1939, f. 50, CAB 23/98. 70. Ibid., f. 59. 71. Cab 11 (30), 15 March 1939. 72. Cab 14 (39), 22 March 1939, CAB 23/98. 73. Ibid. 74. The Foreign Office was also in contact with the Iraqi Government through Houston-Boswall in Baghdad, and with the Saudi Arabian government through the Political Agent in Bahrein and Bullard in Jedda. 75. Lampson to Halifax, 24 and 26 April 1939, E3029/6/31 and E3084/6/31, nos 124 and 125, pp. 137-8, FO 406/77. The leaders were Jamal al-Husseini, Izzet Darwaza, Muin-al-Madi, and Musa-al-Alami. 76. Cab 15 (39), 29 March 1939, CAB 23/98. 77. Conference of Ministers, 8 April 1939: Hore-Belisha mentioned five infantry battalions to be returned to Egypt, but at the Cabinet meeting two days later, the units were specified as two infantry battalions, one armoured car regiment and one battery of artillery. Cabinet agreed on their immediate return to Egypt (Cab 19 (39), CAB 23/98). 78. My italics. The note relating to the decision stated: 'an appropriate message should be sent to quieten the apprehensions which the French Government appear to entertain in regard to suggestions that we intended to send a Fleet to the Far East': Ibid., f. 273. 79. See Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement, pp. 219-22. 80. Cab 21 (39), 19 April 1939, ff. 338-40; Cab 22 (39), 26 April, ff. 72-3, CAB 23/98; Cab 25 (39), 1 May 1939, ff. 97-8, CAB 23/99. Chatfield had sent MacDonald a letter, 12 April 1939, enclosing a note on the safeguards which should be guaranteed in any future settlement. 81. CP 89 (39), 'Draft Conclusions of the Tenth meeting of Cabinet Committee on Palestine', 20 April 1939, ff. 92-3. In opening the debate in the House of Commons on 22 May 1939, MacDonald said: 'The body which will commence work on that constitution will not meet for five years or more .... It may be a unitary state. It may be a federal state .... That issue is not prejudged in the White Paper' (Hansard, Fifth series, col. 1952). 82. Halifax to Lindsay (Washington), 12 May 1939, E3456/6/31, no. 135, p. 148, FO 406/77. 83. Halifax to Political Agent (Bahrein), 11 May 1939, E3431/6/31, no. 134, p. 147, FO 406/77. 84. The speech was a bombshell: Hitler denounced the Anglo-German naval agreement and the Polish pact. 85. In the vote on the White Paper on Palestine, on 23 May 1939, the government won by a greatly reduced majority of 268 to 179, with 110 Conservative absten• tions. Churchill spoke strongly against the White Paper, and he and Eden were among those abstaining. Leo Amery, who was to be Secretary of State for India in Churchill's wartime administration, went further and voted against the government, after criticising the policy during the debate. Notes and References 241

86. Cab 24 (39), 26 April 1939, CAB 23/99. 87. Ibid., Cab 24 (39), 26 April 1939, CAB 23/99. The Home Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, said in the committee on Palestine, that 'we should hand over a whole colony to the Jews for settlement purposes'. In the discussion which followed it was suggested that it could 'become a Jewish sovereign state' (CP 89 (39), 20 April 1939, f. 107, CAB 24/285). 88. CP 105 (39), 'Possibilities of Refugee Settlement in British Guiana', ff. 73-82, CAB 24/286. 89. Cab 27 (39), 10 May 1939, f. 171, CAB 23/99. See also Cab 26 (39), 3 May 1939, f.134. 90. CP 100 (39), 28 April 1939, ff. 269-73, CAB 24/285. 91. Cab 25 (39), 1 May 1939, CAB 23/99. 92. Ibid., f. 95. 93. MacDonald in Cab 28 (39),17 May 1939, f. 199, CAB 23/99. Text of the parlia• mentary question and answer on f. 224. 94. Halifax to Lampson, 17 May, 1939, E3560/6/31, no. 143, p. 152, FO 406/77. 95. Cab 26 (39), 3 May 1939, CAB 23/99; Halifax to Lampson, 4 May 1939, E3161/6/31, no. 129, pp. 140-1, FO 406/77. 96. Cab 27 (39), 10 May 1939, f. 166, CAB 23/99. 97. Lampson to Halifax, E4077/6/31, 3 June 1939, no. 151, pp. 155-6, FO 406/77. 98. Cab 28 (39), 17 May 1939, CAB 23/99. 99. Halifax to Lindsay (Washington), E3715/6/31 and E3875/6/31, 24 and 25 May, nos. 147 and 148, p. 154; Lindsay to Halifax, E3823/6/31, 23 May 1939, no. 146, p. 153, FO 406/77. 100. Halifax to Weizmann, E8075/6/31, 19 December 1939, no. 121, p. 265, FO 406/77. 101. Weizmann to Halifax, E8075/6/31, 30 November 1939, no. 120, p. 264, FO 406/77. 102. GOC Palestine and Trans-Jordan to DMO&I, War Office, 7 July 1939, WO 106/2033. 103. General Barker to DMO&I, 16 August 1939, ibid. 104. See Ronald W. Zweig, Britain and Palestine During the Second World War (Boydell Press, 1986), pp. 47-54. 105. Yoav Gelber, The Defence of Palestine in World War II', Studies in Zionism, vol. 8, no. 1 (1987), pp. 52-3.

6 British Strategic Policy, 1939-June 1940

1. WP (39) 159, The Balkan Problem. Record of a meeting at the Headquarters of General Gamelin on Monday, 11th December 1939', CAB 66/4. 2. Ibid., ff. 71-2. See also Lord Hankey's note to cabinet colleagues on 23 March 1940, 'The Grand Strategy of the Allies', WP (40) 103, CAB 66/6. The subject is discussed briefly by John Gooch, 'Soldiers, Strategy and War Aims in Britain 1914-1918', in Barry Hunt and Adrian Preston (eds), War Aims and Strategic Policy in the Great War (London: Croom Helm, 1977), pp. 28-9; and by Douglas Johnson, 'French War Aims and the Crisis of the Third Republic', pp. 46-52. See also B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the First World War (London: Cassell, 1970 ed), pp. 480-1,591. 3. Cab 3(39), f. 110, CAB 23/97. See also Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 653-56. 4. cm DP(P) 44 (also paper no. COS 843), 'European Appreciation 1939-40', Report by COS (Newall, Gort, Backhouse) 20 February 1939, p. 38, CAB 16/183A. 242 Notes and References

5. However, General Haining reported to the War Office that shore-based defences at Haifa were almost non-existent: telegram of 14 February 1939, WO 106/2033. 6. In January 1939 there were 18 infantry battalions in Palestine. CP 27 (39), 'The State of Preparedness of the Army in Relation to Its Role', Memorandum by the Secretary of State for War (Leslie Hore-Belisha), 27 January 1939, f. 222, CAB 24/282. 7. Report by COS, 13 April 1939, on UK delegation report of first stage of Anglo• French Staff Conversations (29 March to 4 April 1939), cm DP(P) 56, Enclosure no. I (S.A.c. 17 also paper no. COS 877), p. 2; Annex VI, p. 39, CAB 16!l83A. A colonial division consisted of two infantry brigades, two artillery regi• ments, and two field companies of Royal Engineers. It was about two-thirds the size of a regular infantry division. 8. The French had 42000 troops in by March 1939, according to a memo• randum from the French ministry of foreign affairs to its embassy in London, DDF (2e serie) tome XIV, doc. no. 285,8 mars 1939. 9. Even after the fall of France, Wavell was concerned that French troops should stay in Syria to maintain order there; he disagreed with Churchill, who wanted to encourage those troops to join the British forces under Free French auspicies. 10. cm DP(P) 56, annex II to Enclosure I, p. 11. 11. Strategical Appreciation subcommittee reports, CID meeting 2 May 1939, CAB 2/8. Report on Part V of the European Appreciation (CID paper no. DP(P) 49, Also paper no. S.A.c. 18). At a meeting of the Committee of Imperial Defence on 8 June 1939, Haifa was seen as an operational base for a limited number of heavy ships, cruisers and destroyers. The oil refinery was nearing completion, which enhanced the importance of the port. See the Joint Oversea & Home Defence sub-commit• tee, cm meeting, CAB 2/8. 12. See Gibbs, Grand Strategy, pp. 666-7. 13. Cab 12(39), 18 March 1939, CAB 23/98. See also Howard, The Continental Commitment, pp. 130-1. 14. D. C. Watt, How War Came: The immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 (London: Heinemann, 1989), p. 209. 15. Ibid., p. 284. 16. Ibid., p. 272. 17. On 19 October 1939, Britain, France and Turkey signed a treaty of mutual assistance, including a military convention. See J. C. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 548-52. 18. cm DP(P) 56, enclosure no. 2, 'Report on Stage II', 11 May 1939, Annex I, CAB 16/183A. 19. See Watt, How War Came, pp. 285-8; Hurewitz, Documental)' Record, pp. 544-52; Frank G. Weber, The Evasive Neutral (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1979), pp. 10-19; Rene Massigli, La Turquie Devant La Guerre: Mission aAnkara 1939-40 (Paris: PIon, 1964), ch. 8. 20. cm DP(P) 56, enclosure no. 2, 'Report on Stage II, May 11 1939', Annex VI, p. 37; also WO 106/2033, ff. 42-3. 21. Ibid., Annex V, part V, p. 24. The conference in Jerusalem was held on 2 June 1939. Other meetings of local commanders were held at Rabat in early May and at Aden 30 May to 3 June. 22. Cunningham Papers, British Library, Cunningham to Pound, 26 July 1939, vol. Notes and References 243

IV, 52560, f. 16. 23. See discussion of France's intentions to remain on the defensive on the Maginot Line, Cab 30 (39), 24 May 1939, ff. 294-5, CAB 23/99. 24. CID DP(P) 56, enclosure no. 2, 'Report on Stage II', Annex VII, p. 41. 25. cm DP(P) 59, 3 June 1939, CAB 16/183A. 26. In his telegram of 24 June 1939, the new prime minister of Australia, Robert Menzies, had asked for an assurance that the UK government would act to prevent Japanese aggression against Australia. Chamberlain's reply five days later reiterated the earlier correspondence (in March with Menzies' predeces• sor J. A. Lyons), and added that the assurance 'holds good'. However, the Australians were not convinced and, at a meeting on 11 July, their High Commissioner, Stanley Bruce, expressed Australia's doubts and worries. Chatfield replied that in the previous year, 1938, the British govern• ment had hoped to neutralize Italy by diplomacy, and therefore a war against three enemies simultaneously was regarded as improbable. If that had proved to be the case, then the 1937 guarantee to Australia would have been firm. But, the situation had changed drastically with the alliance of the dictators in May following Mussolini's invasion of Albania in April, three weeks after the Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia. It then seemed that it would be necessary to knock Italy out of the way first, 'in order to release the bulk of our naval forces' for the Far East. But if, as now seemed likely because of the Japanese actions, the war was going to start in the Far East, it would be necessary to abandon the Eastern Mediterranean. The difficulty was that Turkey and other governments in the region would be greatly dismayed by the lack of protection, and British prestige would be diminished, so the withdrawal could not take place 'until the very last moment'. 27. COS (39) 102, 'Review of the Strategical Situation', 31 October 1939, f. 190, CAB 80/4. 28. Ibid., f. 193. 29. CAB 66/3, W.P. (39) 148. (Also paper no. COS (39) 146, 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', 5 December 1939, f. 337.) 30. Ibid., ff. 338, 344. 31. CID DP(P) 58 Mediterranean and Middle East: Co-ordination of Command, Report by Deputy COS sub-committee, 7 June 1939, CAB 16/183A. 32. Instructions to GOC-in-C in the Middle East, The War Office, 24 July 1939 in I.S.O. Playfair, et al., The Medite"anean and Middle East, vol. I (London: HMSO, 1954), Appendix 1. 33. Playfair et al., The Medite"anean and Middle East, pp. 33-4. 34. Cunningham to Pound, 9 June 1940, ff. 129-30, vol. IV, 52560, ff. 129-30, Cunningham Papers, British Library; see also his memoirs, A Sailor's Odyssey (London: Hutchinson, 1951), p. 234. 35. Cunningham to Pound, 11 June 1941, Cunningham Papers, vol. V, 52561; see also his letter of 2 March 1940 to Pound, and A Sailor's Odyssey, p. 281. 36. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, pp. 192-3. See also HC (39). meetings on 22 September 1939, 27 October 1939, and 1 December 1939, CAB 81187. 37. The war cabinet meeting on 8 December 1939 [W.M. (39) 108th Conclusions] authorized the organization of an intelligence system in 'certain regions of the Middle East' to collect information on Soviet activities in the region. See also HC (40) 28th meeting on 7 May 1940, CAB 81187. For a brief account of some intelligence activities in Cairo, see the unpublished memoir of Brigadier Maunsell, Imperial War Museum. 38. Appreciation of 31 July 1939, WO 20112119, ff. 126-9. The appreciation is 244 Notes and References

referred to in Ronald Lewin, The Chief: Field Marshal Lord Wavell, Commander-in-Chief and Viceroy, 1939-1947 (London: Hutchinson, 1980), pp. 31, 81, who pointed out that these considerations dominated Wave II's policy in the next two years, and that he defended his forward defence policy after the war. 39. Wavell to Adam, Deputy CIGS, 30 October 1939, f. 77, WO 201/2119. See also Playfair et al.• The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. I, pp. 60-72; and Harold E. Raugh, Jr, Wavell in the Middle East, 1939-1941 (London: Brassey's, 1993), pp. 48-51, 65-6. 40. Colonel R. Macleod and Denis Kelly (eds), The Ironside Diaries, 1937-1940 (Constable, 1962), entries for 2, 10 October 1938, pp. 66-8. 41. W.P. (39) 148 (Also paper no. COS (39) 146), 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', 5 December 1939, CAB 66/3. It was approved by the War Cabinet on 15 January 1940, and £50 million was allocated. 42. See Pownall Diaries, vol. I: 1933-1940, entries for 25 April 1940, p. 303, and for 5 May 1940, p. 308. 43. In October 1940, the War Office began to plan for a force twice the size (23 divisions) to be stationed in Egypt and Palestine by March 1942. See Lewin, The Chief, p. 34, and Playfair et al., The Mediterranean and the Middle East, vol. II, (HMSO, 1956), pp. 225-6. 44. Killearn Diary, 6 Nov. 1939, pp. 246-7. 45. Wavell appreciation of 31 July 1939, and letter to Gort of 2 September 1939, both in John Connell, Wavell: Scholar and Soldier, vol. I: To June 1941 (London: Collins, 1964), pp. 210-15. See also Bernard Fergusson (ed), The Business of War: The War Narrative of Major-General Sir John Kennedy (here• inafter Kennedy Narrative) (London: Hutchinson, 1957), p. 41. 46. Pound's predecessor, Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse, had assumed that only six capital ships would be sufficient to counter the German threat in the Atlantic. See Paul Stafford, Italy in Anglo-French Strategy and Diplomacy, October 1938-September 1939, DPhii thesis, Oxford University, 1984, p. 119. 47. WP (39) 1, (also COS paper no. 939 [Revise)), 'The Attitude of Italy and the Problem of Anglo-French Support for ', 18 July 1939, CAB 66/1. 48. WP (39) 38, CAB 66/1. Chamberlain pointed out that Mussolini held the balance between the pro-neutral faction (The King, Ciano, Grandi and Balbo) and the pro-Axis faction (Starace, Alfieri), f. 321. See also Ciano's Diary 1939-1943 ed. Malcolm Muggeridge pp. 142-8, entries for 1-7 September 1939. 49. General Maxime Weygand, former Inspector General of the French Army until his retirement in 1935, was appointed Commander-in-Chief of French forces in the Eastern Mediterranean in September 1939 at the age of 72. He was empowered to communicate directly with the C-in-C, Egypt in order to establish close co-operation of his forces with the British. He was also charged with the co-ordination of the French military missions with the Turkish, Greek, Romanian and Yugoslavian armies. Despite his age, Weygand was vigorous and articulate. See Maxime Weygand, Memoires: Rappete au Service (Paris: Flammarion, 1950), vol. 3, pp. 11-13; and Paul Reynaud, In the Thick of the Fight, 1930-1945 (London: Cassell, 1955, trans.), p. 342. 50. See COS (39) 22nd and 23rd meetings, 19 and 20 September 1939, ff. 113-16, CAB 79/1. 51. Kennedy Narrative, pp. 41-2, note of a discussion in the War Office between Ironside and Wavell in the presence of the Secretary of State, Leslie Hore• Belisha, 8 December 1939. See also The Ironside Diaries 1937-1940, 7 Notes and References 245

September 1939, p. 105; and Connell, Wavel/, pp. 216-17, for Ironside's letter to Wavell, 11 September 1939. 52. WP (39) 47, 22 September 1939, ff. 398-401, CAB 66/1. See also Weygand, Memoires, vol. III, pp. 20-5; Franc;ois Bedarida, La Strategie Secrete de la Dr61e de Guerre: Le Coltseil Supreme litteral/ie, septembre 1939-avril 1940 (Paris: Presse de la FNSP/CNRS, 1979), pp. 115-18; and Stafford, Italy in Anglo• French Strategy, ch. 7: 'The First Month of War'. 53. Martin S. Alexander, The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the politics of French defence, 1933-1940 (Cambridge UP, 1992), pp. 350-1. Moreover, the military cabinet of Daladier, under General Decamp, was highly critical of the prudent strategic approach decided at the first meeting of the Supreme War Council, objecting that the initiative was left entirely to Germany. See Bedarida, La Straregie Secrete, p. 110. 54. See The DiOlies of Sir Alexander Cadogan, 1938-1945, ed. David Dilks (London: Cassell, 1971), p. 218, entry for 22/9/1939. 55. Paul de Villelume, Journal d'une defaite (23 aoat 1939-16 juin 1940) (Paris: Fayard, 1976), pp. 41-2, entry for 24 September 1939 where Daladier's unpop• ularity is stressed. Villelume noted that Reynaud, who was an Independent, expected to succeed Daladier, and appeared to be counting on the British for support to make up for his lack of party backing. Villelume thought that Laval, with help from Petain, was more likely to succeed. 56. WP (39) 70, 28 September 1939, ff. 118-30, CAB 66/2. 57. COS (39), 36th meeting, 3 October 1939, f. 183, CAB 79/1. 58. WP (39) 70, 28 September 1939, f. 127, CAB 66/2. 59. WM 39 (39), 9 October 1939, f. 216, CAB 65/1. For the concerns of Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, C-in-C, Mediterranean, about the shipping prob• lems involved in attempting to maintain a force at Salonika, see his letters to Pound, 31 October and 18 December 1939, Cunningham Papers, vol. IV, ff. 63, 68, 52560; see also Playfair, The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. I, p. 51. 60. WP (39) 70, f. 124, CAB 66/2. 61. COS (39) 94, 24 October 1939, ff. 49-59, CAB 66/3. 62. The treaty was signed on 19 October 1939, see Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 548-52; and Watt, How War Came, chs. 16 and 17. 63. COS (39) 46th meeting, f. 213, CAB 79/1. 64. General Ironside's memorandum - COS (39) 89, which was discussed at COS (39) 54th meeting, 21 October 1939 - stated that the French divisions were 'nothing like divisions in the real meaning of the term, and they had no trans• port or shipping' (CAB 79/1, f. 243). Weygand, Memoires, vol. III, ch. 2 acknowledged the weaknesses of the French forces in the Middle East and the lack of air support. He worked assiduously to overcome them, but was in command for less than a year. 65. COS (39) 94, 24 October 1939, f. 54, CAB 66/3. 66. Reynaud, In the Thick ofthe Fight, p. 342, suggested that was why Daladier had appointed him at the request of General Gamelin. 67. On 19 May 1940, Weygand replaced Gamelin in the French High Command. His successor in the Levant was General Mittelhauser, aged 67. 68. See COS (39) 133, 'Anglo-French Co-operation: South East Europe', 25 November 1939, f.l76, CAB 80/5. 69. WP (39) 149 (also paper no. COS (39) 147),5 December 1939, f. 347, CAB 66/3. 70. WP (39) 148 (also paper no. COS (39) 146), 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', 5 December 1939, ff. 337-46, CAB 66/3. 246 Notes and References

71. COS (39), 58th meeting, 25 October 1939, f. 252, CAB 79/1. 72. COS (39), 88th meeting, 25 November 1939, f. 69, CAB 79/2. 73. WP (39) 148 (also paper no. COS (39) 146), 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', 5 December 1939, f. 340, CAB 66/3. 74. Ibid., ff. 341-2. 75. Ibid., f. 338. The problem of Soviet policy was considered further in a memo• randum prepared by the Foreign Office on 6 December 1939: The Soviet Threat to British Interests in the Middle East', WP (39) 150, ff. 360-1, CAB 66/3. The COS report of 8 March 1940, COS (40) 252 on 'Military Implications of Hostilities with Russia in 1940', WP (40) 91, CAB 66/6, concluded that 'No action which Britain could take against Russia would bring about early defeat of Germany.' But the conclusion that it was not worth while to initiate war with Russia, seems to have been ignored in the COS memorandum ten days later. The COS wanted to withdraw two bomber squadrons from Singapore to India on ground that' Risk of war with is now considerably reduced while that of war with Russia has increased with resulting implications for situation in India and the ME.' (WP (40) 102, also COS (40) 260, 18 March 1940, CAB 66/6). For an interesting assessment, see Brock Millman, Toward War with Russia' pp. 261-83. 76. WP (39) 148 (also paper no. COS (39) 146), 'Review of Military Policy in the Middle East', 5 December 1939, f. 343, CAB 66/3. 77. Ibid., f. 344. 78. WP (40) 18, Report by the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defence (Lord Chatfield) on 'Military Policy in the Middle East', 13 January 1940, f. 336, CAB 66/4. The Standing Ministerial Committee on Military Co-ordination recommended approval of the COS review, subject to certain considerations, mainly of a financial nature. The Chatfield committee recommendations were approved by the war cabinet on 15 January, 1940, WM 14 (40), ff. 53-4, CAB 65/5. 79. WP (39) 149 (also paper no. COS (39) 147), 5 December 1939, f. 349, CAB 66/3: Annex: note dated November 30 by the French delegation in London (paper no. DF 47A). The initial French contribution to the proposed Allied force was to be three divisions. 80. Ibid., f. 350. 81. Ibid., f. 347. 82. Ibid. The COS did not want to supply Turkey with anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns because of acute shortages at home, even though it would mean that the Suspense Clause in the Anglo-French Treaty with Turkey would have to remain in operation. 83. Ibid., f. 350. 84. WM 107 (39), f. 234, CAB 65/2. 85. WP (39) 169 (also paper no. COS (39) 163, 13 December 1939, f. 84. Ironside informed the cabinet that 'General Weygand had made no exaggerated claim for action in the Balkans', WM 112 (39), 12 December 1939, f. 265. 86. WP (39) 169, ff. 86, 87. 87. Ibid., f. 87. See also Weygand, Memoires, ch. IV. 88. WM 115 (39), 14 December 1939, p. 431, CAB 65/2. 89. SWC (39) 4th meeting. 'Record of the Fourth Meeting ... on 19 December 1939', f. 110, CAB 6615. 90. Ibid., f. Ill. Ciano's answer to the British ambassador on 9 January 1940 was Notes and References 247

that Mussolini was not ready to discuss the Balkans. According to Sir Llewellyn Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (HMSO, 1962, abridged volume), p. 15: 'Sir P. Loraine thought that Mussolini ... would like best of all a negotiated peace with the balance tipped on the German side: 91. SWC (39) 4th meeting, ibid., f. 111. 92. The two generals prepared plans for the movement of British and French troops to Turkey and for the defence of . MR (40), Anglo-French liaison meeting on 23 January 1940, f.112, CAB 85/3. They held further conver• sations on 10-11 February in Egypt. MR (40), Anglo-French liaison meeting on 22 February, f. 214. They agreed on the improvements in Turkish ports and roads necessary for Allied troop movements and supplies, and sent a telegram to the Turkish General Staff. See also Weygand, Memoires, pp. 53-5. 93. SWC (39) 4th meeting, ff. 111-12. 94. WM 39 (40), 12 February 1940, CAB 65/5, f. 190: Halifax commented that 'This was very satisfactory, and showed that more progress had been made at Belgrade than we had previously supposed: See also Sir Hughe Knatchbull• Hugessen, Diplomat in Peace and War (London: John Murray, 1949), pp.157-8. 95. R4832/4156/67, f. 71, CAB 80/10. 96. Massigli, La Turquie Devant la Guerre, p. 371. 97. COS (40) 205, 'Salonika', January 1940, f. 128, CAB 80/7. 98. MR (40) 18th meeting, 18 January 1940, ff. 89-90, CAB 85/3. 99. MR (40) 10. Allied Military Committee. report of 5 February 1940 on 'Allied Military Policy in the Balkans'. f. 47. CAB 85/5. 100. Ibid .• ff. 47-8. 101. Ibid., f. 48. 102. Ibid .• f. 52. author's emphasis. 103. MR (40) 13, ff. 66-8, CAB 85/5. 104. COS (40) 9th meeting, 16 January 1940, ff. 41-2, CAB 79/3. 105. COS (40) 65th meeting, 5 April 1940, discussion of a report by the British Military Representatives on the Allied Military Committee (paper no. COS (40) 235) on 'Allied Military Policy in the Balkans', CAB 79/3. 106. COS (40) 283 (JP). 3 April 1940, f. 160. CAB 80/9. 107. Ibid .• f. 162; also COS (40) 288, Aide Memoire for HM's Balkan Representatives: 'Military Policy in the Balkans if Italy Maintains a Satisfactory Attitude', 8 April 1940. f.197, CAB 80/9. 108. 'German Intentions in South-Eastern Europe': JIC (40) 40, 27 April 1940 and JIC (40) 41, 28 April 1940. CAB 81/96. JIC was a sub-committee of COS. 109. COS (40) (JIC); also paper no. JIC (40) 29 April 1940, f. 127, CAB 80/10. 110. On his way back to Malta from Ankara, Cunningham wrote to Pound, 11 February 1940: 'rather a wasted trip .... The Turks upset everything by allocat• ing to the Allied forces to be landed in Thrace unusable bases ... unusable without considerable development and worse still, there are no roads leading from them .... I think the Turks must be firmly told that if they want assistance ... they must get on themselves with developing the necessary facilities.' But he did indicate that the 'Air Force are on a better wicket. They can be landed at Smyrna and operate fairly effectively from Anatolia: Cunningham Papers, vol. IV, f. 94, 52560. 111. WM 61 (40),6 March 1940, ff. 41-2: War Cabinet discussion on memorandum by the S. of S. for War, WP (40) 82, 1 March 1940, CAB 65/6. 112. WM 71 (40), 18 March 1940. f. 93, CAB 65/6. 113. Ibid. See also COS (40) 55th meeting, 18 March 1940, ff. 181-8, CAB 79/3. The 248 Notes and References

report on the discussions is in COS (40) 286,8 April 1940, ff. 183-8, CAB 80/9. See also A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 222-3: Cunningham thought that progress had been made regarding 'the defences of the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus and Smyrna'. 114. COS (40) 293, 'Middle East Plans', Annex I: telegram 9 April 1940, f. 236, CAB 80/9. 115. Playfair, The Medite"anean and Middle East, vol. I, p. 85. 116. COS (40) 275, 27 March 1940, 'Measures to Deter Italy from Entering the War Against the Allies', f. 67, CAB 80/9. See also the revised paper WP (40) 130, also paper no. COS (40) 297, 16 April 1940, CAB 66/7. The naval measures included limiting the passage of Italian shipping through the exits of the Mediterranean. However, the French were not in a position to attack the Italians in Libya because they had withdrawn from Tunisia most of the air and land forces necessary for offensive action. 117. COS (40) 90th meeting, 22 April 1940, f. 296, CAB 79/3. 118. WP (40) 134, Also COS (40) 304, 'Implications of Possible Italian Action in Mediterranean', COS report, 21 April 1940, f. 120, CAB 66/7. The matter is discussed later in this chapter. 119. Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean were reinforced at the end of April and into May. CAB 66/7: Weekly resumes nos 35-7, for 25 April to 2 May, 2-9 May, and 9-16 May 1940, WP (40) 142, 152, 158 respectively. By early June the British Mediterranean fleet consisted of four battleships, one aircraft carrier, 6 cruisers, 20 destroyers, and 12 submarines. See J. R. M. Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. II (HMSO, 1957), p. 303. 120. CAB 99/3, ff. 60-5, and WP (40) 136,24 April 1940, 'Resolutions of Meeting of Supreme War Council', 23 April 1940, CAB 66/7. 121. Ibid., f. 60. 122. MR (40) l00th meeting, 29 April 1940, ff. 196-7, CAB 85/4. 123. MR (40) 107th meeting, 7 May 1940, f. 222, CAB 85/4. 124. CAB 99/3, f. 74. 125. WM (40) 108,30 April 1940, ff. 299-300, CAB 65/6. 126. See Admiral Pound's intervention, f. 74, CAB 99/3. 127. CAB 65/6, f. 300. 128. MR (40) 109th meeting, 9 May 1940, discussion of 'Military Intentions in the Event of War with Italy', based on French and British War plans; the most comprehensive document being MR (J) (40) 66, CAB 85/4. 129. CAB 85/4, f. 299. 130. MR (40), 112th meeting, 10 May 1940, ff. 260-4, CAB 85/4. The discussion continued over two days, as the German attack on Holland, Luxembourg and Belgium was launched. 131. CAB 66/7, WP (40) 156, also COS (40) 357, 15 May 1940, 'Allied Military Action in the Event of War with Italy', f. 242. 132. Ibid., f. 243. 133. Weygand was given a much wider command than Gamelin had exercised. For a brief, critical account of the politics behind the change in command, see Martin S. Alexander, 'The Fall of France, 1940', Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 13 no. 1 (March 1990), pp. 22-32; see also Reynaud, In the Thick of the Fight, pp. 342-6. 134. COS (40) 392, 'Middle East. Inter-Allied Commanders Conference', annexes I and II, ff. 28~, CAB 80/11. See also Playfair, The Medite"anean and Middle East, pp. 89-90. 135. MR (40) 26, (also paper no. COS (40) 351, Allied Military Committee report Notes and References 249

by the British Military Reps, 13 May 1940, 'Allied Military Action in the Event of War with Italy', CAB 85/5). 136. CAB 99/3, ff. 88, 90 (resolution); see also COS (40) 166th meeting, 3 June 1940, CAB 79/4. 137. Ismay, Memoirs pp. 139-41; Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour, pp. 499-501; Reynaud, In the Thick of the Fight, p. 487. 138. Some objectives at Turin, Genoa and Venice were hit by British and French naval and air actions on that night and during the next few days. COS (40) 460 (Also WP (40) 204, Weekly Resume (no. 41) 6-13 June 1940, f. 47 and COS (40) 483 (Also WP (40) 212, Weekly Resume (no. 42) 13-20 June 1940, f. 231, CAB 80/13; see also Playfair, The Mediterranean and Middle East, p. 110. 139. WP (40) 168, also COS (40) 390, 25 May 1940, CAB 66/7. P. M. H. Bell, A Certain Eventuality: Britain and the Fall of France (Saxon House, 1974), p. 33, pointed out that the Cabinet and the COS had begun to examine the possible collapse of their ally during the previous week. See also Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. II, pp. 193,209. 140. COS (40) 444 (also WP (40) 201,11 June 1940, ff. 264-9, CAB 80112). 141. COS (40) 465 (also WP (40) 207, 15 June 1940, 'Plans to Meet a Certain Eventuality: French Colonial Empire and Mandated Territories', ff. 74-81; 195; 226-8, CAB 80/13). It was later feared that France might become actively hostile: see COS (40) 543 (also WP (40) 256, 16 July 1940, 'Implications of French Hostility', ff. 237-43, CAB 80/14). See also Bell, A Certain Eventuality, ch. 8: 'The French Empire'; and Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. II, ch. 10. 142. CAB 66/7, 25 May 1940, ff. 324-5. Cunningham made this point strongly to Pound on 18 June 1940, see A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 240-2. He was confident that it was not necessary to abandon the Mediterranean, and that the Italian capital ships could be contained. 143. COS (40) 469 (JP) 17 June 1940, ff. 130-3, CAB 80/13. See COS (40) 213th meeting, 9 July 1940, and COS (40) 222nd meeting, 15 July 1940, CAB 79/5 for the decision to bolster Malta's AA Defences: 12 heavy and 10 light guns were to be sent via the Cape and Egypt. 144. WP (40) 168,25 May 1940, CAB 66/7. 145. Captain S. W. Roskill, The War at Sea, 1939-1945, vol. I: The Defensive, (London: HMSO, 1954), p. 88. 146. COS (40) 465 (also WP (40) 207),15 June 1940, f. 78, CAB 80/13. 147. Ibid., f. 80. See also COS (40) 549 (JP), 14 July 1940, 'Syria and the Lebanon', ff. 299-302, CAB 80/14. and COS (40) 561 (Revise), 22 July 1940, ff. 83-4, CAB 80/15. 148. COS (40) 442 (also WP (40) 200,11 June 1940, 'Balkan Policy in the New Situation', f. 253, CAB 80/12. 149. WM (40) 164, 13 June 1940, f. 291, CAB 65/7. 150. COS (40) 525, 3 July 1940, 'Balkan Policy after the French Collapse', f. 123, CAB 80/14. 151. WM (40) 167, 15 June, f. 307, CAB 65/7. 152. See Selim Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War (Cambridge UP, 1989), pp. 97-104; see also COS (40) 525, 3 July 1940, Balkan Policy After the French Collapse, ff. 123-4; and COS (40) 530, 1 July 1940 'Turkey - Future Policy', memorandum by the FO, ff. 148-50, CAB 80/14. 153. COS (40) 566, ff. 121-3, CAB 80/15: letter of 23/7/40 from FO to COS Secretary (R 6685/24/44) urging that anti-aircraft guns destined for Turkey should not be diverted to Egypt because of the importance of the Turkish Treaty. 250 Notes and References

154. Harry N. Howard, The Entry of Turkey into World War II', Bel/eten (Ankara), no. 31 (1967), p. 274. His reference is to Ambassador Cevat Acikalin, Turkey's International Relations', International Affairs, vol. 23, no. 4 (October 1947), pp.477-91. 155. Nevertheless COS hoped that the Turks would cooperate to the extent of occupying the northern half of Syria if Britain had to replace the French administration. See COS (40) 561 (Revise), 22 July 1940, 'Syria and the Lebanon', f. 84, CAB 80/15. 156. See Alexander, 'The Fall of France, 1940', Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 13,32. 157. See Martin van Creveld, Hitler's Strategy 1940-1941: the Balkan Clue (Cambridge UP, 1973). See also his book, Supplying War (Cambridge UP, 1977), ch. 6 for a discussion of the logistical problems of the Axis powers in North Africa.

7 Defence Issues in Egypt and Palestine, 1939-40

1. See Chapter 1. See also Michael J. Cohen, 'The Egypt-Palestine Nexus: 1935-1939', pp. 67-79. 2. Report by Middle East (Offical) Committee [CID paper no. 1517-B] 'Measures to Influence Arab States and Minor Powers in the Middle East on the outbreak of a European War involving UK', discussed in the 347th CID meeting, 16 February 1939, CAB 2/8. The measures included (a) for Trans• Jordan: £10000 for Abdullah, subsidies to certain tribal chiefs, and subsidies for local newspapers. (b) for Saudi Arabia: a subsidy of £200000 for Ibn Saud; provision of arms; assistance with costs of the pilgrimmage; a further £25000 to influence leading officials. Subsidies and various measures were provided to the other countries. 3. There was a general strike of Jewish workers when the Land Transfers Regulations were published at the end of February 1940, followed by demon• strations in which two Jews were killed by police and over 400 injured. On 6 March a debate was held in the House of Commons on a motion of censure for authorizing the regulations without the authority of the Council of the League of Nations. The government defeated the motion with a comfortable majority of 292 to 129. Hansard, HC Deb 5th series, vol. 358, 6 March 1940, cols 411-526. 4. Killearn Diary 1-3 September 1939, Middle East Centre, St Antony's College, Oxford University. 5. Ibid., p. 168. See also Wavell to Ironside, 8 September 1939, WO 201/2119, f. 95. 6. Killearn Diary, 4 September 1939, p. 169. See also minute by D. V. Kelly, 23 September 1939: Azzam Bey 'has several obsessions, of which pan-Arab ism, Egyptian amour propre and an intense desire to lead an army into Libya to have his revenge on the Italians, who killed his friends and very nearly got himself, are prominent' (14837/21/16, FO 371/23337). 7. Lampson to FO 3/9/39, 13518/3369/16, FO 371123368, and Annual Report for 1939,22 February 1940, J582/582/16, FO 371/24632. 8. War Cabinet conclusions 13 (39) 12 September 1939, CAB 65/1. The CIGS, General Sir Edmund Ironside, saw no military need for it. General Wavell, however, was annoyed and complained to Lampson that he had been too meek with the Egyptian government on the issue. Lampson was not in the least pleased and wrote to Oliphant at the FO on 15 September, Notes and References 251

1939: 'I am worried at Wavell's obvious intention to ride roughshod over polit• ical considerations and Embassy.... could you very discreetly have him gently curbed? He obviously regards Egyptian independence as a joke, that can be completely disregarded with no ill effects. Tonight he bitterly criticised me once again for not having forced PM to declare war. 1 am sure he will bump into serious trouble with Egyptian government sooner or later if this goes on' (J3739/21116, FO 371123335). 9. Killearn Diary entries for 16 and 23 September 1939, pp. 193-4,202. See also minute by Cavendish-Bentinck, 9/9/39, J3634/3369/16, and minute by Wilson• Young, 18/9/39, J3760/3369/16. 10. The names included Azzam Bey, Aziz eI Masri, the Chief of Staff of the , and Ahmad Kamel, who was Sidky's nephew and Director• General of the Alexandria Municipality. Killearn Diary, 11 October 1939, p. 226. 11. Walter Smart to D. V. Kelly, 21 November 1939, J4743/44oo16, FO 371123372. He added: 'We have done all we can to combat the insidious propaganda that Egypt might be asked to send troops of labourers abroad to a war zone.' The embassy also tried to counter the fear that the war would produce conditions which would allow the British to reimpose a protectorate as they had done during the First World War. 12. Annual Report for 1939, op.cit., f. 202, and J438/31116, FO 371/24609, dated 22 January 1940: 'Note on difficulties which have arisen in War Office finan• cial relations with the Egyptian Government.' 13. Regarding the disposal of the 1939 cotton crop, Lampson stated in his annual report: 'The price remained low and grave fears were expressed that unless Great Britain ... purchased the whole crop, a collapse would take place .... Whilst it was true that some markets had been lost through the war and contra• band control, the loss had been made good by increased purchase of Egypt's cotton by GB and other countries.... After considerable negotiation the British Government agreed to buy the total quantity normally exported to enemy countries estimated at 155 million pounds weight at or below the price ruling on 15 November at Alexandria. By this time, however, world cotton prices had improved very considerably and the fears of the people had largely subsided' (Annual Report for 1939, 22 February 1940, J582/582/16, FO 371124632, ff. 206-7). 14. Minute by Crompton, 6 January 1940, J68/G, FO 371124608. See also J62/G Lampson to FO, 3 January 1940 and Killearn Diary entries for 9, 18 and 31 January 1940. 15. Lampson to FO, 26 April 1940, J1335/92/16, FO 371/24625, f. 67. 16. Lampson to Halifax, 4 May 1940 (review of last three months), J580/92/16, FO 37112462. 17. Lampson to Halifax, 4 May 1940 (review of last three months), J580/92/16, FO 371124623, ff. 112-17; Lampson to FO, 26 April 1940, J1335/92/16, FO 371124625, f. 67; also Killearn Diary, 10 January 1940, pp. 9-10 reproduced telegram on his private talk with Nahas which he sent to FO same date. 18. Killearn Diary, 5 April 1940, p. 74. 19. Note by Norton 30 Sept 1940, J2079/92/16, FO 371124626: 'the Treaty of Alliance does not require Egypt to declare war, but to render all aid to her Ally. The form of that aid is laid down in Article 7, & Egypt has fully complied with it.' The war cabinet was aware of the point: minute 8, meeting of 13 June 1940, CAB 65/7. 20. Wavell, 'Note for CIGS', 6 June 1940, 41c, WO 20112119. A month later, 252 Notes and References

Wavell wrote: 'PALESTINE is for the moment quite passive, but some of the Arabs are watching for a possible chance of starting trouble again if we get into further difficulties, and the Jews are in a panic that PALESTINE may be invaded. They propound their usual solution, i.e. arm 20,000 Jews, which would only make things worse' ('Notes on Situation in the Middle East for C• in-C, India', 10 July 1940, 14A, WO 201/2114). 21. Lampson to Halifax 8 October 1940, 'Review of Political Situation during Last Five Months', 12227/92/16, FO 371/24627, ff. 87-90; also Killearn Diary, 17 June 1940. 22. Killearn Diary 17 June 1940 pp. 150-2, printed in T. E. Evans (ed.), The Killearn Diaries, 1934-46 (London, 1972) pp. 119-22. The embassy, together with the military chiefs, were prepared to introduce British martial law if necessary, and to replace Farouk on the throne with his pro-British uncle, Prince Mohamed Ali, the . Killearn Diary, 30 May 1940, pp. 125-6: Conference with Generals Wavell and Wilson and Air Chief Marshal Longmore, and June conferences, 23 June 1940 p. 162. 23. Lampson to Horace Seymour (FO), 31 May 1940: 'Wave II raised the question what the general position would be if we had (a) a non-cooperative (b) a hostile Egypt? ... I was clear that ... we should be forced to take charge and run things ourselves. This might or might not mean a reversion to a Protectorate .... I agreed with him that we should set up an ultra hush-hush committee ... to study the question and advise us (1) what the position would be if we did have to take charge (2) how it would have to be met' (Jl527/92/16, FO 371/24625). 24. Wavell to Dill, 28 May 1940, 38a, WO 201/2119. 25. Lampson to FO, 23 June 1940, Jl597/92/16, FO 371/24625, and Killearn Diary, 23 June 1940, p. 163. 26. Lampson to Halifax 8 October 1940, 'Review of Political Situation during Last Five Months', J2227/92/16, FO 371/24627. 27. Minute by Thompson 30 September 1940, J2079/92/16, FO 371/24626. The cabinet decision was taken on 13 June 1940, CAB 65/7. 28. Lampson to Halifax, 8 October 1940, 'Review of Political Situation during Last Five Months', ff. 88-9. 29. Lampson to FO, 11 August 1940, Jl761/31/16, FO 371/24612; see also Killearn Diary, 20 August 1940, p. 215. Mohammed Neguib, in his autobiography, Egypt's Destiny (London: Gollancz, 1955), described Attallah in very negative terms as 'a nepotist and playboy' and stated that 'Attallah's abuse of his authority' was one of the factors that caused the Free Officers to plan their coup in 1952. 30. Ibid.; see also Killearn Diary, 9 and 10 August 1940, p. 208. 31. FO to Lampson, 15 August 1940, Jl761/31/16, FO 371/24612. 32. Killearn Diary, 7 August 1940, p. 205. It is interesting to contrast Lampson's hope with the analysis of the dependency of landowners on the British which was induced by the creation of a monoculture, see Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, A Short (Cambridge UP, 1985), pp. 87, 91. 33. Lampson to Eden, 3 January 1941, Jl64/18/16, FO 371/27428. 34. Wave II despatch, 'Operations in the Middle East from August 1939 to November 1940,', WO, May 1946, para. 56, published in Supplement to the London Gazette, 13 June 1946, p. 3004. 35. Lampson to Halifax, 30 Nov 1940, enclosing a copy of Quarterly Report no. 15 on the Egyptian army prepared by the British Military Mission, J40/2/16, FO 371/27383. Notes and References 253

36. Wavell 'Notes on Situation in Middle East for C-in-C, India', 10 July 1940, 14A, WO 201/2118. Sadat, who was a young ultra-nationalist officer at the time, recalled the impact of the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Mersa Matruh in his memoirs: 'our humiliation was complete. We could not take this new provoca• tion lying down. I pressed the view that ... The Army should rise up in general revolt with the support of the civilian population': Anwar EI Sadat, Revolt on the Nile (London: Allan Wingate, trans. 1957), p. 24. 37. Lampson to FO, 2 April 1941, enclosed copy of the quarterly report on the Egyptian army prepared by the British Military Mission, dated 31 January 1941, J1200, FO 371/27384; see also Lampson to FO, 14 April 1941, reporting on comments of the Egyptian prime minister after his talk with Wavell, J966/G, FO 371/27483. 38. Wavell to Ironside, CIGS, 28 December 1939, 26A, WO 201/2119. 39. Eden to Sir Kingsley Wood, 28 May 1940, J 1330/31/1 6, FO 371/24611. See also minute by Crompton, 23 February 1940 J606/31/16, FO 371/24609, on Eden's (then Dominions Secretary) talk with Farouk: WO was prepared to give more military equipment but Treasury was less accommodating; and 'Note on diffi• culties which have arisen in War Office financial relations with the Egyptian Government' , 22 January 1940, J438/31/16, FO 371/24609. 40. Churchill to General Ismay, 23 May 1940, PREM 3/348, f. 76; and Churchill, The Second World War, vol. II, p. 538: 'I grudged the troops wasted in and Palestine and on internal security in Egypt ... '. See also ibid., Appendix A, p. 559, PM personal minute to SIS cols, 23 May 1940, and pp. 564, 590-1. 41. Ironside was replaced as CIGS by Dill on 27 May. The other members of the COS were Admiral Sir Dudley Pound, Chief of Naval Staff, and Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall, who was succeeded as Chief of Air Staff by Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal on 25 October 1940. General H. L. Ismay became a member of the COS, representing the Minister of Defence, on 2 May 1940. 42. COS (40) 365, 18 May 1940, CAB 80/11, and COS (40) 146th mtg, 24 May 1940, CAB 79/4. 43. Minute by Baggallay 24/5/40, E2062, FO 371/24569, f. 111. 44. Minute from Colonial Office to Churchill, 23 May 1940, ff. 73-4, PREM 3/348. 45. Ibid., 28 May 1940, ff. 71-2. 46. For Weizmann's notes on his meeting with Lloyd on 29 May 1940, see The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Series B: Papers, vol. II), pp. 400-2. 47. Churchill to the Secretaries of State for War and Colonies, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Ismay, 29 May 1940, f. 75, PREM 3/348. 48. Churchill to Halifax, 3/6/40, E2062, FO 371/24569, f. 130. 49. PM minute to SIS War, 6 June 1940, Avon Papers, University of Birmingham library, AP 20/8/2. 50. Copy of letter from Secretary of State for War (Eden) to PM 6 June 1940, AP 20/8/11. 51. Telegram from Marquis of Lothian (Washington) 21 June 1940 for Special Distrib and War Cabinet, f. 60, PREM 3/348. 52. Ibid., 25 June 1940, f. 59. 53. Ibid., Lloyd to Churchill, 26 June 1940, ff. 57-8. 54. See chapters by Joseph Nevo and Martin Kolinsky in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s. 55. 28 June 1940, ff. 50-2, PREM 3/348. 56. Letter from Christopher Eastwood CO to Antony Bevir, Prem Office, 16 July 1940, ibid., ff. 42-3. 254 Notes and References

57. Ibid., f. 39. 58. Ibid., Lloyd's minute to PM 20 July 1940, f. 38. 59. Ibid., f. 27. 60. Playfair, The Mediterranean and the Middle East, vol. I, pp. 245-7. There were in addition, some 6000 Poles in the Polish Brigade in Palestine. They came over from Syria after France fell, being the largest of the foreign units which included some Czechs and some Free French. 61. Memo by Secretary of State for War to war cabinet, September 1940 'Raising a Jewish Army', ff. 1262-3, PREM 4 51/9. Also in Avon Papers, AP 20/8/167B. 62. CAB 65/9, ff. 125-6. 63. Cohen, Retreat, pp. 107-12. 64. Wavell to General Sir Robert A. Cassels, C-in-C, India, 10 July 1940, 'Notes on Situation in the Middle East' 14A, WO 201/2114. See also WO 201/2120, 222A. 65. This was his consistent view from the start of the war, see Wavell to Sir W. Edmund Ironside, CIGS, 27 September 1939, 12A, WO 201/2119. 66. Wave II to Cassels, 10 July 1940, 'Notes on Situation in the Middle East' 14A, WO 201/2114. 67. Wavell to Dill, 28 May 1940, 38A, WO 201/2119 (author's emphasis). 68. General Waterhouse to Major-General Arthur Smith (Wavell's chief staff officer), 27 June 1940, 221A, WO 201/2120. 69. Ibid., Waterhouse to DCGS, 19 June 1940, 216A, WO 201/2120. 70. The Times, 2 July 1940, cited in Kirk, p. 83. 71. Report of Joint Intelligence sub-committee: 'Situation in the Middle East'. 16 May 1940, JIC (40) 63, E2029/2029/65, FO 371/24549. 72. Lampson to FO 14 July 1940, Special distribution and War Cabinet, E2283/2029/65, FO 371/24549. 73. Minutes by H. L. Baggardly 17 July 1940, and by Cadogan, 18/7/40, ibid., E2283/2029/65. 74. Ibid, Minute by Baggardly, 9 August 1940, 75. CAB 65/8, 192nd meeting, August 1940, f. 46. The discussion arose from an enquiry by Nuri ai-Said, then Iraqi Minister of Foreign Affairs. It was first discussed on 15 June, when Attlee, Greenwood, Sinclair and Churchill opposed making a statement on the White Paper because of the effects it might have on opinion in America. Halifax, Lloyd and Chamberlain, then Lord President of the Council, stressed the importance of helping the pro-British element in Iraq. CAB 65/7, 167th meeting, ff.307-8. See also Halifax to PM, 26 June 1940, PREM 3/348. 76. Copy of telegram no. 564 from FO to Sir Miles Lampson, Cairo, 5 July 1940; also COS (40) 351 and WP (40) 156, AP/8/48. 77. Ibid. An overland route for aircraft reinforcements from Takoradi in West Africa to Egypt was opened in August 1940. The route, via Kano and Khartoum, was almost 4000 miles long (Churchill, Second World War, vol. 11, pp. 401-2, 437). 78. PM personal memo to Eden, 13 August 1940, AP 20/8/97; also Churchill, Second World War, vol. II pp. 377, 441-3. 79. Eden to PM, letter of 13 August 1940, which stated Churchill's criticism of Wave II 'much perturbed' Dill and himself. AP 20/8/97A, Eden's Diary entry for that date indicated that they had defended Wavell tenaciously. The nub of Churchill's criticism is quoted in Chapter 8. 80. Ibid., AP 20/1/20A. 81. Killearn Diary, 19 August 1940, p. 213. Notes and References 255

82. Copy of PM personal minute to Eden, 14 September 1940, AP 20/8/146; and Churchill, Second World War, vol.II, pp. 397-8, and 417. The decision to send them around the Cape was taken by the cabinet on 26 August. See Connell, Wavel/, vol. I, p. 268. Eden was very worried that they might arrive too late when he learned of the Italian attack: see diary entry 14 September 1940, AP 20/l//20A. 83. Copy of 21 August 1940 memorandum from Eden to PM, AP 20/8/105; also copy of minute to PM on 26 August, AP 20/8/117. 84. 'We had on 29th September 179 Cruiser Tanks in this country. To send these units would leave us with 79 plus October production. We have at present here 318 Light Tanks; this arrangement would leave us with 198. We have at present here 259 'I' tanks, and this number is being added to at an average rate of 12 to 15 a week. Cruisers are coming out at a rate of about 9 a week' (Eden minute to PM, 2 October 1940, AP 20/8/175). 85. Copy of telegram from CIGS to Eden, 21 October 1940, AP 20/8/332. 86. Copy of memorandum by Wavell 24 October 1940, 'Note on Strategy in the Middle East in the Winter of 1940/41' in AP 20/8/365; see also Connell, Wavel/, pp. 277 ff. 87. 'Compass' - offensive against the Italians in the Western Desert - was seen as a limited operation by Churchill: see Eden diary, entry for 25 November 1940, AP 20/1/20. 88. Churchill, Second World War, vol. II, pp. 474-81; see also Martin van Creveld, 'Prelude to Disaster: the British Decision to Aid Greece, 1940-41', Journal of Contemporary History, July 1974, pp. 67-8. The decision to reinforce Greece further was not taken by the War Cabinet until 14 January 1941. 89. Telegram from COS to the Service Commanders-in-Chief, Middle East, COS (40) 435th meeting, 21 December 1940, f. 166, CAB 79/8. 90. CAB 80/24, f. 434. 91. PM to Foreign Secretary, 12 November 1940 reprinted in Churchill, Second World War, vol. II, p. 611. 92. See Gelber, 'The Defence of Palestine', pp. 57-8. The Jewish Agency had a network of informants in Syria, financed by the SOE. 93. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence pp. 347-52.

8 British Strategic Policy, July 1940-June 1941

1. The situation in is not discussed in this book. Britain invaded southern Iran in late August after the Shah refused to expel German residents suspected of being Nazi agents. Simultaneously the Soviet Union invaded northern Iran. The new allies then established a corridor through the country which served as the main Anglo-American supply route. It made an immense contribution to the Soviet war effort. See T. H. Vail Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington DC: US Department of the Army, 1952). 2. Copy of memorandum by Wavell 24 October 1940, 'Note on Strategy in the Middle East in the Winter of 1940/41' in AP 20/8/365; see also Connell, Wavel/, vol. I, pp. 277 ff. 3. Operation 'Compass' - offensive against the Italians in the Western Desert - was seen as a limited operation by Churchill: see Eden diary, entry for 25 November 1940, AP 20/1/20. 4. Churchill, The Second World War, vol II, pp. 474-81; see also van Creveld, 'Prelude to Disaster', pp. 67-8. The decision to reinforce Greece further was not taken by the war cabinet until 14 January 1941. 256 Notes and References

5. See DGFP, XI, no. 84; Sir Llewellyn Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, vol. I (HMSO, 1970) p. 488; Weinberg, A World at Arms, pp.184-6. 6. J. B. Hoptner, Yugoslavia in Crisis: 1934-1941 (New York, London: Columbia UP, 1962), pp. 218 ff. 7. Woodward, British Foreign Policy, vol. I, pp. 463, 468-9, 487, 493, 497-9. 8. Hinsley, et al. British Intelligence, pp. 348, 356-8, 364; Antony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: The Reckoning (London: Cassell, 1965), pp. 199-200. British military intelligence seriously over-estimated the number of German troops in the Balkans at 23 divisions. 9. See Raugh, Wal'ell in the Middle East, ch. 6. 10. Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease Act on 11 March 1941. See Warren F. Kimball (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Co"espondence, vol. 1: Alliance Emerging (London: Collins/Princeton UP, 1984), pp. 87-8, 129. See also Lord Tedder, With Prejudice: War Memoirs (London: Cassell, 1966), p. 32. 11. Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. II (HMSO, 1957), p. 383. 12. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p. 118: 'Instead, Turkey signed a non-aggres- sion pact with Bulgaria on 17 February: 13. Eden, Memoirs, pp. 188-93; Butler, Grand Strategy, pp. 384-5. 14. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, p. 26. 15. Code-named 'Operation Mandibles', the plan was all the more urgent in that German bombers stationed there were laying mines in the Suez Canal, disrupt• ing its traffic. See Butler, Grand Strategy, 'Mandibles' had to be cancelled in the wake of the British evacuation of Greece. 16. Field Marshal Lord Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, 1939-1947 (London: Hutchinson, 1950), p. 84. See also the memoirs of Brigadier G. S. Brunskill, Imperial War Museum, pp/mcr/136 microfilm. 17. Eden, Memoirs, pp. 195-8. Dill telegram of 21 February 1941 to Haining, Vice Chief of the Imperial General Staff. 18. See Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p. 118. Papen, the German ambassador in Ankara, was delighted: 'I hear the English are furious because Turkey has not been able to induce Bulgaria to make a statement concerning neutrality', he crowed to the German foreign ministry in a telegram of 20 February (DGPF, vol. XII, doc. no. 67, p. 120). 19. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 102, pp. 187-8,27/2/41, Ribbentrop to Papen: Papen was instructed to inform the Turkish government on 28 February of Bulgaria's accession to the Tripartite Pact and of the imminent entry of German troops into Bulgaria. A letter of reassurance from Hitler was on its way to Inonu. Papen was to say that the military measures were not directed against Turkey but were in response to the British establishing themselves in Greece. See also Hitler to Mussolini 28 February 1941 (doc. no. 110, pp. 197-9) informing him that German AA units were being sent to to reinforce Bulgaria air defences, and that troops were due to enter the country. Hitler expressed concern about the Dodecanese islands: 'It would very greatly facilitate the conduct of the air war in the Eastern Mediterranean if these islands could be held. A more secure build-up of Rhodes would probably definitely block the Suez Canal for England.' 20. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 119, pp. 211-12, Papen to fm, 1/03/41. Papen reported Saracoglu's remarks on Eden's visit: Turkey is content that her policy prevailed without her being pushed into assuming new obligations: 21. See Connell, Wavell, pp. 336, 339-41 and Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, pp.152-3. Notes and References 257

22. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, vol. 1, pp. 384-5. 23. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 302-3, 305. 24. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, p. 389; and Lewin, The Chief, p. 119 cited a telegram from Wavell to Churchill on 23 March: 'I therefore made arrange• ments to leave only small armoured force and one partly trained Australian division in Cyrenaica.' 25. See Ismay, Memoirs, pp. 198-201. Lewin, The Chief, wrote: 'Wavell's misjudg• ment in respect of his ability to maintain a secure flank in the (western) desert was disastrous' (p. 108). See also , Dilemmas of the Desert War (London: Batsford, 1986), pp. 17-18. 26. Eden, Memoirs, pp. 236-7. 27. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 195, pp. 338-42. 28. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 217, minutes of a conference on the Situation in Yugoslavia, 27 March 1941, pp. 372-5. 29. Ibid. See also doc. no. 223, pp. 395-6, Fuhrer's Directive no. 25, 27 March 1941 and Fuhrer's Directive no. 26, 3 April 1941: 'Co-operation with our allies in the Balkans', pp. 440--2. 30. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 336-7; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, pp. 403, 406. 31. Wilson, p. 100; Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 205-6. The figures and dates given in Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 356-7 differ: evacuation started on 24 April and lasted six days; the number of troops taken to Alexandria is given as 40000; and the number taken to Crete is given as 16000. 32. Ronald Lewin, in The Chief, pp. 129-33, restated the criticisms made by the report of the Inter-Services Committee on Crete (2 July 1941, GHQ, ME, WO 201/99), and by I. Stewart, The Strnggle for Crete (OUP, 1966). These sources emphasized that in the six months between the Italian invasion of Greece and the German invasion of Crete, the defences of the strategically significant island were not sufficiently developed. See also Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, p. 239; and the Memoirs of Brigadier G. S. Brunskill, Imperial War Museum, pp/mcr/136 microfilm. Wavell's defence (cited in Raugh, Wal'ell in the Middle East, p. 241) was that he did not have sufficient numbers of Royal Engineer personnel and materi• als, and what he had was needed for the Western Desert, Greece and northern Palestine. Playfair (The Mediterraneall and the Middle East, vol. 2, p. 122) defended Wavell by stating that Greece and Tobruk had priority over Crete. However, it would appear that more could have been done in Crete to develop landing facilities at southern fishing ports; to improve roads leading north• wards from there; to construct fighter airstrips in the remote plains; and to destroy the airfields in the north (the key airfield was at Maleme). 33. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 335, pp. 538-41: Fuhrer Directive No 27,13 April 1941. 34. Lewin, The Chief, pp. 126-7; Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, p. 201. 35. See Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, ch. 7. 36. See Wavell's comment in 1945 cited in Ronald Lewin, The Chief, p. 81. 37. Underlined by Ismay in his Memoirs, p. 198. See also Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour, pp. 1024-30. Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, ch. 7, does not refer to Ismay's defence of Churchill. 38. Ismay, Memoirs, pp. 198-202. 39. Kennedy Narrative, pp. 72-3, 76, 85. The officers on the Joint Planning Staff, Middle East were of the same opinion: see Raugh, Wal'ell in the Middle East, pp. 126ff. 258 Notes and References

40. Kennedy Narrative, p. 87. 41. Ibid., p. 97 about 17 April 1941. 42. Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, p. 150. 43. Quoted in Lewin, The Chief, p. 119 and Connell, Wavell, p. 388. 44. Cunningham Papers, letter of 6 February 1941 to Pound, vol. V, 52561, f. 52. 45. COS meeting, afternoon of 31 March 1941, CAB 79/10, ff. 140-1. The passage reads: 'Vice Admiral Phillips referred to the recent reports of German armoured troops in Tripoli and enquired whether the War Office and the C• in-C, Middle East considered the strength of our forces in Cyrenaica to be adequate.' 'Major-General Kennedy ... said that the C-in-C, Middle East had expressed some concern .... It had not been expected that the Germans would be able to carry out a concentration with so little interference.' 'Vice Admiral Phillips said that it should be realised that the Navy could do very little to interfere with the sea lines of communications from Italy to Tripoli.' 46. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, p. 350. Sir Arthur Tedder, as Longmore's deputy from December 1940 and AOC-in-C, Middle East from June 1941, was critical of Cunningham's proposal because of his concern to avoid dividing his resources, see Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 146-52. 47. Connell, Wavell, pp. 384-6, 392; Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, p. 186. 48. The evacuation was completed on 1 June. Over half the troops, some 18000 out of 32000, were evacuated by Admiral Cunningham; but the Navy took a severe battering. It lost three cruisers and six destroyers, as well as damage to six cruisers, seven destroyers, three battleships and one aircraft carrier. Lewin, The Chief, p. 134; Cunningham. A Sailor's Odyssey, p. 389. 49. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 403, pp. 636-7. 50. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, p. 420. On 26 May 1941, Mussolini suggested to the German military attache in Rome that after the capture of Crete, Cyprus should be occupied. But the attache was instructed to inform Mussolini that a seaborne invasion was not possible because the distance from Crete or Rhodes was too far for fighters to protect shipping. OKW directive cited in Geoffrey Warner, Iraq and Syria 1941 (London: Davis-Poynter, 1974), p. 115. Hitler, of course, was far more interested in the invasion of the Soviet Union, but he did not see fit to so inform his ally. 51. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 395-6. 52. Cunningham Papers, letter to Pound, 15 August 1941, vol. V, 52561, f. 89. In his memoirs, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 395-6, Cunningham wrote of his insistence to the Admiralty that in addition to fighters and bombers for advancing on land, a Coastal Command Force was badly needed. It was to consist of 'torpedo-bombing aircraft, bombers and reconnaissance aircraft, which could find convoys and sink the enemy and could thus take over the function of carri• ers.' See also p. 406. 53. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, p. 416: 'We had someone on the spot to whom we could refer immediately, while they provided a most convenient channel of communications with the AOC-in-C at Cairo.' For Tedder's views, see Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 176,227-31. 54. See Halifax-Newton correspondence, 2-13 November 1939, ff. 229-30, F0406/77. 55. The biography of the Mufti by Philip Mattar, an affiliate of the Institute for Palestine Studies, skimmed over the Mufti's wartime activities in the Axis countries in a few pages: The Mufti of JelUsalem (Columbia UP, 1988), ch. 8, Notes and References 259

pp. 99-107. His conclusion, 'Overview and Assessment', devoted only one paragraph to the Mufti as a collaborator with the Nazis. A devasting critical review of the book by Michael J. Cohen is in bztemational History Review, vol. 11, no. 3 (August 1989), pp. 590-2, and in the subsequent correspondence, vol. 12, pp. 213-17. For a more balanced biography, see Elpeleg, The Grand Mufti. See also Hirszowicz, The Third Reich for a detailed account of the Mufti's wartime activities; and Daniel Carpi, 'The Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin el-Husseini, and His Diplomatic Activity during World War II (October 1941-July 1943)" Studies in Zionism, no. 7, Spring 1983, pp. 101-31. 56. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 133, p. 241; doc. no. 12, pp. 18-19; doc. no. 68, p. 121. See also vol. XI, docs nos 35, 40, 92, 722. Regarding Italian financial support to the Mufti, see vol. XI, docs nos 40 and 57. See also Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 150. 57. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 103, pp. 188-9, Paris, 28 February 1941, Abetz to under state secretary Woermann, director of the political department in the foreign ministry. See also doc. no. 83, pp. 156-7. 58. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 133, pp. 234-43, Berlin 7 March 1941. See also, Hirszowicz, Struggle, pp. 120-5. Although Ribbentrop referred to sending von Hentig to Syria, the latter was not sent because of Vichy French suspicions of his contacts with Syrian Arab nationalists. Rudolf Rahn went in his place to organize Syria as a supply base for Iraq; doc. no. 476, pp. 742-3, Berlin, 8 May 1941, Woermann memoran• dum. 59. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 299, pp. 497-9, Berlin Woermann's memorandum of 10 April 1941. 60. Woermann March memorandum, p. 238. See vol. XI, doc. nos 190,496,596 regarding the statement of German support for Arab independence. 61. Ibid., p. 239. 62. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 159, pp. 284-5, Berlin, 12 March 1941, memorandum by Weizsaecker for Ribbentrop. After the war Weizsaecker wrote, perhaps with deliberate forgetfulness: 'It was always my opinion ... that all our Middle East schemes were beyond our powers. Only our political and strategic amateurs took these things seriously.' Erinnerungen (Munich, Paul List, 1950), pp. 334-5, cited in George Kirk, The Middle East in the War, Oxford UP (RIIA Survey of International Affairs 1939-1946), 1952,p. 20n. 63. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 188, pp. 323-4, March 21 1941. See also Hirszowicz, Struggle, pp. 129-33. 64. DGFP, vol XII, doc. no. 293, pp. 488-90, Berlin, 8 April 1941: letter from Weizsaecker to Mufti. The former wrote: 'Please keep this letter secret. The Italian Government is informed as to its contents and is in agreement.' This was true, but the Italians later reiterated their claims to predominance in the Mediterranean and Middle East. See doc. no. 373, pp. 588-9, Berlin 19 April 1941: Woermann's memorandum concerning Italian comments connected with Weizsaecker's reply to Mufti's letter. 65. Ibid., doc. no. 18, pp. 30-2, memorandum by Capt. Buerkner on behalf of Chief of the High Command of the , 5 February 1941. 66. See Christian Streit, 'The German Army and the Politics of Genocide', in Gerhard Hirschfeld (ed.), The Policies of Genocide (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986). 67. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, pp. 366-8. 68. Viceroy of India to Secretary of State, 11 May 1941, Alanbrooke papers, file 260 Notes and References

6/2/4, Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King's College, London. See also Connell, Auchinleck pp. 192 ff. 69. Wavell to CIGS (Dill), 5 May 1941, Alanbrooke file 6/2/4, ibid.: 'Nice baby you have handed me on my 58th birthday. Have always hated babies and Iraqis but will do my best for the little blighter. Am hatching minor offensive in Western Desert but not sure yet can bring it off.' The previous May he had written to Dill that he was willing to 'let Iraq go' if he had to stretch his resources too thinly 'in order to hold onto the oil supplies in South Persia. If things get really sticky out here [Cairo), it may be better to let Iraq go temporarily than dissipate forces in an attempt to uphold that rather unsatisfactory and unstable state', Wavell to Dill, 28 May 1940, f. 27, WO 201/2119. 70. Amery to Dill, 4 May 1941, Alanbrooke 6/2/4 ibid.: 'I am glad you have rejected firmly Wavell's incredible suggestion of negotiating with the Iraqis. Once we did that not only Iraq but Syria and even Turkey would be irretriev• ably lost.. .. What has come over Wavell?' See also Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 227-9; Playfair, The Mediterranean p. 185; and Butler, Grand Strategy, p. 463. 71. Generals Cunningham and Platt cleared the Italians out of East Africa in the spring of 1941, while the Royal Navy and the Fleet Air Arm eliminated the Italian navy, including eight submarines, in the Red Sea. As a consequence, in April 1941 Roosevelt authorized American shipping to use the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Persian Gulf stating that they were no longer combat zones. American shipping brought 'all types of goods', including military aircraft and tanks, to Egypt via both Suez and Basra. See Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 80, 225; and Kimball (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt, vol. I, p. 166: Roosevelt to Churchill, 11 April 1941, and Churchill's reply 13 April, p. 169. 72. The division had been destined for Malaya but was redirected to Iraq. See Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. II, pp. 460-1; and Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, p. 225. 73. Woodward, British Foreign Policy, vol. I, pp. 573-4. 74. Ibid., pp. 576-8. See also Kirk, The Middle East, pp. 67-9; Mohammad A. Tarbush, The Role of the MilitalY in Politics: A Case Study of Iraq to 1941 (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), ch. 8. The treaty is discussed in Chapter 1 of the present book. 75. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 377, pp. 592-4, Vienna, 21 April 1941, Ribbentrop memorandum for Hitler. See also doc. no. 372, pp. 587-8, Rome 19 April 1941, Bismarck, German Charge d'Affaires in Italy to foreign ministry: transmits telegram from Italian minister in Baghdad. 76. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 401, pp. 634-5, Mackensen, the German ambassador in Rome to foreign ministry, 25 April 1941: Text of telegram of 24 April from Italian minister in Baghdad. See also, Warner, Iraq and Syria, pp. 94-101. 77. DGFP, vol XII, doc. no. 432, p. 686, Ankara, 2 May 1941: Kroll, Charge d'Affaires, to Ribbentrop. It was shown to Hitler next day. Kroll had been informed that the Iraqis had 50000 troops and wanted arms for another 50,000. British forces in Iraq were said to number 8500. 78. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 435, pp. 688-9, Berlin, 3 May 1941, Ribbentrop to Hitler. The memorandum was shown to Hitler on the same day. 79. Ibid., doc. no. 457, pp. 716-17, Tehran, 5 May 1941, Ettel, minister in Iran, to foreign ministry. 80. See Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, p. 227 and Ismay, Memoirs, Notes and References 261

p. 208. It was pointed out to Wavell by the COS that 'the commitment in Iraq was necessary in order to (a) establish a base at Basra for the reception of American aircraft ... and to keep open an alternative line of communication to the Middle East and to Turkey. (b) ... to control Iraq oi\' (COS (41) 286, 3 May 1941, ff. 380, CAB 80/27). 81. See Cohen, pp. 110-13. 82. Wavell telegram 8 May 1941, cited in Kirk, The Midde East, p. 73. 83. After his meeting with Wavell in Basra on 24 May 1941, Auchinleck wrote: 'Mideast (Command) have never really had time to think of Iraq in its relation to India and the maintenance of our position in Southern Asia generally, but have so far looked at it only as a nuisance area on their eastern flank' (Quoted in Connell, Auchinleck, pp. 228-9). 84. Somerset de Chair, The Golden Carpet (London: Faber & Faber, 1944). The author was an MP who served as Intelligence Officer to Brigadier John J. Kingstone, commander of 'Kingscol'. The Appendix, pp. 211-16, consists of Glubb Pasha's commentary on the book, which brings out the contribution his men made to the campaign. Glubb had been assigned a political task - to orga• nize an anti-Rashid Ali movement - if the military operations did not succeed quickly enough. 85. Wilson Eight Years Overseas, p. 106. 86. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, vol. I, pp. 412-13. 87. Cited in Churchill, vol. III, p. 228, author's emphasis. See also COS (41) 286, 3 May 1941, ff. 380-83, CAB 80/27, which contains a long telegram from Wave II to CIGS on that date: 'I have consistently warned you that no assistance could be given to Iraq from Palestine ... and have always advised that commitment in Iraq should be avoided ... I simply cannot afford to risk part of forces on what cannot produce any effect... I can only advise negotiations with Iraqis .. .'. 88. See A Survey of Palestine (Prepared for the Information of the Anglo• American Committee of Inquiry) (Palestine: Government Printer, 1946), vol. I, pp. 60, 62. 89. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 228-9. 90. Ibid., pp. 230-1, Wavell to COS, 8 May 1941. 91. Ibid. PM to Wavell, 9 May 1941. See also viceroy to Amery, 11 May 1941, Alanbrooke papers, strongly advocating an attack on Baghdad. 92. See DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 528, pp. 833-5, Berlin, 16 May 1941, memo by Kramarz, head of political division 1M, and doc. no. 552, p. 877, 25 May 1941, Ettel, minister in Iran, to foreign ministry. See also doc. no. 541, pp. 853-4, May 22 1941. Ribbentrop informed Grobba, 31 May 1941 (ibid, doc. no. 576, p. 932) that air support would arrive in Mosul on the next day. Grobba replied immediately that the aircraft could not land in Mosul or Kirkuk because of RAF attacks and lack of gasoline supplies. The aircraft could operate only from Syria. 93. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 494, 11 May 1941, Grobba to foreign ministry, p.775 and doc. no. 549, p. 872: Woermann memorandum, 24 May 1941. 94. Ibid., doc. no. 557, pp. 890-1, 27 May 1941, Bismarck, Charge d'Affaires in Italy to foreign ministry, transmitted telegram from Italian minister in Baghdad regarding his talk with the Mufti. 95. Ibid. 96. Ibid., doc. no. 543, pp. 862-4, Fiihrer Directive no. 30, 23 May 1941. See also Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 198-201. 97. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 568, p. 917, minister Grobba to foreign ministry, 29 May 1941. Ibid., vol. XIII, doc. no. 165, pp. 237-65, memorandum by Rahn, 262 Notes and References

30 July 1941, 'Report on the German Mission in Syria from May 9 to July II, 1941'. Rahn referred to the failure of his 'desperate efforts to bring back to Syria the war material that was still stored in Mosul .. .'. The British closed the border 'on the very day that the German fliers left Mosul precipitately because of a false report' (p. 245). The false information was deliberately spread by the British. 98. Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, pp. 213, 215; Auchinleck's letters to Dill (9 May, and after his meeting with Wave II in Basra on 24 May) cited in Connell, Auchinleck, p. 221 and p. 229. Another aspect was the build-up of German forces on the borders of the Soviet Union. The Foreign Office and the Chiefs of Staff were afraid that the Russians would submit to German pressure, and thought that a British threat to bomb Baku oil would stiffen Russian Resistance. Hence Wavell was instructed to take control of Mosul. See Warner, Iraq and Syria, p. 160. 99. Survey, I, pp. 62-3. Two members of the 'Golden Square' were hanged by the Iraqi government in May 1942, and a third in August 1944. The leader, Colonel Salah ud-Din Sabbagh, had escaped to Turkey but in 1945 was extradited to Iraq, where he was hanged. Kirk, The Middle East, p. 158. 100. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 581, pp. 936-7, 1 June 1941, Paris embassy to foreign ministry regarding letter from Admiral Darlan to Abetz. See also doc. no. 577, p. 933, 31 May 1941, Keitel, Chief of OKW to General Felmy. 101. The Nazi agent Rahn stayed on in Syria, as is discussed later. Ibid., doc. no. 587, p. 953, 3 June 1941, Ribbentrop to Rahn, and doc. no. 606, pp. 983-4, memorandum by Ambassador Ritter, Salzburg, 8 June 1941. 102. Reeva S. Simon,Iraq Between the Two World Wars (New York: Columbia UP, 1986, p. 158). See also Chaim Weizmann, 'Palestine's Role in the Solution of the Middle East Problem', Foreign Affairs, vol. 20, (January 1942), reprinted in The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, Series B: Papers, vol. II, p. 458; Hayyim J. Cohen, 'The Anti-Jewish in Baghdad, 1941', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 3, no. I (October 1966), pp. 2-17; and Elpeleg, The Grand MUfti, p. 62. Kirk, The Middle East, p. 75n. mentioned it briefly, and pointed out that Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq (OUP, 1951), 'is silent about the killings'. Dina Po rat, The Blue and Yellow Stars of David (Harvard UP, 1990), p. 20 stated that 'The British censor forbade publication of the news of the violence in Iraq.' The reason, it seems, was to prevent stimulating Arabs to attack Jews in Palestine and elsewhere in the Middle East. 103. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 108 referred only to the siege of the British Embassy in Baghdad. John Connell, Wavell, vol. I, and Auchinleck, did not mention the in either biography. Wavell's most recent biographer, Raugh, made only a very general reference to 'rioting' (p. 215), as did Playfair, The Mediterranean and the Middle East, p. 193. No mention is to be found in other official histories of the Second World War by Butler, Grand Strategy or by Woodward (British Foreign Policy in the Second World War). 104. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982, 'Foreword' by A. H. Hourani. 105. Mattar, The Mufti, pp. 95-6. Anti-Jewish sentiment in Iraq had been stimu• lated by the situation in Palestine. An Iraqi parliamentary delegation toured Arab towns in March 1936, pledging to assist their struggle and encouraging them to start a 'Holy War'. See Y. Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Roots to Rebellion, vol. 2: 1929-1939 (London: Frank Cass, 1977) pp. 160-1. Six months later the British cabinet was told at a meeting on 28 October 1936: 'There were 100,000 Jews in Iraq where there were signs of an anti-Semitic movement' (Cab 60 (36), f. 14, CAB 23/86). More than a year Notes and References 263

later there was a reference to the position of Jews in Iraq: 'the present tension between the Jews and Arabs which is disturbing both their business and mater• ial welfare' (CP 295 (37), 3/12/37, Cab 24/273, f. 140). For a sUlVey of anti-Jewish incidents and propaganda in Iraq during the period 1934-1941, see Cohen, 'The Anti-Jewish Farhud', pp. 5-17. 106. De Chair, The Golden Carpet, pp. 118, 122-5. De Chair was scathing about the Whitehall approach which for an imaginary political advantage put so many people at the risk of armed looters while 'the eager British force which could have prevented all this' had to wait some miles away. He made the telling point that diplomacy 'should not begin too soon.' (p. 118) See also Simon, Iraq, p. 160. 107. Cohen, 'The Anti-Jewish Farhud', pp. 7, 12. 108. DGFP, vol.XII, doc. no. 590, p. 959, 1 June 1941, Weizsaecker to legation in Iran. See also Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 200, 204-5, 207-10, and Gelber, 'The defence of Palestine', pp. 70-2. 109. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 113, pp. 201-3. 110. Ibid., doc. no. 161, pp. 286-7, Inonu reply to Hitler, 12 March 1941. Ill. Ibid., doc. no. 295, pp. 491-3, 8 April 1941, Papen to Weizsaecker, and doc. no. 154, pp. 276-9, 11 March 1941, Papen to Ribbentrop. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 120-2. 112. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 514, pp. 812-17,13 May 1941. 113. Ibid., doc. no. 529, pp. 836-7,17 May 1941, Ribbentrop to Papen. 114. Ibid., doc. no. 531, pp. 839-41, 17 May 1941. 115. Ibid., doc. no. 538, pp. 849-50, 19 May 1941. 116. Ibid., doc. no. 545, pp. 866-7, 23 May 1941, Papen to Ribbentrop; and doc. no. 555, pp. 885-6, 26 May 1941, Ribbentrop to Papen. 117. Ibid., doc. no. 556, pp. 886-9, Papen to Ribbentrop. 118. David Dilks (ed.), The Diaries of Sir Alex Cadogan, 1938-1945, (London: Cassell. 1971). p. 388, entry of 14 June 1941: Eden sent a stiff message, and Cadogan was disgusted with the Turkish action. See also his remarks about the selling of Turkish chrome to the Germans, pp. 406-7, entry for 25 September 1941. 119. DGFP vol. XII, doc. no. 556, pp. 886-9, Papen to Ribbentrop, 27 May 1941 and doc. no. 566, pp. 913-15, 29 May 1941, Papen to Ribbentrop: p. 914. See also Franz von Papen, Memoirs (London: Andre Deutsch, 1952, trans.), p. 478. 120. Ibid .• doc. no. 583, pp. 938-40. 121. Ibid., doc. no. 635, pp. 1037-8, 16 June 1941, Ribbentrop to Papen: text of the treaty, note on economic relations, and instructions about arranging a warm reception in the Turkish press and radio. 122. Ibid .• doc. no. 621, p. 1020, 12 June 1941, extracts from report by the German military attache in Ankara. 123. Darlan was criticized for risking attack from the British without having obtained serious concessions from the Germans. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 459, pp. 718-20, 5 May 1941, Abetz to Ribbentrop. 124. Ibid., docs nos 490 and 491, pp. 755-74, 11 May 1941, record of Ribbentrop• Darlan talks, and of Hitler-Darlan talks. 125. Ibid., doc. no. 633, pp. 1033-4, 15 June 1941. 126. Ibid., doc. no. 546, pp. 867-70, 24 May 1941, Abetz to Ribbentrop. There was also discussion of measures to be taken in West and Equitorial Africa. 127. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, pp. 416-17, 422; Eden, pp. 244-5. 128. Warner, Iraq and Syria, pp. 124-7. 129. Eden, Memoirs, p. 246; Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 289-90. 264 Notes and References

See also Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 93-4. 130. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, p. 290; Eden diary, entry for 21 May 1941, AP 20/1/21; CAB 80/4, 19-21 May 1941. 131. Great efforts had been made to send 300 tanks through the Mediterranean (convoy Tiger') and Churchill's hopes for the successful utilization of them were severely disappointed: Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 220-3 and 308-9. See also Lewin, The Chief, pp. 142-5, and Carver, Dilemmas, pp.22-6. 132. Kennedy Narrative, pp. 122-3. 133. Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, p. 227. Raugh admits, p. 260, that Wavell 'seriously underestimated' German defences when he launched Operation 'Battleaxe'. 134. Churchill to Eden, 13 August 1940, AP 20/8/97. 135. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, p. 424. 136. Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, pp. 240-2. 137. AP 20/8/448. See also Churchill's comments on the significance of the Syrian campaign in vol. III, pp. 296-7; and Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 131. A report by the Committee for the Co-ordination of Allied Supplies, 'Problem of Passing Supplies to Turkey', COS (41) 294 (also CAS (41) 150),7 May 1941, ff. 402-3, CAB 80/27, proposed the occupation of Syria in order to use the railways and ports to meet Turkish military and civilian requirements. 138. DGPF, vol. XIII, doc. no. 165, pp. 237-65, Rahn report of 30 July 1941, 'Report on the German Mission in Syria from May 9 to July 11, 1941', p. 252. 139. Eden, Memoirs, pp. 244-5, 248. 140. Hinsley, et al., British Intelligence, p. 426. 141. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, pp. 1l0-1. 142. Yehuda Bauer, pp. 158-9, mentioned 33 members. Yigal ABon, Yitzhak Rabin, and Moshe Dayan were among them. Dayan was seriously wounded and lost an eye. 143. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 116; Raugh, Wavell in the Middle East, pp. 221-2. 144. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 616, pp. 1008-11, 11 June 1941: Abetz to Ribbentrop. 145. Kirk, The Middle East, p. 100; Rahn report, DGFP, op.cit., pp. 258-61. 146. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 121: only 5668 out of 37736 troops declared for the Free French. 147. Rahn report, pp. 250-1. See also Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 162-4, 184-7. 148. See Kirk, The Middle East, pp. 16-17. 149. DGFP, vol. XII, doc. no. 617, pp. 1012-16, Fiihrer's Directive no. 32: 'Preparations for the Time After Barbarossa', dated 11 June 1941.

9 British Intervention in Egyptian Politics

1. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, p. 409. 2. Cunningham Papers, vol. Y, 52561, memorandum of 10 , 'Command in the Middle East', British Library. 3. Lampson to FO 22 May 1941, FO 371/27437, Jl575/G: 'Reports ... show that between April 10th and May 10th, the amount of Axis shipping sighted as reaching Tripoli amounted to 43 ships or 207,000 tons.' It was approximately equivalent to two convoys a week. 4. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 400-1,408,419-20. 5. Ibid., p. 420. Notes and References 265

6. Fiihrer's Directive no. 38, 2 December 1941, DGFP XIII, doc. no. 535, pp. 938-9. 7. Clodius report on talk with Mussolini, 25 October 1941, DGFP, vol. XIII doc. no. 421, pp. 679-82. 8. Rintelen to Keitel, 2 December 1941, DGFP, vol. XIII, doc. no 532, pp. 934-5. 9. Ibid., Keitel to Rintelen, telegram 4 December, 1941. 10. Abetz to Ribbentrop, 8 July 1941, DGFP, vol. XIII, doc. no. 82, pp. 99-101. 11. Ribbentrop to Abetz, 15 July 1941, doc. 110, ibid., p. 139; Ribbentrop memo• randum for Hitler, 16 July 1941, doc. 113, pp. 142-9, submitting the French note verbale of 14 July 1941. 12. Abetz to Ribbentrop, 8 August 1941, doc. no. 189, pp. 300-1. Regarding American pressure on Vichy, see FRUS 1941, vol. II, pp. 455-503; and 1942, vol. II, pp. 123-204. See also Sumner Welles, Seven Major Decisions (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1951), ch. 2. 13. Record of Goering-Petain [and Darlan] talk in France on I December, 3 December 1941, doc. no. 529, DGFP, vol. XIII, p. 920. 14. Memorandum by foreign ministry official, 10 December 1941, doc. no. 573, ibid., pp. 1000-1, recording Hitler's decision. 15. Cunningham, A Sailor's Odyssey, pp. 436-7: Cunningham cited his own message to the Admiralty, undated, in the text. The date was late December 1941. 16. General Sir Claude J. E. Auchinleck, Despatch of 27 January 1943 on Operations in the Middle East from 1 November 1941 to 15 August 1942, Supplement to the London Gazette, 15 January 1948, pp. 315, 309. See also Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 209-38, 252. 17. Lampson to Eden, 29 April 1941, 'Review of Political Developments in Egypt during last 3 months', JI509/18/16, FO 371/27430. See also Lampson to Eden, 17 April 1941, Jl431, FO 371/27483, which reported on the Egyptian prime minister's statement in parliament on 14 April 1941; and Lampson to FO, 14 April 1941, J966/G, FO 371/27483: reporting on the Egyptian PM's talk with Wavell: Egyptian army to continue its role in internal security, defence of Canal and Delta, and Siwa. But to leave the Western Desert to the British: 'General Wavell's view [was) ... better not to mix our forces but leave defence to us.' 18. Lampson to Eden, 29 April 1941, Review of Political Developments, Jl509/18/16, FO 371/27430, f. 128. 19. Ibid., f. 125. See also Lampson to Eden 28 January 1941 (review of Political Situation in Egypt during last four months) J352/18/16, FO 371/27428: Ali Maher, who chose to stay in the country even if it meant being under house arrest, was also involved with the Young Men's Muslim Association. 20. Lampson to Eden, 29 April 1941, Review of Political Developments, ibid. See also Lampson to FO, 1 November 1941, J3458G, FO 371/27434. 21. In his review of policy in Egypt, the Foreign Office official, C. H. Bateman, endorsed Lampson's idea and suggested that instead of relying on half• measures it would be better to rule Egypt directly: minute of 3 June 1941, Jl831, FO 371/27431. The suggestion seems to have been taken seriously by his superiors. Cadogan's response was: 'Mr. Bateman's proposal is attractive, but really, just at this particular moment, we do not want to impose on Gen. Wavell the extra burden of running Egypt under British military law. In a short time we may have to face this, but not just now' (4 June). Eden wrote: 'it is well to remember that it is the military, more than the Embassy who are, naturally enough, against drastic measures.' He thought that military success in the Western Desert would help to secure politically the base in Egypt (9 June). 266 Notes and References

22. See Chapter l. 23. FO to Cairo, 28 June 1941,12144, FO 371127579. The exceptions to his list of responsibilities were Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Aden; see minutes by Cadogan, 14 July 1941, and Eden, 15 July 1941,12205, ibid. 24. Lampson to Eden, 23 September 1941, Review of Political Situation during last Five Months from 29 April 1941, 13265G, FO 371127433, ff. 77-83. 25. Lampson to FO 31 October 1941,13459, FO 371/27434. 26. The Middle East War Council had decided that such a declaration was contrary to Britain's war interests. See Lampson to FO, 18 September 1941, 1296712/16, FO 371127387. See also Lampson to FO 1 July 1941,12093/2/16, FO 371/27386; Lampson to FO 12 and 17 September 1941,12913/2/16 and 12950/2/16, FO 371127387. 27. Lampson to Eden, 23 September 1941, op.cit., J3265G, FO 371127433, f.83. See also Peter Mansfield, The British in Egypt (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), p. 274. 28. Minute by Smart, 20 January 1942, 284/2/42, FO 141/837. 29. Lampson to Eden, 21 January 1942, 284/3/42G, ibid. Student demonstrations in Cairo on 1 February calling for Rommel's victory over the British were thought to be inspired by Ali Maher. 30. The Egyptian ambassador in Tehran, Zulfikar Pasha, Farouk's father-in-law, was suspected of being the key intermediary. See Cairo to FO 29 April 1941, Jl212/G, FO 371/27488. Confirmation of exploratory contacts comes from German sources, see DGFP, vol. XII, doc. 350, pp. 558-9, Tehran, 15 April 1941, Ettel, minister in Iran report to Ribbentrop, and Ribbentrop's reply, incorporating message from Hitler to Farouk via Zulfikar, 30 April 1941, doc. 427, pp. 680-1; Ettel's reply to Ribbentrop, 4 May 1941, from Tehran: doc. no. 448, p. 701; Ribbentrop's reply of 30 June 1941 (doc. no. 49, pp. 54-5, vol. XIII) which stated that he was not going to send Hentig to Iran for discussions with Zulfikar Pasha because of the developments in Iraq. He instructed Ettel to find out from him how to continue the contacts to meet the aspirations of leaders such as Ali Maher and Azzam and ai-Masri. 31. Eden to Lampson, 2 February 1942, 1I7/42G, FO 1411829. 32. See The Memoirs of Lord Chandos (London: The Bodley Head, 1962), pp. 275-6. Oliver Lyttelton, later Viscount Chand os, was minister of state in Cairo at the time, and supported Lampson's position in the Middle East Defence Committee, despite the initial reluctance of the military. 33. See Gabriel Warburg, 'Lampson's Ultimatum to Faruq, 4 February 1942', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 11, no. 1 (January 1975), pp. 24-5, and Mansfield, The British in Egypt, p. 278. 34. Lampson to Eden, 11 February 1942, 1142/42, FO 141/829. The Wafd won 231 seats out of 264. Mansfield, The British in Egypt, p. 279. The Wafd held 81 of the 146 seats in the senate. 35. Islamic Societies - rep0l1s by British Intelligence and the Egyptian Police, Review of the History of the Ikhwan Muslimin (included in Security Summary Middle East no. 103 of 10 December 1942), 305/37/42, FO 1411838. The ban on meetings was effected in . 36. Charles Tripp, 'Ali Mahir and the politics of the Egyptian army', in Tripp (ed.), Contemporary' Egypt, p. 65. 37. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 129. See also pp. 158-9. For comments on Hassanein's aspirations during the 4 February crisis, see Charles D. Smith, '4 February 1942: Its Causes and its Influence on Egyptian Politics and on the Future of Anglo-Egyptian Relations, 1937-1945', Notes and References 267

Intemational loumal of Middle East Studies, vol. 10 (1979), pp. 468-70, 473-4. 38. Memorandum by General R. O. Stone, 20 April 1943: 'Some military consider• ations in connection with the present political situation', 1I4/43G, FO 1411855. 39. See J. C. B. Richmond, Egypt, 1798-1952 (London: Methuen, 1977), p. 205; Hirszowicz, The Third Reich, pp. 241-3; Tripp, 'Ali Maher', pp. 65-6. 40. Auchinleck Despatch, 27 January 1943, p. 328. 41. Lampson to Eden, 12 July 1942, weekly appreciation, FO 921134. 42. B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War (London: Cassell), pp. 270, 278-9. Playfair, The Mediterranean and the Middle East, vol. III, p. 286n. estim• ated there were 155 tanks (plus 19 T tanks) on the British side compared with 60 German and 44 Italian tanks. Carver, Dilemmas, referred to 70 Italian tanks (p. 129); by 4 July Rommel was reduced to 26 tanks (p. 133). 43. Hinsley et aI., British Intelligence, vol. II, pp. 392-3; Martin Gilbert, Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill 1941-1945 (Heinemann, 1986), vol. VII, p. 145. 44. Liddell Hart, History, p. 285. Kesselring thought so too, and opposed Rommel's plan to take Cairo. Kesselring wanted to eliminate Malta first in order to protect Axis supplies. See Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 308-9. 45. 'Evacuation Plan Egypt July 1942', WO 20111963. See also Auchinleck despatch, pp. 328-9; and Carver, Dilemmas, p. 133. 46. Middle East Joint Planning Staff, GHQ ME, Cairo, 21 June 1942, JPS paper no. 98, 'Withdrawal from Egypt' WO 201/2093, p. 14. 47. Auchinleck despatch, pp. 329-30; see also despatch of 23 May 1947 by Field• Marshal the Viscount Alexander of Tunis, 'The African Campaign from EI Alamein to Tunis, from 10th August 1942 to 13th May 1943', Supplement to the London Gazette, 5 February 1948, pp. 841-2, 844. 48. Lampson to Eden, 24 June 1942, FO 921134. He reported that Embassy archives up to 1937 had been sent to India; and that 'much unimportant stuff up to that date destroyed here by burning.' Non-essential materials beyond that date were being burnt as well. 49. Eden to Lampson, 3 July 1942, FO 921134, informing him of the Cabinet discussion that morning. A small number of embassy staff were to stay in Cairo to assist the HM Consuls, who were expected to remain with the British community. 50. Lampson to Eden, 29 July 1942, FO 921134. 51. Obituary by , a well-informed writer on Arab affairs, in the Independent (London), 19 March 1992. Hassouna was deputy foreign minister in 1948, after more than 20 years in the Egyptian foreign ministry. He served as Secretary-General of the League of Arab States from September 1952 to 1972 as successor to Abd e1- Rahman Azzam. 52. Lampson to Eden, 14 August 1942,983/12/420, FO 141/852. A memorandum by Walter Smart, 25 August 1942, 983/16/420, FO 141/852, provides an indi• cation of how such matters were dealt with at the time: '[The DSO] thinks that a trial of the four civilians ... may lead to all sorts of difficulties prompted by agitating lawyers and underhand Palace or other anti-British supporters of persons in question. He thinks it would be better to have them safely shut up for the duration of the war without any judicial proceedings. I agree.' 53. Auchinleck despatch, p. 330. 54. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. IV: The Hinge of Fate, ch. 26; Arthur Bryant, The Tum of the Tide. 1939-1943: A Study based on the Diaries and Autobiographical Notes of Field Marshal The Viscount Alanbrooke (London: Collins, 1957), ch. 9. 55. Bryant, Tum of the Tide, pp. 440, 448. 268 Notes and References

56. Despatch of 23 May 1947 by Field-Marshal the Viscount Alexander of Tunis, 'The African Campaign from EI Alamein to Tunis, from 10th August 1942 to 13th May 1943', Supplement to the London Gazette, 5 February 1948, pp. 841-2; see also The Memoirs of Field-Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis, 1940-1945, (ed.) by John North (London: Cassell, 1962), pp. 18-19. 57. Alexander despatch, p. 847. 58. Lampson to Eden, 'Political and Economic Report for Dec 1st-10th 1942', 14 December 1942, FO 921/34. See also the record of first fortnightly meeting with Amin Osman Pasha held at the embassy on 18 May, note taken by Col. Maunsell. Amin Osman outlined the Egyptian government's proposals for handling the Ikhwan, 305/13/42, FO 1411838. 59. Paper on fifth column activities by military intelligence presented to Amin Osman Pasha at the Anglo-Egyptian Committee meeting on 11 Jan 1943, 388/1/43, FO 141/879. See also minutes of the Anglo-Egyptian committee meeting on 15 February 1943, (FO 141/879, 388/4/43): 'Both in the Delta provinces and in , the closing of all the branches of the Ikhwan el Muslimin has provoked criticism of the government and a revival of anti• British feeling varying in extent ... agitation however does not anywhere appear to have attained serious proportions. ' 60. Lampson to Eden, 15 November 1942, FO 921134. Eden's reply the next day: 'I agree entirely.' 61. Lampson to Eden 14 December 1942. 62. Review of the Foreign Press, 19 June 1942, pp. 299-300 and 17 July 1942, pp. 345-6; Vatikiotis, History, pp. 351-2. 63. Minute by Smart 20 , 1/152/42, FO 1411829. See also Smith, '4 February 1942', p. 474. 64. See telegrams from Lampson to Eden, 18,25 and 31 August 1942, and 21 and 24 October 1942; and minutes of meeting of Middle East War Council (Political), 7 October 1942, FO 921134. 65. Minute by Smart, 5 October 1942, 11253/42, FO 1411829. 66. FO to Cairo 12 April 1943, IN14/43, FO 1411855. The reference is to the internment of suspected fifth columnists, and to the government's efforts to maintain calm among the population at large when Rommel's forces were closest to Egypt in the summer of 1942. 67. General Wilson failed to mention in his memoirs, Eight Years Overseas, pp. 158-63, Churchill's personal telegram instructing him to support the ambassador. See T. Evans (ed.), Killearn Diaries, entries for 27 April 1943 and 2 May 1943, which reproduced the telegram from Churchill to General Wilson, and 26 November 1943. See also Killearn Diary, MEC, 3-7 May 1943, and Laila Amin Morsy, 'Indicative Cases of Britain's Wartime Policy in Egypt, 1942-44', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 30, no. 1 (January 1994), p. 105. 68. Morsy, 'Indicative Cases', p. 105. 69. Lampson to FO, 1 February 1943, 'Review of the Political Situation during Past Four Months', 115/43, FO 141/855. 70. Vatikiotis, History, p. 353. 71. Cited in T. Evans (ed.), Killearn Diaries, p. 294, personal telegram to Lampson, 18 April 1944. 72. War Cabinet meetings of 19 and 20 April 1944, CAB 65/42. The Minister of State, Walter Moyne, had supported the line taken by General Paget and his military advisers. See Morsy, 'Indicative Cases', p. 112. 73. Minute by Smart, 4 May 1944, on memorandum from Col. Jenkins, Director General of Public Security, to embassy, 4 May 1944, 231111/44, FO 141/951. Notes and References 269

See also Notes on the Young Egypt Party by the Cairo City Police 8 February 1944, 231/3/44, ibid.; and memorandum on the Young Egypt Party 231/15/44 by Col. Jenkins, 18 May 1944, ibid. 74. Farouk dismissed Nahas shortly after the conclusion of a conference of Arab states at Alexandria. The conference had discussed the form Arab unity should take, and had agreed a protocol known as the Alexandria Protocol. See the chapter by Michael Thornhill, 'Britain and the Politics of the Arab League', in Cohen and Kolinsky, (eds), Demise of the British Empire in the Middle East. 75. Entry for 9 October 1944, Evans (ed.), Killeam Diaries, pp. 314-15. 76. Mansfield, The British in Egypt, p. 282.

10 Wartime Policy towards Palestine

1. Ironside Diaries, 2,10 October, 1938, pp. 66-8. See Chapter 6. 2. Ibid., p. 131. 3. Ibid., pp. 131,350. 4. Wavell to General Adam, WO, 7 and 16 October 1939, ff. 80 and 85, WO 201/2119. See also the letter which Wavell received from Chief of the General Staff, India, 20 November 1939, WO 201/2114. 5. Weizmann to Halifax, E8075/6/31, 30 November 1939, no. 120, pp. 264-5, FO 406/77. 6. Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 132-3. 7. Rodney Wilson, 'Economic Aspects of Arab Nationalism', in Cohen and Kolinsky, (eds), Demise of the British Empire in the Middle East, p. 67. 8. Yoav Gelber, 'The Defence of Palestine', pp. 59-64. 9. Memorandum of 14 April 1941, f. 107, WO 32/9502. 10. Telegram of 13 March 1941, ibid., f. 135. For a discussion of disagreements between Ben-Gurion and Weizmann over the proposals, see Cohen, Retreat pp. 105-7. 11. Killearn Diaries, 28 October 1940, p. 279. 12. Avon Papers, University of Birmingham library. 13. Wavell made much of this in his telegram to the War Office, 26 February 1941, when asked for his views on the establishment of a Jewish force, PREM 4, 51/9, f. 1085; see also memorandum by Professor L. F. Rushbrook-Williams, in charge of Middle East Propaganda at the Ministry of Information, to Colonial Office, 20 February 1941, WO 32/9502, f. 148, and Cohen, Palestine, pp.109-1O. 14. Telegram 26 February 1941, PREM 4, 51/9 and WO 32/9502, f. 161. 15. The prime minister's personal minute M 250/1 of I March 1941, written in response to Wavell's objections to a Jewish force, stated: 'General Wavell, like most British military officers, is strongly pro-Arab. At the time of the licences to the ship-wrecked illegal immigrants being permitted, he sent a telegram ... predicting widespread disaster in the Arab world, together with the loss of the Basra-Bagdad-Haifa route ... I overruled the General and explained to him the reasons for the Cabinet decision. All went well and not a dog barked.' PREM 4, 51/9, f. 1082. 16. Cited in Fergusson (ed.), The Business of War, p. 102. 17. Ibid. 18. See previous chapter. 19. See Yitzhak Avnery, 'Immigration and Revolt: Ben-Gurion's Response to the 1939 White Paper', in Ronald W. Zweig (ed.), David Ben-Gurion (London: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 108-9. 270 Notes and References

20. See telegrams from Angora to FO, 28 December 1941 and 9 February 1942, Avon Papers, AP 20/9!22A and AP 20/9I22B, and FO note 15 February 1942 regarding the cabinet decision [WM (42) 21] to send no reply - in effect, refus• ing the ship the right to land at Haifa. AP 20/9/22C. 21. See Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 139-42, 172-3; Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem, files S25/216 and S25/2631; for a comprehensive analysis, see Zweig, Britain and Palestine During the Second World War, chs 3 and 5. 22. Survey, vol. I, p. 62. Kirk, The Middle East, p. 249, suggested that both Arabs and Zionists were engaged in smuggling. The GOC, Palestine, General Wilson blamed 'Jewish bands' (p. 128) for losses of arms and ammunition from army camps. He court martialled two of his officers 'for slackness in taking care of their armouries .. .'. 23. Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 197. 24. Report on illegal arms in Palestine by GOC, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 3/2/43, E2856/G, FO 371/35034. 25. Survey, vol. I, p. 64; high commissioner for Palestine to minister of state, Cairo, 13 July 1942, 6/42/9, FO 92116; Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 189-90, mentioned 'the phenomenal growth of deposits in the two Arab banks' and the expansion in Arab education. 26. A Colonial Office memorandum, dated 2 May 1942, stated that at the end of March 1942, 10340 Jews and 4660 Arabs were serving in Palestine units of the Buffs, RAF and the Ancillary Corps (see FO 371/31378, E2752) and at the end of the year the number of Jews rose to over 18000 (Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 127). By the end of the war the total reached 32000 volunteers (Ze'ev Schiff, A History of the Israeli Anny (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1987), p. 16. 27. September 1939-January 1940 and during 1943, see Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem S25/5092, S25/198/3, S25/4748, and JI/4743. See also Bauer, Yehuda, pp. 100-7,266,271-2; and Kirk, The Middle East, p. 310. 28. Gelber, 'The Defence of Palestine', pp. 68-70, 75; Bauer, Yehuda, pp. 169-71 and Appendix VIII, pp. 382-4. Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1976), pp. 53-5. Schiff, The Israeli Anny, pp. 18-19: in 1941 with British approval 600 men were recruited into the Palmach, which included one German-speaking platoon and an Arab-speaking platoon. In 1944, the Palmach had 1300 members and 400 reservists. 29. E3579, E4301, FO 371127127; E4520, E4866, E5117, FO 371127128. See also Cohen, Palestine, pp. 113-16. 30. Moyne to Eden, 12/9/41, E5660, FO 371127128. See also Weizmann address to special Zionist Conference in London on 9 November 1941, Series B Papers, vol. II, pp. 445-8. 31. E5746, E6632, FO 371127128; CAB 65/19, 13 October 1941. 32. E6188, FO 371/27128. 33. Joint Memorandum for the war cabinet by the Secretaries of State for War and for the Colonies, 1/9/42, E4563, FO 371131379. 34. Ibid.; see also Yehuda Bauer, p. 220, and Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 127. 35. E2752, FO 371131378; E4563, FO 371/31379; E6260, E7089, E7179, FO 371131380. Cohen, Palestine, pp. 117-19. 36. HC Deb. 5th series, vol. 382, 6 August 1942, col. 1271. See also Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 128. 37. E4563, FO 371131379. The British authorities were unhappy about the role of the Jewish Agency in promoting an 'active defence' role for the Urban Special Police, which they thought might become subversive. The British also thought that it might be detrimental to production since most of the potential recruits Notes and References 271

were employed in the war industry. 38. Telegram to Colonial Secretary, repeated to Minister of State, Cairo, 21 November 1942, 6/42/40, FO 921/7. 39. J. S. Bennett, 15 December 1942, minute on a report sent by the Chief Secretry's Office, Jerusalem, 10 December, 6/42/46, ibid. 40. MacMichael to Colonial Office, 24/4/43, E2420, FO 371/35030. See also E2856/G, FO 371/35034. 41. 15/5/43, E2902, FO 371/35030; also E4643. 42. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, pp. 171-2. See E4749!G, FO 371/35037; E6282, FO 371/35040. See also Kirk, The Middle East, pp. 307-9; Hurewitz, Struggle, p. 197; and Bauer, Yehuda, pp. 270-1. 43. See S25/6039, and S25/6651, Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem; Cohen, Palestine, pp. 122-4. 44. Gilbert, Road to Victory, p. 912; Hurewitz, Struggle, pp. 173-4; Michael J. Cohen, Churchill and the Jews (London: Frank Cass, 1985), pp. 225-7. 45. Gelber, The Defence of Palestine', pp. 78-81. He described the Carmel scheme as a 'myth', and pointed out that while one Haganah leader, Yohanan Ratner, stated that it was meant to defend the Yishuv from the south, another leader, Yitzhak Sadeh, stated that it was to meet the threat from the north. 46. Yoav Gelber, 'Ben-Gurion and the Formation of the Israel Defence Forces, 1947-1948', in Ronald W. Zweig (ed.), David Ben-Gurion: Politics and Leadership in Israel (London: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 194-7; and Chaim Herzog, TIle Arab-Israeli Wars (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1982), p. 19. Rabin commented bitterly about the lack of preparation by the leadership of the Yishuv in the period preceding the struggle for Independence. See Yitzhak Rabin, The Rabin Memoirs (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979), p. 21. 47. Extract from the Mansion House Speech, The Times, 30 May 1941, annex III, ME (0) (41) 5, '', 2 October 1941, f. 280, CAB 95/1. 48. DGFP, vol. XIII, doc. 428, pp. 704-5, 28 October 1941, Bismarck in Rome to Foreign Ministry. 49. Ibid.,5 November 1941, Mackensen to Foreign Ministry, doc. no. 449, pp. 742-3. 50. Ibid., 13 November 1941, Memorandum by Ribbentrop for Hitler, doc. no. 468, pp. 774-9. The memorandum was written a week after the Mufti arrived in Berlin. Ribbentrop wrote: 'Broadcasts in Arabic are made daily from Berlin. The Athens radio station has now also been made available ... Action will also be stepped up [with regard to) ... exerting influence by the press, especially periodicals... the special military preparations with which Special Staff Felmy is charged.' 51. Ibid., 15 November 1941, Hitler's reply to Ribbentrop, doc. 475, pp. 786-7. 52. Ibid., 23 November 1941, Abetz to foreign ministry, doc. 494, pp. 815-16. 53. Ibid., 28 November 1941, Ribbentro~Grand Mufti talks in Berlin, doc. no. 514, pp. 876-81. 54. Ibid., 30 November 1941, Hitler-Mufti talk in Berlin on 28 November in pres- ence of Ribbentrop and of Grobba, doc. no. 515, pp. 881-5. 55. Connell, Auchinleck, pp. 251-63; Carver, Dilemmas. pp. 27-9. 56. Letter of 21 July 1941, printed in Connell, Auchinleck, p. 260. 57. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, pp. 122-3. 58. 'Eastward Extension of the War in the Middle East', 9 July 1941, JP (41) 532, ff. 365-76, CAB 79/12, discussed and approved by COS on 15 July 1941. f. 432. See also WO 208/1563: 'Analysis of Timings of a Possible German Advance on Syria and Iraq via Turkey' by MI3, 6 August 1941. 59. JP (41) 532, ibid., f. 373. 272 Notes and References

60. Ibid. 61. The letter was published in Connell, Auchinleck, pp. 258-62. 62. The order was dated 18 October 1941: WO 201/367. 63. Ibid., HQ Ninth Army, undated memorandum in reply to letter of 25/11/41. 64. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 126. 65. HQ 1 Australian Corps, 2 October 1941, WO 201/183. 66. Ibid. 67. Minutes of COS (42) 6th meeting, 6 January 1942, CAB 79/17, ff. 117-18. See also Bryant, The Turn of the Tide, pp. 286-7. 68. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 127-9. 69. Auchinleck despatch, p. 319. His revised operation instructions for defence of the Northern Front were issued on 23 February 1942: GHQ, MEF Operation Instruction no. 112. 70. Ibid., p. 130. 71. 'Guide to Palestine Fortress', Ninth Army, 6 September 1943, WO 201/227. The guide was written to ensure continuity of planning and construction and to inform incoming formations of their function in the scheme. Detailed plans are in WO 201/178-82. 72. Ibid., ff. 11-13,16. 73. Auchinleck despatch of 27 January 1943, p. 329. My underlining. Auchinleck's reference was to his operation instruction: CHQ, MEF Operation Instruction no. 134, 22nd July 1942 - Appendix 20. 74. Wilson, Eight Years Overseas, p. 131, wrote: 'such a volte face in defence was unexpected'. 75. Alexander despatch, p. 842. 76. Alexander memoirs, pp. 18-19. 77. Gelber, 'The Defence of Palestine', pp. 76-9. 78. Yehuda Bauer, p. 183 (his italics). 79. Hinsley et ai., British Intelligence, vol II, pp. 101-2, 106-8,341-3,399. But during April the CIGS, General Brooke, thought that the Germans might attack Cyprus and Syria as an alternative to continuing their offensive in Russia. Bryant, p. 359. In June Brooke was still very concerned about the danger from the north. Playfair, The Mediterranean and the Middle East, vol. III, p. 362. He changed his mind after his trip to Moscow. Alexander stated in his despatch, p. 840, that on his appointment as C-in-C, Middle East in August 1942 'the threat of a German advance through Anatolia was now considered remote, and it was reasonably certain, at the worst, that Germany would not present an ultimatum to Turkey before the spring of 1943.' 80. Bryant referred to the first Ceylon air battle as 'one of the turning points in the war', pp. 348-52. 363. See also Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 271-2. 81. Minutes of COS (42) 76th meeting, 9 March 1942, CAB 79/19, f. 57. On Brooke's suggestion, the committee instructed the Joint Planning Committee to prepare a short appreciation for Wavell. The reply from Wave II raised the comment from Sir Charles Portal, Chief of Air Staff, 'that Wavell still appeared to underestimate the importance of Ceylon as a base for the protec• tion of the lines of communication of both India and the Middle East' (minutes of COS (42) 85th meeting, 16 March 1942, f. 194). 82. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence, vol. II, p. 430. 83. Diary, 19 August 1940, pp. 213-15; printed in T. Evans (ed.)" Killeam Diaries, pp. 125-7. 84. High Commissioner Palestine and Trans-Jordan to Secretary of State for the Colonies (copied to minister of state, Cairo), 9 November 1942, 6(15)/42/9, FO Notes and References 273

921(10. The letter concluded: 'The arguments against allowing any such situa• tion to arise were clearly and forcefully marshalled in Lord Winterton's letter to Mr Myron Taylor dated 28th May 1942.' 85. Stanley to MacMichael, repeated to Minister of State, Cairo, 4 December 1942, 6 (15) 42/15, FO 921/10. The numbers Stanley proposed accepting were well within the established quota. Stanley succeeded Viscount Cranborne as Colonial Secretary on 24 November 1942. 86. Ibid., Clayton to Minister of State, 16 November 1942, 6(15)/42/10. Security objections were also raised by the Lt-General i/c Administration in his note to the Minister of State, 18 November 1942,6(15)/42/11, ibid. 87. Clayton to J. S. Bennett, Office of the Minister of State, Cairo, I August 1942, FO 921/6. 88. See Morse, While Six Million Died, ch. 3; David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (New York: Pantheon, 1984), ch. 6. 89. Killearn Diary, 10-13 May 1943 regarding Middle East War Council Conference, pp. 93-8. 90. Report of the Committee, chaired by Herbert Morrison, Home Secretary, 20 December 1943, P. (M) (43) 29. (Also WP (43) 563), CAB 95/14. See also Cohen, Retreat, ch. 9; and Cohen, Churchill, pp. 242-60.

Conclusion

1. W. K. Hancock and M. M. Gowing, The British War Economy, History of the Second World War, Civil Series (London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co., 1949), p. 97 indicate that the Germans themselves had exaggerated its successes in 1914-18 to cover up their own mistakes in planning the war economy. 'The distortion,' they wrote, 'fostered the illusion in the western democracies that blockade ... could be employed as a substitute for military force.' 2. This was countered in December 1940 by American and British offers of food aid and credit facilities, but the German conquest of Greece and Rommel's advance through Libya in the spring of 1941 increased the pressure on Spain to join the Axis. See ADM 199/2518, pp. 21-2; Woodward, British Foreign Policy, vol. I, pp. 442, 449; W. M. Medlicott, The Economic Blockade (London: HMSO. 1952), vol. 1, ch. 15. 3. Woodward, British Foreign Policy, vol. I, p. 247 reproduced the declaration of the Turkish prime minister on June 26. See also Deringil, Turkish Foriegn Policy, pp. 97-102. 4. Lampson to FO, 10 April 1941, J926/18/16, FO 371(27429. 5. See James Jankowski, 'Egyptian Responses to the Palestine Problem in the Interwar Period,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 12 (1980), pp. 1-38, and 'The Government of Egypt and the Palestine Question, 1936-1939', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 17 (1981), pp. 427-53; Thomas Mayer, 'Egypt and the 1936 Arab Revolt in Palestine', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 19, 1984, pp. 275-97. 6. Yehoshua Porath, In Search of Arab Unity, 1930-1945 (London: Frank Cass, 1986), pp. 315-16. 7. Quoted in ibid., p. 310. See also Michael Thornhill, 'Britain and the Politics of the Arab League, 1943-50', in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Demise; and Ahmed M. Gomaa, The Foundations of the League of Arab States: War-time Diplomacy and [liter-Arab Politics, 1941-45 (London: Longman, 1977). 274 Notes and References

8. The Unrelenting Struggle: War Speeches by the Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill CH, MP, compiled by Charles Eade (London: Cassell, 1946), vol. II, 4th edn, pp. 231, 232. Reports on Enigma decodes were sent to the prime minister, for his eyes only, on a daily basis, starting in August 1941. The records are at the Public Record Office in the HWI series. 9. 12 September 1941, HWI/62. 10. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, vol. II, pp. 214-17, 355-65, 399-413, 456-66; Aaron David Miller, Search for Security: Saudi Arabian Oil and American Foreign Policy, 1939-1949 (University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 12-16; Odell, Oil and World Power, p. 193; Barry Rubin, The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1941-1947 (London: Frank Cass, 1980), pp. 12-13; Venn, Oil Diplomacy, ch. 4. 11. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 444-53, 539-44, 562-70; Miller, Search for Security, pp. 40-5; Venn, Oil Diplomacy, p. 99. 12. Hurewitz, Documentary Record, pp. 804-5; see also pp. 695-9 regarding 1944 guidelines on USA Foreign Petroleum Policy. The objectives included 'the stabilization and safeguarding of American concession rights' and the elimina• tion of 'the unilateral political intervention that has characterized Middle Eastern petroleum affairs hitherto'. See also Rubin, The Great Powers, chs. 2, 4. 13. Cab 95/8, f. 29. 14. See Robert Vitalis, When Capitalists Collide: Business Conflict and the End of Empire in Egypt (University of California Press, 1995); and his article 'The "New Deal" in Egypt: The Rise of Anglo-American Commercial Competition in World War II and the Fall of Neocolonialism', Diplomatic History, vol. 20, no. 2 (Spring 1996), pp. 211-40. 15. Cited in Hurewitz, Documentary Record, p. 731; see also pp. 589-95; 700-4. 16. Vitalis, 'The "New Deal" in Egypt', p. 213. 17. Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Waifare 1941-1942 ( Army in World War II: The War Department); Office of the Chief of Military History, Washington, DC, 1953; Kimball (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt, vol. I: Alliance Emerging, pp. 175-86; Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, pp. 314-17; Mark Skinner Watson, Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations (United States Army in World War II: The War Department, Washington, DC, 1950), ch. 12; Churchill, The Second World War, vol. III, pp. 208, 377-9; Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, p. 418. 18. Malloff and Snell, Strategic Planning, chs. 11-14. 19. WO 106/2290, p. 90, 98. 20. ADM 199/2518, p. 63. 21. T. H. Vail Motter, The Persian Co"idorandAid to Russia (United States Army in World War II: The Middle East Theater, Office of the Chief of Military History, US Department of the Army, Washington, DC, 1952), p. 6. In addi• tion, almost 5000 aircraft of all types were delivered to the USSR between 1942 and 1945, table 11, p. 498. The figure does not include unassembled aircraft given to the Soviets. 22. Lampson to Eden, 29 April 1941, 'Review of Political Developments in Egypt during last 3 months', J1509/18/16, FO 371/27430, ff. 127-8. 23. See Nicholas Owen, 'Britain and : The Labour governments and the Middle East, 1945-51', and Rodney Wilson, 'Economic Aspects of Arab nationalism', both in Cohen and Kolinsky (eds), Demise. See also W. Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East 1945-1951 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984); and Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin, Foreign Secretary 1945-1951 (Oxford UP, 1985). Bibliography

UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

Public Record Office, London, Kew (PRO) Admiralty: ADM 1, ADM 116, ADM 199. Air Ministry: AIR 2, AIR 5, AIR 8, AIR 9, AIR 23. Cabinet Office: CAB 2, CAB 16, CAB 23, CAB 24, CAB 29, CAB 51, CAB 53, CAB 65, CAB 66, CAB 79, CAB 80, CAB 81, CAB 85, CAB 95, CAB 99. Colonial Office: CO 732, CO 733, CO 814, CO 821. Foreign Office: FO 141, FO 371, FO 406, FO 921 London Gazette: ZJI. Prime Minister's Office: PREM I, PREM 3, PREM 4, HWI. War Office: WO 32, WO 33, WO 106, WO 169, WO 191, WO 201, WO 208, WO 216.

Private Papers

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Archives in Israel

Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem Haganah Archives, Israel State Archives, Jerusalem Weizmann Archives, Rehovot

Archives in the USA

Library of Congress: Cordell Hull papers, Breckinridge Long papers, George C. Marshall papers, Myron C. Taylor papers National Archives: General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59; US Joint Chiefs of Staff, RG 218

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Documents on Foreign Policy

Documents on British Foreign Policy (DBFP), Second Series 1929-38, Third Series 1938-39 Documents Diplomatiques Fran<;ais, Ie Serie 1932-1935, 2e Serie 1936-1939 Documenti Diplomatici Italiani, 1860-1943 Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series D Foreign Relations of the United States

Other Official Publications

The French Yellow Book (diplomatic documents 1938-9), published on the author• ity of the French Government by Hutchinson & Co., London and Melbourne, n.d Fiihrer Conferences on Naval Affairs, 1939-45 in Brassey's Naval Annual 1948 (London: Clowes & Sons) Government of Palestine, A Survey of Palestine, prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, (Palestine, Government Printer, 1946) 3 vols Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 1936-42 Hansard, House of Lords Debates, 1936-42

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Edelheit, Hershel and Abraham J. Edelheit, A World in Tunnoil: An Integrated Chronology of the Holocaust and World War II (New York and London: Greenwood, 1991) Hurewitz, J.c., The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, vol. II (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1979, 2nd edn rev. and enlarged) Pitt, Barrie and Frances Pitt, The Chronological Atlas of World War II (Macmillan, 1989) Review of the Foreign Press, 1939-1945, Series B, vols I-VI (Royal Institute of International Affairs, reprinted by Kraus International Publications, Munich, 1980) The Second World War: A Guide to Documents in the Public Record Office, PRO Handbook no. 15 (2nd edn) by John D. Cantwell (London: HMSO, 1993) Williams, Neville, Chronology of the Modem World, 1763-1965 (Penguin, 1975)

DIARIES, LEITERS, MEMOIRS, ETC

The Memoirs of Field-Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis, 1940-1945, ed. John North (London: Cassell, 1962) Amery, Leo, My Political Life (London: Hutchinson, 1953) 3 vols Ben-Gurion, David, Rebirth and Destiny of Israel (London: 1959, trans.) Ben-Gurion, David, Letters to Paula (London: Valentine & Mitchell, 1971, trans.) Bryant, Arthur. The Tum of the Tide, 1939-1943: A Study based on the Diaries and Autobiographical Notes of Field Marshal The Viscount Alanbrooke (London: Collins, 1957) Casey, Lord, Personal Experience 1939-1946 (London: Constable, 1962) De Chair, Somerset, The Golden Carpet (London: Faber and Faber, 1944) Chandos, Viscount (Oliver Lyttelton), Memoirs of Lord Chandos (London: Bodley Head, 1962) Churchill, Winston S., The Second World War (London: Cassell, 1948-1953,6 vols) Churchill, Winston S., The Unrelenting Struggle: War Speeches by the Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill, CH, MP, vol. II, compiled by Charles Eade (London: Cassell, 1946, 4th edn) Ciano's Diary, 1937-1938, with an introduction by Malcolm Muggeridge (London: Methuen, 1952, trans.) Ciano's Diary, 1939-1943, ed. with an introduction by Malcolm Muggeridge (London: Heinemann, 1947, trans.) Colville, John, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, 1939-1955, vol. I: 1939-0ctober 1941 (London: Sceptre, 1986) Cunningham, Viscount, A Sailor's Odyssey (London: Hutchinson, 1951) Dayan, Moshe, The Story of My Life (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976) Gaulle, Charles de, War Memoirs: The Call to Honour 1940-1942, and companion volume of documents (London: Collins, 1955, trans.) Dilks, David (ed.), The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan 1938-1945 (London: Cassell, 1971) Douglas, Lord, Years of Command (London: Collins, 1966) Eden, Anthony, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (London: Cassell, 1962); The Reckoning (1965) HaIVey, John (ed.), The Diplomatic Diaries of Oliver Harvey, 1937-1940 (London: Collins, 1970) HaIVey, John (ed.), The War Diaries of Oliver Han'ey, 1941-1945 (London: Collins, 1978) 278 Bibliography

The Ironside Diaries, 1937-1940 ed. Col. R. Macleod and Denis Kelly (London: Constable, 1962) Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960) Kennedy: Bernard Fergusson (ed.), The Business of War: The War Narrative of Major• General Sir John Kennedy (London: Hutchinson, 1957) Killearn Diaries (Lampson), ed. Trefor E. Evans, The Killearn Diaries, 1934-1946 (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972) Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt: The Diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935-1937, ed. M. E. Yapp (published for The British Academy by Oxford UP, 1997) Kimball, Warren F. (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, 3 vols. (London: Collins, 1984) Kirkbride, A, A Crackle of Thoms (London: 1956) Knatchbull-Hugessen, Sir Hughe, Diplomat in Peace and War (London: John Murray, 1949) MacDonald, Malcolm, Titans and Others (London: 1972) Macmillan, Harold, Winds of Change, 1914-1939 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966) Marshall-Cornwall, James, Wars and Rumours of Wars: A Memoir (Leo Cooper/ Secker & Warburg, 1984) Massigli, Rene, La Turquie devant la guerre, Mission a Ankara, 1939-40 (Paris: Pion, 1964) Nasser, Gamal Abdel, The Philosophy of the Revolution (Buffalo, NY: Smith, Keynes & Marshall, 1959) Neguib, Mohammed, Egypt's Destiny (London: Gollancz, 1955) Papen, Franz von, Memoirs (London: Andre Deutsch, trans., 1952) Pownall: Brian Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff. The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, vol I: 1933-1940 (London: Leo Cooper, 1972); vol. II, (1974) Rabin, Yitzhak, The Rabin Memoirs (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979) Rendel, George, The Sword and the Olive (London: John Murray, 1957) Reynaud, Paul, In the Thick of the Fight, 1930-1945 (London: Cassell, 1955, trans. from Au Coeur de la Melee [Paris: Flammarion, 1951]) EI-Sadat, Anwar, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (London: Collins, 1978) EI-Sadat, Anwar, Revolt on the Nile (London: Allan Wingate, 1957, trans.) Sherwood, Robert E., Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948) Spears, Sir Edward, Fulfilment of a Mission: Syria and Lebanon, 1941-1944 (London: Leo Cooper, 1977) Tedder, Lord, With Prejudice: War Memoirs (London: Cassell, 1966) Vansittart, Lord, The Mist Procession (London: 1958) Villelume, Paul de, Journal d'une defaite (23 aout 1939-16 juin 1940) (Paris: Fayard, 1976) Weizmann, Chaim, The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, series A, Letters, vols. XVII-XXI, and Series B: Papers, 2 vols (Transaction Books, Rutgers University, Israel Universities Press, Jerusalem, 1979, and 1983-4) Weizmann, Chaim, Trial and Error, an autobiography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1949) Weizsaecker, Ernst von, Memoirs (London: Gollancz, 1951, trans.) Welles, Sumner, Seven Major Decisions (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1951) Weygand, Maxime, Memoires: Rappele all service vol. III (Paris: Flammarion, 1950) Wilson, Field Marshal Lord, Eight Years Overseas, 1939-1947 (London: Hutchinson, 1950) Bibliography 279

OFFICIAL HISTORIES

History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series

Grand Strategy: 6 vols The Mediterranean and the Middle East, 6 vols The War at Sea, 1939-1945,3 vols British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, 5 vols, by Sir Llewellyn Woodward; abridged summary volume, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War (London: HMSO,1962) British Intelligence in the Second World War, 3 vols, by F. H. Hinsleyet. al

United Kingdom Civil Series:

Hancock, W. K. and M. M. Gowing, The British War Economy (London: HMSO, 1949) Medlicott, W. M., The Economic Blockade, 2 vols (London: HMSO, 1952)

United States Army in World War II

Matloff, Maurice and Edwin M. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Waifare, 1941-1942 (Washington DC, 1953) Motter, T. H. Vail, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington DC, 1952) Watson, Mark Skinner. Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations (Washington DC, 1950)

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Abadan oil refinery, 6 Allied preparations, strategy, 113, Abdul-I1ah, Regent of Iraq, 156, 162 114,116 Abdullah, Emir of Trans-Jordan, 214 , 195 Abetz, Otto, German Ambassador in America, American, Americans Paris, 154, 161, 163,173,197 (see also United States), 13,32, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), 1, 12, 190 118,173,182,189,202,204, crisis, 2, 15, 17-20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 215, 216 29,33,37,93,207,226 n42 American aid, 3, 8, 9, 14, 156,218 Italian annexation of, 19,20,66 consul-general in Lebanon, 168 Adam, General, deputy CIGS, 188 entrepreneurs, 217 Aden, 18,30,97,100,101,116,119, entry into war, 217 140, 160 lend-lease, 216,217, 218 Gulf of Aden, 1 military planners, 218 Aegean, 17, 18, 94, 98, 106, 110, 111, oil interests, sources, 182,216 112, 172 'Open Door' trade policy Afifi, Hafez, 128 objectives, 217 Afghanistan, 6, 103, 108, 157 Amery, Leo, Conservative MP and Africa, African, 17, 119, 173, 182 Secretary of State for India, 10, East Africa, 100, 103, 109, 118, 122, 156, 160,222 n34, 240 n85, 260 143, 150, 155, 176, 189 n70 North Africa, 2, 4, 8, 14, 15, 17,28, Andaman Islands, 202 98, 100, 104, 121, 145, 150, 151, Andrews, Lewis, assassination of, 60 152, 153, 156, 197 Anglo-American conference at South Africa, 102, 186 (see also Jewish West Africa, 14, 197 Refugees), 204, 215 Albania, 144, 149 Anglo-American relations in the Italian invasion of, 22, 40, 86, 89, Middle East, 215-19 97,98 Middle East Supply Centre Alexander, A.V. First Lord of the (MESC), 216-17, 218 Admiralty, 10 Operation 'Torch' (North Africa), Alexander, General, C-in-C, Middle 218 East, 20, 182 Anglo-Arab relations, 54, 59, 80-88, Alexandria (see also Egypt), 3, 8, 18, 205,206,208,209,214 28,30,33,41,42,80,86, 101, Anglo-Egyptian relations (see also 130,170,174,180,181,183,210 Egypt), 15, 17, 29, 34, 35, 3~7, , 94, 182,209 123-31,210-11 Algiers, 14 alliance, 122, 131, 178, 186 Allied, Allies, 4, 7, 94, 97, 104, 105, doctrine of non-intervention, 15, 106,108,110,111,115,121,134, 32,33,37-8,46 173,184,191,195,196,205,217 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see also Allied forces, 98, 103, 104, 106, 107, Sudan), 17 112,113115,117,167 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, 1936,2,12, Allied leaders, 115 15, 17, 29-31, 32, 37, 38, 40, 43,

287 288 Index

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty - continued 65,67,69,70,71-3,74,75,77, 46,66,71,73,80,93,96,122, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 88, 124,126,176,177,178,208,210, 89,90,92,96, 123, 132, 144, 212,251 n19 158, 163, 185, 190, 193, 206, demands for revision of, 15, 124, 207,213,214 177,213,219 Arabic language, 185; broadcasts, opposition to treaty, 211 197 Anglo-French alliance, 4, 6, 15, 17, Arab League, 12,214 29, 72, 93-121, 137, 139, 165, kings, princes, rulers, 49, 53, 55, 57, 207,208 58,59,61,62,68, 78, 79, 87, Allied Military Committee, 112, 208 115,116 movement for unity, 12, 16, 62, 197, joint strategic planning, 93, 113, 213-14,235 n62 114-21,248 ns116, 119 nationalism, nationalists, 1, 2, 42, naval co-operation, 207, 209 68, 93, 122, 132, 139, 145, Supreme War Council, 104, 105, 153-5,156,169,191,196,208, 107,110,115,116,117 209,212,213,214 Anglo-French relations, 24-9, 226 pan-Arab,2,45,62, 78,122,125, n42 132,156,191,197,212,213, continental commitment, 25-6, 27, 214 95,97, 107, 109 world, 54, 55, 61, 64, 79, 80, 88, Anglo-French-Turkish Treaty, 1939, 126, 133, 140, 157, 158, 196, 106,242 n17 198 military assistance to Turkey, 247 Asia Minor, 22, 93 ns92, 110, 113, 249 n153 Atlantic, 103, 118, 120, 165,210 Anglo-German naval agreement, German raiders in, 103, 120, 244 1935, 24, 25, 26 n46 French views on, 226 n44 shipping losses in, 5 Anglo-Iranian oil fields (see also Attala, Ibrahim, Chief of Egyptian Persian, Iranian oil fields), 108, staff, 129, 179, 252 n29 109, 140, 199 Attlee, Clement, Labour minister and Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, 1930,2,60,71, prime minister, 10,89 73,80,81,93,96, 156-7,208 Auchinleck, General Sir Claude, Anglo-Italian agreements, 23, 27, 44 C-in-C, India, 130, 141, 156, 160, Anglo-Italian relations, 93 161 Anglo-Italian war, 126 C-in-C, Middle East, 166, 170, 179, Anglo-Turkish alliance, 98, 209 180,181,182,191,193,198, Antonescu, Marshal Ion (see also 199,200,201 Romania) 147 Austria, annexed by Germany 1938 Antonius, George, Palestinian Arab (anschluss), 20, 22, 50, 74 nationalist representative, 78 crisis, 67 Arab, Arabs, Arabian, ix, 2, 3, 15, 16, independence, 25 23,30,40,41,43,44,45,53,82, Australia, Australian, 5, 21, 50, 76, 85,86,87,89,91,92,96,135, 77,88,99,102,136,174,243n26 136, 137, 145, 154, 155, 159, 167, prime minister, 143 169,190,191,192,193,196,197, Axis, Axis powers, ix, 1,2,4, 7, 8, 15, 198,203,208,212,214,216 16,20,23,27,43,119,120,121, Arab countries, governments, 123, 143, 146, 150, 153, 159, 157, states, 49, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 160, 164, 170, 171, 173, 175, 176, Index 289

177,180,186,196,201,203,204, Ben-Gurion, David, Zionist leader 209,210,213,217 (see also Palestine), 49, 83, 92, adherence to by Romania 147, 136,194,195,196,206 Hungary 147, Bulgaria 147, Berlin (see also Germany), 7, 20, 84, 148, Yugoslavia, 149, 150 154,161,196 Axis-Arab co-operation, 196-8 Bevin, Ernest, Labour minister, 10, convoys, 170, 171, 172, 174, 183, 205,215,219 184,210 Black Sea, 6, 94, 98, 105, 120, 192, declaration of support for Arab 206 independence, 154-5 Bonnet, Georges, French foreign forces, 170, 177, 182,202,209,218 minister, 27, 76 offensive in North Africa, 179, 180, Bracken, Brendan, Conservative MP, 182; losses in North Africa, 9,10 218 Britain, British (see also Egypt, pro-Axis (see also Iraq), 213 defence of; Mediterranean; Azzam, Abd aI-Rahman, Egyptian Middle East; Palestine, defence politician and secretary-general of; Suez Canal) of the Arab League, 43, 124, 175, Abyssinian crisis and 'emergency', 250 n6, 251 nlO 1, 17-24, 66, 207 Admiralty, 18,22,24,26,93, 101, Backhouse, Admiral Sir Roger, 244 104,141,174,207 n46 Air Ministry, 54, 102; Baghdad 2, 64, 153, 157, 159, 160, appeasement of Arabs, 70-92; of 161, 162 Germany, 21, 27, 28; of Italy, Baghdad-Haifa overland route, 26, 12, 15, 17-24, 27, 80, 93, 97, 66, 71, 96, 98, 109, 140 207, 208, 211 , 216 anti-British, 20, 42, 43, 45, 93, 119, Baldwin, Stanley, prime minister, 9, 120, 122, 125, 127, 128, 153, 21,57 155,175,183,184,186,211 Balfour declaration, 62, 90 anti-Semitism in, 76 Ball, Joseph, links with Dino Grandi, army, 9, 25-6, 97, 106, 134, 136, 221-2n31 142, 143, 193, 196, 205; British Balkan, Balkans, 6, 7, 8, 15, 22, 23, Military Mission in Egypt, 45, 93,94, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 125,130,131; Eighth Army, 108,110,101,107,109,110, Ill, 174,179,181,182,200,201, 112,113,115,116,117,119,121, 202; Field Force for France 122,143,146,147,162,209,217 (British Expeditionary Force, Balkan bloc, front, 98, 104, 106, BEF), 67-8, 72-3, 97, 102, 106, Ill, 119, 147, 148, 149 134; foreign allies in British Baltic states 7, 146 army: Czech, 136; Polish, 136, Banna, Hassan, head of Muslim 137; Ninth Army, 182, 199, Brotherhood (see also Egypt), 43, 200; redeployment of troops 175,178,182 from Palestine, 132-6, 140-1, Barker, General, GOC Palestine, 91 236 n79, 237 n14, 240 n77; Basra, 1,2,6,41, 71, 101, 140 reinforcements from India to Bedouin, 192 Egypt, 66, 71, 96, 154; Tenth Beirut (see also Lebanon), 44, Ill, Army, 182,200; troop 117,165,167,168,199 movements between Egypt and Belgium 10, 95 Palestine, 66-8, 86, 96, 102, 290 Index

Britain, - continued 1,12,26,32-3,34,48,71, 122, 128, 167 79-80,93,96,104,121,129, , 68, 129, 132, 141, 139,160,165,170,187,188, 142 198,204,205,206,207,208, Board of Trade, 22 213,218,219; imperial Chiefs of Staff (COS) Committee, preference, 217 1,6, 11, 18,21,25,26,29-30, Foreign Office, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 40-2,43,59,60,66,68,69,71, 22, 28, 30, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 72, 73, 79-80, 81, 86, 93, 99, 46,47,54,55,57,58,61,68, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106, 107, 69, 72, 73, 77, 79, 81, 82, 86, 108,109,110,111,113,116, 87,91, 107, 123, 125, 126, 127, 117,118,119,121,132,134, 128, 129, 132, 139, 149, 162, 138, 143, 149, 151, 152, 158, 172, 175, 184, 187,205,208, 159, 165, 166,202,205,210, 209, 211, 213-14, 215; criti• 215, 226 n56, 236 n3, 246 ns75, cisms of, 63, 162,263 n106; 82,250 n155, 253 n41, 260-1 diplomatic representatives in n80; Mediterranean the Middle East, 204; senior Appreciation, 1938,71-2,73, officials, Oliphant, 65 Rendel, 95; European Appreciation, 57,61, 71, 235 n60; Vansittart, 1939,42,95-6,101;Joint 57 Intelligence Committee (JIC), guarantee to Greece, 147 113; Joint Planning Staff India Office, 59 Committee (JPS), 95, 1I3 London, 1, 14, 16,24,42,44,45,46, Colonial Office, 12,51,58-9,82, 51,65,73,74,75,76,80,91, 88,91, 100, 132, 188, 190 92,97, 102, 103, 1I2, 123, 124, Commanders-in-Chief, Middle 138, 140, 146, 148, 156, 158, East, 13-14, 114, 117, 127, 129, 161, 177, 184, 185,207,208 141,185,191,170,171,180, Mediterranean strategy, 93, 94, 182,184,204 95-6,100-1 Committee of Imperial Defence, military weakness in 1939, 85 18, 19,26,28, 103, 123 Minister of State in Cairo, 13-14, decodes of Enigma signals, 150, 175; office of, 195 159, 165, 215, 273-4 n8 Ministry of Supply, 188 defeat in Greece, 148, 151 National Unity government, 7, 10, defence of Middle East, 3-4, 5, 6, 117 25 navy, 207, 208; capital ships, 18,24, Defence White Paper, 1936, 19 103, 149; Force 'K' attack off embassy in Egypt, 32-3, 34-42, 46, Cape Spartivento, 172; 47,90, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, Matapan victory, 150; 128,130,170, 174,179, 180, Mediterranean fleet losses, 183, 184, 186, 187,211; Sir 174; in Red Sea, 94,101,202, Alexander Keown-Boyd, 33; 260 n71; Taranto attack, 144 Sir Walter Smart, 33 parliament, 9-11, 14,58,60,62, 63, embassy in Iraq, 157 75,76,77,81,87,95,123,196, Jewish refugees in, 76 204 Ministry of Economic Warfare, plans for the evacuation of Egypt, 103, 193; Britain and Egypt, 1942, 170, 174, 179-82 127-8, 170-87, 252 ns22, 23, pro-British, 125, 129, 139 265 n21; empire, imperial, ix, RAF, 6, 9, 18,25-6,30,41,65,66, Index 291

72,96,97, 100-1, 102, 108, 109, 30,31,37,38,44,53,64,86,89, 134, 143, 147-8, 152, 153, 156, 90, 92, 101, 122, 140, 141, 148, 157,159,166,173,180,198, 156,165,170,171,174,181,182, 200; diversions from Middle 193, 201, 204, 210 East, 174; Middle East Canada, 50, 88 Command, 100 Canaris, Admiral Wilhelm, Abwehr, , 100 155 Britain and the Soviet Union, 6-7 Cape supply route, 41, 66, 141, 142, St James's conference on Palestine, 180, 189,216 1939 (see also Palestine: White Carol, King of Romania, 146 Paper), 44, 45, 75, 76, 80-92, Casey, Richard, Minister of State in 123,208 Cairo, 14, 184,204 strategic assets, interests, needs, 2, Caspian Sea, 10 1 3,5,6, 9, 17, 18, 20, 79-80 Caucasus (see also Russia, Soviet strategic assets and interests in Union), 6, 7, 8, 108, 138, 182, Palestine, 60, 62-3, 66, 82, 197-8,199,200,202 86-7,91,92 Grozny oilfield, 202 strategy, 3, 15, 17, 18,20-1,23,26, Transcaucasia, 169 99-100, 102, 103, 107-21, 132, Ceylon (), 202 139-44,145-69,207-10, air battle, 272 n80 213-15 strategic importance of, 272 n81 Treasury, 22, 41, 67, 124, 125, 129, Chalmers, Rear-Admiral, 112, 115 131,206,217,219,253 n39 Chakmak, Marshal Fevzi, Chief of treaty of alliance with Turkey, 147, Turkish General Staff, 107 162, 163 Chamberlain, Neville, prime minister, war cabinet, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 7,9,10,12,17,21,22,23,26,27, 105,106, 109, 116, 117, 121, 28,29,39-40,67,69,70,73,75-6, 128, 136, 138, 139, 140, 149, 82,84,95,97, 104, 105, 107, Ill, 151,158,160,175,185,190, 114, 115, 124,207,208,211 193,194,203,204,205,206, Lord President of the Council, 11 215; decision on armoured views on Palestine issue, 61, 63, 64, reinforcements for Egypt, 255 78,79,81,82,83-4,88,89 ns82, 84; decision not to allow Chancellor, Sir John, high SS Struma to proceed to commissioner for Palestine, 49, Haifa, 270 n20; ministerial 52 committee on Palestine, 205 Chatfield, Admiral Lord, Minister for War Office, 26, 42, 54, 72, 86, 113, the Co-ordination of Defence, 131,133,136,148,188,190, 11, 19, 28, 80, 86, 104, 222 n35, 191,193,195 230 n33 Whitehall, 44, 47, 58-9, 113,205, China, 99 215 Churchill, Winston, Conservative MP, Brooke, General Sir Alan, CIGS, 142, 7,8,9,10,11,13 181, 182, 202, 272 n79, 272 n81 decisions to aid Greece, 142, 146, Buhrer, General Jules, Inspector of 148, 151, 257 n37 French Colonial forces, 104 Defence Committee, 142, 148, 159, Bulgaria, 7, 94,105,113,147,148, 165, 167 162-3, 169,203 favours establishment of Jewish Army, 215 Cairo (see also Egypt), 5, 13, 14,29, First Lord of the Admiralty, 10 292 Index

Churchill, Winston - continued evacuation of troops from Greece Minister of Defence, 11, 151,220 and Crete, 257 n31, 258 n48 n7, 222 n38; Cyprus, 30, 93, 95, 100, 143, 152, 153, Nazi mass murders, WSC 165, 191. 204, 208 knowledge of, 214-15 Cyrenaica (see also Libya), 1,2, 17, prime minister, 10, 117, 118, 122, 45, 149, 151, 152 132, 133-6, 137, 138, 139, 142, Czechoslovakia, 27, 28, 67, 84, 85, 93 143, 144, 146, 148, 156, 165, Nazi occupation of, 84, 85, 97 166, 176, 184, 185, 189, 193, 214-15,222 ns34, 45, 253 n40 Dakar, 165, 173 reinforcements to Egypt, 141-2, Daladier, Edouard, French prime 143,264 n131 minister, 27, 28, 73, 104, 105, troop transfers, 68 110-11, 115,245 n53 views on White Paper on Palestine, Darlan, Admiral Fran~ois, 104, 110, 10, 204-5, 215, 240 n85 117, 161, 164-5, 173-4 WSC and Roosevelt, 218 Dentz, General Henri, French high WSC and General Auchinleck, commissioner in Syria, 161, 165, 181-2 168 WSC and General Wave II, 139-41, Dill, General Sir John, GOC 145-6, 158, 160, 166,254 n79, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 269 n15 57-8,60; CIGS, 14, 115, 127, 138, Ciano, Count Galeazzo, Italian 140,141,142,198,199 foreign minister, 20, 23, 111 decision to aid Greece, 148, 151 Clark, General George, commander Dodecanese Islands, 95, 98,117,148, of 'Habforce', 158 149,153 Clayton, Brigadier Sir I1tyd, 203-4 Rhodes, 149 Conservative party, 9-11, 87, 135 Dominions, 139 Cornwallis, Sir Kinahan, British Duff Cooper, Alfred, Conservative Ambassador to Iraq, 157,204-5 MP and Secretary of State for Coupland, Professor Reginald, 59 War, 9, 10, 56 Courbin, M., French Ambassador to London,22 Eden, Anthony, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14 Cranborne, Lord (Robert Cecil), and Arab unity, 12, 196,213-14 Conservative minister, 9, 12 and Egypt, 12, 141-2, 171, 177 Crete, 15, 101 Foreign Secretary in Chamberlain Cripps, Sir Stafford, British government, 9, 12, 18, 20, 23, representative in Moscow, 7, 29-30,54-5,56,57,64,210 147 Foreign Secretary in Churchill's Cunliffe-Lister, Philip (Viscount war cabinet, 11-12, 148, 149, Swinton), 49, 56, 57 180, 191, 194, 204, 219 Cunningham, Admiral Sir Andrew, and Greece, 12, 148, 149, 151 C-in-C, Middle East, 13,98, 101, and Lampson, 12, 178 152,153,174, 182,245 n59, 249 and Palestine, 10, 12, 61-2, 63, 71, n142 204-5,214,215,222 n39, 240 air-sea co-operation, coastal n85 command, 152, 153, 258 ns46, Secretary of State for War, 131, 52,53 133-4, 135, 136, 140-2, 146 disagreements with other Cs-in-C, and Syria, 165, 167, 196 Middle East, 171 Egypt, Egyptian, ix, 1,2,3,4,5,8, 12, Index 293

15, 17, 18,20,21, 26, 29-31, civil service, 33, 183 32-47,53,55,61,63,65,73,78, constitution of 1923, 34, 35, 37-8, 47 79,80,81,83,85,86,95,100, co-operation with Britain during 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 119, war, 210, 213, 236 n2 122, 123, 134, 136, 138, 139, 141, cotton crop, agreements, 124, 125, 142, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 126,129,130,176,251 n13, 154, 158, 159, 160, 164, 166, 169, 252 n32 171,174,175,177,179,180,182, declaration of war on Germany, 185, 187, 188, 191, 192, 197, 198, 186 200,201,202,203,207,208,209, defence of, 40-5, 66-8, 71, 72, 73, 210,211-12,213,216,218,219 96,97, 102, 103, 106, 113, 116, Abdin palace, 38, 124, 126, 127, 117,118-19,122-31,138, 128,129,130,177,178,183, 140-2, 143, 166; Alam Haifa 184, 186, 187,211; Italian ridge battle, 182, 202; employees in, 183 operation 'BattJeaxe', 13, 145, air attack on, 148; demand for 146,166; EI Alamein, 170, 174, declaration of Cairo as 'open 179, 180, 191,200,201; Delta, city', 127, 177 130; Mersa Matruh, 8, 41, 130, AI-Azhar religious university, 34, 39 131,253 n36; Siwa, 129, 130; air force, 129 SolIum, 150, 179; Wadi Haifa, Ambassador in London, 125 130 army, 31, 39, 40, 45, 47, 124, 125, elections, 15,35,37,39,46,47, 128, 129,130,131,134,171,175, 176,178,186,210,211,212 178-9,180,181,183,184,185, etat de siege, martial law, 124, 126, 187,213,265 n17; General 185 Staff, 100; junior officers, 179 European population in, 127 British colony in, 219 government authorities, 2, 3, 4, 17, British influence, interests in, 170, 36,40,41,42,43,46,171,177, 178, 180,210,212 180. 181 British intervention in Egyptian Greek community in, 190 politics, ix, 170-87; February independence, 210 1942 crisis, 15, 38, 123, 171, Independents, 46, 128, 130, 176 176,177-9,186-7,211-12 internal security, 118, 127, 128, 136, British military base in, 2, 3, 18,30, 140,175, 176, 179-80, 182-3; 33,40-2,43,66,73,86, 101-2, British wartime control 109, 120, 122, 125, 131, 140, measures, 127-8, 267 n52, 268 143, 170, 176, 180, 181, 183, ns58,59 208,212; air power, 140; Italian community in, 41, 42 contingency plans for landowners, 36, 47 evacuation of, 170, 174, leaders, 2, 4, 17, 29, 32, 45 179-82,191,201;navalbasein Liberal party, 34, 35, 46, 128, 130, Alexandria, 117, 118, 125, 130, 176,178 131,140,141,153,170,171, Minister in Rome, 127 172, 174,208,230 n30; monarchy (see also Khedive Abbas reinforcements, 136, 171, 180; Hilmi, King Fuad, King self-sufficiency of British base, Farouk), 32, 39 21,41,42,66,96, 102, 143, Munich crisis, 237 n16 189; troop transfers to Greece, Muslim Brotherhood, 43,175,178, 142, 146 182-3 294 Index

Egypt, Egyptian - continued nationalist leaders, 178, 185, Muslim groups, agitation of, 39, 44 186; wartime co-operation with National Front of parties, 185 GB, 183, 184; Zaghlul, Saad, nationalism, nationalists, 16,32,36, 34,35 43-4, 130, 185,208,210,211, Young Egypt party, 39, 186 213,216 Elliot, Walter, Conservative Minister neutrality, neutralism, 45, 46, of Health, 78, 84, 88-9 122-31,250-1 n8 Europe, European, 7, 17,23,24,67, Nile, 201 68, 70, 87, 88, 93, 95, 139, 140, oil stocks, 181 151, 193, 195,204,210,212 opposition groups, 4 central, 22, 23 and Palestine, 3-4, 42-7, 51, 53, 89, eastern, 97, 102 212 southern, south-eastern, 22, 85, 93, parliament, 15, 34, 35, 36, 39, 46, 94,97,102,103,105,107,120-1 47, 124, 128, 130, 175, 176, 178, western,S, 7 184, 186, 187 Evian conference on refugees, 50, parliamentary political parties, 74-5, 76 leaders, 32, 33, 175, 176, 178, operation 'Exporter' (Syria), 146, 166 184, 185 police, 183, 230 n34 Far East,S, 17, 18,20-1,28,42,66, political degeneration, 186-7 72,80,86,95,99, 103, 143, 174, postwar claims, demands, 126, 130, 177,200,218 185, 186,213 Farouk, , 34, 36, 38, 39, press, 43, 125, 126, 175, 177 43,44,45,46,47, 123, 125, 126, Radio Cairo, 44, 175 127,128,160,171,176,180-1, Royal Automobile Club, 179 183, 184, 185, 186, 187,211-21, Royal cabinet, 35, 36, 38, 39, 128 228 nll, 266 n30, 269 n74 Saadist political party, Saadists, 39, British ultimatum to, 177-9 46, 128, 129, 130, 176, 178 Felmy, Hellmuth, General of the senate, 34, 39, 46, 47 , 161 Sinai, 201 Finland, 6, 7, 111 sterling balances, 189 First World War, 1,32,33,34,50,94, strategic importance of, 80, 131 100, 104, 107, 132,207,216 students, 186 Palestine campaign, 100 Sudan, position in, 126 France, French, 1,5,6,8,17, 18, 19, ulema (Muslim clergy), 34, 47 20,21,22,23,24,25,27,72-3, United Front of political parties, 75-6,79,85,86,100,173,174, 29,37 197,198,208,209 , break in diplomatic air defence and air power, weakness relations, 177 of, 72, 99,117,226 n39 Wafd political party, Wafdists, (see army, 140, 143 also Nahas) 4, 12,29-31, High Command, 94,107,109,110, 34-43,45,46,47,53,123,125, 112 126,128,130,171,175,176, colonies, 154, 165, 173, 174 178-79,183-7,210,211-12; empire, 93, 96, 118, 121, 137, 163, army, competition with King 165,173,207 Farouk over, 183; Blue Shirts, fall of France, 4, 5,15,117-21,126, paramilitary organization of, 132, 134, 137, 138, 139, 144, 36; internal splits, 36, 38, 183; 145, 146, 158, 190,208,209 Index 295

fleet (see also Mediterranean), 4, 26,27,28,29,46,66,67, 71, 73, 28 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 85, 90, 93, 94, Free French (Gaullists), 14, 143, 97, 98, 99, 102, 103, 104, 105, 154,161,164,165,176,197, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 198,199,213 114,116,117,118,119,120,122, Hendaye (see also Franco) 9 123, 124, 125, 138, 144, 146-7, Jewish refugees, 76 148, 152, 153-5, 160, 161, 162-9, mandate for Syria and the 173-4, 175, 180, 181, 182, 189, Lebanon, 23, 119, 138 190,196-8,199,200,201,202, mandated territories, 118, 154 209,210,217 North Africa, 2, 96, 119, 137,165, air power, Luftwaffe, 8, 27, 121, 166,169,170,171,172,173, 140, 141, 147, 148, 149, 150, 174, 208, 209, 210, 218; Bizerta 152, 153, 157, 158, 159, 160, (see also Tunisia), 8, 118, 165, 161, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 173, 174; French forces in 171,172,173,180,201,210; North Africa, 72, 96, 173; Abwehr (intelligence), 147, , 118, 138; strategic 154; Afrika Corps, Panzer significance of French North Army (see also Rommel), 149, Africa, 8, 209, 217 150,165,166,173,180,182; air and Syria, 143, 156, 161, 164-8,242 power in the Mediterranean, 5 n9; Hatay, concession of (see army, 8, 167, 169; High Command also Turkey), 209 (OKW), 165, 169; policy Vichy government, 4, 14, 137, 138, towards Arabs, 155, 156 140, 143, 154, 155, 161, 163, attack on Salonika, Greece, 149, 164,167,168,169,173,177, 150 192,196,197,209,213; Egypt, charge d'affaires in, 124 administration of the Lebanon, Egypt, relations with, 154, 266 n30 6, 14; air force, 166, 168, 173; embassy in Paris, 165; ministers, 173-4 entry into Bulgaria, 148 Franco-German armistice agreement, Foreign Ministry, 154-5, 162 8, 137, 138, 154, 165 Ibn Saud, relations with, 154 Franco-German negotiations on invasion of Crete, 146, 153, 156, limited military co-operation, 160,170,213; Fliegerkorps XI 163,164-5 (airborne corps), 153, 165 occupation costs, 164-5 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 84, 227 protocols, 165, 173 n64 Franco-Italian agreements 24 invasion of Denmark and Norway, Franco, General, Spanish dictator, 8, 114 9, 20, 27, 97, 169 invasion of France, 132, 137, 146 Fuad, King of Egypt, 34, 35, 36, 37, invasion of Greece, 148-52, 170 38,47,210 invasion of the Low Countries, 117 invasion of South-East Europe, 143 Gamelin, General Maurice, Chief of invasion of the Soviet Union, 147, French General Staff, 94, 104, 170,214 107, 110, 117 , 152 Gaulle, General Charles de, leader of Iran, legation in, 162 the Free French, 165 Iraq, assistance to, 154, 156-63; Germany, German, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, difficulties in, 261 n92, 261-2 13,15,17,19,20,21,22,24,25, n97 296 Index

Germany, German - continued Habforce, 158-60, 167, 199 naval staff, 8 Haifa (see also Palestine), 4, 6, 51, 60, navy, 99, 169, 172 63,66,80,97, 103, 135, 168, 189, Nazi, 1,6, 7, 8, 9, 17, 18, 21, 23, 27, 192,199,200,206,236 n6, 242 45,70,74,75,85,92,94,95, nll 96, 120, 125, 121, 132, 139, 143, Haining, General R.H., GOC 149, 157, 162, 164, 169, 174, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 65, 193,203,207,209; massacres 89,91,92; vice CIGS, 190,222-3 of Jews and others, 214-15; n45 persecution of Jews, 2, 3, 49, Halifax, Lord, foreign secretary, 7, 9, 50,74,75,76,91,192,205, 11,22,23,26,28,40-1,43,56, 214-15; policy towards the 64,65,75,77,79,83-4,89,90, Soviet Union, 155; Nazi-Soviet 91,116,134,135-6, 188,237 n16; pact, 6, 103, 210 ambassador in Washington, 11 North Africa, reinforcements and Harriman, Averell, President supplies to, 142, 146, 149 Roosevelt's envoy, 14,222 n45 Weimar, 1 Hashemite rulers, 48 Ghazi, King of Iraq, 57, 58 al-Hashimi, Taha, Iraqi Minister of , 8, 9, 18,28,94, 141, 169, Defence, 138 209,217 Hassanein, Ahmed, head of Egyptian Goering, Hermann, Nazi leader, 158, Royal Cabinet, 128, 179, 185 173-4 Hassouna, Abd el-Khaliq, Gordon-Finlayson, Lt-General, GOC, governor-general of Alexandria, Egypt, 42, 230 n41 181,267 n51 Gort, Field-Marshal Lord, CIGS, 13, Hatay, Syrian territory ceded to 67-8, 72, 102, 132 Turkey by France (see also Gott, General W.H.E., 181 Turkey), 22-3 Greece, Greek, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15,20,22, Henderson, Arthur, Labour foreign 85,86, 94, 97, 100, 103, 105, 106, minister, 35 108,111,112,113,115,116,119, Hentig, Werner, Nazi agent, 154,259 121, 126, 130, 142, 143, 144, 145, n58 146-53,179,185,207,217 Hilmi, Abbas, Egyptian Khedive, air defences, 115 deposed during First World War, Aliakhmon line of defence, 149 34,44,127 Athens, 1l1, 148, 160; Piraeus Hitler, Adolf, Nazi dictator, 5, 7, 8, 9, harbour, 150 19,20,21,23,27,28,45,61,67, Corfu, III 73,80,85,87,93,97,113,120, Crete, 116, 143, 145, 146, 150, 152, 121, 141, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153, 153, 15~ 160, 165, 16~ 191; 154, 155, 157, 158, 160-1, 162, Suda Bay, 144 165, 168-9, 172, 174, 182, 202, Salonika, 104, 108, Ill, 112, 149, 203,256 n19 150; expedition to Salonika, denunciation of Anglo-German 94, 104, 106, 113, 1l5, 116-17 naval agreement, 240 n84 Greenwood, Arthur, Labour Minister, Britain, naval war with, 221 n26; 10,89 plans for invasion of, 141-2 Grobba, Dr Fritz, Nazi minister in Mufti of Jerusalem, interview with, Iraq, 157, 160-1,231 n48, 261 n92 196-8 Gunduz, General Azim, deputy Chief operation 'Barbarossa' (Soviet of Turkish General Staff, 164 Union), 120, 149, 161 Index 297

operation 'Marita' (Greece), British interests in, 93 149-50 Persian corridor for war supplies to operation 'Merkur' (Crete), 153 Soviet Union, 218 operation 'Sonnenblume' (North Iraq, Iraqi, 1,2,3,4, 6, 13, 15, 25, 30, Africa) 149-50 40,41,52,53,55,56,57,58,72, opposed to invasion of Spain, 221 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 88, 89, 96, n29 100, 101, 104, 108, 109, 119, 120, Hoare, Sir Samuel, Home Secretary, 123, 132, 139, 145, 146, 153, 154, 75, 88; Jewish immigration to 160, 161, 162-4, 165, 166, 167, Britain and colonies, 238 n28, 168,169,179,180,182,191,196, 241 n87; Foreign Secretary, 11, 198,199,200,208,210,213,216 18 anti-British feeling in, 127 Holland, 10, 29, 95 anti-Jewish propaganda, sentiments Holocaust, Nazi mass murders of in, 162, 262-3 n 105 Jews, 196,206,204,212,214-15 army, 127, 157, 159; 'Golden Hong Kong, 200 Square' (four leading Hore-Belisha, Leslie, Secretary of anti-British officers), 153, 156, State for War, 26, 40, 67, 84, 86, 161-2,262 n99 97 Basra base (Allied), 156-60 Hungary, 84, 114 Britain, diplomatic rupture with, 157 Hussein, Ahmed, head of Young British military bases in, 199 Egypt party, 175, 186 British policy, influence in, defence al-Husseini, Haj Amin, Mufti of of, 93, 137, 143, 182, 198 Jerusalem see Palestine cabinet, 138 al-Husseini, Jamal, Palestinian Arab Farhud (anti-Jewish pogrom) in leader close to the Mufti, 78, 161 Baghdad, 161-2,262 ns102, 103; 263 n106 Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 20, Fascist Italy, relations with, 156-7 53,54,57,58,61,62,63,65,68, Habbaniya airbase (British), 2, 157, 87,89, 155,208,214,216,234 158, 159, 160 n57, 235 ns60, 61 Hashemite rulers, 48 India, Indian, 3, 21, 41, 66, 67, 71, 73, internal security, 118 80, 89, 95, 102, 103, 108, 156, Kirkuk, 138, 161,213 134, 136, 137, 170, 182, 202; mandate (Mesopotamia), 1,2,4,94 Muslims, 2, 53, 64, 73, 84 Mosul, 160, 161,213 Indian Ocean, 6, 7, 182, 202 nationalists, 125 Inonu, Ismet, Turkish president, 147, Nazi Germany, diplomatic relations 162-3 with, 157 Inskip, Sir Thomas, Minister for the oil,182 Co-ordination of Defence, 21, pro-Axis elite, faction, 15, 123, 127, 132 138, 156 internal security, 3, 4, 15, 16,41,42-5, pro-Axis coup, 137-8, 156-62, 163, 48,66,73,91,109,118,119,127, 175,208 136,140,212,213 pro-British elite, 15, 156 Iran (see also Persia), 5-6, 62, 108, Shaibah airbase, 2 132, 145, 158, 160, 161, 169, 179, strategic significance of, 213 196,198,202,218,255 nl Islam, Islamic (see also Muslim), 125, Abadan oil refinery, 182; defence 175 of,182 pan-Islamic, 2, 214 298 Index

Ironside, General Sir Edmund, CIGS, 114, 120, 207 94, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, northern Italy, 24, 95, 98 (Genoa, 113,188 Savona), 115, 116, 117 Ismay, General H.L., 110, 136, 151 propaganda, 18,20,44-5,63,71, Italy, Italian, 2,4,5,8,12,15, 17, 18, 128 19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,30, Sicily, 98 (Palermo), 149, 172 32,36,38,40,41,42,45,46,55, 63,71,72,73,74,79,80,86,89, Jabotinsky, Vladimir, Revisionist 93,94,95,96,97,98,99, 100, Zionist leader, 48 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, Japan, Japanese, 1,5,17,18,21,26, 111, 113, 114-21, 125, 126, 127, 71,99,103,143,155,174,177, 129, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 200,202,207,217,218 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 152, 153, Jews, Jewish, (see also Palestine, 154, 155, 15~ 164, 165, 170, 171, Zionism) 44, 58-9, 74, 80, 84, 88, 172,174,175,183,190,196,197, 91,153,191,192,194,195,209, 207,208,210,218 212,214-15 air force, air power, 41, 66, 72, 95, American, 134, 135, 136 116,117,140,160 attitude of British officials in Allied invasion of, 195 Middle East toward, 212 army, 172 persecution of Jews in Eastern conquest of Abyssinia, 12, 19, 66, Europe, 49, 50 207 refugees (see also Evian convoys to Libya, 153 conference), 3, 70, 74-8, 81, 82, defeats, 153, 189, 217 203-6; barriers to immigration entry into Second World War, 5, 6, of, 215, 237 n23, 238 ns26, n28; 114,118,119,126,127,131, Bermuda conference, failure 133, 134, 144, 189, 208, 209, of, 215; British colonies, 216 attitudes towards, 76, 77, 237 Fascist, fascism, 1, 17, 27, 44, 70, n20, 238 n31, 241 n87; British 127, 139,208; pro-Axis faction, Guiana project, 76, 77, 88; 244 n48 demands for rescue of, 215; SS France, demands on, 23-4 Patria, 192, 206; SS Struma, invasion of Egypt, 130 192,206,212,270 n20 invasion of Greece, 130, 142, 146, separation of Jewish and Palestine 149,189,190 issues, 58-9, 70, 77-8, 214, 215 Jews in, 74 war against the Jews (see also League of Nations, economic Holocaust), 197-8 sanctions, 18, 19 Jodi, General Alfred, Chief of Staff Libya, occupation of, and base in, to head of OKW, 165 17, 18, 29,40,42, 44, 45, 66, Jordan river, 48 72,95, 103, 140, 142, 143, 147, banks of, 4, 199 149,208,209,223 nl, 236 n7; Minister in Baghdad, 156-7, 160 Kaukji, Fawzi, Iraqi guerrilla leader, navy, 5, 7,18,140,144,150,151-2, 55-6, 197 153, 172; lack of aircraft car• Keitel, Field Marshal Wilhelm, Chief riers, 5; shortage of fuel, 5, 7, ofOKW,I72 172,210; Taranto, 144 Kennedy, General Sir John, director neutral, neutrality, 26, 27, 102, 103, of military operations, War 104, 105, 106, 110, 112, 113, Office, 151 Index 299

Kennedy, Joseph, American Lelong, General Albert, French ambassador in London, 87 military attache in London, 112, Kenya, 116, 140 115 Kesselring, Field Marshal Albert, Levant, 4, 120, 137, 168,200 C-in-C, German Southwest Army independence proclaimed, 167 in Mediterranean and Italian Liberal party (GB), 9, 10,87 theatres, 170, 172, 267 n44 Libya (see also Cyrenaica, Western King, Admiral Ernest, Chief of Naval Desert) 5,17,1824,29,40,42, Operations, USA, 218 44,94, 95, 96, 103, 119, 121, 130, Kingscol, 158-60 143,146-53,169,172 Knatchbull-Hugessen, Sir Hughe, Bardia, 150 British ambassador in Turkey, 111 Benghazi, 148, 149, 150, 172 Koryzis, M., prime minister of Benina, 149 Greece, 148 Gazala, 174 Kuwait, 216 Derna, 152, 153, 172 Sirte, 170 Labour party, 9, 10,35, 87, 89 Tripoli, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152,167, Labour government, 205, 215 172, 174 Lampson, Sir Miles (Lord Killearn), Tobruk, 149,170,179,200 British ambassador in Egypt, 12, Lloyd, Lord, Colonial Secretary, 12, 14,29-30,32-47,72,77,86,89, 122, 133-6, 139 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, high commissioner in Egypt, 35 129, 139, 141, 144, 166, 170-1, Lloyd George, David, Liberal prime 172,175,176,180-1,182-3,184, minister, 10 185,186-7,193,203,204-5,210, Longmore, Air Chief Marshal Sir 211,219,228 n3, 250-1 n8, 252 Arthur, AOC-in-C, Middle East, ns22, 23, 32 13, 101, 127 Eden, relations with, 12, 178 Loraine. Sir Percy, British ambas• intervention in Egyptian politics, sador in Rome, 111 15,38,127,128,171,177-9, Lothian, Lord, British ambassador in 185, 187,211,213,266 n32 Washington, 11, 134 Landis, James, director of American Lyttelton, Oliver (Viscount Chandos), Economic Mission in Middle Minister of State in Cairo, 14, East, 217 175-6, 266 n32 Laval, Pierre, French prime minister, 18,24, 105 MacArthur, General Douglas, C-in-C, League of Nations, 1, 3, 11, 17, 19, 23, South-west Pacific, 218 24,30,48,59,62,90,91,208 MacDonald, Malcolm, Colonial economic sanctions against Italy, Secretary, 12,40,44,56,63, 18, 19, 22, 207 64-9,74-5,76,78-92,209 Permanent Mandates Commission, MacDonald, Ramsay, Labour prime 90 minister, 12 Leahy, William, American MacMichael, Sir Harold, high ambassador to Vichy France, 173 commissioner in Palestine, 13,50, Lebanon, 6, 14,25,40,54,61,79,86, 67,75,76-7,89,133,135,144, 94,96,119,137,138,153,154, 190, 193,195,203-4,272-3n84 168,185,199,200,209,214 Macmillan, Harold, Conservative MP French mandate, 1,4,5 and Minister of State in Algiers, Tripoli,6 9, 10, 14 300 Index

Macready, General, head of British British Mediterranean fleet, 1,3, Military Mission in Egypt, 125 18,19,24,26,28,33,41-2,80, McMahon-Hussein correspondence, 86,94, 101, 103, 104, 116, 118, 82,239 n54 119, 138, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 149, 150, 152, 153, 167-8, Maher, Ahmed, Saadist leader, 129, 170,171,174,207,210,240 130,176 n78, 248 n119, 249 n142, 258 advocated Egyptian participation in ns45, 48, 264 n3 war, 129, 130 central, 8, 153, 172, 173 prime minister, 186 closure of Mediterranean, 6, 68, assassinated, 186 119, 132, 133, 141, 188, 189, Maher, Ali, Egyptian politician and 216 prime minister, 36, 39, 43, 46, 81, Eastern, 1,3,4, 18, 19,21,22,29, 123,124-5,126,127,160,175, 38,42,66,80,85,93,94,98, 177,178,180-1,211,265 n19, 99, 100, 114, II7, 119, 120, 121, 266 n29 140, 153,208 Mahmud, Muhammad, Egyptian French fleet, 4, 26, 94, 118, 120, prime minister, 39, 40, 44, 45, 87, 138,208 88,89,123 Italian fleet, 18, 144, 152, 172 Makram Obeid, William, Egyptian strategic situation in, 149, 170-4, politician and finance minister, 243 n26 45, 183, 211 western, 4, 8, 94, 118, 169 conflict with Wafdist prime Middle East, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, minister Nahas Pasha, 183-5 15,17,18,19,22,25,26,33,41, leader of Independent Wafdists, 44,45,61,62,67,68,70,71,72, 184 73,74,77,80,85,93,94,97,98, Malaya, 200 100, 102, 105, 107, 108, 109, 115, Malta, 3,18, 19,41,86,94,95,96,97, 117,118,119,120,121,122,123, 101, 11~ 14~ 149, 152, 153, 170, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 13~ 172,174,208,209,210 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, Mandel, Georges, French Minister 14~ 14~ 153, 154, 155, 156, 160, for the Colonies, 104 162,164,166,169,170,174,175, al-Maraghi, Sheikh Mustafa, head of 176,182,188,191,194,195,200, AI-Azhar university, Cairo, 39 202,204,205,206,207,209,210, Marseilles, 117, 118 213,215,216,217,218 Marshall, General George, American British-American commercial Chief of Staff, 217 rivalry in, 219 Marshall-Cornwall, General J.H., 112 British defensive assets in, 93-4 el-Masri, Aziz, Chief of Egyptian British forces in, 144, 174, 182, 188; General Staff, 125, 181,251 nlO GHQ, Middle East, 193; Massigli, Rene, French ambassador in Turkey, 23 divided, 181-2; Persia and Iraq Mediterranean, 1,3,4,5,6,8, 17, 18, Command, 182; Middle East 19,20,21,23,25,26,28,41,60,66, Intelligence Centre, 14, 101, 72,86,93,94,95,100,102,103, 203,243 n37; Middle East Joint 104,105,107,108,109,115,116, Planning Staff, 101, 180; 117,118,120,121,122,134,141, Middle East Reserve, 26, 30, 149,151,153,165,169,170,171, 41,42,97,108,131,132,143, 174,197,207,209,210,217,218 224-5 n22, 237 n14; Middle Index 301

East Reserve brigade, 41, 64, Italy, 1, 8, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 66,67,96,102,141,229 ns24, 25 23,24, 27, 28, 30, 44, 45, 61, 79, British interests in, position in, 7, 80,86,93,97, 102, 104, 105, \06, 2~71,80, 103, 10~ 113, 120, 108, 111, 113, 119, 120, 144, 153, 122,133,134,135,161,166, 154, 157, 172, 196,207,208,210, 169, 193,213,214,218-19 211,244 n48, 246-7 n90, 258 n50 British strategic policy in, 132, 135, 140, 141, 143, 145-69,250 n2 Nahas, Mustapha, Wafd leader and British Middle East War Council, Egyptian prime minister, 29-31, 184, 193 34-42,45,47,126,128,176, British wartime debts in, 189 177-8,179,181,183,184,185, importers, 217 186, 187,210,211 Middle East Supply Centre, 189 conflict with Makram, his finance nationalist pressures in, ix, 1 minister, 183-4 Metaxes, General Ioannis, Greek Namier, Lewis, Zionist leader, prime minister, 148 189-90, 203 Mitchell, Air Chief Marshal Sir Nasser, Gamal Abdul, Egyptian William, AOC-in-C, Middle officer, future President, 31 East, 10 1, 102 Nazi Germany see Germany, Molotov, V.M., Soviet Commissar for Neame, General Philip, GOC, Foreign Affairs, 7 Cyrenaica Command, 152 Mombassa, Kenya, 140 Near East (see also Middle East), 105, Montgomery, General Sir Bernard, 157, 164 181, 182,202 neutral countries, 210 Moyne, Lord (Walter Guinness), 12 Newall, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril, Colonial Secretary, 189, 193 Chief of the Air Staff, 110, 115 deputy Minister of State in Cairo, New Dehli, 189 184,204 New Zealand, 21, 50, 99, 102, 136 Minister of State in Cairo, 14; Nicolson, Harold, Conservative MP, 9 assassinated, 14,205, 215 Norway, 10, 114, 115, 149, 151 Mufti of Jerusalem (see also Nuqrashi, Mahmud, Saadist leader, al-Husseini, Palestine), 25, 40, 176 43,44,50,51,52-68,73,78,79, Nuri aI-Said, Iraqi pro-British 86,89, 92, 153, 158, 190, 209 political leader, 138, 196, 203, ambiguous attitudes and tactics, 54, 213, 214 233 ns28, 29 contacts with Muslim leaders, 53 O'Connor, General Sir Richard, Nazi connections, 154-5, 157, GOC, British Troops in Egypt, 160-2, 196-8, 231 n48 152 wartime activities, 258-9, ns55, 56, Odend'hal, Admiral, French 259 ns56, 64 representative on Allied Military Munich agreement (Britain, France, committee, 115 Germany, Italy), 10,65, 73, 85, Ollive, Admiral, C-in-C, French 93,97, 112 Mediterranean fleet, 98 crisis, 2, 23, 26, 27, 28, 40, 45, 69, oil, 5-7, 86, 93,103,119,138,154 72, 73, 96 American sources, 5-6 Muslim (see also Islam), 22, 43, 44, Anglo-Iranian oil , 6 54,55,56,59,73,80,88,89,137 Iranian oilfields, 5-6, 72, 140, 182 Mussolini, Benito, Fascist dictator of (Persian), 199; Abadan 302 Index oil-contimued Arab leaders (Yacoub Farraj, refinery, 182 Alfred Rock), 52 Middle Eastern, 5-6 militant youth groups, 51 Romanian, 6 Muslims, 44 52, 53; Sheikh Izzed shortage of tankers, 6, 182 Din al Qassam, fundamentalist Soviet, 6-7 leader, 51-2, 232 ns23, 24 Venezuelan, 5-6 nationalists, 125 Ormsby-Gore, William (Lord political parties: Arab Youth Harlech), Colonial Secretary, 12, Congress (led by Yacoub 13,49-50,54,55,56,59,61, Ghussain) 51, 90; Istiqlal party 62-3, 68, 69, 235 n62 (led by Auni Abdel Hadi and Osman, Amin, pro-British Egyptian Ahmed Hilmi), 52; National politician, 30, 227 n70 Bloc (led by Abdullatif Salah), Ottoman empire, 34 51; National Defence party (led by Ragheb Nashashibi) Pacific, 217, 218 51,52,53,56,60,68,83,89, battIe of Midway islands, 202 90, 92; Palestine Arab party Palestine, ix, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 15-16, (led by Jamal Husseini), 51, 19,20,25,30,40,41,42,43,44, 61,83; Reform party (led by 48-92,95,98,100,101,104,105, Dr Khalidi), 51; political party 119, 123, 125, 127, 128, 132, 133, unity, 48-9, 51, 68; press, 50, 134, 136, 13~ 13~ 140, 141, 143, 51, 83; rebellion, 2, 4, 12, 13, 145, 15~ 153, 154, 158, 159, 160, 16,25,40,42,49,54, 60-9, 70, 164, 167, 169, 174, 179, 180, 185, 73,79,84,86,90,96,122,123, 188-206,208,209,212,214-15, 132, 134-5, 136, 143-4, 145, 219 153, 158, 159, 161, 190, 192, administration, government, 206, 207, 208,212(Arab mandatory power, British Higher Committee, 52, 54, 55, authorities, 49, 50, 56, 58, 60, 56,57,58,60-1,68,90,161, 64,68, 191, 192, 194, 196,203, 208; armed bands, 52, 55, 61, 205,206; War Supply Board, 65-6, 71; internecine violence, 189 66, 89, 92, 132, 192); riots arms smuggling, arms thefts, 50, August 1929,48,54; Supreme 192,195 Muslim Council, 50, 53, 61 Arab community, 2,13,16,44,45, British forces in, 54, 57, 60, 64, 65, 48,50-69,73,76,78-92,93, 67,69,71,73,79,96,109,135, 122,132,133,135,136,139, 136, 140-1, 145,242 n6 (mili• 158,160,188,190,192,195,206 tary authorities, GOC, 135, Arab state, demands for, 51, 82, 83, 203, 208; military intelligence, 209 190; Special Operations demands, grievances, 126, 143,212 Executive (SOE), 193) economic benefits from British British interests in, 82,188, 193,204 wartime presence, 270 n25 British military courts, 54, 61 fellahin (smallholders, peasants), British military measures in, 51, 61, 51,52 65-6 General Strike 1936, 2, 12, 16, 19, British policy of dual obligations, 37,43,49-58,59,68,208 52 leaders, 4, 37, 44, 51, 52, 58, 60, 65; British responses to Arab strike, political rivalries, 83; Christian 208,234 n39 Index 303

British withdrawal from Palestine, Jewish state, 60, 65, 68,191, 194, 206 196, 205 defence of Palestine, 1,4, 71-3, Jewish volunteers for British army, 102,122-3,131-7,139,143-4, 189,190,192-3 166, 198-202 ('Palestine Final Holy Land, 82 Fortress', 200) Holy Places, 85 districts (Judea, Samaria, Galilee), internal security, 86, 98, 109, 118, 71 (Galilee, 60, 63) 12~ 129, 133, 136, 140, 141, external influences on, 53-9, 61, 62 143, 152, 158, 159, 195,212 Jewish Agency for Palestine, 13,49, Legislative Council, proposed, 51, 54,56,58,65, 74, 75, 188, 189, 52,75,87 192, 193, 194, 195, 204. 205 mandate, I, 2, 3, 4, 48, 49, 53, 54, Jewish army, 132, 133, 136, 137, 58,59,59-60,62,63,71,77, 158, 188, 190, 191, 192-3, 194, 78,90,93,193, 140,205,209 195, 196, 205, 206, 215 martial law, 54, 56, 57, 65, 67, 68 Jewish community in (Yishuv), ix, Palestine issue in Egypt, 42-5 3,4, 13,48,50,52,56,59,60, Palestine issue in India, 233 n27, 61,62,63,64,69,70,74-8,82, 237n19 83,91,92, 122, 123, 132, 134, partition, 2,12,13,14,16,45,48,49, 135, 136, 139, 143, 188, 189, 53,59-69,71,78,81,87,92,234 190,191, 192-6,206,209,215 ns52,53, 205-6,208, 212,214, (arming Jews, 73, 132-6, 158; 215 (federalism, 87, 88; rejec• Histadrut (trade union tion of partition proposal by organization), 49; Palestine British government, 64-9, 70) Post newspaper, 56) partition, strategic aspects, 60, Jewish defence, 189-90, 191, 194, 62-3,236 n4 (Jaffa-Jerusalem 195; Haganah, 54, 190-1, 192, corridor, 60, 71; British claims, 193, 195, 196,201 (Carmel 60,234 n51) scheme, 195, 271 n46; criti• Palestine Partition Commission, cism of, 271 n46; Pal mach, chairman Sir John Woodhead, 167, 193, 195, 196,201,270 61,62,63,64,65,71,78 n28) Peel Commission (Palestine Royal Jewish demands, interests, 204, 205 Commission), 16,45,50,53, Jewish immigration, immigrants, 2, 55,56,58,59,60,61,62,63, 13, 16,44,48,49-51,54,55, 68, 71, 205 57,58-9,65,69,74-8,79-85, police, 51, 52, 64, 65, 133, 190, 194, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 123, 188, 196 189,191,192,196,203-6,209, Nazi propaganda in, 45 214,231 ns8, 10,269 n15 restrictions on land sales to Jews, Jewish independence, 16, 193,206, 50-1,54,85,92,188, 192,206, 209 214,232 n20, 250 n3 Jewish industries, 189 Stern gang, 205 Jewish National Home, ix, 58-9, 70, sterling balance, 189 77,78,79,82,85, 196, 197, strategic territory, 80, 209 205,206 towns (see also Haifa): Jaffa, 50, 52; Jewish police, 64, 133, 134, 135, Jericho, 200; Jerusalem, 53, 61 270-1,n37 (haram), 135, 199; Nablus, 51; Jewish revolt, 215 Nazareth, 60; Tel Aviv, 52 Jewish settlements, 201 violence and victims, 52 304 Index

Palestine, towns - continued Prince Paul of Yugoslavia, 149 wartime base, 16, 188,205 propaganda, 3 White Paper of 1922, 52, 78 anti-British, 128,235 n71 White Paper of 1939, ix, 2, 12, 13, Axis, 40, 42, 44, 45,98,161,191, 16,44,45, 69-92, 122, 123, 132, 192, 196-8, 271 n50 133, 139, 143, 144, 188, 189, British, 33, 44, 176, 196-7 190,192,203-6,208,209,212, Egyptian, 183,251 nIl 215,254 n75; constitutional Iraqi (anti-Jewish), 162 aspects, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, Italian, 44-5, 63, 71, 103, 128 123,139,190,209,240 n81; Muslim Brotherhood, 43 land regulations, 123; St Nazi, 45, 154, 169; James's conference, 69, 73, 74, pro-British, 175 75, 76, 78-92 (post-conference pro-Axis, 183 consultations in Cairo, 86, 87); Puaux, M., French high commissioner strategic aspects, 239 ns48, 51; in Syria and Lebanon, 137 240 n80; vote in British parliament, 10, 240 n85 Raeder, Admiral Erich, C-in-C, Papen, Fritz von, German German navy, 8 ambassador in Turkey, 162-4 Rahn, Rudolph, Nazi agent in Syria, Paris, 28,55,97, 107, 112, 165 167, 168 Pearl Harbor, 174,200 Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, leader of the Peirse, Air Vice Marshal R.E.C., Iraqi pro-Axis faction and prime AOC, Palestine, 56, 57 minister, 138, 153, 156-7, 160, Persia (see also Iran), 6, 30, 138, 182, 161-2,175,197,208,213 199,210,216 Rathbone, Elinor, Independent MP, Persian corridor, 218, 255 nl 9, 10, 238 n28 Persian Gulf, 1,4, 7, 48, 72, 80, 100, Red Sea, 1,3, 18,20,21,23,41,66, 156,202 73,94, 100, 101, 109, 116, 117, Petain, Marshal Philippe, head of 118, 140, 171, 174, 202, 207 Vichy government, 173-4 open to American shipping, 189 Phillips, Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas, Reynauo, Paul, French minister and Vice Chief of Naval Staff, 115, prime minister, 105, 115, 117, 152,258 n45 245 n55 Poland, Poles, 2, 6, 28, 74, 85, 92, 97, Ribbentrop, Joachim, Nazi foreign 99, 103, 193 minister, 76, 154, 155, 157-8, Polish Jews, 74, 91 163-4, 165, 173, 196-7 political stability in the Middle East Riccardi, Admiral Arturo, Chief of (Egypt and Palestine), British Italian Naval Staff, 172 interest in, ix, 3, 15, 16,47, 122, Rice, H.P., deputy Inspector-General 123, 132, 159, 170, 176, 181, 18~ of Criminal Investigation 205,207,210-13,219 Department, Palestine Police, , 9 51 postwar (Second World War), ix, 3, 5, Rintelen, General Enno von, 15,171,185,187,188,190-1, German liaison at Italian GHQ, 193,197,206,213,215,218-19 172, 173 Pound, Admiral Sir Dudley, Chief of Romania, 2, 7, 84, 85,86,91,94,97, Naval Staff, 103, 110, 152 98,100,105,111,112,114,172, Pownall, Lt-General H.R., Chief of 203,207 Staff, BEF, 102 Constanta, 163 Index 305

German military concentration in, minister, 56, 57, 84, 88 144 Sinclair, Sir Archibald, Secretary of oil, 6 State for Air, 10 reaction to Soviet invasion, 146-7 Singapore, 5, 14,21,72, 100, 102, 109, rupture of diplomatic relations with 143 GB,147 Sirry, Hussein, Egyptian prime Rommel, General Erwin, 13, 15, 145, minister, 130, 175, 177, 178, 187 146, 149, 150, 152, 156, 167, 170, Sidky, Ismail, Egyptian politician and 171,173,174,175,179,180,181, prime minister, 35,46,47, 126, 182, 183, 191, 193,200,201,202, 128,175,231 n50, 251 nlO 267 ns42, 44 Smart, Air Vice Marshal H.G., AOC, Roosevelt, Franklin D., President of Iraq, 159 USA, 14,87,216,217,218,260 Somaliland (Italian), 5, 17 n71 Soviet Union, Soviets (see also Russia, Russian (see also Caucasus; Caucasus, Russia), 1,6-8,93, Soviet Union), 6, 7, 8, 85, 97, 105,106, 108, 109, 111,119,120, 100,101,103,106,108, Ill, 113, 121, 143, 146-7, 150, 164, 166, 150,163,168, 169, 173, 182, 197, 168-9,170,171, 172,200,202, 202,214, 217, 218 209,214,218 Moscow, 7, 147 Nazi-Soviet pact, 6, 210 Russo-German, 138 Rostov, 198,200,202 supplies to, 218 Soviet-German trade, 120 Stalingrad, 182, 202 Sabry, Hassan, Egyptian prime USSR,97 minister, 128, 129, 130 Spain, Spanish, 8, 9, 20, 23, 94, 96, Sadat, Anwar, Egyptian officer, 103, 209, 273 n2 future President, 31, 179 Spanish , 96 Sami, Salib, Egyptian foreign Spears, General Edward, minister, 177, 178,187 Conservative MP, 9 Saracoglu, Sukru, Turkish foreign Stack, Sir Lee, Sirdar of Egyptian minister, 111 army, assassination of, 35 Saudi Arabia, 6, 18,20,30,43,48,53, Stalin, Josef, dictator of Soviet 55,57,58, 73, 78, 79, 81, 88, 155, Union, 6, 7, 120 158,208,213,214,216 Stanhope, Lord, First Lord of the Jedda,64 Admiralty, 10 Mecca, 53 Stanley, Oliver, Conservative Scandinavian, 115 minister, 10, 12, 56, 203-4 Schacht, Hjalmar, German financial Stone, General R.G., GOC, British expert, 22 Troops in Egypt, 178, 179, 181, Second World War, ix, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 236 n2 12, 16,46,91,94,99, 103, 115, Student, General Kurt, commander 123, 162, 164 of German airborne and infantry Selassie, Haile, Emperor of Abyssinia formations, 153 (Ethiopia), 14, 19, 176 Sudan, 1, 13, 18,30-1,50, 71, 100, , 61 102, 106, 109, 116, 127, 180,210, Shawkat, Naji, Iraqi Minister of War, 213 163 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 17,31,33 Sicily, 3, 41, 94, 153 Khartoum, 180 Simon, Sir John, Conservative Suez, Suez Canal, 1,3,4,5,8, 18,25, 306 Index

Suez, canal-continlled Emir Abdullah, 54, 60, 68, 89 29,31,33,66,80,86,96, 101, mandate for Palestine, 1922 108, 109, 116, 119, 125, 127, 146, partition, 48 149, 150, 154, 169, 17l, 180,201, Trans-Jordan Frontier Force (TJFF), 202,218,256 n19 134, 159, 160, 199 Swiss Legation in Egypt, 180 operation 'Torch' (North Africa), 182 Syria, , 14,25,52,55,61, 79, Toulon, 117, 118 94, 95, 96, 98, 98, 105, 106, 119, Trenchard, Viscount, 11 135, 137, 138, 140, 143, 145, 146, Tripartite pact (anti-Comintern), 7, 152, 153, 155, 157, 160, 161, 162, 20 163, 164, 165-8, 169, 173, 174, troops 179,185,193,197,198,200,209 Australian, 133, 135, 141, 151, 167, Aleppo, 114, 161, 168, 199 174,180,191,198-200 Allied invasion of, 166-8, 192, 196, Balkan, 115 213 British (see also Britain, Egypt, armistice in, 168 Palestine), 3, 4,12, 19, 167, Bludan conference, 43, 53, 60 191,193,198-201,212,247 Damascus, 165, 167, 168 n92; diversion from Middle defence of, 198-201; East, 174; evacuation from French garrison in, 25, 242 n9 Crete, Greece, 150; evacuation Hatay, cession of, to Turkey, 22-3, from France, 126, 134; 98,209 evacuation from Norway, 10, Horns, 168 115; transferred to Greece, 12, independence, 139, 154 147,148,149-51,170; trans• internal security, 98 ferred to Iraq, 138, 158-60, mandate, 1,4,22, 143 260 n77 nationalists, 25, 68, 79, 96, 125, 126, Egyptian, 29-31, 130 154, 168, 196, 213 French,28, 104, 115, 117, 137, 167, Palmyra, 168 168, 173, 192, 199, 208, 242 Vichy authorities in, 196 ns8, 9, 245 n64, 248 n116, 247 n92 Takoradi route, 149,254 n77 German (Nazi), 7, 9, 114, 147, 150, Talaat, Abdul Wahab, Egyptian 153, 162, 166, 168, 169, 182, Royal Cabinet, 128, 129, 183 197-8,201,209,217,256 ns8, Tamimi, Amin, Palestinian Arab 19 leader, 161 Indian, 6, 134, 156-59, 167, 199,237 Tedder, Air Marshal Sir Arthur, n19, 260 n72 deputy/AOC-in-C, Middle East, Italian, 18,23,24,29,40,42,66, 72, 182, 258 ns46, 53 109 Tegart, Sir Charles (see also Iraqi, 157, 165,260 n77 Palestine), 134 New Zealand, 200 Tegart polic posts, 135 Palestinian (Arab, Jewish), 136 Thomas, J.H., Colonial Secretary, 12, Polish, 254 n60 51 Turkish,98 Trans-Jordan, 3, 43, 48, 61, 71, 60, 78, Truman, Harry, President of the 87, 100, 119, 154, 158, 192, 193, USA,215 199,200,214 Tunisia, 4, 24, 72, 94, 96,140, 172, Bedouin tribes, 48 173, 177, 182, 184, 209 defence of, 166 Bizerta, 8, 172 Index 307

Tunis, 8, 208 isolationism 1 Turkey, Turks, 20, 22, 23, 62, 84, 85, Jewish community, 90 88,94,96,97-8,100,103,104, lend-lease legislation, 147 105,106,107,108,109,110,111, oil companies, 216, 274 n12 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, Soviet Union, supply of military 120, 121, 131, 132, 135, 139, 140, aircraft to, 274 n21 143, 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, State Department, 84, 87, 90, 216 162-4, 166, 167, 169, 197, 198, Washington, 216 199,202,203,207,209,210 White House, 216 Adana, 199 Alexandretta, 199 Versailles treaty, 21 Ankara, 22, 148, 163 Vienna, 22, 112 Anatolia, 108, 109, 113 Vintras, Squadron Leader R.E., 112 army, 163 Vuillemin, General Joseph, C-in-C, Bosphorus, 114 French air force, 110 Britain, treaty with, 119, 207; value of alliance, 135; Turkish war, war effort, warfare (see also First refusal to allow Axis military World War, Second World War), transports, 157, 162-4, 167, 166,170-1,174,176,177,178-9, 168,210 185, 186, 188ff Bulgaria, non-aggression pact with, Abyssinian, 18, 207 148,256, nsl2, 18, 19 Balkan, Eastern theatre, 107, 110, 113 chrome, 93, 210 Britain, Nazi war against, 155, 165, Dardanelles, Straits, 7, 22, 94, 109, 169 110, Ill, 112, 163, 164; economic blockade, 6, 9, 14, 120, defences of, 120, 166, 167 121, 126, 138, 139, 140, 168, France, treaty with, 104, 119; 175,207,217,273 nl Hatay, 22-3, 98, 209 European, 1,2, 19,22,24,26,28, Foreign Ministry, 119 29,68,73,91,94,96, 101, 103, Germany, treaty with, 162-4, 167, 106, 132, 139-44,206 263 ns 118, 121 Greece, 148-9 Istanbul (Constantinople), 94, 112 global, ix, 21, 42, 71, 95, 219 military authorities, 100 guerrilla, 17, 197 neutrality, non-belligerency, 119, Japan, 21, 174,207,217,218 120,160,162-4,167,209,210, Mediterranean, 5, 18,97, 101, 115, 225 n30, 256 n21 121, 122, 153 Smyrna, 108 'phoney', 15, 29, 104 strategic importance of, 209 , 23, 27 Thrace, 94, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, submarine, 5, 210 113,117,143 wartime, ix, 15, 16, 17,30,31,45, 73,96,98 ULTRA, 180 Yugoslavia, 150 , 186,205 Warlimont, General Walter, German United States of America (see also High Command, 169 America), 5, 6, 25, 50, 76, 77, 87, Waterhouse, General, British Military 88,118,137, 17l, 190, 194,200, Mission in Iraq, 138 216,217 Wauchope, General Sir Arthur, high air force (USAAF), 180 commissioner in Palestine, 13, Britain, war debt to USA, 189 49,50,51-8,231 n5 308 Index

Wavell, General Sir Archibald, 158, 198, 199,200,201,270 n22 C-in-C, Middle East, 5, 13, 14, C-in-C, Persia-Iraq, 182, 202 72, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 110, Wilson, Sir Horace, adviser to 111, 121, 122, 127, 128, 130, 131, Chamberlain, 9 134, 136, 137, 138, 140-1, 142, Winterton, Lord, Chancellor of the 144, 191, 193, 198,212,213,220 Duchy of Lancaster and n8, 243-4 n38, 250-1 n8, 260-1 chairman of the Inter• n80, 261 ns83, 87, 264 n133 Governmental Committee on operation 'Compass' (Libya), 146, Refugees, 74-5, 237 n20, 238 147 n28, 272-3 n84 Crete defences, 257 n32 Woermann, Ernst, Under-Secretary Cyrenaica defences, 257 ns24, 25 of State, German Foreign Egypt, 252 n23; 265 n17 Ministry, 154-5 Greece, 146, 148-9, 151-2 Wood Sir Kingsley, Secretary of State GOC, Palestine, 145 for Air, 80 Iraq, policy towards, 138, 145-6, 156, 158-61, 162,213,260 Yemen, 18,20,55,61, 73, 79 ns69, 70, 262 n98 Italian influence in, 55, 79 Jewish Army, 269 ns13, 15 Yugoslavia, Yugoslavs, 22, 85, 94, 97, Jews in Palestine, attitude towards, 104,105,111,112,113,114,115, 188,190,191,251-2 n20 116,119,121,126,147,148,149, Syria, 145-6, 166-7 150, 152 transferred from Middle East to Belgrade, 112 command in India, 145, 166, Croatia, 112 202,272 n81 Monastir, 149 Weizmann, Chaim, Zionist leader, 64, Serbian, 112 78,83,87,90,91, 133, 135-6, 188,191,193,195 Zetland, Lord, Secretary of State for Weizsaecker, Ernst, Secretary of India, 89 State, German Foreign Ministry, Zionist, Zionism, 12,48, 74, 90, 158, 155,259 n62 188,189,190,192,194,195,203, Western desert (see also Libya), 96, 204, 205, 206, 209, 215, 234 n53 129, 130, 131, 138, 144, 146, 151, American Zionist leaders, 134 166,167,169,170,179,182,192, American Zionist Organization, 198, 200, 201 194, 206; Biltmore conference Weygand, General Maxime, C-in-C, programme (see also French forces in Syria and North Ben-Gurion), 194 Africa, 104, 107, 110, 111, 112, anti-Zionists, 54, 122 115,117,137, 173, 197,244 n49, non-Zionist Jews, 77 245 n64, 248 n 133 pro-Zionist, 60 Wilson, General Sir Henry Maitland, Revisionists (see also Jabotinsky), various Middle East commands, 48, 194 127, 144, 148, 167, 195 World Zionist Organization (see GOC, British Troops in Egypt, also Weizmann), 58 161-2,179,190 Zionist Actions Committee (see GOC, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, also Ben-Gurion), 194,206