1 On the Role of the Laity in the History of Zoroastrianism Sarah Rosemary Anne Stewart School of Oriental and African Studies Thesis presented to the University of London for the degree of PhD October 1998 ProQuest Number: 10731727 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731727 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 2 ABSTRACT Although much has been written about both the ancient and the living traditions of Zoroastrianism, no detailed study exists on the role of the laity in the history of the faith. This is perhaps because the surviving religious literature, namely the extant portion of the Avesta , is mainly concerned with priestly matters. As a result, the role of the laity has tended to be overlooked, although, at the same time, certain assumptions have been made. This thesis will raise questions concerning these assumptions. It will begin by looking at accounts of the religion by scholars in the field of Iranian studies with reference to the earliest Zoroastrian texts, the Yasts, and the Gdthas of the prophet Zarathustra, and show how various views of the laity have been formed. It will also suggest new ways of approaching the Zoroastrian texts from which these accounts have been constructed. The central text of this thesis belongs to relatively modern times; it is theAtas nu Git, or Song of the Fire, which appeared in publication in India in 1879. I have used this text as a means by which to examine lay religious life during the period to which it belongs, and also as a window through which to view the past. This approach is made possible by the fact that the song contains references to past events and to ancient texts. It is quintessentially Zoroastrian in the way in which it is structured: on the one hand expressing certain theological ideas, and on the other, showing a structure which is reminiscent of a number of older Zoroastrian religious texts, including the ancient prayers, or Niyayis. The Atas nu Git is unique for the reason that it was composed by laymen for use primarily within a lay context, yet over a period of some two hundred years, it has acquired a semi-official religious status. Today, a performance of the song may take place within an agiary, and is commissioned by priestly as well as lay families. The Atas nu Git is, therefore, an ideal text through which to give an account of lay religious life. Through the evidence of oral testimony, it has been possible to substantiate certain religious customs and traditions which are alluded to in the song, but are not described in any detail. Oral testimony is a medium I have used in this thesis to demonstrate the extent to which lay people have been responsible for the development of the religion in recent times in India. It will be shown that the laity has played a more significant role than has previously been assumed by those studying the religion. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION; ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Zoroastrian sources Non-Zoroastrian sources The term ‘laity ’ Interpretations of history Themes and description of contents CHAPTER 2 ANCIENT RELIGIOUS TEXTS AND THE LAITY 2.1. The Yasts The nature of worship To whom is the act of worship directed? Where does the act of worship take place? The purpose of the act of worship By whom is the act of worship offered? 2 . 2 . Interpretations of sacrifice 2.3. The Niyayis and other prayers The kem.na Mazda The four short prayers The Gah prayers The Atas Niyayis The Khursid Niyayis The Mah Niyayis The Mihr and AbanNiyayis Conclusion CHAPTER 3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS TO THE ATAS NU GlT OF 1879 3.1. Echoes from the past Somev Pahlavi texts The Sahname Sad Dar and Rivayats 3.2. The date of the founding of the NavsariAtas Bahrdm, 1765, and its significance for the dating of the Atas nu Git Some historical data Priestly disputes Parsis acknowledge other faiths Some reasons for accepting the purported date for the composition of the song Qissa - ye Zartostian - e Hindustan 3.3. The date and the publication of the Atas nu Git, 1879. Some historical data Education, and the Reverend John Wilson Reform 3.4. Conclusion 4 CHAPTER 4 T h e Ata§ nu gIt 4.1. Introduction to theA tas nu Git 4.2. The text of 1879 4.3. The structure and content of the song Structure A Structure B ‘Voices’ 4.4. The Atas nu Git: translation with notes 4.5. Close commentary on the text Introductory comments by the compiler of the 1879 text Introduction to the song The building of the agiary and the consecration and enthronement of the Atas Bahrdm The stealing of the old fire and the establishment of a new one The resolution and recreation of society The concluding section of the song Concluding comments of the compiler of the 1879 text 4.6. Conclusion CHAPTER 5 ORAL TEXTS AND ORAL TESTIMONY 5.1. Twentieth-century texts of theAtas nu Git, and a song 5.2. Mrs. Shehnaz Munshi - a biographical sketch 5.3. Oral testimony and religious beliefs 5.4. Some concluding remarks with reference to the work of Walter J. Ong CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION The ‘laity ’ in history ‘Horizons' of expectation The fusion of horizons' Interpretive techniques The lay response to modernity BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Simon Weightman, Head of the Department for the Study of Religions at SOAS, for his advice and guidance, and for keeping in touch with my work over the past two years. Thanks to the immense kindness and hospitality of Khojeste Mistree, Director of Zoroastrian Studies in Bombay, and his wife Firoza, my visits to Bombay have been not only rewarding but extremely happy ones. Through them I have been able to attend many Zoroastrian religious events, and met a number of people within the Parsi community who have contributed to my field-work for this study. I would like to thank Mrs. Shehnaz Munshi for her tireless help in translating the Atas nu Git, and for arranging the performance of various lay rituals which I was able to record on tape and film. To her I owe a great debt of gratitude. I would also like to thank Neville Munshi for his kindness whenever I have been a visitor to Bombay. I would like to thank Dr. Nancy Lindisfarne from the Department of Anthropology, SOAS, for encouraging me to embark upon this project, for the time she spared to meet and discuss possible approaches, and for directing my reading in the field of anthropology. I am grateful to Professor Sabry Hafez from the Near and Middle East Department, SOAS, for his advice concerning my treatment of the Atas nu Git. I would like to thank Nick Hostettler, Department of Politics, SOAS, for his insight and ideas, for suggesting books and articles for me to read, and for his interest in this work which has lead to many fruitful discussions. Two friends especially who have always been willing to listen and advise, and whom I would like to thank for their support, are Narguess Farzad and Toby Dodge. Finally, I would like to thank my husband and family for the help and encouragement they have given me throughout the time I have been writing this thesis. 6 Note on transcription As this thesis is not concerned with linguistics, transcription has been kept as simple as possible. In transcribing terms and proper names, the only special character used in Iranian words is s. In other cases, kh, th, gh, ng, are used for the sounds often transcribed x,\) ,y,y; and e, a for the Avestan vowel sounds normally transcribed^,^. Given these simplifications, the transcription of Avestan is based on that of Ch. Bartholomae (1904), that of Pahlavi on Mackenzie (1971). For the transcription of New Persian and Gujerati words which are used relatively seldom, simplified forms of accepted systems have been adopted. Variations in systems of diacritics and spelling adopted by different authors have been retained in full for all quotations. Abbreviations Dd. Dadestan TDenig DkM. Denkard (ed. Madan) Dr Ad. Drayisn-i Ahreman d Dewan GBd. Greater Bundahisn Ny. Niyayis PRDd. Pahlavi Rivayat Accompanying the Dadestan TDenig QS Qissa-ye Sanjan QZ Qissa-ye ZartUstian-l Hindustan RV. Rgveda Sd. Sad dar Nasr SdB. Sad dar Bundahisn SnS. Sayest ne-Sayest Vd. Vendidad wz Wizidagiha i Zadspram (Selections of Zadspram) Y. Yasna Yt. Yast ZS Zoroastrian Studies (Bombay) 7 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Since Western scholars became engaged in the study of Zoroastrianism, students have tended to focus upon language, texts and priestcraft, and to dismiss the significance of lay participation in religious matters. The likely reason for this is that, in seeking to understand the religion in its older stages, scholars have concentrated on the evidence of texts, and have thus been preoccupied with a literature composed by priests for priests. As a result, awareness of the role of the laity has suffered; laymen were often regarded as the passive recipients of a priestly tradition.