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Terroir and the Sustainability of Juice Grapes in an Arid Climate

Terroir and the Sustainability of Juice Grapes in an Arid Climate

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY Vol. 1, No. 2, 2003 1473-5903=03=02 0089-06 $20.00=0 # 2003 J. Silbernagel & W.G. Hendrix

1 Sunburn on the : and the Sustainability of Juice

2 in an Arid

1 2 3 Janet Silbernagel and William G. Hendrix 4 1Department of , University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; 2Department of and 5 Landscape Architecture, State University, Pullman, WA, USA

6 Agricultural sustainability practices make the best use quality that otherwise benefit from natural 44 7 of both nature’s resources and available technology, conditions of the region (physiography and cli- 45 8 and generally avoid those land use practices that lead mate). In this paper we explore the environmen- 46 9 to greater environmental stress. There are examples in tal issues of maintaining in arid 47 10 some agro-ecosystems, however, where stress is vital such as central Washington. We ask: 48 11 to food quality and productivity. In the case of 12 production, a limited amount of environmental stress 13 actually leads to an increase in fruit quality, and with (1) How should concepts of sustainability con- 49 14 grapes, to improved wine quality. But when the sider environmental stress? For example, 50 15 stress exceeds an acceptable threshold, vigour which would be less sustainable: excessive 51 16 declines and production and quality may be compro- environmental stress in grapes, and thus 52 17 mised. Using our experiences with environmental 18 stress in grapes grown in the landscapes of Central decreased harvests, or the alleviation of that 53 19 and Eastern Washington, USA, we question how agri- stress with irrigation? 54 20 cultural sustainability should consider environmental (2) When is environmental stress beneficial? 55 21 stress, and at what point management interventions When is it not sustainable? 56 22 contribute or detract from a sustainable system. Framed 57 23 by the two French land-related terms ‘’ and 24 ‘terroir’, we discuss agricultural sustainability for grape Our vineyard research has focused on a con- 58 25 cultivation in an arid climate. dition in juice grapes known as blackleaf; a detri- 59 mental response to environmental conditions 60 26 Keywords: appellation, environment stress, grapes, that exceed a threshold for acceptable stress. 61 27 landscape sustainability, management adaptations, Using the two French land-related terms ‘appel- 62 terroir, vineyard 28 lation’ and ‘terroir’, we discuss the implications 63 of such stress to agricultural sustainability; the 64 fit of Concord grapes to the Columbia ap- 65 29 Introduction pellation and terroir. 66

30 The production of wine and juice grapes in the 31 Columbia Valley of Washington, USA presents Geography of Washington 67 32 some interesting questions regarding agricul- 33 tural or landscape sustainability. In the valley, The state of Washington, USA, is characterised 68 34 some environmental stress (high radiation and by enormous physiographic and ecological di- 69 35 water deficit) is desirable for fruit quality, if that versity. The Cascade Mountains divide the state 70 36 stress can be kept within limits. Irrigation into two major climatic regions: the wet, forested 71 37 schemes that allow growers to determine when west side and the sunny, arid east side. Along 72 38 and how much water is applied to an the eastern rain shadow, pine forests drop into 73 39 are relatively high input practices, especially in the basalt rock canyons of the Columbia River 74 40 a climate where water is limited. Yet by moder- basin, with desert sagebrush valleys covered by 75 41 ating environmental stress with water manage- gravely or sandy . Rainfall is less than 76 42 ment, the Columbia Valley is able to have 25 cm along the Columbia and Yakima River val- 77 43 leading harvests of juice grapes and to create leys east of the Cascades, compared with over 78

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File path: p:/Santype/Journals/Mlm/Ijas/Ijas017/Ijas017.3d Date and Time: 02/07/04 22:41:52 3b2 Ver: 7.51c/W (Jun 11 2001) Ijas017 90 International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability

Figure 1 American Viticultural Areas (AVAs, similar to in ) of Washington, USA. There are four AVAs in Washington: Columbia Valley in the central part of the state, Puget Sound to the west, Walla Walla in the southeast corner, and Yakima Valley in south central Washington. Source: Commission brochure (1997)

79 250 cm in the nearby mountain and coastal four appellations in Washington, which are 97 80 regions to the west (Ahmedullah & Watson, called American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) and 98 81 1985). Not surprisingly, the agriculture, and are regulated by the Bureau of , Tobacco, 99 82 especially the horticulture, of the state are and Firearms (Figure 1). Although there are vine- 100 83 equally diverse, from cranberries grown in yards on the west side of the Cascade Range in 101 84 coastal wetland environments, to a variety of the Puget Sound appellation, most grape pro- 102 85 grown under irrigation in the more arid duction is found in the Columbia Valley, Walla 103 86 regions. Although Washington is most noted Walla Valley and Yakima Valley appellations in 104 87 for its apples and other tree fruits, it also leads the arid regions of the state, under irrigation. 105 88 the nation in the production of Concord, a var- The word ‘terroir’, for which the French claim 106 89 iety of juice (or table) grapes, and is second only there is no complete English translation, is used 107 90 to in the production of wine grapes to describe the combination of physical factors: 108 91 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2001). the vine, subsoil, siting, drainage, and microcli- 109 mate, along with the intangible spirit and history 110 of the place that produce certain qualities in 111 92 Appellation and Terroir of the grapes, and thus in wine (Johnson & Robinson, 112 93 Columbia Valley 2001; Wilson, 1998). Terroir is a holistic concept 113 that can be contrasted to the more systematic 114 94 Grapes are grown in geographic areas known and scientifically based approaches to identifying 115 95 as appellations, the ‘identifying name of a de- those physical factors in (Haynes, 116 96 fined wine area’ (Wilson, 1998: 57). There are 2000; Meinert & Busacca, 2000). 117 Sunburn on the Vineyard 91

118 In a series on geology and wine for Geoscience rapid increase in land used for the production 170 119 Canada, Meinert and Busacca describe the of grapes. By the end of the 19th century several 171 120 physiographic characteristics of Southeast small privately financed irrigation projects pro- 172 121 Washington: vided water to be used for the irrigation of 173 grapes and other crops near Yakima (Irvine & 174 122 Terroir of the Walla Walla Valley appellation of Clore, 1997). Companies such as the Northern 175 123 Washington State is influenced by (1) the rain 124 shadow effect and volcanic tephra of the Pacific Railroad initiated larger-scale irrigation 176 125 Cascade Mountain Range, (2) soils derived from projects. These projects led to the creation of 177 126 Quaternary glacial sediments and wind-blown extensive of Concord and other 178 127 loess overlying Miocene basalt, and (3) a warm, grapes, and the establishment of large commer- 179 128 dry climate with abundant sunshine and cool   cial fruit processing throughout eastern 180 129 nights due to high latitude (45 –48 N) and 130 elevation. (Meinert & Busacca, 2000: 149) and central Washington. Towards the middle of 181 the 20th century, large federally sponsored irri- 182 131 Although they describe the Walla Walla Valley gation projects, such as the construction of the 183 132 appellation specifically, very similar conditions Grand Coulee Dam, further enhanced agricultural 184 133 exist throughout the Columbia Basin. A series production in the Columbia Valley (Washington 185 134 of geologic events first reported by Bretz (1923, State Office of Archaeology and Historic Preser- 186 135 1925) that have collectively become known as vation, 1989). Plantings of wine and juice grapes 187 136 the Great Missoula Flood have had a profound increased steadily throughout the last half of the 188 137 influence on the terroir of the grape-growing 20th century to a total of about 16,000 ha, and in 189 138 regions of the Columbia Basin. As the flood- 2000, Washington State led the nation in the 190 139 waters were constricted at Wallula Gap 100,000 production of Concord juice grapes, accounting 191 140 to 10,000 years ago, the water backed up into for nearly 41% of the national total (National 192 141 tributaries of the Columbia River, perhaps Agricultural Statistics Service, 2001). 193 142 upstream as far as the present day Hells Canyon 143 Dam on the Snake River in Idaho (O’Connor & 144 Baker, 1992). These floodwaters left slackwater Stress and grape quality 194 145 deposits, locally called Touchet beds (Carson 146 et al., 1978), which are relatively fine-grained Irrigation provides not only water to vine- 195 147 and well-drained formations. Many of the vine- yards, but also a means for growers to manipu- 196 148 yards in the Columbia Basin are located on pro- late stress, both by watering and withholding 197 149 ductive loess soils overlaying these well-drained water. The concept of agricultural sustainability 198 150 Touchet beds. implies ‘the better use of nature’s goods and ser- 199 vices, and of people’s knowledge, technologies, 200 and collective capacities’ (Pretty et al., 2003: 1). 201 151 History of Washington vineyards A tangent of this concept suggests that stress to 202 152 Vineyards have been a significant component the given system is minimal so that the practice 203 153 of the agricultural landscape of Washington may persist indefinitely. Interestingly, in the case 204 154 since the earliest settlements. The first known of grape production, some level of physiological 205 155 planting of grape was at Fort Vancouver, stress is desirable. Gladstones reports that ‘fruit- 206 156 near the Pacific coast, in 1824 (Irvine & Clore, fulness and grape quality have in the past largely 207 157 1997). The first vineyard was planted with seeds depended on the combination of low vine vigor 208 158 brought from England, but the variety is not and summer trimming’ (Gladstones, 1992: 46) 209 159 known. Juice grapes ( labrusca L.), as well and Peynaud notes: 210 160 as wine grapes ( L.), were grown in Somewhat paradoxically, quality wine areas are 211 161 the southeastern part of the state at Walla Walla not necessarily those most favorable to the 212 162 by 1836. By the late 19th century grapes were cul- growth and production of the vine. The quality 213 163 tivated throughout most of the arid regions of regions are rather marginal areas more subject 214 to irregular annual climates and equally sensitive 215 164 eastern and central Washington, with Concords to . (Peynaud, 1984: 81) 216 165 first grown in the arid regions of Washington 166 in 1904 (Irvine & Clore, 1997). The production of high quality grapes then, is a 217 167 As has been the case with nearly all other hor- compromise between providing an environment 218 168 ticultural crops grown in Central Washington, that supports the growth of the vine while main- 219 169 water provided by irrigation projects fueled the taining the level of stress necessary to produce 220 92 International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability

221 high quality fruit. In some cases, however, the Recognition of early season stress could allow 273 222 stress becomes more acute. growers to apply adaptive management, such 274 as shade structures, anti-transpirants, or most 275 likely, modified irrigation to alleviate the effects. 276 223 The case of blackleaf Success with Concord grapes in Eastern 277 224 Grapevine blackleaf is a disorder that occurs in Washington depends on the extent to which 278 225 vineyards throughout the world, though much growers can detect early season stress, when 279 226 more predominantly in juice grapes than in wine changes in vineyard management can alleviate 280 227 grapes and more frequently in arid landscapes water or light extremes, and whether they are 281 228 like those of Central Washington than in many willing to accept the environmental (and finan- 282 229 others (Smithyman, 1999). Blackleaf symptoms cial) costs for mid-season vineyard management 283 230 occur on the upper sun-exposed leaves of the Alternatively, lack of attention to spatially spe- 284 231 vine as a purplish to blackish discoloration on cific early season clues might lead growers to 285 232 the leaf surface. With continued exposure the overwater or overmanage throughout the 286 233 leaf darkens and dries, and eventually, the entire season. 287 234 vine may become defoliated. When a large per- 235 centage of vines within a vineyard are defoliated, 236 the grape also declines (Smithyman, 1999). 237 Traditionally, blackleaf in grape was thought Implications and Discussion 288 238 to be associated with low potassium concen- 239 trations (Clore & Woodbridge, 1963; Shaulis, In France each appellation has its own terroir 289 240 1954). However, more recent research shows that that a vigneron (French grape grower) should 290 241 blackleaf is not linked directly with potassium not attempt to change. Kramer (1989) explains 291 242 nutrition, but rather with a combination of high that vignerons feel each terroir should be 292 243 light, ultraviolet-B irradiation, and water deficit allowed to be itself and produce the wine for 293 244 stress, which collectively induce blackleaf symp- which nature endowed it. ‘The land itself 294 245 toms (Smithyman, 1999). Still, it is not clear why chooses the that suits it best’ (Johnson, 295 246 greenness declines more in some parts of a vine- 1997 and supported by the author’s personal 296 247 yard than others; why there is spatial variability communication with growers in the Valley 297 248 in the sensitivity to light and heat stress. Further of France). But in the US, changing land use 298 249 research on the physiological triggers is needed. practices and modern technology have made 299 250 For three years (1996–1999), colleagues at possible geographic shifts in the cultivation or 300 251 Washington State University monitored the production of grape products that had been his- 301 252 environmental stress of blackleaf in Washington torically associated with particular regions and 302 253 vineyards. We looked for spatial pattern and landscapes (Barham, 2003). While juice grapes 303 Q1 254 variability in the disorder. Our work used vine- are grown plentifully in the Columbia Valley, 304 255 level digital image capture to measure seasonal are these cultivation practices sustainable in this 305 256 declines in greenness as an indication of blackleaf environment, in the long term? Are they sus- 306 257 spread, and to look for spatial patterns of blackleaf tainable if the costs of managing stress are 307 258 development within vineyards (Silbernagel & considered? 308 259 Lang, 2002). Concurrently, physiologists tested First, in a traditional sense, terroir applies only 309 260 for triggers and experimented with management to wine grapes, as a concept that evolved over a 310 261 adaptations to decrease the sun and water stress very long period of time. Some places where 311 262 (Lang et al., 1998). grapes are grown in France have been cultivated 312 263 Together we were able to characterise the spa- in vines for over a thousand years, which sug- 313 264 tial variability and seasonal trends of greenness, gests a different landscape context than the 50– 314 265 the reciprocal of blackleaf, and blackleaf devel- 60 years that Concords have been extensively 315 266 opment during subsequent seasons in Concord planted, or the 20–30 years that wine grapes have 316 267 vineyards of the Yakima Valley. The results sug- been extensively grown in Washington. Second, 317 268 gest that early season spatial pattern might be an and perhaps more importantly, in France it is il- 318 269 indicator of where greenness is (or is not) devel- legal to irrigate wine grapes that are grown in 319 270 oping. Patches with delayed greenness may rep- controlled appellations, so the concept of terroir 320 271 resent areas of greater environmental stress that takes on a much more complete meaning with 321 272 exceed an acceptable threshold for recovery. regards to the inherent nature of a site for 322 Sunburn on the Vineyard 93

323 growing grapes (Barham, 2003; Wilson, 2001). yard that causes a decline in yield and regional 376 324 There are cultural inputs that could be called re- income, or site-specific management inputs to 377 325 source demands, but they are mostly in the form alleviate blackleaf symptoms and maintain a 378 326 of fertilisers and the labour needed for certain viable ? 379 327 cultural practices and are much less intense, at We have used the case of sunburn on the vine- 380 328 least from the point of view of sustainable energy yard, couched in the idea of terroir, to illustrate 381 329 and water. some issues yet to be resolved around the topic 382 330 Do the irrigated vineyards of Washington and of agricultural sustainability. There are clearly 383 331 California apply the concept of terroir too loosely environmental costs associated with the pro- 384 332 as Wilson (2001) suggests? In the context of that duction of grapes in the Columbia Valley. But 385 333 described above, the traditional definition of ter- there are also environmental costs associated 386 334 roir establishes a threshold that would, at least in with the shipping of grapes or wine from France 387 335 part, be driven by the amount of rainfall needed or State to Seattle, Washington. What 388 336 to grow grapes. This touches on the fundamental is certain is that the production of grapes, and 389 337 issue associated with sustainability: the assump- the creation of wines in the Columbia Valley 390 338 tions that are made about what is acceptable in supports the local economy, utilises natural con- 391 339 terms of inputs to the system. In a strict inter- ditions, and contributes to a regional agricultural 392 340 pretation of ecological principles, sustainability, identity, some of the requirements that Hawken 393 341 or terroir, where human needs or passions for (1993) identifies as needed for sustainable 394 342 wine were not considered, then clearly the grow- business. And Pretty et al. argue (2003: 1) ‘It is 395 343 ing of grapes, either Concord or wine would possible, though not necessarily easy, to have 396 344 not be appropriate in the Columbia Valley. diversity in both human and natural systems 397 345 However, sustainability is not only an ecological without giving up economic efficiency’. It seems 398 346 concept, but one that be applied within that those conducting agricultural sustainability 399 347 the context of human values; what some refer assessments need common, objective means to 400 348 to as a socioeconomic construct. As Pretty et al. account for environmental and economic inputs, 401 349 state (2003: 1): and the meaning of such practices to regional 402 identity and long-term sustainability issues. In 403 350 ...real progress can only come from a synthesis other cases, holistic concepts of sustainability, 404 351 of the best knowledge and practices of the past, 352 eliminating whatever causes damage to environ- like ‘terroir’, will provide the best context for 405 353 ments and human health, with the best of knowl- assessment. 406 354 edge and technology available to us today.

Acknowledgements 407 355 Very high quality grapes, both Concord and 356 wine, can be grown in the Columbia Valley The authors thank Drs Suzanne Lang, Robert 408 357 because most of the natural conditions are ideal, Wample, and Russell Smithyman for their efforts 409 358 and it is (generally) socially acceptable to supply in physiological studies of blackleaf in Concord 410 359 the water (and the energy that implies) to make it grape vineyards of Washington. Spatial studies 411 360 possible. Even economically one could argue that of blackleaf, conducted with Dr Suzanne Lang, 412 361 this agricultural practice is sustainable. If the were funded in part by grants from the North- 413 362 conditions of the Columbia Valley (the terroir) west Small Fruit Research Council and the 414 363 were such that only average to low quality jug Washington State Grape Commission. We also 415 364 wines could be produced, it is unlikely that the appreciate the advice and early reviews pro- 416 365 Washington wine industry could compete with vided by Dr John Fellman, Dr Matthew Carroll 417 366 California economically, and it would be far less and Dr Matthias Bu¨ rgi as well as revisions sug- 418 367 robust than it currently is. Similarly, Washington gested by two anonymous reviewers. 419 368 would not continue to be the top state in Con- 369 cord grape production if it could not produce Correspondence 420 370 nice yields of plump juicy grapes. 371 So how shall the international agricultural Any correspondence should be directed to 421 372 community consider environmental stress and Janet Silbernagel, Dept. of Landscape Architec- 422 373 adaptive management regarding sustainability? ture, University of Wisconsin, Room 12 Agricul- 423 374 In this illustration, which would we consider less ture Hall, 1450 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, 424 375 sustainable: the spread of blackleaf across a vine- USA ([email protected]). 425 94 International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability

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