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Explorers of a Different Kind a History of Antarctic Tourism 1966-2016

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Explorers of a Different Kind a History of Antarctic Tourism 1966-2016 Explorers of a Different Kind A History of Antarctic Tourism 1966-2016 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Australian National University Diane Erceg October 2017 © Copyright by Diane Erceg 2017 All Rights Reserved 1 i STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY I declare that this thesis is my own work, and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by any other person, nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree of a university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text. Diane Erceg ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Along this PhD journey I have been guided, inspired and supported by a group of very special people without whom this thesis would not have been possible. First, I would like to thank my incredible supervisory panel: Libby Robin, Tom Griffiths and Cameron Muir. I am so grateful to Libby for her unwavering dedication to me and my work. Her wisdom, big ideas and dynamism have sharpened my thinking and writing, and challenged me to look at the familiar world of Antarctic tourism in profound and creative new ways. Libby’s support has gone above and beyond what I could have expected from a supervisor, and I thank her for the many ways she has enriched my work and my life. Five years ago, I came across a book called Slicing the Silence: Voyaging to Antarctica and thought that a return to academia might not be such a crazy idea if I could be mentored by somebody like Tom Griffiths. It has been a pleasure and a great privilege to work with Tom over these past four years. Our illuminating conversations about Antarctica, history and writing have inspired me. And I have benefited enormously from Tom’s thoughtful and critical feedback on my work. I am also indebted to Cameron for carefully readying my work, providing astute and constructive feedback, and for helping me to write more clearly and evocatively. My fellow PhD students in the Fenner School of Environment and Society, and the School of History, have been a great source of support and mischief. Many thanks to Alessandro Antonello, Robyn Curtis, Sonya Duus, Megan Evans, Wendy Neilan, Rob Nugent, Shannyn Palmer, Alison Pouliot, Monique Retamal, Keith Sue and Sharon Willoughby. This project took me to various parts of Australia and the United States, where I was generously supported by individuals and institutions. Thanks to Marcus Haward and Julia Jabour for hosting me at the Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) in Tasmania. Also to Nelson Graburn, who generously included me in workshops and events of the UC Berkeley Tourism Studies Working Group. For their help accessing archives and library documents, I wish to thank Claire Christian (Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition), John Wallace and Christina Beresford (National Archives of Australia), David Crotty (Qantas Heritage Collection), Nadene Kennedy iii and Polly Penhale (National Science Foundation), Lacy Flint (Explorers Club, New York), Katie Sauter (American Alpine Club), Tess Egan, Jessica Fitzpatrick and Jonathan Davis (Australian Antarctic Division Library) and William Fox (Nevada Museum of Art). The thesis also benefited significantly from correspondence and conversations with Antarctic experts and tourism practitioners, who are listed in the bibliography. For those who provided me with shelter along my journey and contributed in other significant ways I would like to thank Christine Hawes, Natalie Canfield, Mike Garrett, Anastasia Kunac, Nicole LeBouef, Anka Polegubić, Tanja Polegubić, Kristin Pedersen-Warr and Sam Thalmann. With great sadness, I would like to acknowledge John Splettstoesser, who gave generously to this thesis but did not see it through to completion. Dorothy Braxton and Charles Swithinbank, whose eloquent and instructive writing was so valuable to my research, also sadly passed away during the writing of this thesis. This thesis was inspired and enriched by my own voyaging to Antarctica. I want to thank my ‘ship family’ at Peregrine Adventures and Quark Expeditions for sharing the experience with me. All of the tourists, adventurers and explorers with whom I travelled to Antarctica over the past decade have shaped this project in big and small ways. I would especially like to thank Bill Davis, Aaron and Cathy Lawton and Andrew Prossin for making it all possible in the first place. The experience has not only been crucial to the thesis but formative to my life. I would like to thank the Australian National University for awarding me an Australian Postgraduate Award and Commonwealth Research Training Program Stipend. Without this generous financial support, this research project would not have been possible in its current form. Finally, I want to thank my family. To mum, dad, Marijana, Steven, Massimo, Emma and Tea, thank you for your love, support and encouragement throughout this PhD journey, and for continuing to humour my Antarctic obsession for all these years. iv ABSTRACT In 1966, American tour operator, Lindblad Travel, began small-scale tourist cruises to Antarctica. Over the course of the next 50 years, what began as an offbeat and exclusive travel destination transformed into an iconic tourist attraction. Annual tourist visits to Antarctica grew from a few hundred to tens of thousands; modes of transport to the continent diversified to include yachts, cruise ships, icebreakers and aircraft; and the activities available to Antarctic tourists ranged from one-day scenic flights to multi- month mountaineering expeditions and ski tours to the South Pole. Antarctic tourism numbers trebled in the 1990s, when the public’s growing desire to visit Antarctica was matched with an influx of Russian ice-strengthened ships into the tourism fleet. This thesis chronicles that 50-year history of Antarctic tourism growth and diversification. Its narrative centres on the efforts of inventive and enterprising tour operators to secure their footing on a physically and politically formidable continent. Government officials and a mounting environmental movement invariably resisted these efforts. And the safety, environmental integrity and self-sufficiency of the industry were challenged in the wake of a series of environmental emergencies and one major tragedy. Even so, Antarctic tour operators were successful in forging a robust industry through technical ingenuity and political nous. By underscoring their environmental ethos, and their influential role in raising public awareness of Antarctica, tour operators presented themselves as the responsible stewards of an innocuous practice that was consistent with Antarctica’s governing principles. Each chapter in this 50-year tourism history also offers some insight into the Antarctic tourist imaginary, a theme that is explored further through a series of reflections. These reflections reveal that the Antarctic tourism industry draws strongly on the dominant image v of Antarctica as a pristine wilderness, frozen in a perpetual age of heroic exploration. By suppressing its own history, the Antarctic tourism industry strives to maintain a perception of the continent as an enduring blank space available for discovery again and again. According to this image, the heroic age explorers remain the touchstone of Antarctic experience even now, more than a century after the era’s conclusion. The explorers’ narratives of physical and moral struggle against a relentless environment continue to serve as the benchmark of authentic Antarctic experience. They also inspire the sustained imagining of Antarctica as a masculine sphere for ‘Boys’ Own’ adventure, a legacy most poignantly illuminated in the endeavours of Antarctica’s modern explorers. Such an imagining of Antarctica as pristine and untouched—as a continent apart—is challenged by more recent understandings of Antarctic ice. We have come to realise that the world’s sea level is principally controlled by the state of the Antarctic ice sheet and that we may be destabilising that ice sheet without ever leaving home. These emerging climate change narratives threaten to undermine dominant images of Antarctica as an untouched wilderness frozen in time. For now, tour operators continue to present climate change narratives in a manner which does not fundamentally challenge this wilderness ideal; an ideal which forms the imaginative foundation on which the Antarctic tourism industry has been built. vi vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Map 1 Antarctica - names and places ix Map 2 Antarctic Peninsula ix List of Acronyms x Introduction 1 Chapter One: Antarctic Expedition 1966 30 Image Gallery 57 Reflection: On Blank Spaces 60 Chapter Two: Champagne Jet to the Pole 78 Image Gallery 110 Reflection: On Being There 113 Chapter Three: Modern Explorers 134 Map 3 Sledging Routes 165 Image Gallery 166 Reflection: On Tourists, Adventurers & Explorers 171 Chapter Four: Black Sea of Suits 190 Image Gallery 223 Reflection: On Shifting Ice 225 Chapter Five: Perestroika at the Poles 248 Image Gallery 280 Epilogue 283 Bibliography 291 viii DONNING Sth AN TA MAUD LAND Shetland RC TIC Islands P EN IN WEDDELL ENDERBY SU LAND LA SEA Rne Ice Shelf Geoaphic tains Sth P e Mn X EAST M ny wth Stati Ells T ran ANTARCTICA s an t c WEST ic M ANTARCTICA nta i Ross ns Ice Shelf X Mt Erebus TERRE Cmwealth Bay ADELIE ROSS SEA Dumt d’Urville 0 1000 Miles McM do & VICTORIA Stati Sco Bases LAND 0 1000 Km X Sth Magnetic P e (1977) Map 1: Antarctica - names and places FALKLAND ISLANDS ARGENTINA Sth Shetland BRANSFIELD STRAIT
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