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California State University, San Bernardino CSUSB ScholarWorks Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations Office of aduateGr Studies 3-2018 The Admiral's Carrot and Stick: Zheng He and the Confucius Institute Peter Weisser Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd Part of the Asian Studies Commons Recommended Citation Weisser, Peter, "The Admiral's Carrot and Stick: Zheng He and the Confucius Institute" (2018). Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations. 625. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/625 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Office of aduateGr Studies at CSUSB ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of CSUSB ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE ADMIRAL’S CARROT AND STICK: ZHENG HE AND THE CONFUCIUS INSTITIUTE A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, San Bernardino In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Social Science by Peter Eli Weisser March 2018 THE ADMIRAL’S CARROT AND STICK: ZHENG HE AND THE CONFUCIUS INSTITIUTE A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, San Bernardino by Peter Eli Weisser March 2018 Approved by: Jeremy Murray, Committee Chair, History Jose Munoz, Committee Member ©2018 Peter Eli Weisser ABSTRACT As the People’s Republic of China begins to accumulate influence on the international stage through strategic usage of soft power, the history and application of soft power throughout the history of China will be important to future scholars of the politics of Beijing. This study will examine Beijing and its government official’s perceptions of its soft power and how there have been historical parallels between the modern People’s Republic of China and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) in regard to soft power politics and China’s search for its legitimacy as a rising global power. This study will use two examples that have similar parallels: The eunuch admiral Zheng He (1371-1433) and his journey’s through the South China Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Middle East and the Confucius Institute, a teaching and cultural exchange program under the auspices of the Office of Chinese Language International, known colloquially as Hanban, an organization under the direct control of the Chinese Communist Party’s leadership. What connects these two topics is the subject of soft power, a term coined by Joseph S. Nye, relating to the kind of power wielded by countries that does not involve military force and uses a “Charm Strategy” to support favorable treatment amongst its trading partners. Zheng He sailed the oceans to neighboring countries, in an attempt to give legitimacy to Ming China through the imperial tribute trade system. The Confucius Institute continues that legacy today, teaching a view of China that is shaped in Beijing. I will show the parallels iii between this historical figure and that of the Confucius Institute, showing that the pursuit of soft power is not a recent phenomenon in Chinese politics but a theory and a motivation that has existed in China since medieval times in China’s endless search for legitimacy in the eyes of its neighbors. I will be researching the life and journeys of Zheng He, along with the controversies surrounding the Confucius Institute and how all of these factors relate to China attempting to re- instate a legacy that the nation has was lost over since the nineteenth century’s “Century of Humiliation”. This loss of prestige was a result of European colonial power’s ambitions in the area. I will also use evidence to prove the importance of Confucianism in regard to the development of soft power in China. As China seeks to find its legitimacy, we will see that this has been some centuries in the making and plays a crucial part of Chinese politics today. The re-assertion of China’s place in the world as a rising world power will have geopolitical implications for decades to come. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank my mother and father Stan and Ellen Weisser for all of their continued support. I would also like to thank the students and staff at CSUSB especially Dr. Jose Munoz and Dr. Christin Lyon for being supportive graduate program chairs. Special thanks go to Dr. Jeremey Murray for helping me craft this thesis and turn it from a mold into a piece of substance and for being a perfect mentor who spent a considerable amount of his personal time to help me create this work. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………… v CHAPTER ONE: THESIS, METHODOLOGY, SOURCES, PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND DEFINITIONS OF SOFT POWER Introduction and Thesis………………………….………………………… 1 Research Questions, Definition of Terms and Sources………………… 11 Primary Sources…………………………………………..………………… 12 Secondary Sources……………………………………….………………… 16 Definitions of Important Terms and Historical Figures Related to the Study………………………………….……………………. 21 Methodology…………………………………….…………………………... 29 Understanding Hard and Soft Power………………….…………………… 31 CHAPTER TWO: THE EMPEROR AND THE ADMIRAL: THE LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF ZHENG HE AND ITS IMPACT ON MING SOFT POWER RELATIONS………………………………………… 41 The Origins of the Ming Dynasty……………………………….…………. 42 Culture Heroes: Soft Power and Uses of Zhu Yuanzhang in International Politics and Culture…………………………..................... 51 The Early Life of Zheng He and Zhu Di’s Ascension…………………….. 56 Soft Power and the Search for Legitimacy: The First Voyage and the Birth of the Treasure Fleet…………………………………………………... 63 Second and Third Voyages: China’s Power Increases and the Civil War of Ceylon………………………………………………………………... 78 The Importance of Face…………………………………………………….. 84 vi The Qilin and the Riches of the Middle East and Africa: The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Voyages…………………………………………………… 89 The Death of Zhu Di and the Final Voyage…………………….……….. 99 Soft Power and the Legacy of Zheng He………………………………… 103 CHAPTER THREE: THE CONFUCIUS INSTITIUTE: SOFT POWER IN THE CLASSROOM……………………………………… 108 Confucius Institute: Policies, Goals, Academic Freedom and the Wielding of Co-optive Soft Power…………………………………………. 111 The Backlash Against the Confucius Institutes and The Hegemony of Academic Narratives…………………………………………………...... 120 Academic Freedom and Discriminatory Hiring Practices………………. 128 Ceding Power: The Future of Chinese Soft Power……………………… 134 CHAPTER FOUR: CONFUCIANISM AND SOFT POWER: POLITICS AND FOREIGN POLICY IN MING AND MODERN CHINA…........................................................................... 140 Confucius and Soft Power………………………………………………... 143 Eunuchs of the Court: Historical Scapegoats and Ming Foreign Policy………………………………………………………………………. .. 153 The Legacy of Deng Xiaoping: Modern Day Foreign Policy and Soft Power………………………………………................................ 162 CHAPTER FIVE: COUNTER THESIS: ZHENG HE THE IMPERIALIST AND DEFENSE OF THE CONFUCIUS INSTITUTE……… 173 Counter Thesis Questions and Overview……………………………….. 174 Zheng He and Imperialism………………………………………………… 179 In Defense of the Confucius Institute, Sinophobia and Media Bias…… 189 Response to Counter Thesis: An Appeal to the Middle Ground………..194 CHAPTER SIX: THE FUTURE OF SOFT POWER STUDIES……………… 200 vii The Importance of the Study of Soft Power in Medieval and Modern China………………………………………………………………. 201 Final Conclusions on Zheng He and the Confucius Institute………...... 209 Sailing Into the Horizon: Future Uses for this Research……………… 220 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………. 225 viii CHAPTER ONE THESIS, METHODOLOGY, SOURCES, PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND DEFINITIONS OF SOFT POWER Why mount such a diplomatic charm offensive? As China turns its gaze to nearby seas in search of prosperity and secure energy supplies, it has embarked on a naval buildup unprecedented in modern history. Beijing evidently hopes to allay suspicions aroused by its bid for sea power. In so doing, it hopes to discourage the coastal nations of East, Southeast and South Asia from banding together-or with powerful outsiders such as the United States-to balance the growth of Chinese power. At home, Chinese leaders summon up Zheng He to help turn the attention of the populace seaward, rousing rank and file for seaward pursuits. Maritime history, in short, now suffuses Chinese politics abroad and at home. -James R. Holmes in “Soft Power at Sea1 Introduction and Thesis In the study of world politics today, there is a great deal of focus on the soft power aims of the People’s Republic of China. However, there is a very common misconception that the PRC’s push for soft power is a recent affair. Indeed, China has been seen as a rising power in the last few decades but has 1 James R. Holmes, Soft Power at Sea: Zheng He and China’s Maritime Diplomacy”, University of Georgia Center for International Trade and Security, (2006). 1 taken a unique view of its own power as non-hegemonic. From the point of view of the PRC, the PRC is a non-hegemonic power and claims that the recent amount of soft power that the PRC has gained in the last few decades has been a result of China’s peaceful rise. However, the perception of what soft power is may differ from that of western nations and Beijing. Joshua Kurlantzick a special correspondent for The New Republic in his book Charm Offensive makes an interesting observation in that “Beijing offers the charm of a lion and not a mouse”.2 In the last year, the United States under the Trump administration
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