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The South China Sea and Its Coral Reefs During the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Levels of Geographical Knowledge and Political Control Ulisesgrana Dos

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The South China Sea and Its Coral Reefs During the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Levels of Geographical Knowledge and Political Control Ulisesgrana Dos East Asian History NUMBER 32/33 . DECEMBER 20061]uNE 2007 Institute of Advanced Studies The Australian National University Editor Benjamin Penny Associate Editor Lindy Shultz Editorial Board B0rge Bakken Geremie R. Barme John Clark Helen Dunstan Louise Edwards Mark Elvin Colin Jeffcott Li Tana Kam Louie Lewis Mayo Gavan McCormack David Marr Tessa Morris-Suzuki Kenneth Wells Design and Production Oanh Collins Printed by Goanna Print, Fyshwick, ACT This is a double issue of East Asian History, 32 and 33, printed in November 2008. It continues the series previously entitled Papers on Far Eastern History. This externally refereed journal is published twice per year. Contributions to The Editor, East Asian History Division of Pacific and Asian History Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Phone +61 2 6125 5098 Fax +61 2 6125 5525 Email [email protected] Subscription Enquiries to East Asian History, at the above address Website http://rspas.anu.edu.au/eah/ Annual Subscription Australia A$50 (including GST) Overseas US$45 (GST free) (for two issues) ISSN 1036-6008 � CONTENTS 1 The Moral Status of the Book: Huang Zongxi in the Private Libraries of Late­ Imperial China Dunca n M. Ca mpbell 25 Mujaku Dochu (1653-1744) and Seventeenth-Century Chinese Buddhist Scholarship John Jorgensen 57 Chinese Contexts, Korean Realities: The Politics of Literary Genre in Late­ Choson Korea (1725-1863) GregoryN. Evon 83 Portrait of a Tokugawa Outcaste Community Timothy D. Amos 109 The South China Sea and Its Coral Reefs during the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Levels of Geographical Knowledge and Political Control UlisesGrana dos 129 Maize, Ecosystem Transition and Ethnicity in Enshi, Central China Xu Wu 151 Narcotics, Nationalism and Class in China: The Transition from Opium to Morphine and Heroin in Early Twentieth-Century Shanxi Henrietta Ha rrison 177 "Our Missionary Wembley": China, Local Community and the British Mission­ ary Empire, 1901-1924 Sa ra h Chea ng 199 Western Protestant Missions and Modern Chinese Nationalist Dreams LianXi 217 The Shanghai Fine Arts College and Modern Artists in the Public Sphere (1913-1937) Ja ne Zheng Cover calligraphy Yan Zhenqing M�g�P, Tang calligrapher and statesman Cover illustration Detail from Chinese Anti-opium poster, c. 1895. "Qua n shi jieshi dayan wen" [Essay Urging the World to Give Up Opium] West Lake from Wang Villa (Wang Zhuang), Lois Conner, 2008 The editor and editorial board of East EX: Asian History would like to acknowledge 1* the contribution made to the journal by fIDl\ Professor Geremie Barme. lJ, Geremie has been editor of East Asian ¥ History since it began under this title in m 1991, and was editor of its predecessor Sometimes words flow easily EX: Papers on Far Eastern History from 1989. As soon as he grasps the brush; 13- In this period, he has sustained and Sometimes he sits vacantly, � � promoted the importance of the journal Nibbling at it. rm as a forum for rigorous and original ii historical scholarship on China, Korea X � and Japan. Encouraging and exacting in Lu Ji, from Literature: A Rhapsody JlJit ?t equal measures, he has been generous to scholars taking their first steps in learned publication. During Geremie's tenure, East Asian History has become a major journal in the field, noted for its consistently high standards of scholarship and the care taken Translated by Achilles Fang, "Rhyme prose on in its production. His editorship stands as Literature: The Wen-Fu of Lu Chi (A.D. 261-303)", an example and a challenge to the new Harvard}ournal ofAsiatic Studies, 14, 3/4 (Dec., editorial team. 1951): 527-Q6, p.534 The editor and editorial board of East Asian History would like to acknowledge the contribution made to the journal by Marion Weeks. Marion joined what was then the Depart­ ment of Far Eastern History in 1977. From that time, she was involved in various capacities with, first, Papers on Far East­ ern History, and then East Asian History, for which she served as business manager from its inception. By the time of her retirement from the Division of Pacific and Asian History in November 2007, Marion had become the heart and soul of the journal. Over the years she worked with many editors-Andrew Fraser, John Fincher, Sydney Crawcour, Ian McComas Taylor, Jennifer Holmgren, Geremie Barme, Benjamin Penny-as well as numerous associate editors, copy editors, printers and, of course, countless authors and manuscript readers. All owe her an immense debt of gratitude. East Asian History would certainly not have been the same without Marion-at times, without her, East Asian History may not have been at all. Imperial Summer Retreat, Chengde, Lois Co nner, 2000 THE SOUTH CHINA SEA AND ITS CORAL REEFS DURING THE MING AND QING DYNASTIES: LEVELS OF GEO­ GRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE AND POLITICAL CONTROL � Ulises Granados In the conflict over the sovereignty of the four South China Sea archi­ The author wishes to thank Dr Roderich Ptak pelagos -primarily the Paracel Islands (Xisha Qundao gg1j>M�) and the and the two anonymous referees for their Spratiy Islands CNansha Qundao 1¥i1j>M�), but also the Pratas Islands insightful comments on this paper. How­ ever, all views expressed are the exclusive (Dongsha Qundao *1j>M�) and the Macclesfield Bank (Zhongsha responsibility of the author. Qundao r:p1j>M�)-China relies heavily on historical sources to claim 1 The literature on this topic is extensive, that the islands were both known and under imperial authority from but the following Chinese-language sources ancient times.1 Before the first Manchu r�� naval circuit was ordered should be mentioned: Deng Ciyu, "Nan to the Paracels in 1909, Chinese sources included geographical descrip­ zhongguo hai zhudaoyu de zhuquan wenti" [The Sovereignty Problem of the South China tions and sailing routes, as well as maps.2 Some of the references in these Sea Islandsl, in Mingbao Yuekan [Mingbao sources are to Admiral Zheng He's �1'D seven famous voyages (1405-33) Monthly] May 1974: 1--E; Zhang and Fang, during the Ming EJFJ dynasty (1368--1644), while others date to the Song =*= Zbongguo baijiang tongsbi [A Complete (960-1279) and Yuan 7t (1277-1367) periods or even earlier. History of Chinese Coastal Areas and Territorial Seas] (Hangzhou: Zhongzhou Classical legal concepts of territorial sovereignty, jurisdiction and guji chubanshe, 2003); Lu Yiran, ed., Nanbai suzerainty, should be used with caution when analyzing the claims over zbudao, dili, lisbi, zbuquan [The Southern the South China Sea Islands during the last two dynasties.3 Some concepts Sea Islands-Their Geography, History and acquire meaning when applied to territorial units populated by subjects Sovereignty] (Harbin: Heilongjian jiaoyu chubanshe, 1992); Lu Yiran, ed., Zbong­ under some sort of authority. Such territory can either be owned and under guo baijiang lisbi yu xianzbuang yanjiu the direct control-that is, the exclusive, sovereign power of govern­ [Research on the Current Situation and His­ mental institutions or other political agents; or be the land of a separate tory of China's Maritime Frontier] (Harbin: polity that recognizes a relationship of suzerainty. In the framework of Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 1995); Han Zhenhua, Woguo nanbaizbudao tributary relations with the Chinese empire, a recognition of suzerainty sbiliao buibian [Historical Sources on Our was chosen by some polities in order to enjoy peaceful coexistence and Country's Southern Sea Islands] (Beijing: 4 trade prerogatives within the Chinese world order. Dongfang chubanshe, 1988); Han Zhenhua, When there are conflicting claims over regularly inhabited or com­ Nanbai zbudao sbidi yanjiu [Research on the Historical Geography of the Southern pletely deserted islands, international law specialists often rely on well­ Sea] (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chu­ established doctrine-international legal principles that govern the acqui- banshe, 1996); Cheng Keqin, ed., lOVER 109 110 ULISES GRANADOS /Zhongguo nanhai zhudao [China's South­ sition of sovereignty-in order to identify which country has title rights ern Sea Islands] (Haikou: Hainan guojixin­ over certain land.S International law even stipulates the possibility of a wen chubanshe, 1996); Guoli zhongyang territory over which there is (or was) no sovereign at a particular time, tushuguan Taiwan fenguan, Hainan ji nanhai xueshu yantaohui lunwenji [Proceedings employing the term terra nullius. Needless to say, such legal analyses of an Academic Conference on Hainan (which are not the focus of this article) depend on historical research on Island and the Southern Sea] (Taipei: the case at hand. Wenshizhe chubanshe, 1996). This study mainly covers the period from the founding of the Ming Sources in English include: Ministry of dynasty to the last decades of the Qing m (1644-1911). As will be shown Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, China's Indisputable Sovereignty below, while a certain degree of political authority seems to have existed Over the Xisha and Nansha Islands (Bei­ over the maritime regions of the northern sector of this sea with proximity jing: Foreign Languages Press, 1980); Ji to the coast (that is, the "maritime frontier" ha ijiang mJl!: or "littoral Guoxing, The S ratlysDis utes and Pros ect p p p territory" yanhai jiangyu �ffmJl!:�), Chinese authorities did not carry out for Settlement (Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Strategic and International Studies, 1992); any act that incorporated any of the four archipelagos into the empire. In Yang Tzou-Chow, Storm Over the South fact, discussion has continued in academic circles as to whether: China Sea (New York: Center of Asian 1. simply recording the presence of islands in written sources (portrayed Studies, St. John's University, 1995); Steven Kuan-Tsuh Yu, "Who Owns the Paracels and as "dots" in several maps), meant sovereignty authority, or exclusive Spratlys? An Evaluation of the Nature and power over lands, and Legal Basis of the Conflicting Territorial 2.
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