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continued to develop with Project Vanguard. While he Creation of NASA attempted to allay the fears of the American public, se- cret intelligence reports discussed in the days after the launching acknowledged that the Soviets were planning U.S. Objectives in Space Exploration to launch either a satellite or an intercontinental ballistic and Science missile. Report Like many common Americans, government offi- cials worried that the rocket thrust and precision neces- By: S. Everett Gleason sary to launch Sputnik posed the very real problem of Date: March 7, 1958 defense against a Soviet missile attack. These worries in- Source: Gleason, S. Everett. Discussion, 357th Meeting of creased the following month when the Soviets launched the National Security Council Concerning “U.S. Objectives in Space Exploration and Science.” March 6, 1958. Avail- another successful satellite, Sputnik II, which carried a able online at http://www.eisenhower.utexas.edu/dl/Sputnik dog, Laika, into orbit. While Sputnik weighed less than /Sputnikdocuments.html; website home page: http://www two hundred pounds, the hefty sequel weighed more than .eisenhower.utexas.edu (accessed June 18, 2003). one thousand pounds. American scientists raced to About the Author: S. Everett Gleason served as deputy ex- counter these high-profile Soviet triumphs, and the ecutive secretary of the National Security Council. Together United States sent its first orbiter into space in January with William L. Langer, Gleason wrote the book The Chal- 1958. lenge of Isolation: The World Crisis of 1937–1940 and Amer- ican Foreign Policy (New York: Harper Brothers, 1952). Significance In a National Security Council (NSC) meeting in National Aeronautics and Space Act March 1958, presidential science advisor James R. Killian of 1958 outlined the central motives behind American space exploration, which were a combination of “human curios- Law ity,” “military considerations,” and “scientific observation By: U.S. Congress and experiment.” Date: July 29, 1958 The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 re- Source: National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. Avail- flected the duties set forth in the NSC March 1958 meet- able online at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History ing, while emphasizing the civilian organization of the /spaceact.html; website home page: http://www.hq.nasa.gov. new space agency. Seeking to distinguish NASA from (accessed June 18, 2003). I the Soviet space program, which operated under direct military oversight, the act presented again and again Introduction NASA’s objectives as “peaceful.” Although the minutes The Cold War conflict between the United States and of the earlier NSC meeting stressed the military objec- the Soviet Union impacted both nations militarily, cul- tives girding space research, the act underlined NASA’s turally, economically, and, with the space race especially, status as a civilian-controlled agency, with specific guide- scientifically. From the launch of Sputnik in 1957 until lines for interaction between it and the armed services. the successful Moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969, the NASA started operations on October 1, 1958, and its superpowers competed with one another for the su- fortunes grew as the space race escalated in the coming premacy of space. years. Eisenhower’s successor, John F. Kennedy (served With the threat of global nuclear warfare heighten- 1961–1963), called for massive increases in expenditures ing yearly during the 1950s, the launch of Sputnik in Oc- for space exploration. The Soviet Union achieved another tober 1957 created hysteria for many Americans. milestone when Yuri Gagarin successfully orbited Earth Although the tiny craft orbited Earth for only two months, in April 1961. U.S. astronaut Alan B. Shepard reached it made clear the Soviet Union’s power in space. To space in May 1961, three weeks after Gagarin, but did many, the launch of Sputnik meant that the Soviet Union not complete an orbit. John Glenn became the first Amer- could just as easily send a barrage of atomic weapons to- ican to orbit the planet in space flight in February 1962. ward the United States. In this context, the Eisenhower The Apollo 11 mission to the Moon marked NASA’s pin- administration immediately sought to counter the Soviet nacle achievement in July 1969. Despite a series of in- Union and strengthen American resolve. terplanetary research missions and numerous scientific In a nationwide address on October 9, 1957, Eisen- innovations since the Moon landing, NASA’s stature has hower congratulated the Soviet Union for its success diminished, in part, due to a détènte with the Soviet Union and comforted the American public by emphasizing and the ultimate end of the Cold War. Throughout its his- that the United States’ commitment to space exploration tory, NASA has maintained a tenuous existence, which

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reports and would not contain specific recommen- dations. Next, Dr. Killian undertook to explain the main motives behind the development of space technology and space exploration. There he listed as, first, natural human curiosity about the nature of the universe; secondly, military considerations; third, U.S. prestige vis-a-vis the Soviet Union and other countries; and fourth, scientific observation and experiment. Space travel, thought Dr. Killian, may or may not have material and practical values, but the space programs that would be discussed at this time must, all of them, be based on the above- mentioned four motivating factors. Dr. Killian then indicated that various programs of differing size, shape and cost would be presented to the Council in order to provide the basis for a subsequent choice of a U.S. national outer space program. Dr. Killian, in this context, pointed out the need for a balanced outer space program—one which would take into due account the other great national security programs, inasmuch as any affective outer space program was bound to prove very costly. Thereafter Dr. Killian called on Dr. Purcell, who discussed with the Council his views on space sci- Model of the Soviet satellite, Sputnik 1, on display at an exhibition in ence and the objectives of space science. At the Prague, Czechoslovakia, three days after the launch of the original. end of his discussion, these objectives were sum- AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS. REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. marized on a chart which was divided into three time- periods: Early (first years), Later (two to five years), many attribute to its complex assortment of objectives and Still Later (five to fifteen years). Dr. Purcell con- framed by the Cold War. This conflict provided many of cluded his remarks with comments on the military the core objectives behind the agency, and once the Cold application of space exploration. He listed on a chart War ended, so, too, did a great deal of support for space (1) communications; (2) reconnaissance (optical, ra- exploration. dio, infrared); (3) early warning; (4) meteorological. At the conclusion of Dr. Purcell’s remarks, the President inquired whether Dr. Purcell thought it Primary Source would be a good idea if there could be more public U.S. Objectives in Space Exploration and education with respect to the matters in his report. Science The general view seemed to be in the affirmative. SYNOPSIS: On February 4, 1958, President Eisen- The President then inquired of Dr. Purcell hower requested that Killian research the best means of developing a national space program. Two whether the distant planets of which he had spoken days later, the U.S. Senate established a Special rotated on their own axis as did our earth. Dr. Pur- Committee on Space and Astronautics to form a per- cell replied that most of them did, but that there manent space agency. The 357th Meeting of the were some we could hardly see and could not de- National Security Council occurred one month later, termine whether they rotated or not. providing Killian the opportunity to present his analy- sis of American space objectives that would ulti- Dr. Killian next introduced Dr. York, who, he in- mately set many of the guidelines for the creation dicated, would discuss various illustrative space sci- of a government agency devoted to space technol- ence programs designed to achieve the objectives ogy and exploration. of space science which had just been outlined by Dr. Purcell. General Cutler introduced Dr. Killian, who stated Dr. York spoke first, using a chart, of the vehi- initially that the reports to be given by himself, Dr. cles which would be used in the exploration of outer Purcell and Dr. York were in the nature of informal space. The first usable vehicles would be the

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IRBMs—Jupiter and THOR—with added stages. Such The National Security Council: vehicles would be available late in 1958 or early in a. Noted and discussed a report by the Spe- 1959. They would eventually be able to carry a pay- cial Assistant to the President for Science load (instrumentation, etc.) weighting 500 pounds. and Technology, assisted by Drs. Edward Later on in the process, Dr. York indicated that Purcell and Herbert York of the President’s ICBM vehicles would become available for space ex- Science Advisory Committee, prepared pur- ploration. Either TITAN or ATLAS could be used, per- suant to NSC Action No. 1859-b, on U.S. haps in 1961, with a third stage added to them. The objectives in space exploration and science, pay-load carried by these vehicles would be much and examples of possible programs de- larger than that which the IRBMs would carry. The signed to achieve these objectives. pay-load for an earth satellite could be as large as b. Noted that the Special Assistant to the 6500 pounds if fluorine were used for fueling, or President for Science and Technology would 3800 pounds if the ICBM were fueled with liquid oxy- make a subsequent report to the Council gen (lox). For a moon-hit or a Mars-hit, a pay-load of on the organizational aspects involved in 2150 pounds with fluorine and 1000 pounds with pursuing U.S. objectives in space explo- lox could be carried. ration and science. Dr. York cautioned that even an ICBM vehicle was not sufficiently powerful to get a man to the Note: The action in b above, as approved by moon. To do this we would have to construct a very the President, subsequently transmitted to the large new rocket with a weight of 1.5 million pounds Special Assistant to the President for Science gross. He estimated the cost of developing such a and Technology. new rocket as lying somewhere between $500 million and $1 billion. Primary Source After describing the various sample or illustra- National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 tive space science and exploration programs, Dr. [excerpt] York turned to the subject of the approximate costs of such programs. The cost of any effective space SYNOPSIS: On April 2, 1958, Eisenhower addressed Congress to urge passage of the National Aero- exploration program would begin at $275 million a nautics and Space Act—a measure he signed on year, and would be likely to reach a cost of $650 July 29. The sections of the act included here dis- million a year by 1965. Such figures, moreover, said cuss the establishment of NASA, specifically its pur- Dr. York, were minimal. poses and responsibilities concerning both scientific research and military preparedness. Less Dr. York pointed out that a probing of the planet than one year after Sputnik, NASA began work in Mars, which might be achieved by the United States October 1958. in 1962, would probably be the first achievement we could count on doing before the Russians, because they were so far ahead of us in big boosters. An Act to provide for research into problems of flight within and outside the earth’s atmosphere, The final section of Dr. York’s report dealt with and for other purposes. the possible effects to be achieved by exploiting very large megaton bombs at various heights above the Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Rep- earth’s atmosphere. If sufficiently powerful, such ex- resentatives of the United States of America in Con- plorations, he believed, could inhibit all space travel, gress assembled, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. Title I—Short Title, Declaration of Policy, and In bringing the report to a close, Dr. Killian, fol- Definitions lowed by Secretary Charles, stressed the security aspects of the information which had been provided Short Title for the Council, most particularly with respect to the final portion of Dr. York’s presentation. Dr. Killian Sec. 101. This act may be cited as the “National also indicated that time would not permit him to go Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958.” on with a discussion of the organizational aspects of a U.S. program for space science and exploration. Declaration of Policy and Purpose This subject would be discussed by Dr. Killian at a Sec. 102. (a) The Congress hereby declares that subsequent Council meeting. it is the policy of the United States that activities in

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space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for to this Act and in the peaceful application of the re- the benefit of all mankind. sults, thereof; and (b) The Congress declares that the general wel- (8) The most effective utilization of the scientific fare and security of the United States require that and engineering resources of the United States, with adequate provision be made for aeronautical and close cooperation among all interested agencies of space activities. The Congress further declares that the United States in order to avoid unnecessary du- such activities shall be the responsibility of, and plication of effort, facilities, and equipment. . . . shall be directed by, a civilian agency exercising control over aeronautical and space activities spon- Title II—Coordination of Aeronautical and Space sored by the United States, except that activities Activities peculiar to or primarily associated with the devel- National Aeronautics and Space Council opment of weapons systems, military operations, or the defense of the United States (including the Sec. 201. (a) There is hereby established the research and development necessary to make ef- National Aeronautics and Space Council (hereinafter fective provision for the defense of the United called the “Council”) which shall be composed of— States) shall be the responsibility of, and shall be (1) the President (who shall preside over meet- directed by, the Department of Defense; and that ings of the Council); determination as to which such agency has re- (2) the Secretary of State; sponsibility for and direction of any such activity shall be made by the President in conformity with (3) the Secretary of Defense section 201 (e). (4) the Administrator of the National Aeronautics (c) The aeronautical and space activities of the and Space Administration; United States shall be conducted so as to contribute (5) the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Com- materially to one or more of the following objectives: mission; (1) The expansion of human knowledge of phe- (6) not more than one additional member ap- nomena in the atmosphere and space; pointed by the President from the departments and (2) The improvement of the usefulness, perfor- agencies of the Federal Government; and mance, speed, safety, and efficiency of aeronautical (7) not more than three other members ap- and space vehicles; pointed by the President, solely on the basis of es- (3) The development and operation of vehicles tablished records of distinguished achievement from capable of carrying instruments, equipment, sup- among individuals in private life who are eminent in plies and living organisms through space; science, engineering, technology, education, administration, or public affairs. . . . (4) The establishment of long-range studies of the potential benefits to be gained from, the oppor- National Aeronautics and Space Administration tunities for, and the problems involved in the utilization of aeronautical and space activities for Sec. 202. (a) There is hereby established the peaceful and scientific purposes. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (hereinafter called the “Administration”). The Ad- (5) The preservation of the role of the United ministration shall be headed by an Administrator, States as a leader in aeronautical and space sci- who shall be appointed from civilian life by the Pres- ence and technology and in the application thereof ident by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- to the conduct of peaceful activities within and out- ate, and shall receive compensation at the rate of side the atmosphere. $22,500 per annum. Under the supervision and di- (6) The making available to agencies directly con- rection of the President, the Administrator shall be cerned with national defenses of discoveries that responsible for the exercise of all powers and the have military value or significance, and the furnish- discharge of all duties of the Administration, and ing by such agencies, to the civilian agency estab- shall have authority and control over all personnel lished to direct and control nonmilitary aeronautical and activities, thereof. . . . and space activities, of information as to discoveries which have value or significance to that agency; Functions of the Administration (7) Cooperation by the United States with other Sec. 203. (a) The Administration, in order to nations and groups of nations in work done pursuant carry out the purpose of this Act, shall—

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(1) plan, direct, and conduct aeronautical and International Cooperation space activities; Sec. 205. The Administration, under the foreign (2) arrange for participation by the scientific policy guidance of the President, may engage in a community in planning scientific measurements and program of international cooperation in work done observations to be made through use of aeronauti- pursuant to the Act, and in the peaceful application cal and space vehicles, and conduct or arrange for of the results thereof, pursuant to agreements made the conduct of such measurements and observa- by the President with the advice and consent of the tions; and Senate. (3) provide for the widest practicable and ap- propriate dissemination of information concerning its Further Resources activities and the results thereof. . . . BOOKS Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Civilian-Military Liaison Committee Killian, James R., Jr. Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Sec. 204 (a) There shall be a Civilian-Military Li- Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for aison Committee consisting of— Science and Technology. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977. (1) a Chairman, who shall be the head thereof McDougall, Walter A. The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age. New York: Basic, 1985. and who shall be appointed by the President, shall serve at the pleasure of the President, and shall re- WEBSITES ceive compensation (in the manner provided in sub- Gorn, Michael H. “Hugh L. Dryden’s Career in Aviation and Space.” Dryden Flight Research Center, National Aeronau- section (d)) at the rate of $20,000 per annum; tics and Space Administration. Available online at http:// (2) one or more representatives from the De- www.dfrc.nasa.gov/History/Publications/PDF/Dryden.pdf; partment of Defense, and one or more representa- website home page: http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/ (accessed tives from each of the Departments of the Army, June 18, 2003). Navy, and Air Force, to be assigned by the Secretary “James Killian.” History Office, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Available online at http://www.hq.nasa of Defense to serve on the Committee without ad- .gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/killian.html; website home ditional compensation; and page: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/ (accessed (3) representatives from the Administration, to June 18, 2003). be assigned by the Administrator to serve on the “Sputnik and the Space Race.” Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. Committee without additional compensation, equal Available online at http://www.eisenhower.utexas.edu/dl in number to the number of representatives assigned /Sputnik/Sputnikdocuments.html; website home page: http:// www.eisenhower.utexas.edu (accessed June 18, 2003). to serve on the Committee under paragraph (2). (b) The Administration and the Department of Defense, through the Liaison Committee, shall ad- vise and consult with each other on all matters within their respective jurisdictions relating to aero- “The Kitchen Debate” nautical and space activities and shall keep each other fully and currently informed with respect to Debate such activities. By: Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev (c) If the Secretary of Defense concludes that Date: July 25, 1959 any request, action, proposed action, or failure to Source: Nixon, Richard, and Nikita Khrushchev. “The act on the part of the Administrator is adverse to Kitchen Debate.” July 25, 1959. Available online at http:// teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=176; the responsibilities of the Department of Defense, website home page: http://teachingamericanhistory.org (ac- or the Administrator concludes that any request, accessed June 18, 2003). tion, or proposed action, or failure to act on the part About the Authors: Richard Nixon (1911–1994) graduated of the Department of Defense is adverse to the re- from Duke Law School in 1934. After serving in the navy sponsibilities of the Administration, and the Admin- during World War II (1939–1945), he pursued a career in pol- istrator and the Secretary of Defense are unable to itics. Serving as a U.S. representative and then a U.S. senator, reach an agreement with respect thereto, either the he eventually became the vice president for President Dwight Eisenhower (served 1953–1961). Defeated for the presidency Administrator or the Secretary of Defense may refer in 1960, he ran again in 1968 and won. He is best remem- the matter to the President for his decision (which bered for the Watergate scandal, which led to him resigning shall be final) as provided in section 201 (e). . . . from office in 1974.

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