LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS The new edition of this highly successful A–Z guide explores the main concepts and terms used in the study of language and lin- guistics. Containing over 300 entries, thoroughly updated to reflect the latest developments in the field, this book includes entries in: Cognitive linguistics Discourse analysis Phonology and phonetics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Syntax and semantics Beginning with a brief definition, each entry is followed by a com- prehensive explanation of the origin and usage of the term. The book is cross-referenced throughout and includes further reading for academics and students alike. R.L. Trask (1944–2004) was the highly regarded Professor of Lin- guistics at the University of Sussex. His numerous publications inclu- ded Language: The Basics (1995) and A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology (1995). Peter Stockwell is Professor of Literary Linguistics at the University of Nottingham and the editor of the Routledge English Language Introductions Series. YOU MAY ALSO BE INTERESTED IN THE FOLLOWING ROUTLEDGE STUDENT REFERENCE TITLES Language: The Basics (Second Edition) R.L. Trask Semiotics: The Basics Daniel Chandler Psycholinguistics: The Key Concepts John Field The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics Paul Cobley LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS The Key Concepts Second Edition R.L. Trask Edited by Peter Stockwell First published as Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics 1999 This edition published 2007 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” First edition text # 1999 R.L. Trask Second edition # 2007 R.L. Trask and Peter Stockwell All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-96113-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 978-0-415-41358-9 (hbk) ISBN 978-0-415-41359-6 (pbk) ISBN 978-0-203-96113-1 (ebk) CONTENTS List of Key Concepts (alphabetically arranged) vi List of Key Concepts (arranged by linguistic sub-discipline) xi Preface to the revised edition xviii The International Phonetic Alphabet xxi KEY CONCEPTS 1 Bibliography 330 Index 351 v ALPHABETICAL LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS (Listed alphabetically, as they appear in this book) accent case adjacency pair clause adjective clitic adverb cloze affix code-switching affricate cognitive linguistics agreement cohesion airstream mechanism colligate alternation communicative competence ambiguity community of practice analogy comparative reconstruction anaphor competence animal communication complement anthropological linguistics computational linguistics aphasia conceptual integration apparent time conjunction applied linguistics connotation arbitrariness consonant argument constituent structure artificial language construction grammar aspect control autolexical grammar conversation analysis autonomy conversational implicature auxiliary cooperative principle basic word order coordinate structure behaviourism copula bilingualism creole bioprogram hypothesis critical discourse analysis Black English critical period hypothesis borrowing dead language vi ALPHABETICAL LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS deep structure genetic relationship deficit hypothesis genre deictic category given/new denotation government dependency Government-and-Binding derivation Theory descriptivism grammar design features grammatical category determiner grammatical relation diachrony grapheme dialect head diglossia historical linguistics direct object iconicity discourse identity discourse analysis ideology displacement idiom distinctive feature indicator distribution indirect object duality of patterning Indo-European dyslexia infinitive elicitation techniques inflection ellipsis innateness hypothesis entailment integrationalism ethics internal reconstruction ethnicity international language ethnography of International Phonetic communication Alphabet etymology intertextuality euphemism intonation finite intuition focus irrealis folk linguistics kinship terms foregrounding landmark forensic linguistics language formal grammar language acquisition frame language acquisition device functionalism language areas functions of language language change gap language contact gender language death generative grammar language disability genetic hypothesis of language language faculty vii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS language family national language language instinct natural class language myths natural-language processing language planning neurolinguistics language processing neutralization langue nominalization lateralization non-verbal communication lemma notational convention Lexical-Functional Grammar noun lexicography noun phrase lexicon number lingua franca number of languages linguistic area observer’s paradox linguistic relativity hypothesis official language linguistic sign onomastics linguistics open-endedness literacy optimality theory loan word oracy localization origin and evolution of logonomic rules language manner of articulation orthography markedness paradigm markers paradigmatic relation meaning paralanguage medium parole mental space parsing mentalism part of speech metalanguage perceptual strategy metaphor performance minimal pair performative minimalist program(me) person minority language philology mirror neurons philosophy of language modality phonation type modifier phoneme mood phonetics morpheme phonology morphology phonotactics motherese phrase movement phrase-structure grammar name pidgin narrative place of articulation viii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS politeness sign language polysynthesis slang possible worlds theory social history of language power social network pragmatics social stratification of language predicate sociolinguistics preposition sound symbolism prescriptivism speech prestige speech act presupposition speech community productivity speech event pronoun speech sound prosody speech therapy proto-language spelling proto-language hypothesis standard language prototype stem psycholinguistics stereotype punctuation stimulus-freedom purism stress qualitative approach structuralism quantitative approach structure raising structure-dependence rank scale stylistics reconstruction subcategorization recursion subject reference subordination relevance suprasegmental rhetoric surface structure root syllable rule symbolic system Saussurean paradox synchrony schema syntactic category segment syntagmatic relation selection restriction syntax semantic role system semantics systematic correspondence semiotics Systemic Linguistics sense tagmemics sense relation tense sentence text sex differences in language text linguistics sexist language text world theory ix ALPHABETICAL LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS textuality utterance tone language variable topic variation traditional grammar verb trajector verb phrase transcription vernacular transformational grammar vocal tract transitivity voice tree voicing trope vowel turn-taking well-formedness typology word universal word-formation universal grammar writing system usage X-bar x LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS (Arranged according to the linguistic sub-discipline: some items therefore appear repeatedly) Phonetics and phonology speech sound accent stress suprasegmental affricate syllable airstream mechanism tone language alternation transcription consonant vocal tract distinctive feature voice distribution voicing grapheme iconicity vowel International Phonetic Alphabet Morphology intonation affix lateralization aspect manner of articulation case markedness copula medium derivation minimal pair finite neutralization grammar notational convention grammatical category phonation type grammatical relation phoneme grapheme phonetics infinitive phonology inflection phonotactics markedness place of articulation morpheme prosody morphology rule paradigm segment paradigmatic relation sound symbolism person speech polysynthesis xi LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS pronoun agreement root anaphor rule aspect spelling auxiliary stem basic word order syllable case tense clause word clitic word-formation complement conjunction Lexicology constituent structure control aspect coordinate structure case deep structure clitic dependency colligate derivation copula determiner derivation direct object determiner distribution idiom ellipsis infinitive finite inflection frame irrealis gap kinship terms given/new lemma government lexicography grammar lexicon grammatical category loan word grammatical relation modality head modifier iconicity noun indirect object orthography infinitive predicate intuition preposition markedness pronoun modality verb modifier word mood word-formation movement nominalization Syntax notational convention adjective noun adverb noun phrase xii LIST OF KEY CONCEPTS number cohesion paradigm colligate paradigmatic relation connotation parsing conversational