Exploring Ice and Snow in the Cold War

Exploring Ice and Snow in the Cold War. Munich: Deutsches Museum, Munich; Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society (RCC), Munich; Julia Herzberg / Franziska Torma RCC Munich; Christian Kehrt, Helmut Schmidt University Hamburg / RCC Munich; Cornelia Lüdecke, RCC Munich / Scientifc Committee on, 27.01.2011-29.01.2011.

Reviewed by Felix Mauch

Published on H-Soz-u-Kult (July, 2011)

The inherent nature of ice and snow allows with introductory remarks on the analysis of the historians to view them as multifaceted objects in Cold War from the perspective of environmental which environmental and socio-cultural aspects history. The conveners therefore understood the are intertwined with one another. This is especial‐ word “exploring” to be not just a descriptive, but ly true of the Cold War era, during which a boom also a methodological metaphor refecting the in scientifc research on ice and snow took place. possibility of learning from diferent approaches Between the end of the Second World War and the and meanings of ice and snow, and of conceptual‐ collapse of the bipolar world in the 1990s, former‐ izing and embracing this new feld of research. ly stable perceptions of the cold, ice, and snow The keynote speaker, SVERKER SÖRLIN changed. Landscapes like Siberia, Alaska, or the (Stockholm) presented early fndings of his ongo‐ Polar Regions transformed into extensive labora‐ ing study entitled “Cryohistory in the Making.” As tories for the Arctic sciences. Thus, the goal of the a turning point in the history of the cryosphere - conference, initiated by the Rachel Carson Center the part of the Earth’s surface covered in ice - he for Environment and Society and the Deutsches identifed the Arctic Sea Ice Minimum in 2007. Museum, was to explore the history of ice, snow, Sörlin called for a longue durée examination of and the Cold War from a number of diferent cul‐ the event in order to more accurately evaluate tural and political perspectives and to discuss rel‐ discontinuities and changes in the perception of evant conceptual approaches. The multidimen‐ the cryosphere. Due to the power of these open sionality of the conference’s topics was refected debates on the perception of the environment, the in the disciplinary and national diversity of its history of glaciology and climate change should, participants and the new methodological and the‐ in the future, also be told as a story of scientifc oretical concepts presented in the course of the politics and popular culture. event. In the frst presentation from the panel “Envi‐ After the directors of the Rachel Carson Cen‐ ronmental Knowledge,” ROGER D. LAUNIUS ter (RCC), HELMUTH TRISCHLER and CHRISTOF (Washington) explored the history of the conquest MAUCH welcomed the participants, the confer‐ of Antarctic and extraterrestrial spaces in the ence’s conveners, JULIA HERZBERG (RCC/Munich), 1950s and 1960s. Launius interpreted these spaces CHRISTIAN KEHRT (Hamburg) and FRANZISKA to be part of a nascent colonialism of unknown TORMA (RCC/Munich), opened the conference territories that had developed in the shadow of H-Net Reviews the emerging dualistic world system. In terms of history research, which until now has largely methodology, Launius suggested a “middle inter‐ failed to consider the political implications of sci‐ pretation” in which geopolitics and science act as entifc practices. INGO HEIDBRINK’S (RCC/Nor‐ the two intertwined driving forces in the coloniza‐ folk) presentation tied into Heymann’s discussion. tion of Antarctica and outer space. In his talk, Using the example of Project Iceworm, a US plan RON DOEL (Tallahassee) addressed the construc‐ to build a nuclear missile launching site under tion mechanisms of mental interpretation struc‐ Greenland’s ice caps, he not only identifed the ex‐ tures of nature and the environment. Doel sug‐ pectations and strategies used in polar research, gested that, in the Cold War era, national security but also visualized the efects of these military ac‐ interests were the dominant motives driving the tivities on the local Inuit population, from a local- human relationship to the environment. Still to‐ historical perspective. Both presentations empha‐ day, he argued, our contemporary values and per‐ sized that obtaining natural resources was not the ceptions of nature are infuenced by these past de‐ primary goal of all eforts in Greenland, but cisions. The following presentation was given by rather the conquest of Arctic space itself. Here, PEDER ROBERTS (Strasburg), who used the sub- trust in scientifc knowledge and technology in arctic island of Bouvetøya as an example to dis‐ conquering extreme environments was almost cuss scientifc collaboration between Norway and limitless. Contact with the indigenous population South Africa in the early phase of the Cold War, or the use of their knowledge was not of interest. separate from the hegemony of the superpowers. The next panel concentrated on concrete Also, the limits of attempts to completely control places of knowledge production. DANIA ACHER‐ the environment through science and technology MANN (Oberpfafenhofen) placed the Swiss Fed‐ became visible as a planned measuring station eral Institute of Snow and Avalanche Research in could not be built because of the extreme envi‐ Davos at the center of her presentation. Acher‐ ronmental conditions. Roberts’s presentation was mann interpreted the exploration of ice and snow followed by a screening of a flm produced by SO‐ as part of a Swiss mental, national defense policy PHIE ELIXHAUSER (Aberdeen/Augsburg) together that took the form of a patriotic duty. In the next with director ANNI SEITZ. This flm about family presentation, SEBASTIAN GREVSMÜHL (Paris) de‐ structures in Greenland concluded the frst day of scribed Antarctica has both a real and an imag‐ the conference. Based on verbal and non-verbal ined laboratory that housed diverse underlying communication patterns, the producers demon‐ ideas of environmental control. He pointed out strated the tension between traditional ideas and that the mental construction of the polar region in the modern ways of life of the younger genera‐ the twentieth century was closely related to other tions, and proved the high value of personal au‐ exceptional environments, such as outer space or tonomy in Greenlandic communication struc‐ deep waters. tures. In order to create a comprehensive picture of The next part of the conference was opened the production of (environmental) knowledge by MATTHIAS HEYMANN (Aarhus), who analyzed during the Cold War, the following presentations scientifc and military activities as part of Danish concentrated on the Soviet Arctic sciences. The and US initiatives on Greenland. On an ofcial analysis of continuities and breaks within the level, Denmark had sovereignty over Greenland, Stalinist Soviet Union’s exploration of the Arctic but on a practical level, the scientifc exploration allowed JOHN MCCANNON (Saskatoon) to explore of the island was dictated by the United States. In contemporary environmental patterns of inter‐ refecting upon his research, Heymann noted that pretation. The continual policy of the state to ig‐ he saw a gap to be flled in Greenland Cold War

2 H-Net Reviews nore ecological problems can be traced back to only executed in the context of Western European the strictly military use of the Arctic environment cooperation, but also with the infrastructural and in the early phase of the Cold War. Potential fnancial support of the United States. As a conse‐ knowledge concerning the fragility of nature was quence, German polar research must be under‐ blocked. Nevertheless, towards the end of Stalin’s stood in the context of the Cold War interests. reign, the pure military interests of the political Afterwards, ANNE M. JENSEN and GLENN W. regime were faced with a new generation of sci‐ SHEEHAN (Barrow) explored the history of mili‐ entists who propagated a less utilitarian agenda tary research conducted by the United States and increasingly prescribed to fundamental re‐ Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) in Alas‐ search traditions. PEY-YI CHU (Princeton) dedicat‐ ka. The speakers’ main focal point was the appro‐ ed her presentation to one of these felds of basic priation of knowledge from the indigenous Iñupi‐ research: Soviet permafrost science. Although So‐ at by foreign researchers. NARL scientists strategi‐ viet scientists were aware that permafrost also ex‐ cally used the Iñupiat experience with ice and its isted in other parts of the world, they interpreted properties as well as local fora and fauna in or‐ its signifcant presence in the USSR as evidence der to generate an understanding of the environ‐ proving the uniqueness of its environment. The mental conditions in Alaska. In the end, the Iñupi‐ settlement of permafrost regions was seen as a at themselves became research subjects. In ethno‐ triumph of socialist modernity over nature. Only graphical examinations, scientists attempted to starting in the 1970s were these territorial expan‐ transfer the genetic ability of the Iñupiat to adapt sion plans complemented by discourses on the Euroamericans to the extreme cold. Despite the need for the protection of these areas. neocolonial behavior of the researchers, inter‐ CORNELIA LÜDECKE’S (RCC / Scientifc Com‐ views conducted in Alaska indicate that a large mittee on Antarctic Research SCAR) and CHRIS‐ part of the indigenous population reported a posi‐ TIAN KEHRT’S (Hamburg) refections on tradi‐ tive experience concerning their relationship tions in German Arctic research complimented with the scientists. one another. Both indentifed the Second World In the last conference panel, concrete histori‐ War as a defning turning point in German Arctic cal actors and their environments shifted to the research. The war facilitated a shift from military center of attention. PASCAL SCHILLINGS interests to basic research on snow and ice. The‐ (Cologne) described Reinhold Messner’s 1989 matically, initial postwar expeditions such as Antarctica expedition as an “applied technology EGIG I (Expédition Glaciologique Internationale of the self (Foucault).” In his journey, Messner was au Groenland) in 1959 focused on surveys and accompanied by enormous public interest that he movement patterns of the Arctic ice caps. Thereby used as a platform from which to call for environ‐ leaning on Alfred Wegener's 1930-31 expedition mental protection in Antarctica. This scenario led as a model, German polar exploration re-entered Schillings to use the media as producers and me‐ the international scientifc community. However, diators of a societal narrative of nature and a non-military German research agenda, accord‐ wilderness in the fnal phase of the Cold War. This ing to the speakers, does not so much speak for a story once again showed how public opinion act‐ Sonderweg of the German polar sciences in the ed as an essential factor in the relationship be‐ Cold War, but instead refects the geopolitical and tween humans and nature. JAMES R. FLEMING diplomatic position of the Federal Republic of Ger‐ (Waterville) presented his biographical study on many in the postwar era. German Arctic explo‐ Harry Wexler, whom he described as an “entre‐ ration took place specifcally in the “Western” al‐ preneur” in the conceptualization of atmospheric liance constellation. Missions like EGIG 1 were not

3 H-Net Reviews research. As such, Wexler neglected fnancial and tualized as diferent or even hostile towards hu‐ political considerations and dedicated himself mans, and its conquest was regarded as a heroic completely to a refective science. According to achievement of progress. Overall, the Cold War Flemming’s talk, Wexler was not a mere “cold must be seen as a fundamental catalyst for re‐ warrior,” but positioned himself as an actor at the search on ice, the cold, and extreme environmen‐ interface of politics, research, and the media. tal conditions. The “International Geophysical Therefore, Wexler could be considered the proto‐ Year” (1957-1958), the participants agreed, repre‐ type of a public scientist. In her paper, sented a meaningful caesura in the genesis of the FRANZISKA TORMA (RCC / Munich) linked an Arctic sciences. analysis of the documentary flm “Voyage to the All participants agreed on the fact that fur‐ End of the World” (1976) by Yves-Jacques ther research and modifed research questions Cousteau to mentality and environmental histori‐ are indispensible. Aside from internal research cal questions. Torma argued that in contrast to aspects such as the exploration of gender aspects geopolitical claims of power, the flm stages the or perceptions of nature in science, the partici‐ fragile nature of the environment. Torma’s con‐ pants identifed questions concerning environ‐ centration on iconographic narrative strategies mental knowledge and its production outside of made it possible to understand the flm as a rejec‐ the scientifc community as pertinent to this en‐ tion of any direct colonial or strategic claims. deavor. Next to an explicit examination of indige‐ However, ideas of the “eternal ice” as a human- nous populations, the role of the public is also im‐ less space were connected to subtler forms of Eu‐ portant in this respect. The meaning of rising en‐ ropean interpretational sovereignty. vironmental movements and their actors is also In the conference’s fnal commentary, PAUL just beginning. Were there any naturalists like JOSEPHSON (Waterville) summarized the basic John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, or Rachel Car‐ discussion points addressed in the course of the son in snow and ice environments? conference. The relationship between the state Overall, the conference ofered an overview and science as well as the specifc role of the mili‐ of the basic tendencies and overarching develop‐ tary as an infuencing factor of applied research ment in this new research feld. By focusing on ice could be identifed as a general motif in the envi‐ and snow, the conference was able to connect the ronmental history of the Cold War. The domi‐ history of the Cold War to environmental histori‐ nance of the geophysical sciences was identifed cal issues. The plethora of approaches used in the as being a part of these developments. Its re‐ conference indicated that a history of ice and search fndings, which were applicable to useful snow in the Cold War has numerous connections military research on felds such as nuclear power, to scientifc, political, environmental, and cultural was seen by most states as the most worthy of history that can be put to good use in further re‐ sponsorship. Biological and ecological research, search approaches. on the other hand, played a subordinate role in In the future, the Cold War could perhaps be science during the Cold War. Metaphors about the interpreted in a new way, if science concentrates conquest and control of icy environments estab‐ more on the matter from which its name was de‐ lished themselves as central vocabulary in the rived: the cold. language of science that facilitated the utilization of environments and local populations under the Conference Overview: dogma of progress. Furthermore, the power of Welcome and Introduction language became obvious in the numerous identi‐ Helmuth Trischler (Deutsches Museum/RCC), fed narratives in which nature had been concep‐ Christof Mauch (RCC/Munich), Julia Herzberg

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(RCC/Munich), Christian Kehrt (Hamburg), Panel IV: Sites of Knowledge: Practices ‘East’ Franziska Torma (RCC/Munich) Chair: Julia Herzberg (RCC/Munich) Keynote John McCannon (Saskatoon): Soviet Arctic Sci‐ Sverker Sörlin (Stockholm): The Birth of Cryohis‐ ence 1945-1953 tory: The 2007 Arctic Pey-Yi-Chu (Princeton): From Merzlotovede‐ Sea Ice Minimum as an Event and the Slow nie to Geocryology: Soviet Permafrost Science in Growth Legacies of Glacial Decline the Cold War Panel I: Environmental Knowledge Panel VI: Sites of Knowledge: Practices ‘West’ Chair: Helmuth Trischler (Deutsches Museum/ Chair: Frank Uekötter (RCC/Munich) RCC) Cornelia Lüdecke (RCC/SCAR): Traditions in Roger D. Launius (Washington): Creating German Arctic Research Open Territorial Rights in Cold and Icy Places. Christian Kehrt (Hamburg): EGIG I and Ger‐ Cold War Rivalries and the Antarctic and Outer man Polar Research Traditions Space Treaties Anne M. Jensen/ Glenn W. Sheehan (Barrow): Ron Doel (Tallahassee): Constituting the Arctic Inupiat and Cold War Science in Alaska / Cold Arc‐ Environment: Military Funding, Polar tic, Cold War Warming, and the Rise of the Physical Environ‐ mental Sciences Panel VII: Representations: Metaphors and Narrations Peder Roberts (Strasburg): Meteorology on Chair: Franziska Torma (RCC/Munich) the Margins of the World: Norway, South Africa, and Bouvetøya in the Early Cold War Pascal Schillings (Cologne): An Exploration of the Self, Reinhold Messner’s Antarctic Expedition Panel II: Cold Spaces: Greenland 1989 Chair: Sophie Elixhauser (Aberdeen/Augsburg) Panel VIII: Representations II: Actors and Matthias Heymann (Aarhus): Exploring their Environment Greenland: Denmark, the US Military, and Chair: Julia Landau (Bochum) Technology in the Cold War Robert Fleming (Waterville): Cold Regions and Ingo Heidbrinck (RCC/Norfolk): ‘Camp Centu‐ Cold War: Harry Wexler as Scientifc ‘Entrepre‐ ry’ and ‘Project Ice-Worm’: Two neur’ Experimental US Military Facilities on Greenland during the Early Years of the Franziska Torma (RCC/Munich): Staging ‘the Cold War Cold’ as Environment: Jacques-Yves and Philippe Cousteau’s Journey to Antarctica (1975/1976) Panel III: Sites of Knowledge: Laboratories Chair: Christian Kehrt (Hamburg) Final Discussion and Comments Paul Josephson (Waterville) Dania Achermann (Oberpfafenhofen): Snow and Avalanche Research as Patriotic Duty? The In‐ stitutionalization of a Scientifc Discipline in Switzerland Sebastian Grevsmühl (Paris): Deconstructing Laboratory Visions of Antarctic Research since 1900

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Citation: Felix Mauch. Review of Exploring Ice and Snow in the Cold War. H-Soz-u-Kult, H-Net Reviews. July, 2011.

URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=33720

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