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Home , Arthashastra, Bharata (Mahabharata), Chola dynasty, Gupta era, Hindu saints

CHAPTER 2 Hindu : 300 to 1100 ce

During these eight centuries, , , commerce, science, technology, and flourished in India.

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i n s s t Hindu faith was advanced i g h victoria and albert museum by building, the Movement, holy texts and great philosophers, and sages. This is an 8th century South Indian of Supreme God Siva as . This divine dance depicts His five cosmic powers of creation, preservation, dissolution, veiling grace and revealing grace.

Note to Students, Parents and Teachers This Educational Insight is the second chapter in our series staff of Hi n d u i s m To d a y in collaboration with Dr. Baj­ on Hindu history intended for use in US primary schools. pai, Professor Emeritus of History, California State University, During this period, India was the richest region of the Northridge. Academic reviewers: Dr. Klaus Klostermaier, world and one of the most populous. Great agricultural Professor of Religious Studies, University of Manitoba; Dr. abundance, plus plentiful natural resources, were key to Jeffrey D. Long, Chair, Department of Religious Studies, Eliz­ the region’s prosperity. India lay in the center of the world’s abethtown College; Dr. Vasudha Narayanan, Distinguished ancient trade routes. Merchants sent spices, cotton, sugar Professor, Department of Religion, University of Florida; Dr. and exotic items east to and west to Europe. Hindu Anantanand Rambachan, Professor of Religion, St. Olaf Col­ religion and culture and the language linked all of lege; Dr. T.S. Rukmani, Professor and Chair in , India. Great scientific discoveries as well as major religious Concordia University. Research Assistant: Justin Stein, MA movements came out of this advanced and stable society. candidate at the University of Hawaii and former middle This lesson was written and designed by the editorial school teacher in New York.

october/november/december, 2008 today I-1 s ect i o n1 Of and Prosperity What You Will Learn... If YOU lived then... Main Ideas You live in a village in a small kingdom in central India. One day you 1. Ancient Indians regarded the hear that the of a neighboring realm has attacked your king and subcontinent as one country. conquered the royal city. The conquerer demands that your king pay 2. From 300 to 1100 ce, India was a land of prosperity a portion of his income. In return, he will allow your king to continue whose economic, religious to rule, and also protect the kingdom from others. and cultural influence extended across Asia. Should your king accept the offer? 3. Empires and kingdoms domi- nated most of India. Toward the end of this period, more Bu i l d i n g Bac k g r o u n d The 4th-century Purana describes regional powers emerged. India: “The country that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called , for there dwelt the descendants

➸ of Bharata. It is the land of works, in consequence of which people go to heaven, and ultimately attain oneness with God.” The Big Idea Hindu culture, Sanskrit lan- guage and imperial tradition unified India during this age. Understanding India The triangle-shaped Indian subcontinent is naturally bounded by ocean on two sides and the high Himalayan mountains on the third. Hi n d u i s m To d a y ’s Teaching Standards Hindu tradition, scriptures and the Sanskrit language link people from one end to the other of this immense and fertile area. Our This column in each of the period, 300 to 1100 ce, was a golden age in India. There was wide- three sections presents our spread prosperity and remarkable social stability. Advances were subject outline for India and Hinduism from 300 to 1100 ce. made in science, medicine and technology. Many Hindu saints lived 1. Describe the physical and during this time and magnificent were built. Hinduism as linguistic , practiced today evolved over this glorious period of Indian history. along with population figures. 2. Describe the major empires Geographical regions and kingdoms, including the There are three major geographical regions in India. The first region Guptas, Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, is the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This vast, fertile region stretches north- Pratiharas, Palas and Cholas. east and southwest along the base of the Himalayas. During our pe- 3. Discuss the importance of riod, this area was heavily forested. The second region is the Deccan Sanskrit and the Plateau, bounded by the Vindhya mountain range in the north and in uniting India. the Nilgiri Hills in the south. It contains several major rivers and is 4. Describe India’s early Arab rich in minerals. The third region is , the area south of trade settlements and the the Nilgiri Hills extending to Kanyakumari at the tip of India. It has later Islamic invasions. rich agricultural farm lands.

I-2 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 • Takshashila • Kashmir Ghazni Region Sakala • Afghanistan In d i a : Ge o g raph y

Multan • Himalayas River Sindhu River Nepal Indo-Gangetic GanPlain • g Kannauj • a Rive Sindh Region r Brahmaputra River • Kashi • • • Vikramashila Deval • Nalanda

Ujjain • Vanga Region Vindhya Range Bharuch r Tamralipti • Valabhi • • Narmada Rive Somnath • Ellora • Deccan Puri Plateau •

Arabian Sea Manyakheta • • Badami • River Bay of South This satellite photo shows India India’s three major regions, its •

principal rivers and the major Nilgiri Hills • Puhar cities of the period 300 to 1100. Rive• r India lay at the center of the • bustling sea and land trade routes to Europe, Arabia, Persia, Kanyakumari • China and Sri

Language areas Empires and regional kingdoms divided linguistically into two major In 300 ce, an estimated 42 million peo- regions. In the north are mainly Sanskrit- ple lived in India, 23% of the world’s Sanskrit based languages, such as Hindi. In the population of 180 million. Approxi- south are the , such mately 60% of the lived as Tamil, which include many Sanskrit in the Indo-Gangetic Plain. There were Dravidian words. This division cuts across the middle many towns and cities, but more than of the . Often today when 90% of the population lived in villages. Linguistic Regions people speak of South India, they mean the As our period began, the Indo-Gangetic Dravidian-speaking areas. These are the Plain again became the most important modern-day states of , Kar- region of India, as it had been in the past. nataka, and . During our From 300 to 550, the Imperial Guptas period, regional dialects developed within established an extensive from the Aca d e m i c both the Sanskrit and Dravidian areas. Himalayas deep into the south of India. Vo cab u l ar y Sanskrit was the language of religion, Samudra Gupta (335-370) was the most autonomy and throughout India. Trav- heroic conqueror. The reign of his son, self-rule, elers could use Sanskrit to communicate Gupta II (375-414), independence wherever they went on the subcontinent. was the most brilliant in the entire Hindu

october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-3 history. The Gupta kings granted local and the major empires of the South. and regional autonomy. The frontier states In the 8th century, the Rashtrakutas Pataliputra were nearly independent. The empire was took control of the entire Deccan, parts responsible for security, major roads, irriga- of West Central India and much of the tion projects and common welfare. South. Between the 8th and 10th centu- The Guptas created both political and ries, they competed with the Pratiharas cultural pan-India unity. India made original and Palas for pan-India dominance. The : literary, religious, artistic and scientific con- Pratiharas at their peak ruled much of 300-550, with its capital at Patali­ tributions that benefitted the entire known northern India. They were the first to putra (present-day ) world. Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-hsien effectively stop Arab Muslim invasions (Faxian) reported in the early 5th century, into western India, holding them in check Aca d e m i c “In the cities and towns of this country, the until the 10th century. The Palas, a Bud- Vo cab u l ar y people are rich and prosperous.” Hindu- dhist dynasty centered in eastern India, pan-India ism thrived under the Guptas, taking forms reached their zenith in the early ninth cen- relating to the which endure until today. Gupta culture and tury. Then the Pratiharas displaced them whole of India economy influenced much of Eurasia, nota- from much of the Gangetic Plain. sack bly China and Southeast Asia. There were several large Hindu king- to seize all valuables and The Gupta Empire declined in the late doms in the Deccan and South India in destroy buildings 5th century because of internal strife and our period. They included the Vakatakas, empire invasions by fierce Central Asian Hunas Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas. Rajendra a group of who ruled areas west of the Indus. The Chola I, who ruled from 1014-1044, unified kingdoms under Hunas were driven back in the mid-6th the entire South. The Cholas had a large one authority century by emerging Hindu rulers. army and navy. In an effort to protect their imperial During his 17-year journey through India, trade routes, they subdued kingdoms as of, or relating to, 7th century Chinese monk-scholar Hsuan- far away as and . Their an empire tsang () wrote that there were expeditions are unique in Indian history. plunder about 70 regional powers. Many were part The Cholas dominated trade between South property seized by of the empire of King in the and the Middle East and Europe in violence the West, and Southeast Asia and China Timeline: 300 to 1100 ce

320 500 Gupta dynasty begins, flourishes through gaining strength over the next 550 during a golden thousand years. It was led by age of literature, art, saints such as of science and religion South India (at right with God s. rajam Gold Coin of Chandra Gupta II Siva and Goddess ) Child Sambandar 300 CE 400 500 600 700 300-1000 476 542 641 World-famous Rome falls. Indian trading Hindu kings defeat Harsha, ruler of Ajanta and Ellora shifts from Europe to Arabia Hunas and end their much of north India, Caves are created and the Middle East while brutal rule in central establishes diplomatic continuing with China and northern India relations with China

I-4 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 in the East. Indian traders brought Hindu religion invasions were stopped by the Pratiharas, who and classical culture to Southeast Asia. Hindu and confined Muslim rule to the Sindh region. North- Buddhist kingdoms arose in present-day Malaysia, western India remained stable under Hindu rule Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and South Vietnam. until the Turkish King, Mahmud of Ghazni (in modern Afghanistan), invaded India for plunder Government and legal system and the expansion of Islam. Ruling from 998-1030, The kingdoms of India were guided by the Shas­ Mahmud raided the country 17 times, wreak- tras, Hindu legal texts written in Sanskrit. The ing large-scale destruction of temples, cities and Dhar­ma Shastras, such as Manu and , palaces. The sack of the famed Siva temple of So- recorded and customs regarding family, mar- manatha in 1025 was the most horrific, involving riage, inheritance and occupation, as well as sug- the massacre of 50,000 defenders and the theft of gested punishments for crimes. The fabulous wealth. This battle marked the beginning and Niti Shastras offered rules and advice on the of Muslim domination of northwestern India. king’s behavior, war, justice, administration and Section 1 Assessment business regulation. People believed that when the king was brave and just, the kingdom prospered. Reviewing Id ea s , Ter m s a n d Pe o p l e Shastras, local customs, advice of the wise and 1. List: What are India’s major geographic regions? sound judgment of the king together produced so- 2. Describe: Where did most Indians live in 300ce? phisticated, stable and enlightened government. What was it like? Who ruled this area at that time? 3. Explain: How did the Cholas succeed in unifying Muslim invasions South India and spreading Hindu culture overseas? Arabia, where the new religion of Islam began in 4. Apply: What do you think are some rules and 610 ce, had long traded with India. Arab mer- advice that the Shastras should give for kings? 5. Evaluate: If you ruled a kingdom that was chants belonging to Islam settled peacefully in attacked by a more powerful empire, would you South India in the early 7th century. By 711 Arab fight back or try to join the empire? Why? Muslim armies had conquered North Africa, Spain Fo c u s o n Wr i t i n g ✎ and the Persian empire. They attacked India’s frontiers as well. Arab Muslims conquered Sindh 7. Analyze: Describe the Indian empires of the time and (now in southern Pakistan) in 712. Their further explain why they were attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni.

1025 is at its height. Its 712 influence extends across Southeast Arab Muslims conquer the Sindh Asia. Builds great temples at region of western India. Their Thanjavur and creates world-famous further advance is halted by Hindu bronze statues of Siva Nataraja. armies. No further conquests shutterstock occur for nearly 300 years. Thanjavur Temple

700 800 900 1000 1100 732 802 1025 Charles Martel Jayavarman II founds Mahmud of Ghazni sacks decisively stops Indianized kingdom Somanatha temple in Arab expansion of Kambuja in what is western India as part of into Europe at the now Cambodia, with his campaigns to plunder Battle of Tours (in capital at Angkor the fabulous wealth of central France) India and expand Islam Somanatha Ruins british museum

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u i l d i n g fact, dle B Latin word, 1000 of everything a country or region produces. It includes the value of value the includes It produces. region or a country of everything million, of which perhaps five million lived in cities and towns. towns. and cities in lived million five perhaps of which 50 million, at and various items for domestic and foreign trade. The nation made made nation The trade. foreign and domestic for items various and metallurgy. and astronomy mathematics, in medicine, advances and services (such as the incomes of doctors, teachers, authors and and authors teachers, of doctors, incomes the as (such services and pe- entire this for world in the GDP highest the had India artists). country. It produced a large amount of food, manufactured goods goods manufactured of food, amount a large produced It country. comparison, in 1,000 comparison, % of the world’s Gross Gross world’s 30% of the roughly produced ce, India century % of the world’s GDP. By By GDP. world’s 25% of the with highest, next the was China riod. unprecedented artistic and culture excellence. excellence. culture and artistic unprecedented food, manufactured items (such as cloth, jewelry, tools and pottery) pottery) and tools jewelry, cloth, as (such items manufactured food, Cities: centers of wealth and culture of wealth centers Cities: People enjoyed prosperity, peace and freedom and achieved achieved and freedom and peace prosperity, enjoyed People Economic historians estimate that between the first and eleventh eleventh and first the between that estimate historians Economic “gross”) (the value total is the GDP The GDP. or Product, ­Domestic The richest nation in the world for over 1,000 years over for in the world nation richest The The Indian subcontinent’s population in the fifth century is estimated is estimated century fifth in the population subcontinent’s Indian The India was a wealthy a wealthy was India 1100, 300 to from period the Throughout The Abundance of India of Abundance The If YOU lived then... guild vis- of the potter’s a leader day One potter. is a master father Your a better at wares father’s he can sell your says He city. a nearby its from come will a caravan that He explains than he gets in the village. price In collect fact, your to the village his pots. he tells periodically through can make. all the pots the village potters the guild can sell father Science Society, And the the And october/november/december, 2008october/november/december, 2008 s d s ’ p. p. 6 y ar a n d o d ta T S 2 ➸ i n g p. p. 7 p. p. 9 i o n i n d u i s m Main Ideas each The Big Idea H T hinduism today hinduism today Terms

ect p. p. 8 the decimal system. in art, science, technology world’s richest country world’s during this period. of town and village life.

and mathematics, especially Describe the main features Explain the principal advances Explain how India was the

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literature and literature art were made. tures that brought prosperity. brought that tures in science, technology, in science, technology, during this period. economic and social struc- Important advances India was a wealthy country and villages provided Towns were were largely self-governing. 5. 6. 7. What You Will Learn... Will You What I-6I-6 , panchayat jati, Key commerce, commerce, , p. 8 p. varna, Gross Gross Domestic Product, 3.

2. 1. The capitals where the kings lived were Singing, dancing and gambling were avail- usually the biggest. Cities and towns grew able in special city areas throughout the up along important trade routes, at sea and year. Traveling troupes of musicians, acro- inland river ports and adjacent to major tem- bats, storytellers and magicians provided ples and pilgrimage centers. Temples had be- entertainment. come an important focus of life in cities and Cities served as centers of commerce and villages. They served as places of worship, were largely self-governing. A four-person scholarship, education and performing arts. ruling council included a representative from City life was dynamic, diverse and fulfilling, the big business community, the smaller as seen in the excerpt from an ancient poem, merchants and the guilds of artisans. The The Ankle ­Bracelet, on pages 10 and 11. fourth member, the chief clerk, was responsi- Larger houses were two- or three-story ble for making and keeping records, such Aca d e m i c structures with tile roofs, built around an as land deeds. Vo cab u l ar y open-air, central courtyard. The homes of The wealth of the region depended commerce wealthy citizens had attached gardens. Cit- upon the abundant agricultural harvests buying and ies maintained public gardens, parks and and the diverse products of many artisans. selling of goods groves. Prosperous citizens were expected to It was in the city that this wealth was sophisticated be highly sophisticated and to lead an active concentrated. The king and well-to-do educated and social and cultural life. Ordinary citizens citizens actively supported the fine arts, refined lived in humbler circumstances. including literature, , dance and Then, as now, the was drama. They promoted medicine, tech- filled with home celebrations and public nology and science. They patronized the festivals. Some festivals, such as Sivaratri, skilled jewelers, weavers, painters, metal- took place in temples. Others, like , workers and sculptors. and Ram­na­va­mi, were held city-wide.

Art i s t i c ach i eve m e n t The artisans of India produced masterpieces which included huge temples, metal and stone statues and ornate gold coins.

Three Chola-era bronze statues: Lord Vishnu (center), Bhu­, the Earth Goddess (left), and , Goddess of Prosperity (right) photos: british museum

Sarasvati, Hindu Goddess of This Gupta-era gold coin (actual knowledge, music and the arts, was size) has a horse on one side and also worshiped in the Jain religion Goddess Lakshmi on the other. It weighs about eight grams. october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-7 Ahead of Their Time

Scientific Ad va n ce m e n t 0 shunya 0 Among India’s greatest contributions to the world are the concept of zero and 1 eka 1 counting with ten numbers. This decimal system was best explained by Brahmagupta. 2 dvi 2 He was born in 598 ce and lived during the time 3 tri 3 of King Harsha. It was much easier to multiply, 4 chatur 4 divide, add and subtract with the Indian system. 5 pancha 5 At right you can see the English numbers and the 6 shash 6 Sanskrit they were derived from. Note how you 7 sapta 7 can recognize some shapes, such as 3 and some 8 ashta names, such as nava for nine. Aryabhata (pictured 8 9 nava here), born in 476 ce, lived in the Gupta age. He 9 determined that the Earth is a sphere spinning on its axis. He calculated its circumference within just 67 miles. He understood and accurately predicted solar and lunar eclipses. He also made discoveries in mathematics. The Iron Pillar

(lower right) is 23 feet 8 inches tall, 16 inches in houston donalee diameter at the base, and weighs 6.5 tons. This victory pillar was forged in the 4th century and has stood without rusting for the past 1,700 years. Scientists have determined that an unusual chemical composition has made it rustproof. Only a few foundries in the world today could duplicate it.

a n a l y s i s Skill a n a l y z i n g i n f o r m at i o n

Find a few English words or parts of words that are related to the Sanskrit dinodia numbers. For example, the tri in triangle is related to Sanskrit tri, 3.

Understanding the village based on specific occupations. The jatis are Aca d e m i c The villages, where 90 percent of the called castes in English. Jatis are grouped Vo cab u l ar y people lived, were usually surrounded by under the four-fold class division, or varna: foundry agricultural land. Each had for common priests, warriors, merchants and work- a workshop for use a pond or water reservoir, wells, graz- ers. A fifth group gradually developed casting metal ing grounds and at least one temple. The that included scavengers, leather workers, barter year-round warm climate and monsoon butchers, undertakers and some tribal peo- exchange of rains allowed farmers to produce two crops ple. This group, about ten percent of the goods or services for other goods or a year. The villages enjoyed a food surplus, population, was considered “untouchable” services (without except when struck by natural disaster. The and lived outside the city or village. using money) villages had priests, doctors and barbers The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien reported guild and skilled craftsmen, such as carpenters, that when a member of one of these castes an association of blacksmiths, potters, oil pressers and weav- entered a city, he had to clap two sticks craftsmen who ers. Some villages specialized in one or together to announce his presence. cooperate in the more trades, which were organized into Because the jatis were hereditary, the production and guilds, or shrenis. There were daily and families became expert farmers, craftsmen, sale of goods weekly markets in the villages and nearby merchants, etc. Each family in the village towns to barter and sell goods. interacted with all other jatis and were Hindu society evolved into many jatis, bound together in a permanent relationship.

I-8 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 There would be a family barber, washer- including Taksha­shi­la, Nalanda, Vikrama­ Aca d e m i c man, priest, doctor, carpenter, etc., routinely shila and Vallabhi. Students entered Tak- Vo cab u l ar y serving the family needs. Thus the village shashila at age 16 and studied the elope was an interlocked economic unit. Each vil- and the “eighteen arts and sciences,” which to run away and lage was self-governed by an assembly of included medicine, surgery, astronomy, agri- get married without parent’s’ five elders, called the panchayat. culture, accounting, archery and consent The central unit of the town and village lore. One could later specialize in medi- itinerant was the joint family, as it is today among cine, law or . Nalanda was one who travels many Hindus. Father, mother, sons and their described by Hsuan-tsang as a center of from place to wives, unmarried daughters and grandchil- advanced studies with 10,000 students and place dren all lived under one roof. Land and 2,000 teachers. finances were held in common, and everyone Indian medicine, ayurveda, developed Literally, “science worked for the advancement of the family. sophisticated systems of disease prevention, of life,” a system Marriages were often arranged by the diagnosis and treatment. Widely practiced of health and parents. The boy and girl had little say in today, this holistic system aims to create and prevention of disease the matter, but if a couple eloped, the mar- preserve health, rather than just cure disease. riage was recognized. In the system called From the Gupta Empire onward, India swayamvara, a woman, usually a princess, witnessed a vast outpouring of literature in could choose her husband from a group of the form of plays, poems, songs and epics. assembled suitors. Performing arts were noted for portraying Villages were interconnected with one the nine rasas, or emotions: love, humor, another, due in part to arranged marriages. , anger, heroism, fear, disgust, The girl often came from a different village, tranquility and wonder. one not more than a day’s journey away. A All these achievements created what his- day’s journey (on foot or by bullock cart) torians call a “classical age.” India developed was about 60 kilometers. Visits to relatives strong moral values and noble ethical prin- created an interlocking communications ciples. High standards of intellectual and network through which news, technology artistic sophistication and refined patterns of and ideas freely flowed. Merchants, Hindu living were set that served as models for fol- holy men and women, storytellers and lowing generations. pilgrims added to this network of commu- Section 2 Assessment nication and to cultural enrichment. Such itinerants often traveled long distances Reviewing Id ea s , Ter m s a n d Pe o p l e throughout India. Each village along the 1. a. Define: What is Gross Domestic Product? way offered abundant hospitality. b. Identify: What country had the biggest GDP in the world for 1,000 years? What country was next richest? Science, technology and art 2. a. Explain: Where were cities and towns located? b. Analyze: Who ran the city? Do you India’s enduring prosperity allowed for think this was a good system? Why? great progress in science, technology and c. Contrast: Give three ways that Indian the arts. The most visible examples are the villages were different from the cities. great stone temples that stand today. These 3. a. Evaluate: Do you think the system of jatis was a temples were expertly carved using simple good system? How is it different from modern life? iron chisels and hammers. Fo c u s o n Wr i t i n g ✎ Knowledge was taught in many schools. The world’s first universities were built, 4. Analyze: Why is this time a “classical age” in India?

october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-9 Original Source City Life in South India Translation by Alain Danielou­

The Ankle Bracelet is an ancient Tamil poem. This excerpt describes the port city of Puhar during an annual Hindu festival. Puhar was typical of the port cities of our period.

As Yo u Rea d Try to visualize what the city looked and felt like. Gu i d e d Rea d i n g The Sun appeared, peering over the eastern hills. He tore off Word Help the mantle of night, spread his warm and friendly rays over Tamil Ancient language of the pale Earth. The sunshine lighted up the open terraces, South India the harbor docks, the towers with their arched windows like Puhar the eyes of deer. In various quarters of the city the homes of A port city 240 1 wealthy Greeks were seen. Near the harbor, seamen from far- kilometers south of off lands appeared at home. In the streets hawkers were selling modern Chennai unguents, bath powders, cooling oils, flowers, perfume, incense. unguent an ointment Weavers brought their fine silks and all kinds of fabrics made bazaar of wool or cotton. There were special streets for merchants of a large marketplace coral, sandalwood, myrrh, jewelry, faultless pearls, pure gold and precious gems.

1 Greek merchants had In another quarter lived grain merchants, their stocks piled homes in the city of Puhar. up in mounds. Washermen, bakers, vintners, fishermen and dealers in salt crowded the shops, where they bought betel Why do you think they nuts, perfume, sheep, oil, meat and . One could see were wealthy? coppersmiths, carpenters, goldsmiths, tailors, shoemakers and clever craftsmen making toys out of cork or rags, and expert musicians, who demonstrated their mastery in the seven-tone scale on the flute and the harp. Workmen displayed their skills in hundreds of small crafts. Each trade had its own street in the workers’ quarter of the city. At the center of the city were the wide royal street, the street of temple cars, the bazaar and the main street, where rich merchants had their mansions with high towers. There was a

I-10 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 street for priests, one for doctors, one for astrologers, one for peasants. In a wide passage lived the craftsmen who pierce gems and pearls for the jewelers. Nearby were those who make trinkets out of polished sea shells. In another quarter lived the coachmen, bards, dancers, astrono- mers, clowns, actresses, florists, betel- sellers, servants, nadaswaram players, v&a museum/shiva dayal lal of patna dayal v&a museum/shiva drummers, jugglers and acrobats. This 19th-century painting On the first day of spring, portrays a typical Indian food when the full moon is in Virgo, offerings of rice, cakes of market. About 50 different sesame and brown sugar, meat, paddy, flowers and incense items are for sale. How many can you identify? were brought by young girls, splendidly dressed, to the altar of the God who, at the bidding of , king of heaven, had settled in the town to drive away all perils. As they went away Gu i d e d Rea d i n g from the altar, the dancers cried, “May the king and his vast Word Help empire never know famine, disease or dissension. May we be nadaswaram blessed with wealth—and when the season comes, with rains.” a high-pitched, double- The people made merry on Indra’s chosen day. Great rituals reed wooden horn were performed in the temples of the Unborn Siva, of Muru- paddy gan, the beauteous god of Youth, of Valiyon, brother of Krishna, unhusked rice of the dark Vishnu and of Indra himself, with His strings of famine extreme shortage of food pearls and His victorious parasol. A festive crowd invaded the parasol precincts of the temple, where Vedic rituals, once revealed by here, a highly decorated, the God , were faultlessly performed. The four orders ceremonial umbrella of the Gods, the eighteen hosts of paradise and other celestial spirits were honored and worshiped. Temples of the Jains and 2 2 The city had both Hindu their charitable institutions could be seen in the city. In public and Jain temples. squares, priests were recounting stories from the scriptures of How does this show the ancient . religious tolerance on the part of the citizens? Understanding Original Sources

1. Comparing: The scenes described in this poem took 2. Analyzing: In these times, each craft or trade was the place over 1,800 years ago. What are the similarities work of a separate jati. How many jatis can you identify and differences between the people and activities from the crafts and trades mentioned in this poem? portrayed here and those of a modern city?

october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-11 s ect i o n 3 Leading a Sacred Life What You Will Learn... If YOU lived then... Main Ideas It is your first visit to the thriving city of Puhar. When you arrive with 1. Hinduism permeated the your parents, you see not only Hindus but also Jains and Buddhists. lives of India’s people. You observe Buddhist monks debating philosophical points with 2. A great devotional Hindus, but afterwards all having snacks together as friends. The movement developed during this time. king of Madurai, you learn, is a Hindu, but he also shows his religious 3. The Hindu religion tolerance by supporting Jain temples and Buddhist monasteries. made it possible for anyone to reach God. What is the value of religious harmony? ➸

Bu i l d i n g Bac k g r o u n d : Physical evidence of ancient culture is sparse. The Big Idea Wood, paper and cloth disintegrate over time; bricks and stones are India’s rulers and people recycled. This makes it hard to answer some questions about history. held a tolerant attitude But scientific methods such as carbon dating and DNA analysis are toward all . giving new data and correcting wrong theories about ancient times.

Key Terms Leading a Sacred Life religious harmony, p. 12 Daily life in villages and towns was guided by the principles of Bhakti Movement, p. 13 righteous living as taught in the Hindu scriptures. Every day began , p. 13 Agama, p. 14 with a time of worship in the home shrine. Temples were the center Purana, p. 14 of village and city life. Families visited them to worship God and participate in festivals and celebrations which were held throughout the year. Holy men and women were honored. One’s daily work was considered sacred. The people respected all the religions. Hi n d u i s m To d a y ’s Teach i n g Sta n d ar d s Truth is One, paths are many 8. Explain how Hindu Most kings of this period were Hindus; some were Buddhists and kings maintained Jains. With rare exceptions, all supported the various religions dur- religious harmony. ing their reign. A Rig Veda verse declares: Ekam sat vipra bahudha 9. Describe the Bhakti vadanti. “Truth is one, sages describe it variously.” This means that Movement and the importance of the Puranas, there are different ways to speak of the One Truth that is God. and . The Rashtrakuta rulers, for example, not only patronized Saivism 10. Describe the importance and , but also supported and . Rulers of the Agamas and the of the period welcomed Christians, Jews, Muslims and Parsis and development of temple encouraged them to settle in their kingdoms and practice their worship during this period. faiths. This maintained religious harmony in society and even aided international trade.

I-12 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 Li fe o f Lo r d Kr i s h n a

Lord Krishna, depicted at center with blue complexion, celebrates indra sharma the Holi festival with friends in Vrindavan, a town of his youth

Evolution of temple worship From ancient times, Vedic fire worship rites, mented meditation and , offering an called , had been practiced. Families all-embracing means to enlightenment

continued to perform these rites at home each and liberation from birth and rebirth the i m pact day. Rulers across India held spectacular Vedic through divine grace. Today ceremonies, including coronations and other The most famous early saints of the royal celebrations. Scholars believe that the de- Bhakti Movement are the Vaishnavite worship votional worship of God and the Gods in small and the Saivite . They continues to be performed in shrines existed alongside or even predated Ve- came from all castes and were a voice modern times, dic rites everywhere, especially in South India. for equality. Four of the Nayanars enjoy using Sanskrit chanting and Since at least the third century bce, devo- prominence to this day: , Sundarar, following tional worship became increasingly popular. It Sambandar and Manikkavasagar. instructions eventually became the central practice of Hin- While pilgrimaging from temple to from the Agama scriptures. duism. Some small shrines evolved into great temple, the Nayanars composed poems temples with more complex worship, called and songs in praise of the loving God puja. Puja is the ritual offering of water, food, Siva. These became part of a massive Aca d e m i c flowers and other sacred substances to the body of scripture called the . Vo cab u l ar y enshrined Deity. Yajna rites, Sanskrit chanting These passionate hymns, composed in adoration and verses from the Vedas were all incorpo- the , remain popular today deep love and rated into the temple rituals. in South India. Saints emerged all over respect India composing devotional songs to Siva, Saivite The Bhakti Movement Vishnu, Krishna, and Devi in local worshiper of Siva Many Hindu saints of this time preached the languages. There was a massive response Vaishnavite importance of devotion to God in what is to this stirring call of divine bliss. worshiper of called the Bhakti Movement. Adoration for Great teachers and philosophers, such as Vishnu God, known as bhakti, stresses one’s personal and , were critical relationship with the Divine as a love-centered to the Bhakti Movement. They explained path of spiritual advancement. It comple- how to relate to God through worship.

october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-13 Temple Wonder Ro c k -Cu t Te m p l e The Kailasa Temple to Lord Siva at Ellora, , in West India, was begun in the 8th century by Rashtrakuta King Krishna I and completed by his successor. Amazingly, it was carved out of a solid mountain of rock. It took the stone workers 100 years to remove 200,000 tons of rock. The temple, measuring 160 feet by 280 feet, was created in the South Indian style by architects of that region. It was designed to resemble Mount Kailasa, the Himalayan home of God Siva. Along the same rock cliff are 34 caves that were excavated from the solid rock between the 5th and 10th centuries. They served as monasteries and temples. Twelve were built for the shutterstock Buddhists, 17 for Hindus and five for Jains. The fact that these were all built in the same complex testifies to the religious harmony and diversity of the period.

a n a l y s i s Skill a n a l y z i n g i n f o r m at i o n

Why do you think the king went to so much time and expense to build this large temple?

Adi Shankara their chosen Deity with great devotion and Aca d e m i c The (788-820) devel- paid respects to the many other enshrined Vo cab u l ar y oped the philosophy of Advaita Deities. The priest conducted the holy ritu- assimilation during this time. In summary, his philoso- als, but did not stand between the devotee the absorption phy can be stated as: “ (the Su- and God. and integration of a people, preme Being) is the only truth. The world is Temple worship was defined in great idea, religion or an appearance. There is ultimately no dif- detail in the A­ga­mas and parts of the Pura­ culture into a ference between Brahman and the atma, or nas. The refined art of building with stone, society individual soul.” He taught this philosophy brick and other materials was the subject of guru across India. He established four monas- the Vastu Shastras. These books on archi- teacher tic centers which remain influential today. tecture cover temple design, town planning epic His teachings and the Bhakti Movement and house construction. All these texts are a long poem together brought back many Jains and Bud- in Sanskrit. The Agamas include rituals and about herioc dhists to Hinduism. Sanskrit chants for every act connected deeds and with the temple, from its conception and people Temple worship construction to the details of daily worship. All over India great Hindu temples were Temples were central to the social and built or expanded between 300 and 1100 ce. economic life of the community. Large Many are at the center of large cities, such temples also served as centers for educa- as on the in the North, and tion and training in music and dance. Over Madurai in the South, and remain powerful the centuries, many temples acquired places of worship. agricultural land and great wealth. During In the temples, the people worshiped festivals, thousands of people pilgrimaged

I-14 hinduism today october/november/december, 2008 to the famous temples. This flow of visitors based on the epics became the main means the i m pact helped the local economy and spread cul- of teaching the Hindu way of life. Today tural practices and religious belief. During our period, Hinduism and Bud- The Ramayana dhism spread to Burma, Indonesia, Malay- and Mahabharata The Purana Scriptures sia, Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand. continue to enrich religious Puranas are dedicated to a particular Deity. It was made popular in these countries life. They have Each contains a description of the origin of through the epics and other Sanskrit texts. even been made into popular the universe, lists of kings, Hindu philoso- movies and TV phy and traditional stories about the Gods programs. and Goddesses. Among the most important Chapter Su m m ar y Puranas are the Bhagavata, Vishnu, Siva The time from 300 to 1100 ce was a and the , especially for its golden age in India. Its prosperity, stabil- Devi Mahatmya section. The Bha­ga­vata ity and religious harmony encouraged Aca d e m i c narrates the greatness of Lord Vishnu and scientific and artistic achievements that Vo cab u l ar y His ten , of whom the two most im- set standards for the entire world. Devo- portant are Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. the Supreme tional Hinduism developed in a power- The Siva Purana extols the four-fold path Being appearing ful manner. Through songs and stories, leading to oneness with Lord Siva: service, in human form it brought Hindu principles and values worship, yoga and wisdom. It also explains yoga into the languages of the common people. Namah Sivaya, regarded by Saivites as the practices that Temples became popular centers for wor- most sacred of . bring union with ship of Gods and Goddesses. The Puranas, God The Puranas record an important feature Ramayana and Maha­bharata provided of Hinduism, the assimilation of different an abundant library of history, philosophy, sacred sound ethnic and religious groups. They tell us religious practices and moral teachings in that earlier migrants into India, such as the stories that were passed from generation Greeks, Persians and central Asian peoples, to generation. This great devotional tradi- including the Hunas, had been completely tion inspired and sustained the people in absorbed into Indian society and Hindu their daily life, as it continues to do today. religion. Various tribes were also brought into the mainstream and their beliefs and Section 3 Assessment practices assimilated. The stories of these people are recorded in the Puranas. Reviewing Id ea s , Ter m s a n d Pe o p l e 1. a. Explain: How did Hindu rulers show tolerance? Ramayana and Mahabharata b. Define: What is bhakti? You read in chapter one about the two great c. Elaborate: What is the purpose of the temple priest? 2. List: Name three important Puranas. historical tales of India, the Ramayana 3. a. Explain: What does assimilation mean? and the Maha­bharata. These epics were b. List: What peoples were assimilated into Hindu society? revised into their present form and gained 4. a. Explain: What is the Bhakti Movement? popularity all over India, and beyond, dur- b. Explain: What caste did its saints belong to? ing our period. They played a crucial role c. Elaborate: What are the ways the Ramayana in the development of devotional Hinduism. and Mahabharata are presented today? Unlike the Vedas, which could be under- Fo c u s o n Wr i t i n g ✎ stood only by those who studied Sanskrit, 5. Explain: Why do you think the Bhakti Movement the epics were retold into local languages. became popular all across India? Drama, dance, song, painting and

october/november/december, 2008 hinduism today I-15 CHAPTER 2 Standards Assessment Directions: Rea d each q u e s t i o n a n d c i rc l e the l etter o f the be s t re s p o n s e

1. The Indian subcontinent was united as a one country by: 8. Hindu villages were in close contact because: A Hindu religion, customs and the Sanskrit language A Runners daily delivered news from village to village B The Buddhist Pala kings of Northeast India B Many women married into families of nearby villages C Outside invaders who conquered the subcontinent C People wrote letters to each other frequently D A confederation of rulers D Villages met monthly

2. From 300 to 1100 ce, India comprised about 9. Why was our time period considered a “classical age?” what percent of the world population? A Greeks ruled India throughout this time A 5% B Great Hindu kings conquered areas outside of India B 15% C India’s advances in knowledge and C 25% development of refined patterns of living D 35% D The land was very prosperous

3. What were the Guptas not famous for? 10. The city of Puhar described in the poem, Ankle Bracelet: A Advances in art, science and technology A Was a city intolerant of religions other than Hinduism B Creating a pan-Indian empire B Was an underdeveloped city C Suppressing the Buddhist and Jain religions C Was home to many merchants and craftsmen D A prosperous economy with strong foreign trade D Had little to offer by way of entertainment

4. Why did Mahmud of Ghazni invade India? 11. Which of these religious groups were welcomed in India? A To remove unjust Hindu kings from power A Muslims B To establish his own pan-India empire B Jews and Christians C To seek revenge for an Indian invasion of his country C Parsis D For plunder and the expansion of Islam D All of the above

5. Which is the correct list of GDPs for our period? 12. Why is the Kailasa Temple in Ellora unusual? A India 50%, China 25%, Europe 5% A It was built from 10,000 granite blocks B India 20%, China 20%, Europe 20% B It was carved out of solid rock C India 11%, China 25%, Europe 30% C It was the largest clay brick structure in India D India 30%, China 25%, Europe 11% D Though made of wood, it lasted 500 years

6. The cities of India were ruled by whom? 13. The Bhakti Movement was based on: A A council representing the major interest groups A Rules set by the caste B A council elected by vote of all residents B Temple worship, scriptures and devotional songs C A hereditary ruler C The religions of Buddhism and Jainism D A military general D A royal command of the Rashtrakuta rulers

7. What is a jati? 14. The Ramayana and Mahabharata influenced: A A priest, warrior, merchant or worker A Mainly the community of merchants B A group following the same hereditary occupation B Only the people of the Indo- C A group of foreign sailors Gangetic Plain region of India D A group assigned to an occupation by the king C Mostly South India D All of India and countries in Southeast Asia Internet Resources: Go to http://www.hinduismtoday. URL are additional teaching resources and letters of com/education/ for a PDF version of this chapter, as endorsement from academics and community leaders. well as Chapter One, “Hinduism from Ancient Times,” To order additional copies of this educational insight, with clickable links to resources. Also at the same go to http://www.minimela.com/booklets/.

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