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Climb if you will, but remember that courage and strength are nought without prudence, and that a momentary negligence may destroy the happiness of a lifetime. Do nothing in haste; look well to each step; and from the beginning think what may be the end. Edward Whymper, Scrambles Amongst the

Learning Objectives out of several hundred thousand years ago. Yet the foundations of the current market and cur- At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to: rent experiences were set in the late 1940s, based ●● differentiate the key skills required to be an upon a new optimism that followed the end of the effective adventure tourism operator; and Second World War. Many of the present practices of ●● appraise the different aspects of adventure tour- adventure in the UK were to be found in organiza- ism and its associated definitions. tions such as the Outward Bound Movement and the Duke of Edinburgh Awards Scheme. The conquering Chapter Overview of Everest in 1953 was perhaps the pinnacle of this period of adventure, bringing a new dawn and excite- Adventure is a key element in the human psyche ment to the adventure tourism movement. even if this is only exploring the locale or partici- The 1950s and the mass tourism markets of the pating in a novel journey or new activity. Humans 1960s expanded the horizons for adventure tourism need adventure to compensate for boredom, a state offering new types of activities. The 1980s and that ensures atrophy of the human condition and 1990s saw further exponential growth of adventure spirit. It is therefore unsurprising that the adven- centres and educational field centres, all connected ture tourism market is buoyant and growing and to adventure activities. The market was changing since the 1950s has developed exponentially. too, with a far more eclectic and splintered focus. This book was conceived as a reader for many This can be seen within the paradigm of postmod- aspects of adventure tourism management. The ernist developments, creating a clear change in the author has taught and delivered adventure tourism expectations and activities of tourists. Much of this courses for some considerable time and felt that has been helped by advancing technology and new there was a need for a new book covering a more equipment, together with a change in expec- universal view of adventure tourism today, whilst tations. There has been a transformation of the mass also trying to explore the more practical and useful tourism market and a clear change with tourists elements that this market faces, including future wanting to experience something extra. Many holi- challenges. Adventure is risk and risk is the essence day packages now include some aspect of adventure of living: without risk we are dead. Adventure, or an activity to add excitement to the routine of then, can be considered to be the lifeblood of psy- mundane beach activities. Initial taster sessions sup- chological/physical challenges which most people ported by holiday snaps of , or need to live a fulfilled life. some other unusual activity have driven the demand for adventure activities while on holiday. What is Adventure Tourism? It is also evident that some destinations have recognized the demand for specific types of Adventure has a long history in human endeavour, activities and have specialized in order to offer perhaps from the first footsteps of human new experiences, difficult to find elsewhere.

©CAB International 2019. Adventure Tourism and Outdoor Activities Management (ed I. Jenkins) 3 New Zealand and its are well known their normal place of residence, including aspects of for adventure tourism and destinations such as slow tourism. Dunedin and Queenstown have a global adventure Adventure tourism can include activities that also tourism reach. Perhaps the single activity that most carry low levels of exposure to risk, taking place at famously represents New Zealand adventure tour- tourist destinations. For example, driving large 4×4 ism is that of , though this, too, has vehicles over rough and rugged terrain could be become passé. Bungee jumping was first developed seen as an adventure but with minimal personal risk in the UK, one of the first jumps being made off (Fig. 1.1), as the tourist is protected from the ele- Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol in 1979 (BBC, ments. Certainly, in these types of tours are 2014), emulating a ritual of Vanuatu Islanders of being offered and are connected with the notion of the South Pacific who jumped off scaffolds with adventure tourism. Iceland has some of the largest vines attached to their legs. off-road vehicles and these are often used on glaciers The growth of adventure tourism has meant that and rough terrain that other vehicles would find many extreme activities have now become more impossible to traverse. This type of adventure can be mainstream. For example, surfing, which was once seen simply as the experience of travelling from the preserve of individuals on the margins of soci- point A to point B over terrain that is different from ety, has now become somewhat ‘vanilla’ and most normal metalled roads carrying some potential risk. people visiting a seaside with surfing beaches will The Icelandic landscape can be extreme and extreme have attempted it. But is this adventure and what conditions such as high winds, quicksands, crevasses exactly is meant by adventure tourism? and volcanic dust storms are regular occurrences. It is suggested that many holidays are in many However, this type of adventure requires low levels respects an ‘adventure’ and that adventure is not nec- of physical activity, which is something of a paradox essarily an activity but a ‘state of mind and attitude’. given a common assumption of adventure tourism Certainly it is posited that to many people the phrase that physical activity is usually related to an adven- ‘adventure tourism’ probably produces an image of ture. Although vehicle accidents are a risk, riding in individuals struggling against and the elements, a vehicle provides relative protection from the ele- whilst engaging in an activity that would involve ‘risk ments and an ‘illusion of safety’. and hazard’, which could result in fatality or serious The breadth of adventure tourism is large and pre- injury. This image is now somewhat dated and the sents challenges for a definitive definition (Fig. 1.2). current adventure market encompasses far softer and For example, ‘slow’ tourism can be a part of adven- slower forms of adventure ture tourism. Once again this does not necessarily It is evident that adventure tourism has a wide involve high levels of risk: ‘glacier ’ might reach and to define it and pigeonhole it within a be seen as an activity that has a perception of high narrow frame is not appropriate or helpful given risk, but the reality of injury and death is low when the current adventure tourism market. As with walks are guided. Likewise, river , if cor- most definitions, the years of tourism development rectly supervised, carries a low risk of injury and have changed the original delineation, incorporat- death. These types of activities might be defined as ing new perspectives. ‘soft’ adventure tourism. The terms ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ adventure are fre- quently used within the adventure market, although Definitions obtaining a conclusive definition is ambiguous, as The definition of adventure tourism taken for this both terms are somewhat intuitive rather than book relates to ‘any activity or journey that creates a absolute. The perception of ‘Hard’ adventure is sense of risk and thrill for the person participating in that it involves a high risk of injury or death. This an activity which may have a degree of risk of injury’. partly explains why its market (, , This can encompass extreme sports and activities heli-, kite surfing, paragliding) is considered such as , skydiving, surfing and mountaineer- small and limited, restricted to high risk adventur- ing through to journeys that expose the traveller to ers, who make up a small proportion of the total varying degrees of risk, but would exclude theme adventure market. However, there are clear aber- parks (though this might be contested). Adventure rations within the categorization of adventure tourism should involve an activity that provides the sports and ATTA note that surfing, / participant with a degree of ‘perceived risk’ outside of skiing and rafting are considered to be ‘Soft’

4 Chapter 1 Fig. 1.1. Icelandic glacier tourist bus (Guðmundur Björnsson, Iceland).

Cultural Urban Tourism Tourism

Cruise Eco-tourism Tourism Adventure Tourism

Culinary Beach Tourism Tourism

Health Pilgrimage Tourism Tourism

Fig. 1.2. Adventure tourism and impinging segments. adventure; intuitively, however one would consider means by which to define them. e.g. surfing these activities to be more associated with extreme Mavericks California (high risk and high skill lev- adventure (ATTA & GWU 2013). This clearly sug- els) compared to beaches in Cornwall (lower risk gests that there is a degree of subjectivity when and skill levels). categorizing ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ adventure. The spe- Conversely, activities that consumers assume to cifics of the sport and the destination can also be a be low risk are in fact high risk. Horse riding is not

Adventure Tourism 5 necessarily seen as being dangerous, yet statistics access to many different areas of that reveal that death and serious injury is a relatively would otherwise be difficult to see. Certainly, high risk for many horse riders (BBC, 2009). television programmes such as the Long Way Adventure does not have to be linked to high- Round (Telegraph, 2004) which showed celebri- risk activities. It can be viewed in many psychologi- ties circumnavigating the world on a motorbike cal contexts and, depending upon the adventurer’s and other similar programmes have helped to personality, can be very different for each individual. stimulate the imagination of potential adventure This means that ‘adventure’ is a perceptual frame tourists. In addition, the growth of 4×4 expedi- and it is not the nature of the activity that is tions must be included in the growing sector of ­necessarily important, but rather the destination, adventure tourism. These activities appear to the activity and nature of the perceived risk that are blur the margins between soft or hard adventure critical when defining adventure tourism. As will be tourism. shown in this book, adventure tourism sports are trips might also be considered as a form of constantly evolving, pushing the ‘experiential’ soft adventure, containing elements of danger, but boundaries and changing definitions of adventure on a low activity scale. Customers are more or less tourism. As with many definitions related to tour- chaperoned and accommodated in protective envi- ism, they are temporal and affected by advances in ronments and in many cases these so-called adven- technology and society. tures are no more dangerous than a visit to the local safari park. Indeed it is difficult to see the differ- ence between these products and adventure day Low Activity Input trips. As Grainger (2016) notes on : ‘[t]his is As noted above, adventure tourism usually evokes not a park; it’s a wilderness that happens to have a the perception of an activity with high risk levels, sprinkling of rather comfortable camps and expert but the industry encompasses a broad array of guides to bring comfort and knowledge to the risky activities, including sports that the general experience’. public would not readily categorize as an adven- Consideration should also be given to fast boat ture; currently, the growth of slow tourism is an rafting, such as New Zealand jet boating (100% example of this. However, this too can be a part of Pure New Zealand, 2016), which, although exhil- adventure tourism, especially if the journey is arating, can be regarded as having a low and undertaken in wilderness and locations that are static activity level as all the skill and control of extreme and isolated. the boat has nothing to do with the customer. Is Adventure journeys by vehicles are another this hard or soft adventure? To what extent is this example of low-risk soft adventure, though it will experience different from that of a theme park, depend upon the chosen route, as some offer peril- such as Disney, and rides such as Space Mountain? ous tracks and high fatalities. Some routes in devel- These rides thrill but can they be classified as an oping countries will have roads or tracks requiring adventure? By evaluating the category of soft a high skill level in order to avoid tragedy. For adventure it seems evident that speed has little to example: do with it as customers themselves are static; The path from La Paz to Coroico, Bolivia, is a rather, it is the technology and equipment that ­treacherous one. The North Yungas Road weaves provide the essence of this adventure product. ­precariously through the Amazon rainforest at a These examples show a blurring of definitions height of over 15,000 feet … has earned the ­nickname and categorization of adventure tourism. As with ‘The Death Road.’ While 200 to 300 drivers used many attempts at defining phenomena, there are to die here annually, North Yungas Road has now exceptions and boundaries tend to be blurred and ­become more of a destination for adventurous relative. ­mountain bikers than a vehicular thoroughfare. (Condé Nast Traveler, 2016). New and Novel Adventure Tourism Also there have been adaptations of off-road Developments . Classic examples of this include quad bikes, off-road bikes and scramblers which Likewise, there is a growth of new types of adven- have become the menace of many national parks ture activities, developed by pushing the bounda- and rural areas. These vehicles provide easy ries of more classic activities. For example, base

6 Chapter 1 jumping has evolved to the high-risk activity of 20–30 years ago. Iceland is an exemplar of this wingsuit . One could also consider the where adventure tourism is a significant product in development of coasteering or , activities the tourism package (PKF, 2013). What was once that have emerged from an adaption of activities the preserve of the explorer or extreme moun- such as rafting and . Indeed the idea that taineer has now become ‘vulnerable’ to adventure many adventure tourism activities are new could be ­tourists, rather than adventurers. The and challenged, as many can be viewed as simply adap- have an array of products and packages tations of previously popular activities. Perhaps allowing the adventure tourist to reach destinations what is new is the need for urban dwellers to expe- that at one time were pristine and untouched by rience adventure, escaping from the often cosseted human influence. This raises ethical issues in terms and protected environs of city life. Death is cer- of the impact of humans on the environment, a tainly not something that many of us regularly subject that will be explored later in the book. The encounter, which is reflective of changes over the same can be said about mountains becoming rub- past century, both in the workplace and in medical bish tips of adventure tourism waste with estimates advancement, reducing the risk of death from of tons of waste left on certain mountains (Safi, injury and disease. 2017; Lokaantar, 2017). A review of individuals who pursue ‘extreme It is clear that adventure tourism developments adventure’ reveals a desire for challenges that most have shown an amelioration and adaption of older of us would baulk at. Yet the delineation of what is activities resulting in new products and the emer- now considered as extreme adventure seems to have gence of composite activities using a combination changed. Ascents of Everest are very popular and, it of different skills and equipment. Wingsuit base could be suggested, passé; companies who advertise jumping and kite surfing are good examples of this. these trips have grown exponentially, as has Both are adaptations of other sports developed into occurred with other aspects of the adventure tour- new adventure activities. ism market. Many extreme challenges have been conquered, which has resulted in a gradation and Adventure Tourism: the Past 40 Years splintering of adventure tourism that often follows in the footsteps of extreme adventurers. Many mod- Over the past 40 years, the adventure tourism mar- ern feats imitate the explorers of old (for example, ket has changed and evolved. This is reflective of crossing the world’s oceans in small crafts either by the extensive array and number of tourism compa- sail or hand power; tourist ascents of Everest, etc.), nies specializing in adventure, including selective suggesting the question: from an explorer’s point of companies offering single activities such as surfing, view, what is there left to conquer? rafting and safaris. As a result, the cost of equip- Add to this an expanding adventure tourism ment has not necessarily become more expensive product pressured by the burgeoning charity mar- but perhaps relatively less expensive, due to increas- ket and growing demand for new experiences, ing participation. many erstwhile adventure tourism destinations Furthermore, societal changes have affected the such as the Alps and have lost their market. The 1960s and 1970s saw a revolution in appeal to the adrenaline junkies, the influencers of the jobs market with a move towards the service extreme adventure tourism. Many new charity sector, resulting in most developed countries expe- challenges are linked to forms of adventure, pro- riencing 50% or more employment in this sector. viding customers with an adventure experience, but Such a change meant more sedentary employment, which in many circumstances is just activity tour- fostering an increase in demand for leisure activities ism. Adventure can also be linked to sporting providing the opposite to a safe office environment, activities such as marathon and we now i.e. outdoor and sports activities. It is suggested that have explorers and celebrities running marathons this may well have fuelled the growth in the adven- in different destinations, within a set time, again ture tourism industry. blurring the idea of adventure at certain tourism Moreover, there has also been a change to the way destinations (Marathon des Sables, 2017). that the countryside, particularly national parks, Adventure tourism is seen as a significant prod- have been used by tourists. There has been a move uct for old and new tourist destinations, in particu- to recognize them as living organisms in which peo- lar locations that would have been inaccessible ple live and work. In particular the provision of

Adventure Tourism 7 tourism services seems to have been mirrored by an replicate excitement and the sensation of rush or increase in adventure tourism companies providing sensation seeking (Lepp and Gibson, 2007), miss- products within national parks. Many use rural ing from many aspects of a postmodernist society. resources, which in some cases have become so People who have faced near-death occurrences popular that it has been necessary to introduce con- often refer to feelings of elation and aspects of feel- trols on companies using particular locales. ing alive, attributes that AT can replicate given the Growth in the adventure and outdoor market appropriate activity and destination. has meant the need for more employees with skills Another feature of the expanding AT and ODA to provide the services that customers want. There markets is the effect of changing air . Low- is and has been a demand for educational qualifica- cost carriers (LCCs) have transformed intermediate tions to supply this growing demand in employ- within regions, making many destinations ment, provided by colleges and universities. more accessible and affordable than ever before. Universities would not offer these qualifications Undoubtedly, destinations like Iceland have bene- unless there was a clear demand for them by pro- fited from this new type of transport. It is a good spective students who see opportunities in adven- example of easy air transport access to large popu- ture tourism. Moreover, many students have lation centres in and the USA, as it is ideally experienced adventure tourism through the school situated between Europe and America, thus benefit- curriculum that was introduced in the 1960s and ing from new tourist demands. Indeed, an examina- still continues today in the UK, giving further gravi- tion of some of Iceland’s main products will show tas to the current adventure tourism industry. that AT is an important part of its tourism industry The technological improvements of the past 40 (ATTA, GWU and VWC, 2011; PKF, 2013). years have further increased accessibility to the Additionally, the media has assisted in increasing adventure tourism industry. The internet has made the profile of AT through specific programmes, with the availability of information and marketing much a plethora of programmes over the past 10 years easier. Likewise, improvements in equipment, such specifically dealing with aspects of adventure, as and clothing, have encouraged usage including wilderness survival, new types of adven- throughout the year. It is common for many surfers ture sports and the history of explorers and adven- to continue surfing in the winter months with a turers. This has been aided further by celebrities move to discovering more ‘extreme locations’, such participating in adventure or entertainment pro- as the Arctic, where new surf spots have been found grammes located in extreme wilderness destina- in less crowded waters. Iceland again is a good tions. For example, celebrities such as Ray Mears example of such developments, where the waters and Bear Grylls have given impetus to adventure are much less crowded when compared with highly and survival, further stimulating the public’s imagi- popular ‘breaks’ such as the West Coast of France nation for adventure. and Cornwall. Solo adventurers have also been able to commu- Communication improvements have also helped nicate with the outside world during their voyages, to disseminate adventure tourism (AT) and out- allowing the viewer a clear insight and taste of adven- door activities (ODA) products at exciting and new ture tourism, whetting the appetite for ­adventure – destinations, capitalizing upon this growing mar- perhaps not to such an extreme degree, but certainly ket. Within developing countries increasing levels encouraging travel to new destinations not previ- of GDP (gross domestic product) are creating both ously considered. internal demand and the potential for these tourists Health and fitness campaigns have also enthused to become future global adventurers. There seems potential adventure tourists, stimulating interest in to be a move within post-industrial societies towards activities that might lead to more adventure. To more and more AT, mirroring the loss of physical illustrate this, the development of different styles of activities found in a more sedentary workforce. In and new types of bikes, together with the many cases AT also seems to provide activities that growth of mountain bike (MTB) riding, new circuits replace the boredom of often mundane work (low and cycle routes, has fostered more outdoor usage risk and repetitive) found in many service jobs. and fashioned links to adventure tourism products. Certainly risk exposure is not a common feature of Sports races now tend to be more and more developed societies and perhaps this is another located in extreme destinations such as the Sahara driving factor of the AT industry – its ability to Desert (Fig. 1.3). For example, the Marathon des

8 Chapter 1 Fig. 1.3. The Sahara Desert. Source: Wikimedia Commons, credit to author Fiontain.

Sables, which started in 1984 and has run every VisitWales, who recognized the potential of the mar- year since, is an example of these products (Run ket and the need to standardize centres and improve Ultra, 2016). It is held in the Moroccan Desert with quality and safety. Certainly, the introduction of the distance being equivalent to five half-marathons, this legislation – Activity Centres (Young Persons’ with the top competitors finishing either side of Safety) Act 1995 – stabilized the UK industry and 24 hours of starting the race (Run Ultra, 2016). gave standardization to the product even though it From a UK perspective, the was solely directed at the educational market. sector of the 1970s and 1980s helped to increase The Extreme Adventure Channel and YouTube the demand for adventure tourism products and to have also energized demand for adventure sports. a large extent this was exemplified by the introduc- Some of the activities taken by these top athletes tion of the AALA (Adventure Activities Licensing have pushed the limits of risk and adventure to the Scheme) after the tragic Lyme Bay accident of 1993 edge. Snowboarding off mountain peaks, on near (Stevens and Jenkins, 1993). This change in the law vertical drops, together with amazing athletic fea- reflected a growing adventure tourism sector where tures of free climbing or free soloing exhibited by some companies seemed to pay scant regard to Reinhold Messner (Smith, 2016) were the new safety and formal training of instructors. There frontiers of adventure. Even now new boundaries were companies in the market that were extremely are being stretched such as El Capitan in Yosemite, competent, but the validity and reliability of the USA, where in 2016 Alex Honnold conquered the different associations who vetted the companies climb without ropes (Synnott, 2018). Extreme were criticized for their lack of consistency of adventure tourism has demonstrated that humans accreditation. are still capable of pushing the limits to the extreme. Introduction of AALA caused much controversy It is posited that these examples of extreme adven- within the UK adventure tourism industry but illus- ture tourism performances must have had a signifi- trated the importance of AT and ODA not only for cant influence on general consumers and the tourism , but also for international ­tourists. market. The main impetus for assuring the public of quality Lastly, over the past 10 years, social media has and safety came from the Wales Tourist Board, now extended the reach of adventure tourism to many

Adventure Tourism 9 more people. Short films, mobile phones and social employment is a challenge, as many guides and media sites provide ready access to adventure and trainers are not from the destination country. travel and many of these sites are used by adven- Everest is a good example of this type of conflict, ture tourism companies, encouraging customers to especially if there is over-commercialization of post reviews, narratives, photos and films. The adventure tourism at specialist destinations. In 2013 immediacy of the sites encourages further motiva- there were industrial disputes relating to guides/ tion for customers to experience different types of Sherpas and international companies that were adventure tourism. operating in the Everest destination (Douglas, 2013).

New technology Issues Currently Facing the Adventure Industry Technology has always had a significant impact on every aspect of society, normally improving the Training and skills ­performance of actions, outcomes and lifestyles. As discussed earlier, it is evident that a growing Adventure tourism likewise has been changed in adventure tourism market also needs skilled terms of performance and activities. AT and ODA employees to manage and run the industry. The past cannot be viewed solely from its own ‘gaze’, but two decades have witnessed an increase in the num- must be placed within the context of society and ber of universities offering courses related to adven- employment. New materials have affected the levels ture tourism. In 2017 there were 18 UK higher of performance in adventure sports and outdoor education providers of courses relating to adventure activities, such as and surfing. (UCAS, 2017). University courses are usually reflec- Technology has improved access and acceptable tive of demand and relate in many cases to employ- conditions for more extreme experiences. A positive ment opportunities (this is not always the case, example is the evolution of mountaineering. Alpinism depending upon the subject studied; for example, and mountaineering have been transformed through English graduates are not necessarily sector specific). technological improvements and there are many The courses in the UK offer a wide range of adven- facets to the improvements: more lightweight materi- ture tourism areas with many focusing on outdoor als replacing older heavier equipment; improved data education. and information about performance, such as being There is also a clear differentiation between a able to climb Everest without oxygen – 60 years ago degree and those offering vocational skills that are this would have been considered impossible. designed to help instructors or guides. A degree in packaging, design of climbing equipment such as adventure tourism is no guarantee of becoming an hydrodynamic ropes, breathable clothing, improved instructor or guide and therefore many of the fuel performance, tracking and monitoring of climb- courses offered in higher education provide addi- ers, communication platforms and so on have all tional vocational skills, which can be gained prior improved the performance of participants in AT and to graduation. Work placements or vocational ODA. Furthermore, the development of climbing training are frequently part of many courses. walls and bouldering has spawned a new generation Some courses are highly specialized; for example, of free climbers using minimal equipment to scale the UK’s University of Plymouth was one of the peaks that were once climbed with ropes and other first to pioneer a surf science degree. This was sundry items. extremely innovative and clearly capitalized upon Likewise, accessibility to new destinations and the geographical location of the university and its locations with new designs and materials has accessibility to some of the best surfing beaches in pushed the boundaries of adventure sports and the UK. However, this type of demand appears very outdoor activities. Surfing ‘Jaws’ and big-wave limited and Plymouth is one of the few universities surfing had always been a challenge and not pos- to offer such a specialized degree (Plymouth sible on the boards of the 1960s, but new board University, 2017), not only in the UK, but globally. design and materials together with new forms of A particular problem for new destinations of transport, such as jet skis, have allowed surfers to adventure tourism is often the dearth of local adven- actually surf these colossal waves. Consequently, ture tourism skills. As a consequence, competition big-wave riding has now developed into a subsec- between local employment and global sources of tor of mainstream surfing.

10 Chapter 1 The following chapters will identify more specifi- economy, it is a necessary requirement of a com- cally how technology has affected the AT and ODA pany to make a profit or at least break even, though industry and what commercial advantages there for many public sector AT and educational organi- are in capitalizing on these new technical inven- zations this is not necessarily an issue. Nonetheless, tions. Nevertheless, there is also a paradox to tech- there are companies who advocate that a sustaina- nical developments, resulting in a reversal of ble approach to adventure tourism is a profitable technology, with trends returning to using older, approach. Even adventure tourism equipment com- traditional materials such as wool and wood. For panies, such as Patagonia, try to provide the most example, the reinvention of balsawood boards, sustainable clothing possible for the market using together with new technology utilizing natural ethical means. fibres such as bamboo, has added another dimen- Unfortunately, this market depends upon ethical sion and impetus to the surfing industry. consumers, whereas current research and data on an ethical consumer is inconclusive. Just how ‘price inelastic’ are ethical decisions compared with eco- Sustainability nomic ones (Marsh, 2013; Devinney and Auger, A new book on adventure tourism and outdoor 2007)? In addition, the author’s experience from activities needs to address the pressing problems previous research on adventure tourism companies related to tourism growth and in particular, sustain- suggests that environmental or ethical choices are able development. Sustainability has been a tourist often secondary when customers are buying adven- and global agenda item for at least 30–40 years and ture tourism products. it continues to increase its significance together with that of . Ethical business devel- Climate change opment through CSR (corporate social responsibil- ity) is another treatise that businesses have to As with sustainability, climate change has become an consider in the AT and ODA industry. It is asserted important agenda item for tourism and adventure that these are linked and shift the product of tourism. On current predictions within the next adventure to more ethical and sustainable levels. 40 years there will be extreme changes to weather Nevertheless, some of the practices of AT need to conditions throughout the world and many of these reflect upon the impacts that they have on the envi- changes will affect adventure tourism destinations. ronment and the communities that they work in. These changes will increase the risk factors for AT is clearly an important sector of the tourism some adventure tourism activities and companies market and needs to address sustainable issues. need to develop strategies to risk assess what these Many activities will take place in milieus that are effects might be on the company and in particular environmentally and culturally sensitive. Most on customers. adventure activities take place in nature, even Furthermore, companies need to be reducing though there has been a burgeoning growth in their carbon footprints. Mitigation and carbon urban and cultural adventure. Consequently it is all reduction are important actions needed by AT and the more important to ensure that sustainable ODA companies, to assist in diminishing the likely adventure tourism activities are encouraged to be effects of climate change. For destinations that do ecologically responsible and climate friendly. not have cheap energy sources, simple measures are Clearly there is a conflict at times between sus- available to ensure reduced costs and reductions in tainable elements of a business and the need for carbon emissions. Renewable energy sources such profitability. In essence there are economic criteria as solar, wind and wave together with switching to that need to be met for adventure tourism compa- vehicle fuels that have lower emissions should be nies to adopt sustainable measures: part of AT and ODA companies’ offsetting of ­carbon emissions. 1. reduction of costs; Climate change for sustainable development 2. increased revenue; and should be considered as part of the same gamut. 3. ethical and moral actions (do these have an eco- Sustainability is about protecting future conditions nomic value?). and so too is climate change; both are trying to Item (3) above should really be first on the list enable resources and conditions to remain favourable for all companies but, as they operate in a market for future businesses and societies. New theories

Adventure Tourism 11 relating to these two issues have suggested new work patterns and climate change have all impacted concepts for tackling climate change, such as resil- upon the expansion of the AT and ODA product. ience and vulnerability. These are currently the Even the higher education sector has recognized concepts that are being considered as a means to their importance by providing qualifications both ensure survival and profitability of companies in applied and academic for the adventure tourism the future. industry. The media agenda has highlighted the impor- This book will explore, in greater depth, the sub- tance of trying to mitigate the effects of climate jects discussed in this chapter together with the change, but there are a number of challenges that intention of making it a practical management AT and ODA companies face, the most important guide to understanding the current AT and ODA being how to mitigate carbon output and to what market, identifying the main challenges that it extent the consumers of adventure products are faces. Adventure tourism is now an extremely prepared to pay for their carbon footprints. The important part of any destination’s tourism prod- challenge of making consumers pay for carbon uct and has a global reach that can enhance the footprinting relates to issues of competitiveness sustainability of a tourist destination, while provid- and a long-held mantra of many companies: that ing the customer with an experience that will be climate change and sustainability measures reduce remembered for a lifetime. both a company’s profitability and its competitive- ness. It necessarily follows that perhaps ethical policies and practices challenge the profitability of Questions AT and ODA companies. ●● How has the adventure tourism market changed This polemic does have some validity in the short over the past 40 years? run. But the sustainability and climate change ●● Is ‘slow’ adventure tourism a new phenomenon agendas are very much focused upon long-term not or just simply an old one repackaged? short-term gains. It is also asserted that changing consumer attitudes into accepting more ethically produced goods at a higher cost has yet to become a reality. It is rare for consumers to examine the References ethical aspects of their adventure tourism products 100% Pure New Zealand (2016) Jet boating. Available at and choices, even if they are touring in natural http://www.newzealand.com/int/jet-boating/ environments. (accessed 5 April 2016). ATTA, GWU and VWC (2011) Adventure Tourism Development Index 2011 Report. ATTA, Seattle, Conclusion Washington. The adventure tourism market has changed ATTA and GWU (2013) Adventure Tourism Market Study immensely over the past 50 years, reflecting many 2013. Adventure Travel Trade Association and George Washington University, Washington, DC. aspects of change in society. Adventure tourism is BBC (2009) How dangerous is horse riding? Available at: now considered to be an important sector of most http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8339097.stm tourism economies. Furthermore, in many parts of (accessed 7 April 2018). the world, including developing countries, it has BBC (2014) World’s ‘first’ bungee jump in Bristol cap- become a very important part of their tourism des- tured on film. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ tination product. Even highly developed tourism news/av/uk-england-29819029/world-s-first-bungee- products such as those found in the UK in Wales jump-in-bristol-captured-on-film (accessed 2 April have recognized the valuable contribution that AT 2014). and ODA have had on tourism. VisitWales has tried Benedictus, L.( (2016) Why are deadly extreme sports to ensure that the quality and safety of the product more popular than ever? Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/sport/2016/aug/20/why-are-deadly- is enhanced and protected. The importance of extreme-sports-more-popular-than-ever (accessed adventure to tourism products can be seen with 29 June 2017). special emphasis being given to this sector; for Condé Nast Traveler (2016) The most dangerous trips example, designated 2018 as the year of in the world. Available at: http://www.cntraveler.com/­ Adventure Tourism (Indian Holiday, 2018). Issues of galleries/2014-09-02/the-most-dangerous-trips-in- sustainability, new technology, lifestyle developments, the-world/3 (accessed 5 April 2016).

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