HSSE Online Is Published by the HSSE Academic Group, National Institute of Education (NIE), Singapore

HSSE Online is published by the HSSE Academic Group, National Institute of Education (NIE), Singapore. The overarching purpose of the journal is to energize, inform and improve teaching practice in Humanities and Social Studies education in Singapore and to provide a venue to share ideas, research and resources that will be useful to teachers and scholars.

We seek to develop and deepen knowledge and understanding of powerful and innovative research and practice in Humanities and Social Studies education. We hope you will make use of these ideas and resources as well as contribute your own.

It has almost become a cliché to claim that the humanities subjects are integral to education for young people. While many people pay lip service to the importance of subjects such as history, geography, and social studies, in practice, this is not been consistently reflected in the actions and choices of educators, policy makers, parents, and students in Singapore and elsewhere. Thus it is timely that this issue includes an article written by Mark Baildon reminding us of how the humanities subjects are essential for the well-being of both the individual and society.

Anecdotal and empirical evidence suggest that teachers frequently deem these subjects to be too challenging for weaker students. As teacher educators, we have heard too many teachers proclaim that this content or these skills are too difficult for their students and make claims that their students will, for example, not be able or willing to engage in thought-provoking inquiry activities or tasks. These deficit views seem to shape the pedagogical choices of these teachers and as a result, students may be presented with a severely limited and simplified version of the curriculum. Linda McNeil calls this kind of teaching, "defensive teaching," and this, she argues, has negative implications for the kind of education these students (who are frequently less privileged) have access to.

We argue that it is important for all teachers to be advocates for a powerful and equitable humanities education program in schools. Teachers need to be conscious of the intent of the curriculum, be convinced of its worth in promoting the well-being of the individual and society, and to take active steps to challenge deficit views or negative stereotypes of their students.

Li-Ching Ho Mark Baildon Editors, HSSE Online May 2014

Leading Classroom Discussions About Population Policy in Singapore James S. Damico & Sandy Slaughter

Teaching Venice in Schools Teddy Sim Y. H.

The Beacon of Civic Conduct? Teaching Character and Citizenship Education in Singapore G. Karthick

“A Preliminary Study on the Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge among Economics and Primary Social Studies Student Teachers in Singapore Siew Fong, Ng & Oi Khum Karen Chan

"In this preliminary study on the development of pedagogical content knowledge among student teachers in the National Institute of Education, Singapore, Economics and Primary Social Studies student teachers self-report their progress in their professional development upon exit of teacher training using a survey instrument adapted from Ho’s (2003) pedagogical content knowledge development model. " Read more

Well-being and Humanities Education in Singapore Mark Baildon

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

Leading Classroom Discussions About Population Policy in Singapore

James S. Damico & Sandy Slaughter

Indiana University, Bloomington

In January 2013 the Singapore teachers might lead an inquiry-based government released a Population White activity (Damico, 2013) about population Paper titled A Sustainable Population for a policy in Singapore – given the purpose of Dynamic Singapore, which proposed a an inquiry approach is to “use the mind plan to steadily increase the population well… to read, write, and think critically from roughly 5.3 million in 2012 to 6.9 about something” (Parker, 2012, p. 1). million by 2030. The primary rationale for There is a host of potential inquiry the plan was to deal with the declining questions about the topic of population birth rate and rapidly aging population in control in Singapore, yet here we will Singapore. The white paper generated focus on an “authentic and contemporary” significant response from Singapore policy question (Hess, 2009, p. 41) to citizens, including protests, such as the consider the issue-based question, How event organized on Saturday, 16 February should Singaporeans respond to the White 2013, at Hong Lim Park, where an Paper about population policy? estimated 5,000 people gathered to express disapproval of the plan. We outline this inquiry activity in three parts, each with opportunities for students Population policy is a complex topic to discuss their ideas and for the teacher to because it involves or is tied to a range of play an essential part in shaping these issues, including those related to discussions. We also offer approximate overcrowding, foreign and migrant labor time estimates for each part, which can be policies, increased competition for modified (extended or shortened) due to resources (e.g., university positions for time constraints in classrooms. students), and, more generally, about whether there is sufficient infrastructure to Part 1: Building Relevant accommodate the population increase (e.g., Background Knowledge with a Concept have affordable health care). The topic of Map (15-20 minutes) population policy is also emotionally- charged and elicits a range of different Accessing what students already know perspectives about what can or should be and believe about population policy is a done about Singapore’s population. All of key first step. Students will likely come to this makes the topic of population policy this activity with prior knowledge. For ideal for classroom discussions with example, they see or experience students. overcrowded transportation, observe foreign laborers on construction projects, In this article, we consider how May 2014 1

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

and know foreign students living in is My reasons for this are…” Here Singapore with their families. One way to students have an opportunity to begin help students tap into their background building evidentiary support for claims knowledge is to ask them to complete a they will make with a partner and then concept map of the issue. While students in a subsequent whole class discussion. can do this individually, with partners, or in small groups, we have found it is best 6. Organize students in pairs or small for students to first complete this initial groups to compare and contrast their part of the inquiry independently. The “Singapore population concept maps.” process is to: Students take turns sharing their completed statements: “My view on population policy 1. Distribute blank pieces of paper to in Singapore is…. My reasons are…” students. Large butcher or construction works well to provide ample space for This process above meets several goals. students to represent their ideas. Students have an opportunity to vocalize their prior or existing knowledge about the 2. Ask students to draw a circle in the issue; they begin to express this middle of the paper and write knowledge in the form of claims supported “Singapore population policy” within it. by evidence; and they begin to appreciate the different knowledge and experiences 3. Prompt students to draw circles that others bring to this issue. (In our extending from the center that outline experience, even in relatively homogenous key features or aspects of this issue. classrooms there can be significant Here is where they have an opportunity diversity of views when the issue is to identify what they already know controversial.) about the topic. Extending through a Fishbowl Activity 4. Ask students to draw a square around (10-15 minutes) each of these extended circles and identify how they came to learn about To extend this initial activity, a teacher each key feature or aspect of can further cultivate discussion with a population control they identified in fishbowl activity. To begin this fishbowl, their circles. Possible responses here the teacher asks students to take turns would be personal experience (e.g., sharing their completed statements: “My witnessed crowding on MRT), view on population policy in Singapore family/friend network (e.g., is…. My reasons are…” When the small conversations at home), media outlets group’s time is completed, the teacher asks (newspapers, blogs, social networking the outer circle of students if they have any sites, etc.). questions for discussants in the inner circle. This is a good time for the teacher to 5. Then prompt students to organize their model appropriate comments or critical thinking and prepare to participate in a questions, such as: “What type of evidence conversation with a partner in class. did you find most convincing?” Then the They can complete the statement: “My teacher can ask four or five outer circle view on population policy in Singapore students to exchange places with the inner

May 2014 2

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

circle students. The new inner circle outside circle. students can repeat the process (i.e., discuss their concept maps for Note this fishbowl activity requires approximately five minutes). As the inner about 13 minutes of instructional time (10 circle discusses the topic, the teacher minutes for discussion, 5 minutes for each encourages the outer circle to take notes. inner group (2 groups total), and 3 minutes Again at the end of the discussion time, the for transition times, 1 ½ minutes for set up teacher can ask for questions from the and exchange of students).

Figure 1: Example of a Concept Map a Student Might Complete

May 2014 3

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

Part 2: (Optional) Clarify components of this population issue, the Background Knowledge (10-15 minutes) teacher might want to just move ahead to the sources in the Part 3 activity. After this preliminary activity, the teacher might decide to provide some If the teacher wants to ensure students clarifying background knowledge (to have a grasp of key ideas, the following possibly address misconceptions that two sources – an image and a YouTube surfaced in Part 1). However, if the video – offer useful background students seem to have a grasp of the key knowledge.

Background knowledge - Source 1: Graphic- “The Singapore Population” http://blog.dk.sg/wp- content/uploads/2013/02/843921_10151246282012934_1267819086_o.jpg

Background knowledge - Source 2: summarizes the White Paper. Again the Youtube video: Population projected at 6.9 goal here is to establish a shared million by 2030 with strong Singaporean corre understanding of the White Paper’s content. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kttG Zv4VcbV0#t=33 To support discussion with these two sources, the teacher can ask students to This video source, published 29 January write down any details from these two 2013 and 4 minutes, 42 seconds in length, sources they can add to their concept maps

May 2014 4

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

and use to further complete their A range of sources can be used to statements: “My view on population policy promote reading and evaluation skills and in Singapore is….. My reasons for this students’ ability to strengthen their own are…” Again, the goal is for students to evidence-based claims, which, in turn, can continue building evidentiary support for enrich class discussion. Here we propose claims they can make to a partner or in a two sources: a photograph and a speech class discussion. excerpt.

At this point, students are ready to To guide students to work with these further discuss the population issue two sources, the following “Inference chart” centering on the inquiry question: How can be used (see Figure 2). For each source, should Singaporeans respond to the White students are prompted to make evidence- Paper about population policy? baased inferences (or interpretations) from each source through a process of careful Part 3: Engage with Sources to Build analysis of key source details and Evidence-based Interpretations (20-30 application of relevant background minutes) knowledge (this is where students can refer directly to the concept maps they created in Part 1).

Figure 2: Inference Chart

May 2014 5

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

Source #1 – Photograph “Singapore for Singaporeans” http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/singapore/story/large-turnout-speakers-corner- protest-against-population-white-paper-2

Source #2: Excerpt from NMP economic growth, all the companies and Faizah Jamal’s full speech on fooreign talent that we want to entice, all Population White Paper & Land Use the goodies that we desire in life, all the 2030 constructon that will happen, does not in faact come from somewhere and end up http://oliveventures.com.sg/act/2013/02 soomewhere, in the environment. Yet there /07/nmp-faizah-jamals-full-speech-on- is no mention in the White Paper about the population-white-paper-land-use-2030/ impact of so many people on our carbon foootprint, our food security – which as it Yet not once during the Debate of the sttands, we are 90% dependent on outside last two days did I hear anyone talk about soources and we all know how vulnerable our connection to another Mother, that of that makes us – to the higher costs that Motherr Earth. In the midst of all those Singaporeans have to bear in the years numbers we were crunching it is ahead as the pressure on energy and water astonishing to me Madam, that no mention mounts as we race towards a dream GDP. was made on how all those numbers impact on something bigger than ourselves, To explain further what I mean by the the Environment. We act as if all that White Paper speaking to the head and not

May 2014 6

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

the heart, I note with concern the emphasis Figure 3 represents an example of a on the familiar slogan ‘City in a Garden’ completed Inference chart for these two and the emphasis in the Land Use Plan sources. Students can work independently 2030, on the word ‘parks’. It seems to me or with a partner as they work with these that policy-makers have a different shade two sources. The main goal is for them to of green in mind when they refer to continue their practice with making ‘greenery’. evidence-based claims (or evidence-based inferences) based on key details and relevant background knowledge. Figure 3: Completed Inference Chart

A next step is for a teacher to lead a specific questions. For examplee, with class discussion where students can use Source 2, a few questions could be: What their completed inference charts to respond does the word “greenery” mean in this to questions the teacher (or other students) context? Do you think there are limits to ask, such as: What interpretations do you economic growth? Can there be economic have for Source 1? What are the most growth in Singapore that doesn’t important details in the source that support jeopardize the environment? your interpretation? What about with Source 2? A teacher can also ask more Conclusion

May 2014 7

HSSE Online 3(1) 1-8

In this article, we have highlighted how cycles approach to inquiry. HSSE Online: the use of discussion can enrich the ways Research and Practice in Humanities and students make evidence-based claims or Social Studies Education. 1(1), 1-6. interpretations. In the three-part inquiry activity, Part 1 focused on evidence from personal experience (and use of concept maps to document this evidence) while Parts 2 and 3 primarily emphasized evidence from source details in conjunction with personal experience and background knowledge. We also considered different modes of discussion, including partner or peer discussion, small group discussion (part of the Fishbowl activity), and whole class discussion. Doing this work involves a set of core thinking skills, which are not only covered on exams (e.g., making inferences, evaluating claims, constructing explanations) but are also critical to effective citizenship, such as careful listening, engaging different perspectives, and evaluating the reasonableness of others’ ideas. Moreover, along with others (Hess, 2009; Parker, 2012), we contend that it is through a discussion-based dialogical process that we can best address complex questions about Singapore’s population.

References

Damico, J.S. (2013). How to help all students with evidence-based reading and writing during an inquiry activity. HSSE Online: Research and Practice in Humanities and Social Studies Education. 2(1), 36-43.

Hess, D. (2009). Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. New York: Routledge.

Parker, W. (2012). “Their minds must be improved to a certain degree”: A learning

May 2014 8 Back to Top HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

Teaching Venice in Schools

Teddy Sim Y.H.

National Institute of Education (Singapore)

Introduction of not only the subject of history or social studies, but of one’s role in society. This paper aims to briefly survey advances made in the field of Venice Survey of Venice Studies studies and explore how these can help enhance the teaching of Venice in schools. The field of studies on Venice’s history Focusing on the early modern period, this continues to evolve.ii Even at the turn of essay will discuss issues related to the millennium (at 2000), shifts in the Venetian politics as well as government writing of Venice’s history are already and society. The issues for discussion are obvious in several sub-areas of the field. sub-divided into: 1.) Republicanism and On the general front, the scholarship of the related systems; 2.) Political system and field is “[doing] away with a unilateral corruption as a reason for decline of reading of Venice’s past” (Martin & Venice; and 3.) The wider social / social- Romano, 2000, p. 27). To put it in another political organizations or arrangements as way, historiography is probing beyond the a stabilizing (or destabilizing) force of “myth,” an image of an ideal republic, a Venetian society. The choice and strong maritime empire as well as a clustering of these issues are partly based birthplace of capitalism and economically on the content survey on Venetian studies driven people and society. This meant and partly based on the survey of similar probing beyond the usual reasons issues of concern occurring in advocated for the rise or decline of the contemporary Singapore society.i city-state. Current historiography tends to “highlight fissures, tensions, contradictions This essay makes reference to and is and elements of disorder (in Venice)”; meant to be read hand-in-hand with the there is, to reiterate, “a shift in interest write-up on Venice in the resource from order to disorder, orthodoxy to package produced by Curriculum Planning dissent, from the center of power to the and Development Division of the Ministry broader social context (or periphery)” of Education (CPDD, 2008b). This will (Davidson, 1997, pp. 13-24; Martin & hopefully assist in the content Romano, 2000, pp. 7-8). In contrast, the understanding of the teachers teaching the treatment on Venice in the Social Studies topic in schools. An inquiry and discussion textbook covers the rise and fall of the process in the classroom entailing a fuller city-state and it can be deterministic exploration of an issue (warts and all) can towards human-centered factors and does lead to a better appreciation and conviction not convey enough of the “fissures, disorder or the periphery.”iii

May 2014 9

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

In terms of participants in a political territories of Venice), the new subjects system, one can move away from the (not citizens) strove in certain places to “mythical” by exploring a version of the yearn for Venetian influence and in others, social reality on the ground. An instructor to be rid of it, in accordance of the benefits teaching the topic has to be reminded that that might reaped in comparison to the MOE materials, not surprisingly, have a previous system of extraction they were value judgment on the “selfish interest” of subjected to (Muir, 2000, pp. 137-67). a participant in a political system. From a more neutral angle, participants in a On the issue of governmental efficacy democracy, whether in positions of power versus checks and balances, Venice or as common folks, embraced the mode of appears to have achieved a certain power governance for a combination of reasons balance and expediency in its political that were self-serving and altruistic. The system. Efficacy in a government and “additional notes” in the teachers’ resource checks and balances in a political system file has stated that the aristocrat republic of have the potential to conflict with each Venice was a rule of limited representation other. This system allowed Venice to from the 8th century (CPDD, 2008b, p. delegate its executive power to a more 112). Durant’s (1968) insightful reflection centralized organ in times of crises and from a long survey of history has revealed subjected decision-making or “legislation” that “from Solon to the Roman conquest of to a more laborious process of going Greece, the conflict of oligarchs and through the councils and senate under democrats was waged with books, plays, more normal circumstances. Lane (1973) orations, votes, ostracism, assassination argues that the hallmark of republicanism and civil war.” The “oligarchs” referred to in Venice, implemented through motley a group of politicians who desired a arrangements, was about how the interests greater concentration of control or power; of domestic power groups were balanced the “democrats” referred to a group of as the system evolved through time.iv At politicians who desired a wider base of the highest level, the inner circle was power sharing as well as checks and comprised of the chiefs of the council of balances (p. 73). Whether desiring for ten, esteemed representatives from the more power or more checks and balance, senate (savii grandi), state inquisitors (with individuals sought to protect their interest their own body of informers and secret to a certain extent. In an article analyzing police) and the doge (and his councilors). the state of republicanism after the Battle The doge made his decision as part of a of Agnadello, the resolve of Venetian team (and members of the “inner group” subjects to uphold the rule of the city-state represented the most dominant families of was severely tested. Agnadello in the War metropolitan Venice). In practice, strong of the League of Cambrai is mentioned in and decisive executive powers were more the textbook as an event of severe setback needed in external affairs in order to react which “tested Venice’s political and effectively to arising crises; diplomatic military capabilities” (CPDD, 2008a, p. courses of action were, hence, often 113). Granted that Venice’s republicanism carried out and informed to the Senate and was not uniformly implemented other councils without debate (Lane, 1973, throughout its empire (especially in its pp. 427-34). terra firma colonies, referring to hinterland

May 2014 10

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

On many other important matters (such affliction of the political-administrative as law, finances and coinage, as system with incapable leadership (arising highlighted in the textbook), sessions of from a shrinking pool of nobles, in turn the great council were called and the linked to the Black Death) and the senate could set up their committees and associated corruption contributed to the commissions to investigate issues (much decline of Venice. Discussion of the topic like in the present American senate) in class can take place along the line to (CPDD, 2008a, p. 96). The Venetian probe the information offered by the system was “so successful” that the textbook and resource package further. A Austrian Habsburgs who took over the city few issues can be discussed here: 1.) The in the post Napoleonic period considered degree to which the nobility had turned in at one time whether there was a need to on itself after 14th century. 2.) The nature revive the “old system” (Laven, 2007, p. of corruption. 3.) The history of Venice 217). While there was intention by the from a longer time perspective can have a later generation to restore the earlier more neutral effect on the perception of Venetian system, it should be remembered the city-state’s decline. We will discuss the that the history of the city-state’s survival issue of the inward turning of the nobility was dotted with intense conflicts between first. We can examine this by, for instance, power groups as well as other lapses. A examining the degree to which the position case in hand can be seen in Doge P. of the doge was monopolized by noble Gradenigo’s faction in rivalry against the families. If the thesis of the inward turning faction of (a branch of) Querini family of the nobility can be disproven, the over the issue of the war against the Pope importance of the factor on the decline of over the territory of Ferrara in 1310. The Venice may be questioned. We can rivalry became intense enough that plots to analyze the list of doge-elects from 900- revolt were conceived against the doge 1200s and 1500-1700s (in Appendix A) to (Lane, 1973, pp. 114-17). The rivalry was assess if there was a monopoly by certain often joined by foreign groups residing in noble families. A survey of the lists (see Venice. A survey of “Catalogo XXVI” in Appendix A) for the above periods shows the Archivo de Simancas (in Spain) reveals that: The number of families (going by the that the Habsburgs collected intelligence names of the doge elected) which fielded a and kept a close tab of happenings in doge was more in the 15-18th century Venice; most notably, the development of period compared to the 10-13th century factions involving nobles in the city so that period; the families which fielded more they could readily intervene in domestic than one doge was correspondingly but not politics where the occasion benefitted surprisingly more in the 15-18th compared, them. again, to the 10-13th century period. From the list, one would have realized that the Students of Venetian studies need to re- average tenure period of the doges had question the extent to which corruption is shortened in the 16-18th centuries. One pegged as a reason for decline of Venice. could argue that the complex process by The “additional notes” pins the increasing which a doge was elected prevented any domination of certain families as “one of concentration of power in the hands of a the causes of Venice’s decline” (CPDD, few families; one can go one step further 2008b, p. 112). In the textbook, the to argue that the limited power and hence,

May 2014 11

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

lucrativeness of the position of the doge definition of the term in context of the acted as a brake in a system saddled with Medici family (in Florence) which “put in checks and balances although this could power men who rendered particular not be relied on to overcome or solve the services to the private interests of their problem of the diminishing population supporters” (Lane, 1973, p. 258). Research (with declining population of nobility and of the term “corruption” has since hence, a diminishing pool of talents). advanced and the latest studies highlight issues that are not easily reconciled by There is no denying that new more orthodox definitions. In the textbook, membership to the nobility became the affliction of the political-administrative increasingly difficult if not impossible system with a shrinking and incapable (Lane, 1973, pp. 252, 430-31). If the leadership and the associated corruption Venetian nobility failed, it was not for contributed to the decline of Venice. want of trying. Near to two dozen plagues Laslett (2005), in writing about early took place from the 14th to 16th centuries modern England, stated that linkage to with breakouts stretching into the 17th lineage and inherited privileges (as well as (1630-31; Lane, 1973, p. 430). The wealth) might be a better guarantee to Venetian nobility did try to incorporate power than being literate. One should be new entrants, from within the city careful to assert that power being restricted (merchant families) and from the terra to a few equates to corruption. The early firma, into its ranks although the result of modern world is one where the patronage the endeavor was not enough to stem the system permeated the network of human declining trend of demography. Perhaps relations. Gifts-giving, for instance, is the Venetian leadership should have likely to be part of the cultural norms in embarked on a path of mass immigration certain time periods or certain into its ranks and wider community in geographical regions (even in modern day order to succeed; for here, even contexts) (Guo, 2001; Scott, 1972). Cross Machiavelli (a contemporary of the early referring the discussion on republicanism modern Italy) advocated a “more easy and related systems suggests that rival access to citizenship by foreigners as a factions were likely to sponsor their own way to expand and renew the population” candidates to office positions within the (Machiavelli, 2003). A more balanced framework of the political system (even if perspective should therefore be given to these were not of the best caliber) rather the cause of plagues, pandemic than recommend a candidate from the occurrences and nature’s input in the opposing faction. The successful rhythm of human and state existence. appointment of a sympathizer office holder represented an extension of the patronage The phenomenon of corruption in the network and influence of the faction in early modern period needs to be seen and question. contextualized against the norms and practices of the historical period. This will From a holistic point of view, one have an impact on whether corruption should merge the other interacting should be seen as a key factor in Venice’s exogenous factors, such as economic and decline. Lane’s Venice: Maritime Republic environmental explanations, to come to a (1973) invokes Machiavelli and traditional more non-human centered and balanced

May 2014 12

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

perspective of Venice’s decline. The the students’ text (CPDD, 2008a, pp. 88 analysis of the other factors is beyond the and 107). How the different self-help limited scope of this essay, but other issues groups functioned in a highly capitalistic of Venice’s diplomacy and military as well society in Venice such that everybody as the city-state’s economy in relation to could come together to “live its environment also contributed to its harmoniously” can be studied more closely decline and fall. to provide “lessons” for the contemporary Singaporean society. Lane (1973) credited Looking at a longer time frame of the (perhaps a little too optimistically) that evolution of the political or democratic Venice had “no need for troops in the city system of Venice can lead to a different [because] the common people [had never] perspective. For a start, the context of the tried to overthrow the rule of the nobles” long haul of military history is instructive (p. 271). If the bureaucracy and the that, against Napoleon, few or no councils/senate was the activity ground of protagonist would be able to avert a the high class and the nobility, the guilds collapse in 1797 (in the case of Venice). catered to the power jostling in the middle Second, the post collapse period saw the and lower classes of Venetian society. The Austrian Habsburgs (who took over the interest of the guilds might be represented northern Italian states) adopted “efficient” in the meetings of the council raised by a Napoleonic administrative practices but concerned or lobbying councilman. The considered at one point or other (discussed guild of course helped fulfill an above) to revive the old Venetian political administrative function for the government system. If the rise of Napoleon heralds the of Venice – it collected taxes from beginning of modern period (19th century), practitioners of the craft that body of guild the lack of resistance on the part of the sought to represent (which raised the Venetian nobility towards the invasion and interest of these bodies in the meeting of occupation of Napoleon indicates a the Grand Council). Guilds served as an relatively peaceful period of transition into outlet and at the same time, a remedy to modernity; rather than a shift into decline the fissures of the Venetian society (Laven, 2007). because in the early modern period, they were, other than the immediate family and Finally, I discuss the input of various closer friends, an important avenue by socio-political groups and institutions on which a person might resort to in bailing the well-being or lack of well-being of the himself out in crisis (Lane, 1973, p. 318). city-state of Venice focusing on guilds, The ethnic (minority) groups residing in scuole grandi, carnivals and pugni as well Venice, for instance, Jews, Greeks, as minority groups and their self-help Armenians and Germans, were also institutions. In a lesson on nation building expected to take care of themselves. The and governance discussed in the textbook, Jews were divided into the first waves the social cohesion of a diverse society which came, who were more respected, like Venice depended in no small part on and the later southeastern Jewish the guilds. The guilds, however, could be immigrants from Europe, which evoked given a little more discussion beyond the more adverse reaction and discrimination. descriptions on the “early life” in the city Although discriminated by the larger and experience of a carpenter described in population of Venice for a variety of

May 2014 13

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

reasons, the Jews maintained numerous involved personages from influential charitable organizations and schemes in classes who mobilized resources and the confined areas of their dwelling fighters/workers from an array of lower (ghettos) in the city to help with the classes) helped groups acquire honor or povertized and newly-arrived members of settle differences they could not resolve in the community. Government intervention more civilized settings (Davis, 1994, pp. sometimes came in the form of for 47-88, 165-72). In the 18th century, the instance, taxing the richer Jews to provide lower classes increasingly turned to the for the new Jewish immigrants in the carnival of the ragata (boat rowing races). slums. Although the social institutions and groups have been discussed as a stabilizing force The other organization which helped to in Venetian society, the same institutions absorb and allay the tensions of society have the potential to be destabilizing. was the scuole grandi (a lay, Catholic- Instances of this can be seen in the council sponsored organization promoting charity). of ten being “particularly nervous” that The early modern period in Europe was pugnis might disrupt the state’s business or one in which many stresses of the Jews feeling liberated during the globalization (for example, depletion of Napoleonic invasion in 1797 after a long diminishing resources, displacement of period of being discriminated (Davis, 1994, industries) being felt across Europe were p. 143, Lane, 1973, pp. 299-304). . most intimately felt by inhabitants in small and trading states like Venice. In a survey Conclusion around the first half of 17th century, 16% of the population was found to be “hospital The coverage in the textbook is on the poor” in Venice (Jutte, 1994, p. 128). whole a balanced one touching on There was a range of confraternities, Venice’s rise, peak and fall in a numbering about 500 in the 18th century. chronological fashion and provides static These were state within a state – the discussions of the individual factors richest foundations even financed military accounting for these milestones in the expeditions. Although trying to portray a history of the city. The field of Venetian secular image, these organizations had a studies is seeing new impulses which view religious bent – to promote pious living the developments of the city-state beyond they forbade blasphemy, adultery and its “mythical image”; one that embraces gambling. In addition, they looked after “fissures, disorder or the periphery.” It is the members’ material welfare – from important for readers to critically providing dowry or loans, to free lodging reconsider the issues pertaining to and medical treatment (Jutte, 1994, p. 125). republicanism in Venice and its empire, Beyond the above institutions, regularly the Venetian political system and organized events and activities in the city corruption as an explanation of the decline such as the carnivals and pugni (lasted till of the Venetian empire, and the role of end of 17th / beginning of 18th century) social system and groups as a stabilizing lent a further hand as a cushion to external force in the prolongation or decline of the forces affecting the society. Along the city-state. The term and issue of corruption “informal” channel, the institution of the for example, if understood in its historical pugni (fights that took place on the bridges context and in the context of pandemics,

May 2014 14

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

reduces the importance of it as a factor in lessons of history. New York: Simon & the discussion of the decline of Venice. Schuster. Overall, a benefit to the study of Venice is that it can allow, if facilitated aptly, a Guo X.Z. (2001). Dimensions of guanxi in deeper exploration of political systems. Chinese elite politics. The Chinese Journal, This, in addition to learning from 46, 69-90. complementary subjects and experiential programs on modern topics, can permit a Jutte R. (1994). Poverty and deviance in more intimate understanding of how socio- early modern Europe. Cambridge: political systems operated in the past and Cambridge University Press. present; and in the process, hopefully enable the molding of a learned individual Laven D. (2002). Venice and Venetia concerned enough to understand and under the Habsburgs 1815-35. Oxford: partake in his/her environment in the new Oxford University Press. millennium. (See Appendix B for a summary of teaching ideas based on this Lane F. (1973). Venice: A maritime article.) republic. London: John Hopkins University Press. References Laslett P. (2000). The world we have lost: Curriculum Planning & Development Further explored. Oxon: Routledge. Division (CPDD) (2008a). Upper secondary social studies, secondary 4 and Martin J., & Romano D. (Eds.) (2000). 5. Singapore: EPB. Venice reconsidered: History and civilization of an Italian city-state 1297- (2008b). Upper secondary social 1797. Baltimore: John Hopkins University studies, teacher’s resource file. Singapore: Press. EPB. Muir E. (2000). Was there republicanism Campbell D.E. (2008). “How an open in Renaissance republics? Venice after classroom climate fosters political Agnadello. J. Martin and D. Romano engagement among adolescents”, Political (Eds.), Venice reconsidered, Baltimore: Behaviour, 30, 437-54. John Hopkins University Press, 137-67.

Cochrane E., & Kirshner J. (1975). Machiavelli N. (1984). Discourses. “Deconstructing Lane’s Venice”, Journal London: Penguin. of Modern History, 47(2), 321-34. (2003). The Prince. London: Davis R. (1994). The war of the fists: Penguin. Popular culture and public violence in late Renaissance Venice. Oxford: Oxford Scott J. (1972). Patron-client politics and University Press. political change in Southeast Asia. American Political Science Review, 66(1), Durant W., & Durant A. (1968). The 91-113.

May 2014 15

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

i Although not explicitly pointed out in the ii Many works suggested from the reading textbook, Singapore shares many shared list, including J. Morris’ work, are similar features with Venice. Surmising supposed to be considered as works of quickly on the possible traits, one can find “popular authors.” The magnum opus and that both city-states: rely to a great extent comprehensive English work of F. Lane’s on trade; are communication nodal points “Venice: Maritime republic” is categorized in their regions and eras (Venice in the as a “general history” of Venice. This is eastern Mediterranean Sea, Singapore at contrasted with “works on specific sub- one end of the Straits of Melaka in fields”, a dichotomy used by specialists / Southeast Asia); are cultural centers, or reviewers in academic journals. Works in aspiring to be one (Venice was relatively general histories need to present balanced open which attracted talents and ideas views on an array of issues studied in during the Renaissance, right down to the Venetian history; something not easily Baroque period; Singapore aspires to achieved considering that even Lane’s become a ‘Renaissance city’ and has put work receives its fair share of critical up concrete plans for the materialization of reviews. A common criticism leveled on this); face demographic or environmental works on the general history of Venice is challenges (dwindling population and that these specialists, perhaps not rising water level) in their periods; and are surprisingly, are not able to do justice to influential commercially. Venice was areas outside their researches. described as a commerce empire which controlled a network of trade stations and iii The city-settlement’s rise to prominence string of hinterlands; a first world city- is traced to the period between the ninth state operates in a different manner at the and fifteenth centuries and attributed to dawn of the 21st century, a Senior several reasons namely, leadership, a Minister in Singapore has defined the reforming (adaptive?) government, trade island-state’s network in terms of the developments (undertaken by the city- market it can reach tagged with the state), developments in the industries, and number of flight hours it would take to innovative practices (and ideas). The city- reach there. Despite whatever similarities state at its peak and empire is described in one might find, one suspects that the terms of the extent of its territories and inclusion of the topic in social studies must prowess, the vibrant society make-up, come at the insistence of the “highest level economic prosperity and cultural of authority.” In a related video, Mr Lee achievements. Venice was deemed to have Kuan Yew recounted the process of faced serious challenges and gone on “a transforming Singapore into the “Venice gradual decline” between the fifteenth and of the East.” Mr George Yeo, the one-time eighteenth centuries. The factors slated for Minister of Foreign Affairs, had evoked decline are: foreign threats from the the idea of comparing Singapore with mainland European states as well as from Venice as early as 1988, and as recently as the Ottoman empire; maritime and trade 2012, continued to espouse the idea in an competition from certain rising European interview with “The Globalist.” states (like the Dutch and English); internal political challenges arising from

May 2014 16

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

incapable leadership and corruption; and social challenge as a result of the ruling class becoming ‘soft’ and complacent. Saddled with the burdens aforementioned, the final fall is dated when Napoleon invaded the city. iv The main organs of the Venetian government included: 1. the 3 councils, 2. the senate, 3. the Doge, 4. bureaucrats (governors, commanders, and holders of minor offices) as well as 5. state or judicial attorneys. The councils were classified into the great council, as well as the councils of ten and forty. Members from the latter two (and the senate) were drawn from the former.

May 2014 17 Back to Top HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

Appendix A: List of Doge-appointees

10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

10th century 15th century Orso II Participazio (912–932) Tommaso Mocenigo (1413–1423) Pietro II Candiano (932–939) Francesco Foscari (1423–1457) Pietro Participazio (939–942) Pasquale Malipiero (1457–1462) Pietro III Candiano (942–959) Cristoforo Moro (1462–1471) Pietro IV Candiano (959–976) Nicolo Tron (1471–1473) Pietro I Orseolo (976–978) Nicolo Marcello (1473–1474) Vitale Candiano (978–979) Pietro Mocenigo (1474–1476) Tribuno Memmo (979–991) Andrea Vendramin (1476–1478) Pietro II Orseolo (991–1009) Giovanni Mocenigo (1478–1485) Marco Barbarigo (1485–1486) 11th century Agostino Barbarigo (1486–1501) Otto Orseolo (1009–1026) Pietro Barbolano (1026–1032) 16th century Domenico Flabanico (1032–1043) Leonardo Loredan (1501–1521) Domenico Contarini (1043–1071) Antonio Grimani (1521–1523) Domenico Selvo (1071–1084) Andrea Gritti (1523–1538) Vitale Faliero (1084–1096) Pietro Lando (1538–1545) Vitale I Michiel (1096–1102) Francesco Donato (1545–1553) Marcantonio Trivisan (1553–1554) 12th century Francesco Venier (1554–1556) Ordelafo Faliero (1102–1117) Lorenzo Priuli (1556–1559) Domenico Michele (1117–1130) Girolamo Priuli (1559–1567) Pietro Polani (1130–1148) Pietro Loredan (1567–1570) Domenico Morosini (1148–1156) Alvise I Mocenigo (1570–1577) Vital II Michele (1156–1172) Sebastiano Venier (1577–1578) Sebastiano Ziani (1172–1178) Nicolò da Ponte (1578–1585) Orio Mastropiero (1178–1192) Pasqual Cicogna (1585–1595) Enrico Dandolo (1192–1205) Marino Grimani (1595–1606)

13th century 17th century Pietro Ziani (1205–1229) Leonardo Donato (1606–1612) Jacopo Tiepolo (1229–1249) Marcantonio Memmo (1612–1615) Marino Morosini (1249–1252) Giovanni Bembo (1615–1618) Reniero Zeno (1252–1268) Nicolò Donato (1618–1618) Lorenzo Tiepolo (1268–1275) Antonio Priuli (1618–1623) Jacopo Contarini (1275–1280) Francesco Contarini (1623–1624) Giovanni Dandolo (1280–1289) Giovanni I Cornaro (1624–1630) Pietro Gradenigo (1289–1311) Nicolò Contarini (1630–1631) Francesco Erizzo (1631–1646) Francesco Molin (1646–1655) Carlo Contarini (1655–1656) Francesco Cornaro (1656–1656) Bertuccio Valiero (1656–1658)

May 2014 18

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

Giovanni Pesaro (1658–1659) Domenico II Contarini (1659–1674) Nicolò Sagredo (1674–1676) Alvise Contarini (1676–1683) Marcantonio Giustinian (1683–1688) Francesco Morosini (1688–1694) Silvestro Valiero (1694–1700) Alvise II Mocenigo (1700–1709)

18th century Giovanni II Cornaro (1709–1722) Sebastiano Mocenigo (1722–1732) Carlo Ruzzini (1732–1735) Alvise Pisani (1735–1741) Pietro Grimani (1741–1752) Francesco Loredan (1752–1762) Marco Foscarini (1762–1763) Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo (1763–1779) Paolo Renier (1779–1789) Ludovico Manin (1789–1797)

May 2014 19

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

Appendix B: Teaching ideas from the article – A summary

General historiography of the field of history of Venice

probing beyond the “myth”, an image of an ideal republic… shifting to emphasize disorder rather than order, dissent rather than orthodoxy, the broader social context or periphery rather than the center

1) Discussing 2) Discussing 3) Discussing the republicanism and politics and wider social political related political corruption as a reason institutions as a systems* for decline stabilizing or destabilizing force in Venetian society

A. Motives of A. The extent to The other social citizens and subjects which the decline of political groups and B. Rise of Venetian political institutions in political system was a result Venetian society group/faction and of the “inward deserving of efficacy of political turning” of the discussion: A. guilds, system nobles. B. scuole grandi, C. B. The extent to carnival and pugni, which corruption and D. various could be minority ethnic distinguished from groups as their own the relations network. self-help groups. C. Ways the decline of Venice could be seen differently. *The three threads of discussion represent the three objectives of discussion in this article.

May 2014 20

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

Appendix A: List of Doge-appointees

10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

May 2014 18

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

May 2014 19

HSSE Online 3(1) 9-20

Appendix B: Teaching ideas from the article – A summary

General historiography of the field of history of Venice probing beyond the “myth”, an image of an ideal republic… shifting to emphasize disorder rather than order, dissent rather than orthodoxy, the broader social context or periphery rather than the center

May 2014 20

The Beacon of Civic Conduct? Teaching Character and Citizenship Education in Singapore

G. Karthick

Yishun Junior College

“Our education system must…nurture Singapore citizens of good character, so that everyone has the moral resolve to withstand an uncertain future, and a strong sense of responsibility to contribute to the success of Singapore and the well-being of fellow Singaporeans” – Mr. Heng Swee Keat

The purpose of this short opinion piece citizenship blueprint, albeit with the is to impress upon readers that while the responsibility to adhere to a code of teaching and learning of good character conduct accredited by “character pundits” and citizenry is noble (with clear desired of our society. After all, one only needs to outcomes) as highlighted by Mr. Heng i , survey e-forums to understand why the the instruction of intrinsic “good-ness” in teacher is seen as a moral compass to the the classroom ignites an age old question youngii. Yet, the key question has to be in academic discourse – who or what answered: why teachers? In Singapore, the should be the “beacon” of civic conduct? answer is embedded in the beliefs and Given the width and breadth of a topic that practices of an Asian culture that prides or has failed to reach a common consensus at times, struggles in being placed at the amongst educators and policy makers on cross-roads of the metaphorical Occident the teaching and learning of Character and and the Orient. The honorifics given to Citizenship Education (CCE), this article teachers in the Chinese, Indian and Malay will limit its discussion to the following communities for instance (Guru, Lao Tzi, issues: 1.) the role of educators in CCE; 2.) Ustad, and etcetera) are verbal testaments stakeholders and their relationship with of educators being seen as preceptors of CCE; 3.) challenges educators might face laudable conduct. Identified as the key and when tasked to conduct CCE lessons. sole repository of knowledge in the ancient and classical eras, the walk and talk of In a socio-cultural milieu with these individuals have always been character contours carved by conservative acknowledged by Asian communities as Asian decorum, the Singaporean educator principles of decorum that need to be leads the way on how CCE should be emulated if not enforced upon the young. interpreted and taught in the classroom. I Confucius’ Analects and Thiruvalluvar’s argue that the “follow the teacher” Kural are examples of Asian works that mentality inadvertently pens down the reflect on and debate this issue. It has to be teacher’s role on the character and said that I have no intention of surveying

May 2014 21 HSSE Online 3(1) 21-24 Commentary

the teacher’s role in the development of the varied nature of Singapore’s ethnic and character from a historical or philosophical religious demography, the need to be perspective. Yet, the reason for reaching united in the face of racial and cultural out to tradition is to stress that the respect diversity will allow Singaporeans to see that Asian Singaporeans give to their themselves as people with a common teachers, as showcased in tradition and identity; an image in line with the “One behaviour, is born out of a palpable link people, One nation, One Singapore” belief. with the educator’s revered status in the Thus, pivoting this point of view, the annals of history. This thereby stresses the teacher in the discourse of CCE will conviction that tradition is responsible in therefore be seen as one who is vested with seeing the teacher as shouldering the duty the role of being a character model that of setting the stage in the discourse of amalgamates good character with good behaviour. In the process, it helps us to citizenry attributes. As a disclaimer, this is comprehend what the Singaporean one of the many roles that a teacher is teacher’s role in CCE entails. expected to play in the CCE classroom but given that a clear defined CCE programme As an educator, I would not be is a continuum, be it in Singapore or surprised if the man on the street were to elsewhere, it is best then that educators concur that the teacher is to be a walking take the lead in being role models when textbook on behaviour - social practices introducing students to proper civic and that are in tandem with society’s definition citizenship conduct of good character and citizenship. But, attempting to be society’s role model can Jon Huntsman, an American politician, be a gargantuan task for many a read the following lines in a speech at the Singaporean teacher. Given that each University of Utah in 2008: ethical community has its own beliefs about what constitutes good character, the “I’m putting my trust behind [these] Singaporean teacher will have to highlight negotiations because I think they might to students that in the Singaporean context, yield something. I believe in bringing good character should be shaped by the stakeholders to the table”. desire to maintain harmony. Yet, this has to be done while fostering the importance In negotiating CCE’s path in the of understanding and appreciation in a Singapore education system, parents and multi-racial nation that has been founded the general public are vested stakeholders - on secular national ideals. Thus, with the people who are part of Singapore’s teacher having to balance the individual’s national conversation on the country’s beliefs with established national ideals, the future. Thus, what makes these people CCE lessons may not appear to have clear hold a stake in the success of CCE? To and defined objectives, given the surmise, the desire that good citizenship difficultly in placing priority on the and character are embodiments of a united individual over the society and vice versa. society motivates common people to have However, such teaching of CCE in the an unrestricted say in good behaviour and classroom is of great importance when national pride. After all, the teacher does promoting good citizenry practices not have access to his charge beyond amongst students. This is because given school hours. Outside the school building,

May 2014 22

HSSE Online 3(1) 21-24 Commentary

parents, first and foremost, are high-value In light of the arguments discussed thus stakeholders in the upbringing of their far, what problem would then surface children for it is in the home domain between the individual and the broader (given the long hours that a child spends society when CCE comes into existence in with his or her parents) that one can 2014? With schools still in the process of constantly monitor a child’s behaviour. Be understanding and implementing the new it speech or action, the parent, in the CCE curriculum, it is impossible to Singaporean context, is in a position to objectively delineate the problems rectify a mistake. Given that Singapore educators might face when placing CCE still believes in the Asian “brand” of on the pedagogical slate. Yet, one problem discipline, the cane has a “voice” in the that the curriculum planner can be certain enforcement of discipline. On the same of would be the debacle of measuring and tangent, it must not be forgotten that this assessing the unquantifiable – character. very stake is also within the purview of The author is aware that there will be employers and members of the general guidelines on how to assess a student’s public. The Singaporean student, just like dedication to society and other attributes of every other human being, is an individual good character. Nonetheless, the prospect with an independent identity. However, of using a yardstick to measure something with time, he or she becomes part of a that is dependent on perspective, which is collective or a social community that inadvertently born out of one’s requires him to interact with others and in independent perception, is a dubitable the process engage in behaviour that issue. For instance, how would one decide allows people to reap benefits as a who is kinder; a student who walks an community. A tad idealistic but the desire elderly person across the street or a child that young people (regardless of race, who picks up litter in the beach? Such language or religion) should learn to live difficulties will thus surmount in the and work together was instrumental in assessing and measuring of CCE and incorporating National Education in the unless qualitative and non-discriminatory Singapore education curriculum in the approaches are taken to judge students’ late-90s. Moreover, as good character is commitments in the development of their something that is determined by the beliefs character and citizenry, the problem of of society that are in currency, they play an assessing character goodness will be a important role as to what should be taught perennial enigma in and beyond the school to students - though they do not take centre domain. stage in the designing of CCE’s curriculum. History shows that societal The only thing one can be certain of beliefs change with time or rather, would be the uncertainty of life. Thus, this perception. Hence, the role that non- article is a voice amongst many and may teacher stakeholders play in the either be seen as an echo of existing development of CCE is as a catalytic boost concerns or dismissed as armchair to an established character education criticism in print. But what the reader regime that is now well-placed in the should take away from this writing is that curriculum with its own respective merits. the development of one’s character and national pride can shield society from the many problems Singapore would face in

May 2014 23

HSSE Online 3(1) 21-24 Commentary

time - for a stoic set of attributes coming with the desire to protect one’s country will allow Singapore to sail across the tides of turbulence and in that process, realise the utopic ideal of every citizen that character is the key to success, be it personal or national. Yet, how do we ensure that the CCE curriculum will be suitable for the young Singaporean who is both patriotic and globalised? Time will tell but till then, the need to constantly review and implement a CCE curriculum that will allow the young Singaporean student to fulfil the expectations of his society and beyond is and will always be an arduous process.

References

Heng, S. K. (2011). Ministry of Education (MOE) Work Plan Seminar. Ngee Ann Polytechnic Convention Centre. 22 September 2011. Opening Address.

Huntsman, J. (2008). Jon Huntsman quotes. Thinkexist.com, Accessed: http://thinkexist.com/quotes/jon_huntsman.

i Heng Swee Keat is the Minister of Education for the Republic of Singapore. ii Refer to Yahoo chat forums.

May 2014 24 Back to Top HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

A Preliminary Study on the Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge among Economics and Primary Social Studies Student Teachers in Singapore

Siew Fong Ng National Institute of Education (Singapore)

Oi Khum Karen Chan Punggol View Primary School

Introduction Identify[ing] the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. It represents In this preliminary study on the the blending of content and pedagogy development of pedagogical content into an understanding of how particular knowledge among student teachers in the topics, problems or issues are National Institute of Education, Singapore, organized, represented, and adapted to Economics and Primary Social Studies the diverse interests and abilities of student teachers self-report their progress learners, and presented for instruction. in their professional development upon Pedagogical content knowledge is the exit of teacher training using a survey category most likely to distinguish the instrument adapted from Ho’s (2003) understanding of the content specialist pedagogical content knowledge from that of pedagogue. (p. 8) development model. Often, teachers develop their The purpose of this study is to use data pedagogical content knowledge through on the student teachers’ perceived their practical experiences. It is therefore accumulation of pedagogical content important and necessary to provide knowledge to throw light on the teachers the opportunities, time, reasons effectiveness in the teaching areas of and mechanisms for them to engage in Economics and Primary Social Studies in dialogues and discussions that would help order to better develop pedagogical them to articulate their pedagogical content knowledge among student teachers. content knowledge gained from their practical experiences. In essence, it is Pedagogical Content Knowledge necessary to assess and measure the development of pedagogical content Pedagogical content knowledge is that knowledge. For teacher educators, unique professional understanding that preliminary findings of how pedagogical allows teachers to integrate, transform and content knowledge has been achieved by represent subject matter knowledge in student teachers would guide in the design ways that students can understand. and implementation of teacher education Shulman (1987) defined pedagogical for student teachers. content knowledge as

May 2014 25

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

Conceptual Model knowledge base and understand the rationales for different approaches. In the This preliminary study uses an “Involvement stage,” teachers move into adaptation of the pedagogical content trying out and experimenting with various knowledge developmental model approaches. The “Mastery phase” consists conceptualized by Ho (2003) to obtain of the “Internalisation stage” where information on how student teachers teachers form a coherent knowledge base perceive themselves in the different for teaching purposes and the “Integration dimensions of pedagogical content stage” where teachers are able to make knowledge. The pedagogical content interdisciplinary links. For each of these knowledge developmental model was stages in each dimension (curricula, chosen as it would provide a relatively student conceptions, representations, comprehensive analysis of the various subject matter, general pedagogy, content dimensions of pedagogical knowledge of and purpose) of pedagogical content student teachers. In addition, the model knowledge, a qualitative descriptor is was conceptualized in the same context, in provided. The pedagogical content Singapore. As such, this model would be knowledge developmental model by B.T. relevant in determining student teachers’ Ho (2003) can be found in Appendix A. perceived pedagogical content knowledge. Methodology Ho (2003) conceptualized three distinct phases; namely, the “Mimicry phase,” the A survey instrument was crafted by “Motivation phase,” and the “Mastery adapting the pedagogical content phase” based on a qualitative study of 12 knowledge developmental model to record teachers (4 participants in each of the three student teachers’ perception of their categories). He categorized the participants pedagogical content knowledge upon exit into three categories: “Beginning Teachers” of their teacher training. To enable student (student teachers), “In-Betweens” teachers to comprehend the various (teaching experiences range from 3 to 5 dimensions in the survey instrument, the years), and “Experienced Teachers” descriptors were worded using terms they (teaching experiences range from 10 to 17 would be familiar with. There are five years). Each phase is further sub-divided dimensions in the survey instrument: into different stages. The “Mimicry phase” has two stages: the “Ignorance stage”  The scheme of work (curriculum plan); where teachers have no knowledge of the  Awareness of the students’ profile and various categories in the pedagogical taking into account student diversity in content knowledge developmental model lesson delivery; and “Imitation stage” where teachers  Lesson delivery and knowledge of the simply do as told, not knowing the reasons rationale for instructional procedures. for doing so. The “Motivation phase” has  Subject matter knowledge and the three stages: the “Interest stage,” the teachers’ knowledge of curriculum “Information stage,” and the “Involvement content; and stage.” The “Interest stage” is where  General pedagogy and knowledge of teachers know that they have to find out the various approaches that can be used more about what they do not know. In the in teaching the subject matter. “Information stage,” teachers broaden their May 2014 26

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

Student teachers reported their student teachers of their competencies in perceptions in the above five dimensions their pedagogical content knowledge on a seven-stage scale showing increasing before they commenced their course in levels of competencies which are grouped NIE and after they had completed their into three phases of “Mimicry,” teaching practice in schools. The survey “Motivation,” and “Mastery.” was administered immediately after their teacher training as this would provide The participants in this study were student teachers with the opportunity to student teachers in the Postgraduate rate their progress from the beginning to Diploma in Education programme in the the end of their teacher training. The academic year 2010/2011. The National rationale for data collection at a single Institute of Education (NIE) is the only point in time is that before teacher training, teacher education institution in Singapore. student teachers could not be expected to Applicants are interviewed by the Ministry know what they did not know. Two sets of of Education and typically given a stint of data were collected for Economics and teaching in local schools as “contract- Primary Social Studies respectively. The untrained teachers” to discover whether survey instrument can be found in teaching is suitable for them. There is no Appendix B. formal training during this period. After the stint as “contract-untrained teachers,” Findings successful applicants then go for a one- year training at NIE before re-entering Perceptions of Economics student teachers local schools as trained beginning teachers. Table 1 shows the student teachers’ All Economics student teachers were in initial self-ratings. These were their the Postgraduate Diploma in Education perceptions of their competencies in the programme. Among the 55 Economics five dimensions of scheme of work, student teachers in this study, most were student profile, subject matter, general local graduates, seven were from overseas pedagogy and lesson delivery before they universities like Stanford, Cambridge and started their courses at NIE. Table 1 also the London School of Economics and shows a breakdown of the responses eight were graduates from Indian according to the student teachers’ length of universities. 24 were on Ministry of pre-NIE teaching experience as contract- Education teaching awards or scholarships. untrained teachers in local schools. Table 2 tabulates their perceptions of their The primary Social Studies student competencies after NIE training. teachers in the Postgraduate Diploma in Education programme were all graduates The initial self-ratings for the five and had obtained their basic degrees dimensions suggest that student teachers (mainly in business, psychology and perceived themselves as having greater engineering) from various universities in knowledge of lesson delivery, student Singapore and overseas. profile and general pedagogy than in the subject matter and scheme of work at the The focus of the study was to examine start of their NIE training. The the differences in the perceptions of observations above also suggest that student teachers mostly perceived May 2014 27

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

themselves as novices irrespective of the experience. length of their pre-NIE teaching

Table 1: Student teachers’ perceptions of their initial competencies

Dimension Scheme of Student Subject General Lesson Work Profile Matter Pedagogy Delivery Initial self-ratings Mimicry phase 48 35 42 36 32 87.3% 63.6% 76.4% 65.5% 58.2% Motivation phase 7 20 12 19 22 12.7% 36.4% 21.8% 34.5% 40.0% Mastery phase 0% 0 1 0 1 1.8% 1.8%

Table 2: Student teachers’ perceptions of their competencies after NIE training

Initial phase to final Scheme of Student Subject General Lesson phase Work Profile matter Pedagogy delivery

Mimicry to motivation 41 19 34 18 9 74.5% 34.5% 61.8% 32.7% 16.4%

Mimicry to mastery 4 16 10 17 23 7.3% 29.1% 18.2% 30.9% 41.8% Motivation to mastery 4 14 6 10 18 7.3% 25.5% 10.9% 18.2% 32.7% Movement from mastery 0 0 0 0 1 to motivation 1.8% Missing data on post- 0 0 0 1 0 NIE training perception 1.8% *There was one instance of post-training level rated lower than pre-training level.

For each dimension, more than 50% of be at the mimicry phase. This suggests that the student teachers indicated their initial student teachers were aware of their lack position as that of the mimicry phase. For of exposure and experience in crafting and instance, when asked about their ability to implementing the scheme of work. This is develop a scheme of work, 87.3% of in large part due to the fact that schools student teachers perceived themselves to typically involve only trained teachers in

May 2014 28

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

designing their curriculum. teachers’ feedback on the usefulness of specific assignments in the Economics Notably, in terms of subject matter courses which gave them a better knowledge, 76.4% of student teachers appreciation of the crafting and rated themselves at the mimicry phase. implementation of the scheme of work. This is surprising because subject mastery These assignments required them to is expected of student teachers as all the unpack the syllabus, and to plan and students have a university degree in deliver lessons on specific topics in the Economics; they are assumed to have at scheme of work. However, since student least a basic level of subject mastery teachers were not required to craft schemes adequate for teaching Economics at GCE of work from scratch, few of them could ‘A’ level. However, many student teachers be expected to perceive themselves as feel that they have an uneven mastery of having mastered this dimension. Thus, it is economic theories to be taught at GCE ‘A’ not surprising that only 14.6% of the level. This is because at undergraduate student teachers rated themselves to have level, tertiary students can choose their attained mastery as curriculum gatekeepers courses from a vast variety of in drawing up and implementing the combinations of courses which may not scheme of work. necessarily equip them to teach the GCE ‘A’ level Economics syllabus. In terms of subject matter knowledge, 34 of the 55 student teachers (61.8%) Relatively fewer students (63.6%) felt reported a move to the motivation phase. that they were at the mimicry phase in Another 18.2% perceived that they had terms of understanding their students’ progressed to the mastery phase. Subject profiles, general pedagogy and knowledge matter is woven into Economics courses in of lesson delivery. Their classroom assignments as well as class discussions. experiences during contract teaching might Four weeks before the curriculum studies also account for their higher level of courses, student teachers were grouped to confidence in this dimension than in revise the entire GCE ‘A’ level syllabus. subject matter and scheme of work. The Student teachers reported in their end-of- data in Table 1 does not show that those semester course evaluation that such with a longer pre-NIE teaching stint assignments and post-assignment feedback necessarily perceived themselves to be from peers and course instructors beyond the mimicry phase. While it is strengthened their subject mastery plausible that accumulation of pedagogical considerably. Similarly, in terms of content knowledge might have started in knowledge of the profile of students, 29.1% the student teachers’ pre-NIE teaching perceived themselves to have progressed stint, student teachers may perceive from mimicry to mastery and 34.5% saw themselves as novices irrespective of the themselves as having moved from mimicry length of their pre-NIE teaching to motivation. Student profiling was experience. included in discussions in the pedagogy course on the principles of engaged The data from Table 2 showed that learning, teaching strategies and lesson there was a significant increase of 74.5% planning, as well as assignments for from mimicry to motivation for scheme of motivation (case studies and plan for work. This corresponded to student students’ success in Economics). May 2014 29

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

While 32.7% reported progress from delivered all their lessons which would mimicry to motivation for general have closed many gaps between theory and pedagogy and lesson delivery, a total of practice in these two dimensions. 49.1% perceived that they had reached mastery phase. An even higher percentage Perception of Primary Social Studies (74.5%) perceived themselves to have Teachers reached mastery in lesson delivery. This may be attributed to the explicit teaching Table 3 shows the 14 student teachers’ and hands-on practices on teaching initial self-ratings and perceptions of their concepts and a range of pedagogies like competencies in the five dimensions of cooperative learning, questioning and scheme of work, student profile, subject lectures. Another important contributor is matter, general pedagogy and lesson the 10-week teaching practice during delivery before they started their courses at which they personally planned and NIE. Table 4 tabulates their perceptions of their competencies after NIE training. Table 3: Student teachers’ perceptions of their initial competencies

Dimensions Scheme of Student Subject General Lesson Work Profile Matter Pedagogy Delivery Initial self-ratings Mimicry phase 13 10/14 13/14 12/14 9/14 92.9% 71.4% 92.9% 85.7% 64.3% Motivation 1 4 1 2 5 7.1% 28.6% 7.1% 14.3% 35.7% Mastery 0 0 0 0 0

Table 4: Student teachers’ perceptions of their competencies after NIE training

Initial phase to final Scheme of Student Subject General Lesson phase Work Profile matter Pedagogy delivery

Mimicry to motivation 12 4 11 5 1 85.8% 28.6% 78.7% 35.7% 7.1% Mimicry to mastery 1 0 1 2 8 7.1% 7.1% 14.3% 57.2% Motivation to mastery 1 5 0 7 5 7.1% 35.7% 50% 35.7%

All the student teachers have had some most of the student teachers perceived form of teaching experience (contract and themselves at the mimicry phase relief teaching) of at least 4 months prior regardless of the duration of their prior to attending the course at NIE. However, teaching experience. For each dimension,

May 2014 30

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

more than 60% of the student teachers Almost 86% of the student teachers indicated their initial position as that of the reported a shift from mimicry to mimicry phase. The highest rated motivation for scheme of work. This dimension for the motivation phase is that corresponded to the student teachers’ for lesson delivery. None of the student experience in their curriculum studies teachers positioned themselves at the course on unit and lesson planning using a mastery phase for all five dimensions. curriculum framework. Student teachers became more confident in being Almost all (92.9%) of the student curricular-instructional gatekeepers and in teachers perceived themselves to be at the making educational decisions (Thornton, mimicry phase in terms of their knowledge 1991). For instance, student teachers of developing a scheme of work. In learned that they could rearrange the order contrast, 71.4% of student teachers of the topics, use other sources besides the considered themselves to be at the mimicry textbooks and workbooks, and provide phase in terms of their knowledge of the multiple perspectives by bringing in different profiles of their students. This alternative sources. The student teachers can be partly attributed to the student spent at least 9 hours conceptualizing a teachers having more teaching experience unit of study. Since student teachers were in schools and having the opportunity to not required to craft schemes of work from interact with diverse students in a class scratch, few of them could be expected to Four student teachers who placed perceive themselves as having mastered themselves at the motivation phase. this dimension. Thus, it is not surprising Notably, 92.9% of student teachers rated that only 14.2% of student teachers rated themselves at the mimicry phase for themselves to have attained mastery in subject matter knowledge. This is not designing and implementing the scheme of surprising as most of the student teachers work. graduated with a basic degree in business, engineering and psychology – disciplines Differentiated instruction was that are not particularly relevant to the introduced explicitly in the final course. school subject. However, student teachers have indicated in their feedback that they found the Finally, in terms of their knowledge of strategies pertaining to differentiated general pedagogy and lesson delivery, 85.7% instruction most difficult to understand and and 64.3% of student teachers positioned use in lesson planning. As a result, 28.6% themselves at the mimicry phase. Based on of student teachers perceived themselves the data presented in Table 3, there does to have progressed from mimicry to not seem to be any correlation between the motivation and 35.7% saw themselves as teaching experience of the student teachers having moved from motivation to mastery. and their perception of their initial competencies in the five dimensions. The In terms of subject matter knowledge, data presented in Table 4, however, 78.7% of student teachers reported a move suggests that after the pre-service courses, to the motivation phase. This could be more than half of the students reported a attributed to the subject matter being shift in their self-perceptions of knowledge woven into the curriculum studies courses of lesson delivery, general pedagogy, and rather than being explicitly taught. developing a scheme of work. Interestingly, 64.3% of the student May 2014 31

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

teachers perceived that they had reached generalizable since the student teachers’ mastery phase for general pedagogy. self-ratings are not calibrated by objective Student teachers’ knowledge of general benchmarks. Student teachers, in addition, pedagogy was heightened in the may perceive they have mastered a certain curriculum studies course that emphasized dimension of teaching but they may still be the use of a variety of pedagogical far off from mastery. Similarly, student approaches. Another important contributor teachers who rated themselves as still in would be the ten-week teaching practice the mimicry phase may in reality be better during which they personally planned and equipped than those who feel they have delivered all their lessons which would moved to a higher phase and though have closed many gaps between theory and student teachers mostly perceived practice. Similarly, 92.9% of the student themselves as novices irrespective of the teachers perceived that they had reached length of their pre-NIE teaching mastery phase for lesson delivery with experience, their accumulation of only 7.1% still at the motivation phase. pedagogical content knowledge could have already taken place during their pre-NIE The findings suggest that the student training stint. teachers felt that they acquired a lot of knowledge about developing a scheme of This data provides useful information work, lesson delivery and general for Economics teacher educators to pedagogy. Feedback from student teachers develop courses that better meet student indicated that they found the curriculum teachers’ needs. Firstly, course studies courses provided them with a clear components which have been effective in understanding of the knowledge and skills building up student teachers’ competencies needed to teach the subject. Useful and in lesson delivery, general pedagogy and practical teaching strategies were taught in student profile may be retained and the courses and they were able to use these enhanced. Next, student teachers’ strategies in their teaching practice. perceived mastery of subject matter may be strengthened through deliberate Conclusion teaching or revisiting of content during Economics courses. As for scheme of The purpose of this study was to try to work, the Economics courses could be re- evaluate the effectiveness of the designed to give explicit teaching to Economics and Primary Social Studies acquire the skills of designing and curriculum studies courses in developing implementing a scheme of work if these pedagogical content knowledge among the are considered necessary skills of student teachers. However, the use of beginning teachers. student teachers’ perceptions of their accumulation of pedagogical content Finally, this preliminary study seems to knowledge to throw light on the indicate that the NIE Primary Social effectiveness of the curriculum studies Studies curriculum studies courses are courses in Economics and Primary Social fairly effective in helping student teachers Studies is limited in several ways. Firstly, improve their pedagogical content as perceptions are subjective and while knowledge. The data suggests that the data may be internally consistent for each Primary Social Studies curriculum studies student teacher, such findings are not courses should give greater emphasis to May 2014 32

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36 subject matter knowledge and teaching student teachers how to develop curricular schemes of work. For instance, basic curriculum design skills could be taught explicitly and content deliberately interwoven with pedagogical studies during Primary Social Studies courses in order to raise the level of content mastery.

References

Ho, B. T. (2003). Development of pedagogical content knowledge. Unpublished thesis submitted to the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.

Thornton, S. J. (2005). Teaching social studies that matters: Curriculum for active learning. New York: Teachers College Press.

May 2014 33 Back to Top HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

Appendix A

PCK Development Model (Ho, 2003)

May 2014 34

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

Appendix B

Survey Instrument Used

Survey on Student Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

This is a survey to compare your perception of your knowledge, skills and dispositions towards (subject) BEFORE you embarked on this course and AFTER your teaching practice

For each of the items below, please read the 7 statements. In the respective columns, tick only ONE statement that best describes your knowledge, skills and dispositions towards (subject)

S/N Item Before After courses teaching practice Scheme of Work 1 Has little awareness of how to organise knowledge into a Scheme of Work

Mimicr 2 Uses Scheme of Work developed by others 3 Is keen to explore alternative ways of organising knowledge 4 Learns more about how to develop a Scheme of Work

5 Experiments with different Schemes of Work Motivation 6 Is able to develop a coherent Scheme of Work independently

7 Is able to make interdisciplinary links in the Scheme of Work

Mastery independently Student Profile (Interest, Learning Style and Prior Knowledge) 1 Has little awareness of the need to give consideration to student profile in lesson planning 2 Uses lesson plans developed by others which give consideration to

Mimicry student profile 3 Becomes aware of individual differences among students

4 Becomes more informed about student profile

Motivation 5 Tries individualising instruction

6 Is able to incorporate individualised instruction according to student profile in lesson planning 7 Is able to implement individualised instruction according to student Mastery profile May 2014 35

HSSE Online 3(1) 25-36

S/N Item Before After courses teaching practice

Subject Matter 1 Has little awareness of the requirements of the subject syllabus 2 Teaches according to the subject syllabus Mimicr 3 Becomes aware of contradictions or alternatives in real-world applications of the subject 4 Gathers more information about the contradictions or alternatives in real-world applications of the subject

Motivation 5 Tries to make meaning of additional information in real-world applications 6 Has developed deep knowledge of the subject 7 Is able to make links with real-world issues through interdisciplinary

Mastery knowledge bases General Pedagogy 1 Has limited awareness of strategies 2 Copies others’ strategies without understanding Mimicr 3 Is curious about various strategies 4 Learns about various strategies 5 Tries out various strategies Motivatio 6 Has gained a wide repertoire of strategies 7 Is able to chooses strategies wisely to suit context Mastery Purpose of actions taken during lesson delivery 1 Has little awareness of the purpose of actions taken during lesson delivery

Mimicr 2 Does as told and accepts reasons for actions taken during lesson delivery 3 Wants to know the reasons for actions taken during lesson delivery 4 Questions why these actions are taken during lesson delivery 5 Explores other reasons for actions taken during lesson delivery Motivatio 6 Is able to justify the reasons for actions taken during lesson delivery 7 Is able to use a repertoire of actions during lesson delivery that suit context Mastery

Thank you for your cooperation! Adapted from: Ho, B.T. (2003).Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK).Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University

May 2014 36 Back to Top HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Well-being and Humanities Education in Singapore

Mark Baildon

National Institute of Education (Singapore)

Introduction In this article, I outline some frameworks for thinking about well-being In February (2014), I was invited to and then draw on several studies to Nagoya University (Japan) to participate in examine the state of well-being in a symposium on well-being and education Singapore. I then consider the role of in the ASEAN region. Participants from Humanities education in promoting well- ASEAN nations shared the state of well- being before concluding with some general being in their nations and considered the comments about how we, as Humanities role education can play to promote well- educators, might give well-being a more being. My participation in this symposium central place in our curricula and teaching. led me to think about well-being in Singapore and the relationship between What is Well-being? Humanities education and well-being. There is a range of views about what Most of my work has focused on constitutes well-being. To begin with, preparing teachers to teach critical well-being is distinct from happiness. thinking skills that will help students make Happiness is an episodic emotional state meaning of their lives and the society and is not necessarily a determinant of around them. In Singapore and elsewhere well-being (Raibley, 2011). For Burkeman these skills are considered necessary for (2012), focusing on happiness can actually the development of human capital – to create a great deal of unhappiness because produce skilled workers – and they are it results in efforts to deny the negative seen as necessary for producing effective aspects of life – the risk, uncertainty, citizens in the future. Seldom, however, insecurity, failure, and sadness that are an had I thought about the relationship inexorable part of living. between these skills and well-being. For Seligman (2011) and others (e.g., Presumably, these skills translate into Boarini, et al., 2012), happiness is also not people creating better lives for themselves easily measurable as a psychological and others. However, the disconnect often construct. Instead, Seligman proposed the seems to be that we fail to fully consider idea of well-being as consisting of five how the skills and understandings central measurable components: positive emotion, to Humanities education actually help engagement, relationships, meaning, and young people live well – to live rich lives accomplishment. Each of these five full of meaning and purpose, to care about elements contributes to well-being, can be and for themselves, others, and the world. pursued for their own sake, and can be May 2014 37

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

independently measured. These five the need to belong to larger constructs, what Seligman refers to by the communities and commitments, such acronym PERMA, are briefly summarized as those found in political parties, below with some questions we might ask religious groups, or professional and ourselves: charitable organizations. What opportunities do we have in our work 1. Positive emotion is the positive and classrooms for honest exploration feelings we have when we engage in of meaning and purpose? certain activities. These include joy, happiness, inspiration, awe, gratitude, 5. Accomplishment points to the need to love, and hope. What are the sources of do something worthwhile, to do it well, joy, happiness, inspiration, awe, etc. in or to create something that is of value. our work and classrooms? A sense of accomplishment is often felt as inner satisfaction gained from 2. Engagement is similar to what meaningful work and engagement with Csíkszentmihályi (1990) calls flow, others. From what activities and when we engage in an activity in a way achievements do we and our students that fully focuses our attention and gain the greatest satisfaction and sense effort or when we lose a sense of time of accomplishment? and self in activity. During flow, one is fully immersed in the experience and Although each of these elements can the experience is seen as intrinsically lead to a sense of well-being independently, rewarding, rather than conducted for they also interact to support and reinforce external rewards (or punishments). each other. For example, meaningful work When, in our work or in our often results in or is accompanied by a classrooms, are we or our students sense of flow or total absorption in work, most engaged or in a state of flow, and the outcome of such work can lead to completely absorbed in the task at a sense of accomplishment. Seligman’s hand? theory of well-being is part of the broader positive psychology movement that aims 3. Relationships, such as those we find in to examine and understand the positive, friendship, family and other social and adaptive, joyful and fulfilling aspects of collegial relationships, are important to high functioning individuals and well-being. Meaningful and positive communities. Positive psychology places social connections enrich our lives in greater emphasis on understanding the innumerable ways. What are the activities we choose for their own sake and relationships we have with each other that give our lives meaning and purpose. and our students that are most positive, productive and meaningful? Burkeman (2012) offers what might be considered a “negative approach” to well- 4. Meaning, according to Seligman, is being. In his book, The Antidote: what gives our life purpose and Happiness for People Who Can’t Stand typically means serving a higher or Positive Thinking, he argues that “trying to larger purpose than one’s self. It often making everything right is a big part of manifests itself in the goals we set and what’s wrong” (p. 9). A negative approach

May 2014 38

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

to well-being consists of resisting the that cannot be accounted for by purely tendency to quickly resolve matters and rational ways of knowing” (Roy, 2005, p. not always feeling the need to doggedly 445). pursue goals and deadlines but finding time to step back, reflect, and be more Similarly, Alan Watts (1951) argues aware of situations as well as our own that when we impose categories, concepts, thinking, feelings, and judgments. Well- and definitions on experience “for this being from this perspective means that one purpose or that we seem to have lost the is able to effectively deal with both actual joy and meaning of life” (p. 51). negative and positive emotions and Since all life is constant change and flux, experiences by recognizing that these are “the only way to make sense out of change merely the labels we give to situations. is to plunge into it, and join the dance” (p. 43). This view suggests that the arts Burkeman refers to Stoic philosophers, (perhaps literally dancing), heightened such as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, who awareness and appreciation, spontaneity, argued that life consists of hardship, open-mindedness, imagination, and deep struggle, and failure and that it is our engagement can all serve to promote well- judgments and our thinking that classify an being. experience as bad or negative, rather than the experience itself. In other words, this Burkeman (2012) also argues that our approach to well-being means having obsession with setting goals for ourselves greater control over our judgments and (and others) results in missing out on other thinking about the world. This view is things that might more naturally or similar to Buddhist thinking with its organically emerge in particular situations emphasis on non-judgmental awareness. It or settings (like classrooms). Drawing on highlights the need for carefully thinking the work of Steve Shapiro (2006), about matters, checking our own Burkeman claims that “goal-free living assumptions, and considering different simply makes for happier humans” (p. 95). perspectives or ways of thinking about This is probably especially true when we experience. are expected to meet goals and deadlines that are set for us rather than by us. A negative approach emphasizes the Burkeman calls for a “see what happens” having of experience, rather than quickly approach to working and living that might striving to impose concepts, labels, lead to fruitful discoveries (or failure, of classifications, or categorizations. As course, which Burkeman says we also Kahneman (2011) reminds us, we often need to learn to accept as part of the too quickly see patterns in randomness and negative approach). this leads to a range of biases in our thinking. We tend to “see the world as It’s probably difficult to imagine letting more tidy, simple, predictable, and go of our most cherished frameworks, coherent than it really is” (p. 204). Instead, concepts, or goals to “see what happens” a negative approach means acknowledging, but it means paying greater attention to the similar to a range of thinkers like Bergson, present moment, learning to accept that Kant, Polanyi, Kuhn, and Wittgenstein, which we can’t control, and being more that “there is something vital in cognition realistic about what we can accomplish. It

May 2014 39

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

means not being so invested in particular whether they have others they can count outcomes, being able to accept and learn on, and the degree of control they have from failure, not always seeking certitude, over their time, is also important for well- resolution or closure, having the being. Based on these findings they argue confidence to follow leads to see where that societies must pay careful attention they might go, and being open to the world. not only to economic conditions but to social and psychological variables as well. Determinants of Well-being Looking at well-being in ASEAN Many of these notions focus on an countries, Yuen & Chu (2013) found that inner or individual sense of well-being. generally a high GDP per capita improved Researchers (e.g., Boarini, R. et al., 2012), quality of life and resulted in higher refer to this as subjective well-being, rankings of subjective well-being and which can be measured through evaluative happiness. However, higher per capita measures (e.g., personal cognitive GDP is usually associated with living in a judgments about life satisfaction and well- more competitive society which tends to being) and affective measures (e.g., reduce experienced well-being in societies experience of positive or negative feelings). such as Singapore. They also highlight that However, well-being is not just a matter of being poor does not necessarily mean one’s inner state; there are social, being unhappy because people tend to economic, and political conditions that draw on traditional culture and religion as contribute to or shape well-being. For resources. They use these findings to argue example, poverty, health problems, gender that ASEAN nations should not solely inequality, and unequal access to education promote economic growth at the expense each affect well-being. of people’s cultures and that ASEAN should do more to retain and protect the There are several studies that examine diverse cultures and traditions of the the social and economic conditions that region to enhance well-being. support individual and societal well-being (e.g., Gallup World Poll, 2006; Happy In their review of the literature on the Planet Index Report, 2012; Human determinants of well-being, Boarini, R. et Development Report, 2013; World al. (2012) highlight the following domains: Happiness Report, 2013). Generally, there is a positive relationship between income  Income and wealth; levels, human development, and well-  Jobs and earnings; being (De Mel, 2014). However, other  Housing; researchers, such as Boarini, R. et al.  Health; (2012), find that health, personal security,  Work-life balance; and freedom have a greater impact on a  Education and skills; sense of well-being than economic factors.  Social connections; Diener, et al. (2010) found that income and  Civic engagement and governance; living in an economically developed nation Environmental quality; and affect evaluations of well-being but that  social psychological prosperity, such as  Personal security. whether or not people feel respected,

May 2014 40

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Certainly, having a standard of living in Chu, 2012). They provide a snapshot of which basic needs are met (e.g., having the current state of well-being in Singapore. enough to eat, adequate housing, access to decent healthcare), having a sense of Tambyah, Tan, and Kau (2009) report personal security (e.g., from violence and that most Singaporeans are concerned humiliation) and belonging (e.g., social about their economic well-being and are connections), and having the skills and generally happy. Good health, having a opportunity to participate effectively in comfortable home, stable employment, and society and political decision-making are being able to spend time with family necessary conditions for well-being. contribute to this sense of well-being. People can also gain a sense of well-being However, they found that Singaporeans do through culture and the arts and by being not feel a correspondingly high level of able to exercise basic freedoms and rights, accomplishment. Their perceptions of the such as rights to move freely from place to overall quality of life are largely place, free speech and political association, influenced by their social relationships and and freedom from discrimination on the family life. basis of gender, sexual orientation and race (Sen, 2008). The Singapore Social Health Project Report by the National Volunteer & Well-being in Singapore Philanthropy Centre (2013) offers a good assessment of well-being in Singapore. Several studies of well-being have been They report on the state of well-being in conducted in Singapore or have included several areas and their report is based on a Singapore as part of a larger study (e.g., meta-analysis of multiple data sources Gallup World Poll, 2012; Happiness (e.g., government sources and statistics, Planet Index Report, 2012; Singapore surveys, etc.) and research studies (both Social Health Project, 2013; Swinyard, et local and international). The summary of al, 2000; Tambyah, et al, 2009; Yuen & findings from the report is included below in Table 1.

Table 1: Singapore Social Health Project Report Summary of Findings (see http://www.nvpc.org.sg/Portals/0/Documents/Knowledge/Social%20Health%20Project/SSH P%20Report.pdf for full report)

Domain Rating/Trend Summary of Findings

Civil & Positive Civil society has grown (e.g., in social media, White Paper Political protests, Pink Dot Sg, etc.) and there have been increases Participation in the number of new charities registered, volunteerism rates, and charitable giving. There is greater diversity of views in Parliament and interest in politics, particularly among youth, has increased.

May 2014 41

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Culture & Neutral High pace of development and over emphasis on Values competition in society creates a “survivalist mindset” that compromises spontaneity and creativity. Growth in arts has been accompanied by continued censorship. While Singaporeans feel a strong sense of belonging, increased influx of foreigners poses concerns for national identity and loyalty. Despite some ungracious behavior, Singaporeans generally still value kindness and honesty. Greater interest in heritage and the arts.

Education Neutral Education sector performance has improved, with good results on measures such as PISA. A test-based culture results in high stress and growing private tuition. High international rankings, but education system promotes excessive competition, dampens creativity and perpetuates elitism.

Social Neutral Not enough data in domain for clear analysis. Available Connectedness data shows some encouraging trends of neighborly & Community interactions and informal volunteerism. Some worrying Cohesion trends are increasing numbers of neighborly dispute cases and low levels of trust.

Family Negative Singaporeans value family ties. While social attitudes towards the family are generally positive, critical aspects of family life have shown signs of weakening. Decreasing number of marriages, increasing divorce rates, cases of violence in families and eroding family values of trust and support are worrying trends.

Healthcare Negative Healthcare needs in Singapore are rapidly increasing due to ageing population and chronic illnesses. The cost of care in Singapore has increased with high private and out- of-pocket expenditure. Some sectors are struggling to keep pace with the growing demand for healthcare services. Healthcare is becoming more expensive for low-income groups.

Housing & Negative Due to the rise in population density, housing and Transport transport sectors are increasingly stretched. Commuter stress and cost of transport are on the rise. Housing prices have also increased rapidly over the last few years and is becoming unaffordable, especially for low wage earners.

May 2014 42

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Income Negative Declining trend in average monthly incomes and the Security increasing cost of living have made many Singaporeans feel vulnerable, especially those from lower-income families. The inadequacy of CPF for many who are retiring poses a threat to the well-being of the ageing population of Singapore. Lower income groups are finding it difficult to cope with escalating costs. The Gini coefficient has increased, reflecting greater income inequalities.

Individual Negative Singaporeans appear to be generally happy but there is a Well-being growing sense of anxiety and dissatisfaction. Stagnating incomes and increasing cost of living are key drivers affecting well-being. Individual resilience appears to be weakening while job engagement and satisfaction levels have been low. Desire for work-life balance contrasts with realities of high work demands and long hours.

The report includes working papers that and a growing population, high levels of provide more information about each competition in education, changing family domain with the sources used to support patterns, challenges managing work-life findings. The working papers can be found balance, and increasing costs of housing at and healthcare were also found to http://www.nvpc.org.sg/knowledge/social_ contribute to a sense of unease and anxiety. health_project.aspx. Positive findings from the report, however, suggest that Singaporeans are developing The picture this report provides is one the political will to directly confront these of Singaporeans being under a high level issues and have particular social resources, of stress, despite the high standard of such as strong family and social ties and a living Singapore affords for most people. high level of education that can be In fact, the high standard of living may be mobilized to promote well-being. The one reason Singaporeans experience so report also points to Singaporeans taking much stress. The emphasis on economic greater interest in politics and civil society, development and growth, competitiveness, the arts and culture, and heritage. high levels of productivity and performance, and the pragmatic results Well-being and Humanities Education orientation set by the Singapore government and manifested in many of its Humanities education can play an policies may actually contribute to the important role to further develop these dissatisfaction and anxiety many resources. It can also focus on issues Singaporeans experience. central to each of the domains listed as determinants of well-being reported by Uncertainties posed by foreign labor Boarini, et al (2012) and highlighted in the

May 2014 43

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Singapore Social Health Project. curiosity and wonder about the past, places, Humanities education can encourage culture, and the social world. We can do students to ask important questions about more to encourage them to ask questions the quality of their own lives as well as the that are most meaningful and interesting to lives of others, the kinds of lives they want them and to take ownership of their own to live, and the kind of society desired. As learning by being allowed to pursue these noted by the editors of HSSE Online in an questions, find their own information earlier issue, Humanities education “can sources, and explore different analyses and provide spaces and tools for considering interpretations rather than those provided matters of individual well-being, social by their textbooks or teachers. We can connectedness and cohesion, culture and envision PERMA classrooms where there values, and civic participation. It can are opportunities for students to experience provide opportunities for people to find joy and happiness in their learning, explore meaning and satisfaction in a sense of the sources of inspiration and awe in their places they encounter (geography), their culture, and collaboratively engage in tasks understanding of the past (history), they find intrinsically motivating and deliberation over important social issues meaningful to them (rather than done for and policies (social studies), and in the exam results). They can develop a sense of inspiration and insights that literature accomplishment by actually creating or offers” (Baildon & Ho, 2013, n.p.). doing something that has value outside of the classroom or that is highly meaningful Seligman (2011) utilizes a signature to them as young people. Humanities strengths test to measure individuals’ inquiry in classrooms can provide many capacities for well-being. These signature opportunities for students to develop the strengths are strongly aligned with the signature strengths that promote individual kinds of qualities that we often associate and collective well-being. with the best kind of Humanities education. They include scales of curiosity and We might also consider the “negative interest in the world, a love of learning, the approach” to well-being as providing other ability to use judgment and critical features to guide Humanities education. As thinking, and open-mindedness. These Humanities educators, we can design strengths also include a sense of humility learning experiences that are deeply and kindness or generosity toward others engaging for students, that allow students as fundamental attributes of well-being. to use their senses, observe carefully, and Seligman argues that these strengths work things out for themselves. We need promote well-being because people draw to consider how we can immerse students on these in ways that empower them to in social experience as forms of create meaning in their lives, connect with disciplinary experience (Dewey, 1902). others, and engage with the world. This means not too quickly imposing disciplinary concepts, labels, These dispositions or strengths are classifications, or categories that will pre- fundamental to the Humanities and can be define these experiences for students, but developed in Humanities classrooms. For letting students have experience first with example, we can do a great deal to an opportunity to use their own sense- stimulate and encourage students’ sense of making capacities. Then they can be

May 2014 44

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

guided to try Humanities lenses (e.g., to shape students’ understandings of issues disciplinary concepts, frameworks, that affect well-being and to help them methods, etc.) and other perspectives to determine necessary courses of action. The support their sense-making. Humanities provide the necessary intellectual virtues and humane values A negative approach also helps provide central to “hopeful, watchful caretaking a more balanced, realistic study of the [forms of] citizenship, neighborliness, human condition, warts and all. stewardship” that enable people to live Humanities education must examine the together and care for each other (Miller, struggles, failures, and tragedy that are part 2010, p. xix). This requires helping of the human condition. This includes students develop an empathetic critical examination of the hubris, the understanding of others and the ways misguided and often self-destructive goals different groups of people have been set by individuals and societies, and the impacted by particular events, issues or violent impulses that have characterized so policies. much of human history and culture and continue to do so. Humanities education Humanities education, then, is unique can help students understand and address in its potential to focus on issues and the issues that confront both social and capacities central to individual well-being individual well-being today, such as as well as the conditions that determine climate change and environmental well-being. It is uniquely positioned in degradation, poverty and inequality, war school curriculum to help students and violence, and human trafficking. They understand the inner life of the mind, can see that like individuals, societies can human imagination, and different either possess or lack the signature perspectives people may have as well as strengths that make for strong societies. the historical, geographic, cultural, social, political, and economic circumstances that The many issues facing societies have shaped the human condition and their (outlined earlier, as determinants of well- own lives. being) are not simply matters that can be addressed by scientific, technological, or Conclusion technocratic solutions. They are also humanitarian issues and issues of social Humanities education can help young justice. They require asking the right people better understand the “humanness” questions, public deliberation, critical of others who are different from reasoning, and the exercise of judgment to themselves, due to national, cultural, determine the best courses of action that religious, ethnic or class differences are informed, reasonable, just, and humane. (Nussbaum, 2010). To a large extent, Humanities educators, therefore, have the considering others’ humanness means important responsibility of teaching all considering their well-being and the ways students how to develop sound arguments in which social and material conditions based on evidence, weigh different affect human lives. It means having the arguments, and wrestle with issues of imagination and empathy to consider justice, ethics, and power. They can draw others’ plight. Rather than merely on the content and tools of the Humanities preparing students for jobs or careers, the

May 2014 45

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

study of history, geography, literature, and Works Cited the arts can provide powerful opportunities for students to develop insight into their Baildon, M., & Ho, L.-C. (2013). A note own lives and the lives of others that will from the editors. HSSE Online: Research enable them to create lives worth living, and Practice in Humanities & Social full of meaning and purpose. It can also Studies Education, 2(1). help students be more conscious that the ways they live their lives also affects Boarini, R., Comola, M., Smith, C., others. Humanities education can help Manchin, R., & de Keulenaer, F. (2012). students overcome narrow views that may What makes for a better life? The only focus on their personal well-being to determinants of subjective well-being in more fully consider societal well-being OECD and the well-being of all of humanity. countries – Evidence from the Gallup The value of Humanities education World Poll, OECD Statistics Working resists easy measurement. Instead of the Papers, 2012/03, OECD Publishing. almost exclusive focus on economic http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9b9ltjm937-en productivity and the instrumental development of human capital, Humanities Boggs, G. (1998). Living for change: An education prepares young people to think autobiography. Minneapolis, MN: critically about social issues, political University of Minnesota Press. decisions, and public policy, and the impact they have on personal and societal Burkeman, O. (2012). The antidote: well-being. And, it can prepare students to Happiness for people who can’t stand take on the hard work of social positive thinking. New York: Faber and responsibility, in which responsibility is Faber. taken for the well-being of others who may be different, marginalized, less fortunate, Csíkszentmihályi, Mihaly (1990). Flow: and lacking in the basic conditions The psychology of optimal experience. necessary for decent lives. These are New York: Harper and Row. commitments that can be enacted in Humanities classrooms. They require De Mel, S. (2014). GDP still relevant in checking in with each other to make sure assessing well-being. Straits Times, May 8 we're taking care of each other and our 2014, 27. well-being. They require making our own well-being and the well-being of our Dewey, J. (1902). The child and colleagues, our students, and others more curriculum. Chicago: The University of of a priority in our day-to-day interactions. Chicago Press. These everyday commitments can “enlarge the humanity of all of us” (Boggs, 1998, p. Diener, E., Ng, W., Harter, J., & Arora, R. 255) to create individuals and societies that (2010). Wealth and happiness across the are humane, caring, and just. world: Material prosperity predicts life evaluation, whereas psychosocial prosperity predicts positive feeling.

May 2014 46

HSSE Online 3(1) 37-47

Journal of Personality and Social Seligman, M. (2011). Flourish: A new Psychology, 99(1), 52–61. understanding of happiness and well-being – and how to achieve them. Boston: Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (Eds.) Nicholas Brealey Publishing. (2013). World happiness report 2013. Accessed 3 March 2014: Sen, A. (2008). Development as freedom. http://unsdsn.org/wp- Oxford: Oxford University Press. content/uploads/2014/02/WorldHappiness Report2013_online.pdf Swinyard, W. R., Kau, A., & Phua, H. (2001). Happiness, materialism, and Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and religious experience in the US and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Singapore. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2(1), 13-32. Miller, E. (2010). Hope in a scattering time: A life of Christopher Lasch. Grand Tambyah, S., Tan, S., & Kau, A. (2009). Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans The quality of life in Singapore. Social Publishing Company. Indicators Research, 92(2), 337-376.

National Volunteer & Philanthropy Centre United Nations Development Programme (2013). The Singapore Social Health (2013). Human Development Report, 2013. Project Report. Accessed 12 February Accessed 10 March 2014: 2014: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/repor http://www.nvpc.org.sg/knowledge/social_ ts/14/hdr2013_en_complete.pdf health_project.aspx Watts, A. (1951). The wisdom of insecurity: New Economics Foundation. (2012). The A message for an age of anxiety. New happy planet index: 2012 report. Accessed York: Vintage Books. 25 February 2014: http://www.happyplanetindex.org/assets/h Yuen, T.W., & Chu, W. W. (2013). appy-planet-index-report.pdf Happiness in ASEAN countries. The 8th Annual Conference of The Asian Studies Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for profit: Why Association of Hong Kong The Hong democracy needs the humanities. Kong Institute of Education 8-9 March Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2013.

Raibley, J.R. (2011). Happiness is not well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(6), 1105-1129.

Roy, K. (2005). An untimely intuition: Adding a Bergsonian dimension to experience and education. Educational Theory, 55(4), 443-459.

May 2014 47 Back to Top