Current Issues in Modern Linguistics and Humanities

CURRENT ISSUES IN MODERN LINGUISTICS AND HUMANITIES

PROCEEDINGS of the 12th All-Russian Research and Methodological Conference with International Participation

Moscow, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University, March 27th, 2020

Moscow Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia 2020 УДК 81:316.77(063) У т в е р ж д е н о ББК 6/8 РИС Ученого совета А43 Российского университета дружбы народов

Edited by Enrique F. Quero Gervilla, Natalya Sokolova

Editorial: Svetlana A. Sharonova, Professor, Dr. of Sociology, Deputy Director for Research, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia); Valérie Carayol, Professor, PhD, Université Bordeaux Montaigne (France); Ouannes Hafiane, Professor, PhD, Higher Institute of Languages of Tunis, University of Carthage (Tunisia); Sergio Marcos, Professor, PhD, Vice-Rector for International Academic Affairs, Universidad del Norte (UniNorte) (Paraguay); Michaela Mudure, Professor, PhD, Babeș-Bolyai University (Romania); Natalia F. Mikheeva, Professor, Dr. of Philology, Chief Specialist for Postgraduate Programs, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia); Alla V. Kirilina, Professor, Dr. of Philology, Vice-Rector for Scientific Work, Moscow International Academy (Russia); Liliya V. Moiseenko, Professor, Dr. of Philology, Moscow State Linguistic University (Russia); Natalia S. Erokhova, PhD in History, Chief Specialist for Scientific and Innovation Development, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia); Tatiana V. Boldovskaya, Chief Specialist for Editorial and Publishing Activities, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia)

А43 Актуальные проблемы современной лингвистики и гума- нитарных наук : сборник статей ХII Всероссийской научно- методической конференции с международным участием. Москва, 27 марта 2020 г. – Москва : РУДН, 2020. – 463 с. : ил.

Current Issues in Modern Linguistics and Humanities : Proceedings of the 12th All-Russian Research and Methodological Conference with International Participation. Moscow, March 27th, 2020. – Moscow : PFUR, 2020. – 463 p.

Address of editorial board: Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, 6 Miklukho-Maklaya st., 117198, Moscow, Russia Ph. +7(495)787-38-03 # 24-38; e-mail: [email protected] Web of site of the Conference: http://science-ifl.rudn.ru/

ISBN 978-5-209-09835-5 © Коллектив авторов, 2020 © Российский университет дружбы народов, 2020

Organizing Committee

Chair – Nataliia L. Sokolova, Professor, PhD in Philology, Director, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia) Co-Chair – Svetlana A. Sharonova, Professor, Dr. of Sociology, Deputy Director for Research, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia) Members: Olga V. Alexandrova, Professor, Dr. of Philology, Deputy Dean for Research, Faculty of Philology, Lomonosov Moscow State University (Russia) Enrique F. Quero Gervilla, Full Professor, PhD, Dean of the Faculty of Translation and Interpretation, Director of the Russian Centre, University of Granada (Spain) Houda Ben Hamadi Melaouhia, Professor, PhD, Director, Higher Institute of Languages of Tunis, University of Carthage (Tunisia) Juan Manuel Marcos, Professor, PhD, Rector, Universidad del Norte (UniNorte) (Paraguay) Natalia F. Mikheeva, Professor, Dr. of Philology, Chief Specialist for Postgraduate Programs, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia) Irina P. Barabash, PhD in Economics, Deputy Director for Economic Affairs, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia) Natalia Ya. Bezrukova, Deputy Director for International Affairs, Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN University (Russia)

Languages: English

Conference Organizers

Published by © 2020 RUDN University Press, Moscow, Russia Indexed in Russian Science Citation Index (https://elibrary.ru) Address of Publishing House: 3 Ordzhonikidze st., 115419, Moscow, Russia Ph. +7 (495) 952-04-41; e-mail: [email protected] URL: http://old.rudn.ru/?pagec=4887

CONTENT

LINGUISTICS AND MODERN LANGUAGES DIACHRONICAL RESEARCH OF THE CHINESE NUMERALS: THE PROBLEM OF PERIODIZATION Liudmila L. Bankova ...... 10 THE MOTIVES OF THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS IN VLADIMIR NABOKOV’S “INVITATION TO A BEHEADING” Galina V. Denissova, Elena N. Kornilova ...... 19 FROM PASPORTIZATION TO LINGUISTIC-CULTURAL FIELDS OF “CAUCASIAN MOUNTAIN MAN” AND “SCOTTISH HIGHLANDER” Natalia M. Nepomniashchikh ...... 28 LANGUAGE VARIETY IN MODERN LINGUISTICS Feruza E. Sabirbaeva ...... 38 OLD AGE IN THE MIRROR OF METAPHOR Nella A. Trofimova ...... 46 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE BRITISH STANDART OF ENGLISH AND THE NEW ZEALAND VERSION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGES Irina Kazakova, Alena Gyrdymova, Anastasia Podobina . . 55 FOREIGN LANGUAGE PHRASEOLOGY IN THE US: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF VERBAL COLLOCATIONS Natalia F. Mikheeva, Pablo Ramírez Rodríguez ...... 64 SOME SEMANTIC TRENDS IN THE SPHERE OF PREDICATE LEXICAL UNITS Tatiana Sallier ...... 73 UNIQUENESS OF NEWFOUNDLAND REGIONAL VARIATION OF THE CANADIAN NATIONAL ENGLISH VARIANT Victoria V. Sokolovskaya ...... 83

NATIONAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY OF THE ARGENTINE NATIONAL VARIANT OF THE SPANISH LANGUAGE Vyacheslav V. Tkachev ...... 92 FOREIGN INCLUSIONS AS THE OBJECT OF METALANGUAGE REFLECTION IN THE ARTISTIC TEXT (BASED ON THE NOVEL BY GR. D. ROBERS “SHANTARAM”) Alexandra Gamalinskaya ...... 101

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION THE INTERACTION OF CULTURE AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Zinaida I. Guryeva, Elena V. Petrushova ...... 113 COMPETENCE-BASED MODEL OF SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING Marina E. Korovkina ...... 122 THE CONCEPT OF A VILLAGER IN THE POLYCULTURAL SPACE OF LATIN AMERICA vgeniya А. Popova ...... 132 MEME AS A SPEECH GENRE OF THE INTERNET- COMMUNICATION Natalia A. Prokofeva, Ekaterina A. Shcheglova ...... 140 LINGUISTIC REFLECTION OF COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERDISCIPLINARITY AND INTERDIRECTIONALITY Aliaksandr Barkovich ...... 157 DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE OF PRESCHOOLERS USING CREATIVE GAMES AND EXERCISES Ekaterina M. Kosheleva ...... 167 TRANSFERRING OF DIFFERENTIAL MEANINGS IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION Narkiza A. Moroz, Oksana P. Lazareva ...... 179

PUBLICATION OF THE RUSSIAN-GERMAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ON INSTAGRAM AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR CROSS-LANGUAGE INTERACTION IN THE RUSSIAN-GERMAN BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Tatiana V. Chernukha ...... 188 MULTICODE COMMUNICATION AND ITS LINGUISTIC PROFILE IN MASS MEDIA MATERIALS Elena V. Yakovleva, Ruben Agadzhanyan ...... 199 “SOFT POWER” AND CROSS-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR OF THE RUSSIAN YOUTH Anna V. Glagoleva, Evgeniya A. Kuznetsova, Yulia N. Zemskaya ...... 206

SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLINGUISTICS REPRESENTATION OF RUSSIAN ANTHROPONYMS IN THE OXFORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WOMEN IN WORLD HISTORY Elena A. Barsukova ...... 215 ETHNIC STEREOTYPES IN THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF THE MODERN IMAGES OF WAR AND PEACE (BY THE MATERIAL OF THE RUSSIAN, ENGLISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES) Elena A. Golubenko ...... 224 LINGUISTIC BASIS OF USING CREOLIZED TEXTS IN EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Svetlana V. Pervukhina, Oksana A. Evtouchenko, Liliia Iu. Kotliarenko, Mikhail P. Churikov ...... 232 URBANISTIC ASPECT OF EXTENDED FAMILY COMMUNICATION IN MODERN INDIA (EVIDENCE FROM CONTEMPORARY HINDI PROSE) Anna Chelnokova, Ekaterina Kostina ...... 245

NEGATIVE SOCIALISATION VIA THE MEANS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSE BOOKS Inna V. Kharlamenko ...... 253

LINGUISTICS AND THE HUMANITIES – INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES IN RESEARCH AND TEACHING DIGITALIZATION OF SERVICES AT EXAMPLE OF LANGUAGES’ TEACHING Galina Deryabina, Nina Trubnikova ...... 261 METHODOLOGY INTEGRATING HARD AND SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Natalia A. Medina Brakamonte, Elena Kitaeva ...... 275 THE RATIONALE OF AN INVARIANT-BASED TEXTBOOK THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Elena S. Orlova ...... 284 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN ADAPTIVE TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Marina G. Petrova, Mohsen Khalil ...... 294 LANGUAGE POLICY AND MULTICULTURAL TEACHING IN ZAMBIA Marina G. Petrova, Mwanza Makina Dean ...... 305 TEACHING SPANISH AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND PRAGMATICS IN DISCOURSE TO HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENTS Marina Vorobiova Munguía, Pablo Ramírez Rodríguez ...... 314 THE INFLUENCE OF THE SPATIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ON MASTERING OF YOUNG LEARNERS’ COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN THE ENGLISH LESSONS Andrey A. Bogatyrev, Julia S. Berova ...... 330

DIDACTIC ASPECTS OF TEACHING OF AUDIOVISUAL TEXTS TRANSLATION : METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGIES Alla H. Guseva ...... 344 ASSESSMENT OF EMPATHIC SKILLS IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM Oksana B. Poletaeva, Natalya V. Vojtik, Ramsia A. Absaljamova, Ekaterina A. Lobanova ...... 357 TEACHING UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS THE LANGUAGE OF DIPLOMACY AS PART OF THE ESP COURSE Ekaterina D. Prodayvoda ...... 367 UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ INDEPENDENT WORK IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN AN ERA OF DIGITAL SOCIETY Мarina E. Ryabova, Lyudmila A. Egorova, Irina V. Vashunina ...... 376 TEACHING CHINESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT UNIVERSITIES IN RUSSIA AND CHINA Yi Anran, Diouani Refka ...... 387 INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT RUSSIAN NON-LINGUISTIC UNIVERSITIES Bella Ivanova ...... 395

LINGUISTIC DIPLOMACY HUMAN SPEECH REPRESENTATION IN NEWS JOURNALISM OF THE XVIII CENTURY AS THE HISTORICAL STYLISTIC PROBLEM Alexander A. Malyshev ...... 407 ABOUT IDEOLOGIZATION OF PHRASE «GILETS JAUNES» Maria V. Arsentieva ...... 416

FROM STYLISTIC STUDY TOWARDS FEMINIST CRITICISM: “BLISS” (K. MANSFIELD) AND “MAGNOLIA BLOSSOM” (A. CHRISTIE) Victoria V. Afanaseva ...... 425 LINGUISTIC COLONIZATION: ANGLICIZATION Irina Kazakova, Michael Yashchenko, Evgeniy Mamchenkov ...... 435 FRAMING WITHIN H. CLINTON’S AND D. TRUMP’S POLITICAL DISCOURSE Diana I. Kasimova ...... 445 THE NECESSITY OF FORMING THE TRANSLATION COMPETENCE FOR PROTOCOL OFFICERS Maria D. Churganova ...... 455

LINGUISTICS AND MODERN LANGUAGES

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-10-18

DIACHRONICAL RESEARCH OF THE CHINESE NUMERALS: THE PROBLEM OF PERIODIZATION

Liudmila L. Bankova

Linguistics University of Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-6021-0331

Abstract. The purpose of the study is to choose a Chinese language historical periodization serving as the foundation for a diachronical research of the Chinese numerals. In addition, the problem of translation of historical stages from Chinese into English is tackled. As a result the author makes use of the terms introduced by A. Peyraube. Methodologically this research is conducted relying on O. Ju. Voronina and A. M. Koshel'’s theory of classification of the Chinese language periodization based on models. Each model of the language is divided into levels, which number depends on certain language processes. Apart from this, each model is characterized by divisibility according to the number of periods in the Chinese language evolution. Among more than fourteen types of periodization there are three that are most widespread. The first one is a four-level and four-part periodization and was introduced by prof. Wang Li. It includes the following stages: the Archaic period (上古期) (up to the third century AD);

10 the Middle period (中古期) (fourth–twelfth AD); the Modern period (近代期) (thirteenth–nineteenth AD); the Contemporary period (现代期) (the beginning of the twentieth century – onwards). The second division of the Chinese language history belongs to S.E. Yakhontov: Pre-Classical (up to the fifth century BC), Classical (the fifth century BC – the second century AD), Late Old Chinese (third–sixth AD); Middle Chinese (sixth– twelfth/fourteenth AD); Contemporary Chinese (from the fourteenth century onwards). The third periodization is A. Maspero’s one-level three-part historical division of Chinese: Old Chinese (up to the third century AD), Middle Chinese (fourth– twelfth AD) and Modern (twelfth–nineteenth/twentieth AD). Those studies that are carried out within periods of time stretching longer than each separate one mentioned above and those including several historical stages (from pre-Qin up to Qing dynasties), can be considered as Classical Chinese literature studies. Prof. Wang Li’s historical division of the Chinese language is viewed as the most suitable for the diachronic research of Chinese numerals. The Chinese numerals, when regarded within the framework of this periodization, should be researched in three separate focus areas: (i) cardinal numerals, (ii) ordinal numerals, and (iii) fraction numerals, multiple numerals, approximate numerals. Keywords: the Chinese language, periodization, Chinese numerals.

Introduction Due to the steadily growing interest to Chinese culture and literature the number of researches in the fields of ancient Chinese literary works and masterpieces alongside with diachronic researches of special language aspects is increasing both in China and other countries. Any diachronic research presupposes an application of a certain periodization and/or principles thereof. The problem of the Chinese language historical periodization is a

11 challenge in China studies attracting the attention of both oriental and western researchers. This is due to the fact that “there is no universal and currently accepted periodization of the Chinese language history” (Zograf I.T., 1975: 52). A historical periodization of the language depends on the aspect being analyzed: phonetic, grammatical or lexical. Nowadays, the best- thought-out historical periodization of the Chinese language is the one that is based on the phonetic criterion. Our paper is focused on the periodization of the Chinese language from the point of view of studying numerals, i.e. taking into account the grammatical criterion. Objectives/Purpose of the study This study is aimed at choosing a suitable Chinese language historical periodization serving as the foundation for a diachronic research of the Chinese numerals. In addition, the problem of translation of historical stages from the Chinese language into the English language is tackled. Methodology The theory of the Chinese language historical periodization classification making use of models, suggested by O. Ju. Voronina and A. M. Koshel, is accepted as the methodological basis of the study. Each language model is divided into levels, their number depends on certain language processes. For example, the one-level model of the Chinese language historical periodization takes into account the phonetic criterion, the two-level models are based on morphological and syntactical language changes, the three-level model considers phonetic, morphological and syntactical language evolutionary changes whereas the four-level model adds the lexical criterion to the aforesaid three aspects. In addition, each model is characterized by its divisibility in accordance with the number of the historical periods singled out in the Chinese language evolution (Voronina O. Ju., Koshel' A. M., 2017: 62–63). Results Dealing with the historical evolution of the Chinese language it is necessary to solve the terminological problem that concerns the

English names of the historical stages of the Chinese language. To accomplish this the most detailed periodization in Chinese is used: 上古期 shànggǔ qī – 中古期 zhōnggǔ qī – 近代期 jìndài qī – 现代期 xiàndài qī. H.Y. Tai and K.M. Chan suggest the following English counterparts (listed respectively): Early Old Chinese – Middle Old Chinese – Pre-Modern Chinese – Modern Chinese (Tai H.Y., Chan K.M., 1999: 226). The translation suggested by Hongyuan Dong is: Old Chinese – Middle Chinese – Early Modern Chinese – Modern Chinese (Dong H.Y., 2014: 7). Moreover, 上古期 shànggǔ qī has such translations as “Old / Early Old / Archaic / Ancient Chinese”; 中古期 zhōnggǔ qī may be translated as “Middle /Middle Old / Medieval / Ancient Chinese”; 近代期 jìndài qī – “Modern / Pre-Modern / Early Mandarin / Contemporary Chinese”. In our opinion, the terms introduced in A. Peyraube’s periodization (see below) can help solving this terminological problem. So A. Peyraube’s choice for terms is used in our research: Archaic period (上古期 shànggǔ qī) – the Middle period (中古期 zhōnggǔ qī) – the Modern period (近代期 jìndài qī) – Contemporary period (现代期 xiàndài qī). There are over fourteen periodization options available to describe the history of the Chinese language (Voronina O. Ju., Koshel' A. M., 2017: 63). Three of them are the most wide-spread in China studies. The first one belongs to Prof. Wang Li who suggested it in his “Draft on the History of the Chinese Language” (《汉语史稿》 / “Hànyǔ shǐgǎo”). The periodization model in question may be characterized as the four-level, four-member one possessing the following stages:

• the Archaic period (上古期 shànggǔ qī) (up to the third century AD): Shang (商 Shāng), Zhou (周 Zhōu) and Qin (秦 Qín) dynasties; • the Middle period (中古期 zhōnggǔ qī) (fourth–twelfth AD): the Six Dynasties (六朝 Liùcháo), Tang (唐 Táng) and Song (宋 Sòng) dynasties; • the Modern period (近代期 jìndài qī) (thirteenth–nineteenth AD): Yuan (元 Yuán), Ming (明 Míng), Qing (清 Qīng) dynasties; • the Contemporary period (现代期 xiàndài qī) (the beginning of the twentieth century – onwards) (Wang Li, 1980: 35). S.E. Yakhontov (a Soviet, and later Russian, researcher of the Chinese language) introduced a periodization of the Chinese language history having the following stages of development: Pre- Classical (up to the fifth century BC), Classical (the fifth century BC – the second century AD), Late Old Chinese (third–sixth AD); Middle Chinese (sixth–twelfth/fourteenth AD); Contemporary Chinese (from the fourteenth century onwards) (Yakhontov S.E., 1965: 7). However, Pre-Classical, Classical and Late Old Chinese stages in Yakhontov’s periodization are chronologically approximately the same as the Archaic period in prof. Wang Li’s periodization. There is also A. Maspero’s one-level, three-member historical periodization of Chinese: Old Chinese (up to the third century AD), Middle Chinese (fourth–twelfth AD) and Modern (twelfth– nineteenth/twentieth AD) (Maspero A., 2005: 2). The above observation shows that periodical divisions having the same number of stages may differ chronologically. To illustrate, let us consider A. Peyraube’s periodization with syntactic criteria. This scholar proposes to divide the evolution of Chinese into two meta-periods: Ancient (古代 gǔdài) (approximately the fourteenth

14 century BC – the nineteenth century AD) and Contemporary (现代 xiàndài) (the nineteenth century – onwards). The Ancient meta- period in its turn is subdivided into three stages: (1) the Archaic period (上古期 shànggǔ qī) (up to the second century BC); (2) the Middle or Medieval period (中古期 zhōnggǔ qī) (from the first century BC to the middle of the thirteenth century AD); (3) the Modern period (近代期 jìndài qī) (from the middle of the thirteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth century) (Peyraube A., 2008: 988). A. Peyraube’s periodization division is close to that of prof. Wang Li in the number of levels and criteria used but is slightly different chronologically. It is also crucial to bear in mind the fact that «…those studies that are conducted within periods of time stretching longer than any of the separate stages mentioned above as well as those including several historical stages (from pre-Qin up to Qing dynasties), can be considered Classical Chinese literature studies (wenyan)…» (⽐断代研究更宽一些的是泛时的研究，泛时研究可以说是对文言的研究。这种研究工作的对象是从先秦到清代的文言作品… Bǐ duàndài yánjiū gèng kuān yīxiē de shì fàn shí de yánjiū, fàn shí yánjiū kěyǐ shuō shì duì wényán de yánjiū. Zhè zhǒng yán jiù gōngzuò de duìxiàng shì cóng xiānqín dào qīng dài de wényán zuòpǐn) (Li Z., 2004: 28). Discussion All the models of periodization mentioned above are based on certain aspects of language development (e.g. lexical, grammatical and phonetic). In our opinion, for the purposes of a diachronic research of numerals, prof. Wang Li’s historical division of the Chinese language is the most suitable. This is why numerals are studied in the Archaic period, the Middle period and the Modern period compared with the Contemporary one.

Indeed, certain points of studying the Chinese numerals may serve as the basis for the Chinese language historical periodization, I.T. Zograf writes about it: “It is not by chance that Liu Shi-zhu, who devoted his article and study to measure words of Wei, Jin and North-South dynasties, considers the combination of a numeral and a noun in Chinese to be one of the defining characteristics of its syntax, and thinks that it can serve as a criterion of historical division of the Chinese language” (Zograf I.T., 1977: 168). For all intents and purposes, one may observe that the presence and absence of the character representing a missing digit in the number position is distributed among four historical periods (Archaic, Middle, Modern and Contemporary). In Archaic Chinese there was no character to mark a “zero” (eg. 百六 bǎi liù ‘one hundred and six’). In Middle Chinese characters 单 dān or 丹 dān could be used to fulfill this purpose (⼆百单五 èr bǎi dān wǔ ‘two hundred and five’; ⼀百单⼋ yī bǎi dān bā ‘one hundred and eight’; ⼀千丹⼋ yī qiān dān bā ‘one thousand and eight’). In Modern Chinese “zero” is expressed by such characters as 另 lìng or 令 lìng (⼀百另⼋ yī bǎi lìng bā ‘one hundred and eight’) (Li W., 2013: 12–13). In Contemporary Chinese the numeral ‘one hundred and eight’ is written as: ⼀百零⼋ yī bǎi líng bā. In addition to that, Archaic Chinese is characterized by the presence of epenthesis 〤, ㄓ, ⼜ (their pronunciation is not determined so x stands for it) or 有 (yòu) in additive cardinal numerals (三百〤四⼗⼋ sānbǎi x sìshíbā ‘three hundred and forty eight’, ⼗ㄓ六 shí x liù ‘sixteen’, ⼗有五 shí yòu wǔ ‘fifteen’). It is in Middle Chinese that the combination of an ordinal numeral and prefix 第 dì fully crystalized in the following model: “第 dì + numeral + noun” (Liu Sh., Ji Y., 2007:

147) (第三⽇ dì sān rì ‘the third day’). Moreover, the same historical stage witnessed the emergence of such a structure as “numeral + classifier + noun” (四匹马 sì pǐ mǎ ‘four horses’) (Zograf I.T., 1977: 162) which is widely used in Contemporary Chinese. In Modern Chinese adverbs of degree 最 zuì and 太 tài are used before 第⼀ dì yī (谁为最第一 zuì dì yī ‘the very first’) (Tian Y., Zeng L., 2000: 100). It appears that the research of Chinese numerals conducted in accordance with prof. Wang Li’s four-level, four-member periodization of the Chinese language should be executed in three separate focus areas: (i) cardinal numerals, (ii) ordinal numerals, and (iii) fraction numerals, multiple numerals and approximate numerals.

References Dong, H. 2014. A History of the Chinese Language. Routledge, New York, 218 pp. Li, W. 2013. Different Forms and Structure of “〇” Concept in Chinese. Modern Linguistics 1: 7–14. Li, Z. 2004. Ancient Chinese Grammar. The Commercial Press, Peking, 550 pp. Liu, Sh., Ji Y. 2007. A Tentative Analysis of the Origin of Middle Chinese Grammar and Its Historical Position. Macrolinguistics 1: 141–156. Maspero, A. 2005. A Study on Changan City Dialect of Tang Period. Zhonghua Book Company, Peking, 204 pp. Peyraube, A. 2015. Ancient Chinese. In: R.D. Woodard (Ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages. Cambridge University Press, UK, pp. 988–1015. Tai, H. Y., Chan, K. M. 1999. Some Reflections on the Periodization of the Chinese Language. In Studies on Chinese Historical Syntax and Morphology, A. Peyraube and Sun Chaofen

(Ed.), Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Centre de Recherches Linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale, Paris, pp. 223–239. Tian, Y., Zeng, L. 2000. The Numeral Expressions of Modern Chinese. Journal of Yanan University (Social Science) 22(3): 99– 101. Voronina, O.Yu., Koshel', A.M. 2017. On Approaches to Periodization of the History of Language with Ideographic Type of Writing. Philological Sciences. Questions of Theory and Practice 4(70): 62–65. Wang, Li. 1980. A Draft about the History of the Chinese Language. Vol. 1. Zhonghua Book Company, Peking, 714 pp. Yakhontov, S. E. 1965. Archaic Chinese. Nauka, Moscow, 115 pp. Zograf, I.T. 1975. Middle Chinese (about the Periodization of the Chinese Language History). In Written Artifacts and Problems of History of Oriental Peoples Culture. The XI Annual Scientific Session of LO ICS AS USSR, Vol. 2, Nauka, Moscow, pp. 52–55. Zograf, I.T. 1977. Counting Things in Middle Chinese. In Written Artifacts and Problems of History of Oriental Peoples Culture. The XIII Annual Scientific Session of LO ICS AS USSR, Nauka, Moscow, pp. 161–169.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-19-27

THE MOTIVES OF THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS IN VLADIMIR NABOKOV’S “INVITATION TO A BEHEADING”

Galina V. Denissova1, Elena N. Kornilova2

1Pisa State University Pisa, Italy e-mail: [email protected] 2Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-4606-8484

Abstract. Nabokov’s fiction based on a recollection of the past at various times became the object of psychological and psychoanalytic research. All the despite the fact, that there is hardly any other novelist in the history of modern literature who declares more antipathy toward Freud and his method that Nabokov. Purpose of the present study is to show that Nabokov’s memoirs, as well as in his novels, provide interesting material for psychoanalysts and psychiatrists. General method of the present research is the psychoanalytic theory by Jung. Articles on the topic of Nabokov’s antipathy toward Freud were reviewed to identify relevant studies including psychoanalytic methods in Nabokov’s works. An analysis of Nabokov’s novel “Invitation to a Beheading” proved that in his early modernist texts the writer reached visionary insights and operated on images and models of the collective unconscious born in his imagination. During the life of the writer, many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts turned to his novels for finding examples for their scientific constructions. The most likely version seems that Nabokov was afraid of his own personality and tried to create his

19 own method of artistic texts that was equally accurate in the preparation of human psychology. According to Jung, the plot of the dream is not as important as the interaction of the archetypal motives of the dream with the details of the dreamer's personal life; often the artist’s biography suggests clues, but an unequivocal interpretation is still impossible. The symbolic meaning is often hidden from the artist himself, but visionaries are able to follow the channels of the unconscious, being able to pull out of the “basement” meanings that are easily identifiable by consumers of literature. Notwithstanding how scornful was the attitude of Nabokov to psychoanalysis, it can be assumed that in his novels there still flashes the shadow of Sigmund Freud. Keywords: archetypical models; psychoanalytic method; collective unconscious; dream; hallucination story

Introduction European modernism in the time of significant social changes offered the audience an extraordinary degree of candour. Surrealism that made a giant step forward in the development of patterns and recognized forms of dream poetics, opening, new shape of modernistic expression, to many dream writers of the XXth century such as Jorge Luis Borges, Jean Cocteau and, undoubtedly, Vladimir Nabokov who was searching for his own manner in the second half of the 1930s. Nabokov’s fiction based on a recollection of the past at various times became the object of psychological and psychoanalytic research (Alexandrov A., 1995; Appel A., Newman C., 1971). All the despite the fact, that there is hardly any other novelist in the history of modern literature who declares more antipathy toward Freud and his method that Nabokov (De La Durantaye L., 2005; Green G., 1988; Shute J.P., 1984). Apparently, it’s not easy to dig out any children’s traumatism and psychological problems of Nabokov’s personality: the autobiographical “Speak Memory” (Nabokov V., 1989), for

20 instance, reveals the idyllic world of childhood, reminiscent of the myth of forever lost paradise. Purpose of the present study is to show that Nabokov’s memoirs, as well as in his novels, provide interesting material for psychoanalysts and psychiatrists. Materials and Methods General method of the present research is the psychoanalytic theory by Jung. Articles on the topic of Nabokov’s antipathy toward Freud were reviewed to identify relevant studies including psychoanalytic methods in Nabokov’s works. Findings Vladimir Nabokov vs Sigmund Freud It’s a very well known fact that from his first works to his last - in Russian, English or French - Nabokov shows himself ever ready to combat what he calls “madly frolicking Freudianism” (le freudisme folâtre). From the 1920s to the 1970s, the emphasis remains the same: psychoanalysis is associated with the medieval and the superstitious, with the stupidity and credulity of the simple and communal. For Nabokov Freud’s thought is something that should be mocked and thwarted. It is associated with prison, with preschool, with the pre-mature and the pre-modern, e.i. it is something that limits freedom and individuality. In “Lolita” (Nabokov V., 1995) Nabokov parodies not only the methods but also the professional skills of psychotherapists. The trauma of Humbert Humbert, in fact, is associated with the unfulfilled half-childish love to the twelve-year-old Anabella, who died in Corfu. Pathology came out in adulthood as a love to the nymphets (Nabokov’s term). Humbert married an adult woman and for a long time was receiving treatment in a psychiatric clinic, trying to be normal. Moreover, the name of the hero of the “Invitation to a Beheading” (Nabokov V., 1980) seems to be in the direct borrowing from one famous work by Freud’s “The wit and his relation to the unconscious” (Freud S., 2011) that tells about a certain minister of agriculture, the least suitable for the position of all who occupied

21 it. Indeed, this choice of the Roman name for the hero, is unexpected, moreover, it gives a reservation according to Freud. All these features demonstrate “metaphysical” identity of the hero and author himself, who constantly accentuates in other texts and diaries his exclusivity and aristocracy, painful abruption of the world of realities and cold contempt for the crowd, its social prohibitions and taboos. In Central Europe of the mid-thirties, this perception was obviously much more intensified due to the flourishing of totalitarian systems that rely on an undifferentiated mass consciousness in which intellectuals and the “electees” were really black sleep subject to “purging”. Nabokov’s dream motive The work of dreams, according Freud, essentially consists in translating thoughts into some kind of hallucinatory experience (Freud S., 2001: 134). The dreams and hallucinations make up the narrative basis of Nabokov’s “Invitation to a Beheading” that is full of images and Structurally-semiotic motives of the collective unconsciousness. In this “metaphysical” novel there is no binding to the space-time landmarks that are so traditional for Russian literature and so relevant to Western Central Europe of the time, which fills it with ambivalence adding a touch of fragility. At the beginning of the novel the protagonist, named Cincinnat C. learns of his death sentence. At the end he is beheaded with an axe in the square in front of the huge gathering of people that turn out to be partially painted on backdrops of the scenery. A confession or rather the inner monologue of the one sentenced to death makes the plot the novel. The leitmotif of a dream followed by imaginary hallucinations, appears from the very beginning of Nabokov’s “Invitation to a Beheading” and runs throughout the text. The essence of Cincinnat’s crime is described as “metaphysical” vague and is defined as “gnosiological filth” and opaqueness on the background of rather “transparent” society. The author is likely to hint at the hostility of stupefied and hardened world in which there is no place for a man like Cincinnat. All these features reflect the identity of both the protagonist and the author.

The basic spatial landmarks of the novel are born from this worldview: an ancient fortress with towers where Cincinnat languishes; endless cranked labyrinthine corridors that lead either to dead ends or to his chamber; the tunnel that leads either to the executioner’s room or to the prison director’s apartment. They escalate fear or are derived from this fear as well as steep meaningless stairs going nowhere. A direct parallel to the painful dreams of Borges, captured in “The Immortal”. Usually such dreams haunt people that have suffered a psychological trauma. In the case of Borges it occurred in infancy (the birth by cesarean section). As the antithesis to the space of fear serve the memories of the Tamarins Gardens - a symbol of paradise where the hero was happy and beloved. Each of the characters in the novel, with the exception of Cincinnatus, is endowed with the derogatory features of a carnival parody and at the same time coincides with the long-known archetypes of the collective unconscious. His wife, Marthe, the Everlasting Mother: sexy, feminine, depraved, and charmingly ugly. This is the embodied Anima in all its duality and unpredictability. She is not going to hide from him their constant infidelities. It is not the only female image in this novel characterized by hypersexuality and promiscuity in sexual relationships. In the earlier “The Gift” (Nabokov V., 1991), the protagonist Cherdyntsev creates a parody of Nikolay Chernyshevsky, the apostle and martyr of the Russian revolution. One of the pejorative moments with a clearly carnival character is the image of the young wife of the ardent revolutionary democrat Olga Sokratovna, who seduced and duped the awkward virgin, and the marriage turned out to be miserable. It is obvious that the fashion for such types of novel heroines is becoming widely replicated in modernist literature after Joyce. The mother of the hero Cycyllium С., that is appearing only in one episode, is dry, cold and restrained, an allegory of the Puritan moral, broken by her with the birth of an illegitimate son and the cynical refusal of him. Rodion is the rustic jailer, a peasant with a

23 fake red beard, blue eyes and corresponding smells - a good- natured animal, frightened by the moth, which he himself brought to feed the spider. Rodion is often reincarnated in Rodrig Ivanovich and, conversely, in at least two episodes, the twins are the junior jailer and director of the prison. The prison director himself is a phatous rogue, prone to panache, just as his subordinate does not understand the guilt or the suffering of the prisoner entrusted to them. The twins, embodying the violence of society over the individual, are also an embodiment of power, perhaps not cruel, but unjust and, most importantly, senseless. The poetics of the absurd, permeating the whole novel, actually resembles Franz Kafka specially his anonymously non-rational and metaphysical “The Trial” (Kafka F., 1999) and “The Castle” (Kafka F., 1998). In the behavior of these avatars of power one could see indifference and the tyrannical essence of an archetypical Father. There are two mediators: the senseless and weak lawyer Roman Vissarionovich, who has sympathy for the condemned, but no will and desire to help, because life is going on as usual, and to fight against something obvious is meaningless; and the executioner, Monsieur Pierre, is a real jester and a provocateur seeking to make friendship with the victim, even with a kiss for brotherhood, for which he arranges circus performances, theater stunts, home get-togethers for chess and tea, and finally, an imaginary dig. This is a well-fed and foul-smelling evil, the entire embodiment of Death, with its inevitability and obsession. Cincinnatus C. himself is the distracted, rejected by the world intellectual, a teacher of sick and outcast children, a subtle nature on the outskirts of the banal burgher life. His sensitivity, his spiritual aristocracy, special manners, his self-consciousness are similar to Nabokov himself, as well as the tragic (“pessimistic”, according to the critic) attitude that unites them. The portrait of Cincinnatus, “light as a leaf”, with thin fingers, a fluffy blond beard and mustache, looks like either the young author, or Christ, persecuted, doomed, misunderstood prophet of high ideals.

Already on the first page of the novel, an allusion to Christ breaks in - the Cincinnatus’ dream of a man walking on water (Nabokov V., 1980: 3). An obsessive leitmotif, supplemented with imaginary hallucinations, Cincinnatus’ dreams pass through the entire text, containing elements of a miracle or hallucinations. But this miracle is instantly interrupted by the sound of the key in the lock when Rodion unlocks the camera. With a prayer for the Chalice of Christ in the Gethsemane garden, the hero of “Invitation to a Beheading” is also related to the modernist prayer of Cincinnatus, passing as a leitmotif throughout the novel. Nabokov’s hero feels himself a penitential victim, a scapegoat in the chilling world of universal alienation: “Everything was coming apart. Everything was falling. A spinning wind was picking up and whirling: dust, rags, chips of painted wood, bits of gilded plaster, pasteboard bricks, posters; an arid gloom fleeted; and amidst the dust, and the falling things, and the flapping scenery, Cincinnatus made his way in that direction where, to judge by the voices, stood beings akin to him” (ivi: 207). Discussion During the life of the writer, many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts turned to his novels for finding examples for their scientific constructions. Nabokov himself provoked interest in his writings with harsh statements about the teachings of Freud and his students. In recent years, the discussion has become even more acute. The opinion that Nabokov simply hated Freud long ago swept aside. The most likely version seems to us that Nabokov intuitively sensed some kind of rivalry with Freudians and psychoanalysts, was afraid of their conjectures about his own personality and tried to create his own method of artistic texts that was equally accurate in the preparation of human psychology. Conclusions An analysis of Nabokov’s novel “Invitation to a Beheading” proved that in his early modernist texts the writer reached visionary insights and operated on images and models of the collective unconscious born in his imagination. This quality of Nabokov’s prose gives a wide scope for psychoanalytic studies. According to

Jung (Jung C.G., 1976; Jung C.G., 1989), the plot of the dream is not as important as the interaction of the archetypal motives of the dream with the details of the dreamer's personal life; often the artist’s biography suggests clues, but an unequivocal interpretation is still impossible. The symbolic meaning is often hidden from the artist himself, but visionaries are able to follow the channels of the unconscious, being able to pull out of the “basement” meanings that are easily identifiable by consumers of literature. Notwithstanding how scornful was the attitude of Nabokov to psychoanalysis, it can be assumed that in his novels there still flashes the shadow of Sigmind Freud.

References Alexandrov, A. (ed.) 1995. The Garland Companion to Vladimir Navokov. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 560 pp. Appel, A., Newman, C. 1971. Nabokov: criticism, reminiscences, translations, and tributes. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 720 pp. De La Durantaye, L. 2005. Vladimir Nabokov and Sigmund Freud, or a Particular Problem. American Imago. 62 (1): 59-73. Freud, S. 2001. The Ego and the Id. Verlag, Vienna, 2001, 223 pp. Freud, S. 2011. The wit and his relation to the unconscious. Dover Publications, NY, 417 pp. Green, G. 1988. Freud and Nabokov. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1988, 152 pp. Jung, C.G. 1976. Man and His Symbols. Picador USA, 256 pp. Jung, C.G. 1989. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Random House, NY, 189 pp. Kafka, F. 1998. The Castle: A New Translation Based on the Restored Text (The Schocken Kafka Library), Penguin Random House. Canada. 187 pp. Kafka, F. 1999. The Trial: A New Translation Based on the Restored Text (The Schocken Kafka Library), Penguin Random House. Canada. 194 pp. Nabokov, V. 1980. The Invitation to a Beheading. Penguin Modern Classics, London, 128 pp.

Nabokov, V. 1991. The Gift. Vintage, Reiissue ed.; NY, 384 pp. Nabokov, V. 1989. Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited. Vintage International, NY, 150 pp. Nabokov, V. 1995. Lolita. Penguin Books, London, 82 pp. Shute, J. P. 1984. Nabokov and Freud: the Play of Power. Fiction Studies. 30 (4): 637-650.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-28-37

FROM PASPORTIZATION TO LINGUISTIC-CULTURAL FIELDS OF “CAUCASIAN MOUNTAIN MAN” AND “SCOTTISH HIGHLANDER”

Natalia M. Nepomniashchikh

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-6235-6534

Abstract. The research is focused on typical Russian and British concepts ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’. The aim of this study is to depict correlation between these concepts. Linguistic-cultural fields construction stimulated by the research conducted by O.A. Dmitrieva devoted to the ‘passport of linguistic-cultural types’ is undertaken in order to evaluate the existence and the number of similarities and differences between ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’. These fields are formed using the ideas expressed by V.V. Vorobjev (1997) in his monograph and due to the analyses of literary sources of the 19th century. Namely, the works by Mikhail Yu. Lermontov (to analyze the situation in Russian linguistic culture) and Sir Walter Scott (to characterize the situation in the British one) were studied. These writers were chosen not only because of the time period when they were creating their novels, but also because both originally were highlanders. Literary pieces chosen from the selected for the research works helped to ‘draw’ an image of typical ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’ of the 19th century. The most remarkable elements of the linguistic- cultural fields of both concepts are presented in this article. All collected data are systematized in schemes and tables reflecting the linguistic and cultural differences between two concepts under analysis and, what is more important, the most correlating areas of

28 their life, appearance, culture, behavior and etc. are revealed. The main conclusion made after this part of the research is that no matter how the geography, the culture, the history of the prototypical ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’ are, they are undoubtedly quite similar spiritually, as they have common values which they maintain (love for family, wife, children and friends, respect to elderly, honor to national weapons and clothing, etc.). What is more, both concepts are quite alike in their character features, being emotional, passionate, brave and even severe. These conclusions may stimulate the future research connected with the image of modern ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’ of the 20th – 21st centuries in literature and in the minds of their contemporaries. Keywords: concept, linguistic culture, lexical item, linguistic- cultural field

Introduction By the end of the 20th century the attention of linguists was drawn to the study of language and speech interaction with the life and culture of different ethnic groups. Further research interest was focused on the human factor in the language, which led to the birth of a number of disciplines. Among them there are such ones as linguoculturology, anthropo-linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc., the object of which is consideration of speech and cultural phenomena in close connection with a person (Yu.D. Apresyan, O.A. Dmitrieva, G. Ipsen, V.I. Karasik, J. Lyons, V.A. Maslova, etc.). Objectives/Purpose of the study This article aims at depicturing correlation between ‘Caucasian mountain man’ as a concept of Russian culture and the British concept ‘Scottish Highlander’ by reveling most typical lexical items from their linguistic-cultural fields. Methodology Previous findings while conducting this research helped to analyze the definitions on the lexical items correlated with the concepts

29 under study. Besides, the lexico-semanic fields of the concepts ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’ were built. Further development of the topic led to forming the passports of both concepts. The idea of ‘passport’ (‘the passport of linguistic-cultural type’) belongs to O.A. Dmitrieva (Dmitrieva O.A., 2007), who suggested to include such characteristics as appearance, clothing, age, gender, origin, place of residence and home, occupation, leisure time, marital status, environment, speech characteristics in it. Building the linguistic-cultural fields of the analyzed concepts, the works by M.Yu. Lermontov and W. Scott were studied. In the works of M.Yu. Lermontov, the concept and corresponding lexical items were found in a variety of combinations (173 pieces with this item or with corresponding lexical items and their derivatives). The works by W. Scott gave 379 pieces. The analyses of the lexical items found, made it possible to structure them according to the main topic, this classification is structured according to O.A. Dmitrieva’s idea, however, the list of parameters is modified due to the focus of this study: the place of living; pastime; appearance (neighbourhood); environment; stuff; behaviour; moral principles and values; religious views; attitude to mountaineers. Consider some of the most interesting results in the comparison of constructed ‘Caucasian mountain man’ and ‘Scottish Highlander’ linguistic-cultural fields elements. Result/Findings After the analysis of the pieces from M.Yu. Lermontov works, it can be stated that the mountain man’s place of living has some specific geographical features. The mountaineer lives in the East (of Russia), in Georgia, his natural surrounding is mountains, snow and blizzard, border, wind. Talking about the character of the mountain man’s dwelling, he lives in an aul, in a village, in a hut. In addition, we have identified a variety of adjectives that describe the dwelling of the mountain man; among them there are adjectives

30 with positive (peaceful, simple, dear, gorgeous) and negative colouring (unapproachable, dark). This analysis allowed to build the element of a linguistic-cultural field that characterizes the Caucasian mountain man’s place of living. Consider the following scheme:

Figure 1. ‘Caucasian mountain man’ place of living linguistic- cultural field In turn, the Scottish highlander lives in the Scottish Highlands. Some peculiar features of his habitat were also depicted throughout the research: mountains, wild country, trees, etc. The highlander’s dwelling may be different, depending on his social and financial status: castle, cave, cottage, etc. In the works of W. Scott there are many adjectives that describe the environment and the nature of the highlander’s dwelling: wild, deep, dark, beautiful, etc. Consider the scheme: The analysis of the pieces from M.Yu. Lermontov’s works gave the opportunity to find a lot of Caucasian mountain men descriptions: “He seemed to be fifty years old; dark color of his face showed that it is a long time familiar with the Transcaucasian sun and premature graying mustache matched his firm gait and brisk mind” (Lermontov M.Yu., 2020).

Figure 2. ‘Scottish highlander’ place of living linguistic-cultural field The features of the appearance are to be divided according to some parameters (see some examples): • National features: Asians; Osset boys; dirty Armenians; tender Lezghian girl; skinny Georgian; Circassian on a tall pelter; • Clothing: short caftan (arkhaluk); wide silk bloomers; their hats, thin sleeves; caftans on them lined with silver; gaiters and slippers (chereviki) fit up with all the accuracy; white undertunic, dark brown chokha; in rags; • Eyes: wanton eyes; open, unresponsive eyesight; black-eyed knight; staring sadly; eagle eye-sight; their dark and wicked eyes; greeting of the northern eyes; self-righteously shining eyes; • Image: mountainous fit; slim horsemen; to ride gravely; sure step; cheerful look; small, bone-dry; dark skin; ragged; dirty. All these examples make it possible to draw a portrait of a generalized image of a typical Caucasian Mountain man. Systematizing the epithets used to characterize the appearance of a mountain man consider them in the table: Analyzing these epithets, we can say that M. Yu. Lermontov treated a mountaineer more neutrally or positively rather than negatively.

Figure 3. Epithets Describing Caucasian mountain man’s Appearance In the course of the pieces from the works of W. Scott analysis, we have established a series of highlander descriptions. He is often presented in his national clothes and with traditional weapons: kilt, tartan, sporran, sword, etc. A number of pieces is devoted to the appearance of the highlander: “The other mountaineer was a very tall, strong man, with a quantity of reddish hair, freckled face, high cheek-bones, and long chin-a sort of caricature of the national features of Scotland” (Scott W., 2020). Consider some of the lexical items divided in groups in more detail: • National features: a sort of caricature of the national features of Scotland; Gael; • Clothing: bare-breeched; clothed in a purple, red and green plaid; a jacket of bull's hide; a bonnet; • Weapons: his bow and arrows were at his back; sword and dagger; a Danish pole axe; a Lochaber axe; completely armed; fully armed and equipped; broadsword blazed; hatcher at the end of the pole; long ducking-gun; long-barrelled guns; • Height: colossal; gigantic; low stature; tall; large; little; very tall;

• Eyes: peering anxiously; jealous eye; dark; blue; look curiously; look with the air of triumph; seem courteously disposed; the sight of a Gael; leer on the face; • Image: grim; grim-looking; stout; courageous; ranting; rival- power; rude state; shadowy figure; dark features; ruddy glow of health and animation; wild; bulky; sleeping. Paying attention to the highlander’s image, it is possible to identify several adjectives to describe its characteristic features:

Figure 4. Epithets Describing Scottish highlander’s Appearance After analyzing the data in the table, it can be concluded that the appearance of the highlander in the works of W. Scott is treated equally – positively, neutrally and negatively. It may reflect the objective description of the concept under consideration. A typical environment of a Caucasian mountain man is his family and friends, the representatives of his nation, however, Caucasian mountain man can be surrounded by the enemies too. According to this, the environment (neighbourhood) of a typical Caucasian mountain man can be divided into: family (“There is no such a woman, and the Turkish sultan”), friends (“Galub interrupted my dreams, struck on the shoulder; he was my kunak”) and enemies (“and think mountaineers: “The enemy is dashing! You too grave is ready!” (Lermontov M.Yu., 2020). See the systematized data in the table:

Figure 5. Caucasian mountain man’s Environment The highlander’s environment is diverse: “But his antagonist, crying “Fair play, fair play!” seemed courteously disposed to take no share in the scuffle”. “He will speak with such glee of everything which is ancient, excepting my family”. (Scott W., 2020). Consider the Scottish highlander’s environment (neighbourhood) in the table (two characteristics have been added: highlander’s comrades and other people in the highlander’s environment): In the works of M.Yu. Lermontov and W. Scott a diverse attitude to “Caucasian Mountain man” and “Scottish Highlander” is observed. It varies from the absolutely negative (like evil spirits, wild people) to completely positive (a wonderful person, hospitable). Probably both concepts arose people’s mixed feelings to them in the 19th century. From the first sight, they often seemed savages and aggressors, however, with a closer acquaintance they revealed their passionate nature, affection for their beloved ones, respect for culture, etc.

Figure 6. Scottish highlander’s Environment Discussion Summarizing the results of undertaken comparative analysis, it can be noted that the concepts of “Caucasian Mountain man” and “Scottish Highlander”, belonging to different linguistic cultures have more similarities and correlations than differences. This appear not only due to linguistic and cultural, but also to geographical and historical factors. However, with obvious differences the considered types of man-warriors are quite close. The fact that Caucasian mountain men usually make a negative impression on people in Russia, and Scottish Highlanders in Britain is quite remarkable. However, the prototypes of both concepts under analysis were brought up with respect to elderly and their family, with love to their wife and children. “Caucasian Mountain men” and “Scottish Highlanders” prefer to wear traditional clothing, and national weapons are of great spiritual value to them. Recognition of images and the presence of the

36 emotional reaction that they caused among contemporaries, confirms their significance in linguistic cultures of the 19th century of both countries.

References Dmitrieva, O.A. 2007. Russian and French Linguocultural Types of the 20th century. Peremena, Volgograd, 307 pp. Lermontov, M.Yu. 2020. Collected works. URL: http://maxima- library.org/mob/bl/series/9029 [Accessed March 03, 2020]. Scott, W. 2020. Collected Books. URL: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/search/? query=walter+scott [Accessed March 05 2020]. Vorobjev, V.V. 1997. Linguistic-Cultural Studies (theory and methodology). Publishing house RUDN, Moscow, pp. 63-64.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-38-45

LANGUAGE VARIETY IN MODERN LINGUISTICS

Feruza E. Sabirbaeva

Al-Farabi Kazakh National University Almaty, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The theory of language variety attracted many linguists’ attention as well as Kazakh scientists. The investigation of this phenomenon gives us to understand the principles and laws of its diachronic and synchronic language functioning. The problem of variety isn’t thoroughly investigated in terms of theory. When we speak about the variety of language, there are a lot of valuable ideas. Although there isn’t a unique point of view on the theory of variety. Alongside with the term language variety we can see the terms as variant, invariant, variety, variability. Having analyzed the investigations of Russian, foreign and Kazakh linguists, we should investigate this question from the different sides. For example, from the position of general linguistics: the questions rise about the notion of “the variety ontology”, “variant”, “invariant”, “types of variety”, “factors of variety”, “the borders of language variety”. Evolutional development of language units is investigated from the point of history of language. The stratification and territorial realization of language variants are revised from the point of sociolinguistics. In the recent years, the term variety of language is investigated in the aspect of intercultural communication. The variety of language is applicable to the all levels of language, it is investigated in all levels of language system, for example, in the level of phonetics, lexis and grammar, so it helps to solve the problems of phonology, syntax and semantics.

It should be noted out, that there isn’t a unique terminology notion about “variety of language”. It plays the main role in the language life. It fulfills important social functions, so it allows to differentiate spatial and social groups of speakers, to make the speech more concrete and expressive. Despite of different views, it is necessary to differentiate the notion of “variability”, “variety of language” and “variant”. The difference between them was suggested by Saint-Petersburg phonological school. Having analyzed the works of Kazakh linguists, we can see that the question is still unsolved, as there isn’t concrete investigation of the theme. Keywords: language variety, variant, invariant, variability

Introduction The problem of language variability is one of the most complex, multifaceted and diverse in modern linguistics. Language as a functional system is in a state of continuous movement. In any language, particulars are constantly changing while maintaining the main (general, invariant). According to the theory of “language drift” proposed by E. Sepir, language moves in time and space along its own course; individual speech variations move in a certain direction, determined by the “drift” of the language: “Language drift has its own direction ... only those individual variations that move in a certain direction are fixed in it, just as only some wave movements in the bay correspond to the tide and ebb. Language drift is carried out through the selection of those individual deviations that correspond to some predetermined direction that is not controlled by the speakers” (Sepir, 2001: 144). An inevitable consequence of evolution, a natural manifestation of the changes occurring in it, one of its fundamental properties is its inherent variability of linguistic units. The general and particular problems of language variability have been studied for a long time, which allowed us to accumulate and generalize the vast practical material of many languages. However,

39 today, when the world has entered the era of globalization, many processes associated with the development of language, culture and other attributes of human society are taking new forms. This provokes the need to take a fresh look at the traditional issues of language variability. Theoretical analysis The study of the relationship of a particular language and its varieties (variants) interested language researchers back in the 12th century. A teacher at the Salamanca University Correas in 1626 described the phenomenon that is of interest to modern linguists as follows: “It should be noted that the language has, besides the dialects that exist in the provinces, some varieties related to the age, status and property of the inhabitants of these provinces: there is a language of rural inhabitants, commoners, townspeople, noble gentlemen and courtiers, a historian, an old man, a preacher, women, men and even small children. But a common language embraces all these varieties, subordinating them to its power, power and originality, and this language is well suited to every person, and the courtier can choose from it what is more to his taste, just as he chooses a suit for himself. But one should not think that the private style of the courtier is this single and common language. This is only part of it, because the courtier rejects much of what is useful and elegant in the language of a historian, elder, preacher, and others” (cited in (Vinaza, 1893: 60-61). The first theory of variability was proposed simultaneously by representatives of the Prague Circle and Baudouin de Courtenay in the 1920s. She found her theoretical coverage in the work of N.S. Trubetskoy "Fundamentals of Phonology" (Trubetskoy, 1960: 361). Exploring the phenomena of the phonological level, N.S. Trubetskoy came to the conclusion that any phoneme can be realized in a number of sounds. All sounds in which the same phoneme is realized, he called it variants, and after defining the phonetic variant, he indicated the conditions under which two sounds should be considered either as the realization of two different phonemes, or as two variants of the same phoneme.

Investigations of N.S. Trubetskoy about the variant found application in the development of this problem at different levels of the language, primarily lexical. Along with linguistic and statistical studies, such scientists as K.S. Gorbachevich, R.P. Rogozhnikova, V.M. Solntsev are developing theoretical problems of language variants. These works emphasize that variants inevitably accompany language evolution; they appear as a result of the transformation of language means due to the contact of a literary language with dialects, professional speech, vernacular or jargon, and other languages. V.V. Vinogradov and A.I. Smirnitsky was one of the first to carry out a theoretical analysis of the options. They laid the foundation for the study of formal grammatical and semantic variation of the word in the general literary system of the language. Developing his concept of word forms, V.V. Vinogradov proceeded from the understanding of the word as the unity of all its sides, organized by a common “lexical-semantic core” of all its forms (Vinogradov, 1944). Unlike a number of other scholars (D. Bloomfield, A.A. Poebnya, A.M. Peshkovsky, D.N. Ushakov), he believed that all varieties of the morphological structure of the word, as well as its various syntactic-phraseological connections are grammatical forms of the word, and not separate words In modern linguistics the great contribution on this theme was done by the following scientists as: G.V. Stepanov, E.A. Referovskaya, V.N. Yartseva, A.D. Schweitzer, Ph. Bosch, R. Jacobson, A.I. Smirnitsky, N.N. Stepanova, O.S. Akhmanova, N.Yu. Shvedova, V.M. Solntsev, etc. The Kazakh linguists as I.K. Uyikbayev, Sh.Sh. Sarybaev, E.D. Suleimenova, S. Kenesbayev, A. Bolganbayev, R. Syzdykova, etc. also made investigations concerning the theory of language variety. Some researchers (T.P. Lomtev, O.I. Moskalskaya, K.S. Gorbachevich, R.P. Rogozhnikova) suppose that starting point of highlighting the variants is in its structural design.

The next group of scientists (V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, M.D. Stepanova, N.N. Semenuyk, I.P. Raspopov, I.B. Khlebnikova, Z.D. Popova) point out that it is necessary distinguish between variability both in terms of expression and in terms of content. The problem of variability in linguistics rises in full growth in the following cases: - in the study of the "mechanism", "device" of the language, which can be called variant-invariant; - when studying the functioning of the language and the transition from language to speech; - in the study of intra-lingual factors of change and development of the language (variation and transformation of options into new entities); - if necessary to explain the different appearance of “the same units” or their forms, explain different kinds of alternations under the influence of different factors; - in a sociolinguistic study of the variation of the norm and the use of different manifestations of the same units for stylistic, expressive and normative purposes (Solntsev, 1984: 33). The above mentioned, probably, does not exhaust all cases when there is a need to refer to the concept of variety, but is the most important and frequent cases. Sometimes variety is interpreted very widely: along with modifications in the formal or semantic plan of the same linguistic units, it includes the forms that usually qualify as synonyms (O.S. Akhmanova, L.P. Evgenieva, V.S. Khrakovsky, V.P. Konetskaya, P.A. Rastorgueva, A.I. Cherednichenko). With the widespread use of the term “variation”, we can speak about national-state versions of language, the variation of dialect and sub-dialect language, the variation of sociolects, the age- related speech variation or variation of male and female speech, and even pragmatic variation (V.D. Devkin, A.I. Domashnee, G.V. Stepanov, A.D. Schweitzer). However, there are also such

42 concepts in which variant relations are related to duplet (L.P. Zaitseva, V.M. Filippova). The investigation of language variety can be fulfilled from different sides. For example, from the position of general linguistics: the questions rise about the notion of “the variety ontology”, “variant”, “invariant”, “types of variety”, “factors of variety”, “the borders of language variety”. The following definition is given in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary: variability (from lat. Variants ... - changing) (variability) - 1) idea of different ways of expressing a linguistic entity as its modification, variety or as a deviation from a certain norm. … ; 2) a term that characterizes the way of existence and functioning of units of the language and the language system as a whole (LES, 1990). By definition, V.G. Gak, variability is one of the fundamental properties of the functioning of a language (Gak, 2010: 4). Variability is an indispensable feature of the language, it is determined by the language, imposed on them (Verbitskaya, 2001: 14). According to N.M. Firsova, on the topic of “variability”, there is wide variability (both formal and semantic) of the terminological apparatus reflecting this concept. The terms “variability”, “variation”, and “variability” are very often used as equivalents of the term “variability”. There have been some attempts at their terminological delimitation, but not all of them have yielded positive results. The term “variability” is defined by scientists in different ways: “partial variability”, “ability to modify”, “process of modification”, etc. These undertakings did not have any significant results. These terms continue to be used in parallel, and the most diverse interpretations are attributed to them (Firsova, 2000: 84). The term “variety of language” in the dictionary of sociolinguistic terms is defined as the fundamental and universal peculiarity of the language and language units, providing its functioning and suitability. Each unit of the language, while remaining unchanged

43 in meaning, exists at the same time in a variety of variants, the language exists in territorial, social, stylistic, functional, national form (dictionary of socio-linguistic terms, 2007: 34). Conclusion Despite the various approaches, we adhere to the concepts of the Saint-Petersburg phonological school and try to distinguish between the concepts of “variability”, “variability” and “variability”. Variability (вариабельность) - a property of the language (or its levels) as a whole, the ability to vary regulatory tools. Variety (вариативность) - the interchangeability of options within the framework of a synchronous approach and in the framework of literature, normativity; the functioning of regulatory options in speech activity. Variantion (вариантность) is a combination of variants (both in synchrony and in diachrony), the use of which is noted in speech (literature - not literature; old - new; correct - incorrect, etc.) (Verbitskaya, 1976: 19). In order to highlight the problem of variety in the language, one should take into account both the general features of the language and the specific cultural and historical conditions in which linguistic variation is carried out (Stepanov, 2004: 53).

References Conde de la Vinasa. 1893. Biblioteca Historica de la Filologia Castellana. 3-rd Volume. Madrid, 1113 pp. Dictionary of socio-linguistic terms. 2007. Edited by E.D. Suleimenova. Almaty, Kazakh University, 330 pp. Firsova, N.M. 2000. Language variety and national-cultural peculiarities of oral communication in Spanish. Manual. RUDN edition, Moscow, 128 pp. Gak, V.G. 2010. Language transformations. Types of language transformations Russian literature language school, Moscow, 768 pp. LES. 1990. Edition under V.N. Yartseva. Soviet encyclopedia, Moscow, 685 pp.

Sepir, E. 2001. Selected works on linguistics and culture study/translated from German language. 2-nd edition. Progress, Moscow, 655 pp. Solntsev, В.М. 1984. Variety as the peculiarity of the language system. The issues in linguistics 2: 31-43. Stepanov, G.V. 2004. To the issues of language variability. In Spanish language in Spain and in the USA. 2-nd edition. Editorial URSS, Moscow, 328 pp. Verbitskaya, L.A. 1976. Russian orthoepy. Leningrad university press, Leningrad, 123 pp. Vinogradov, V.V. 1944. About word forms. Selected works. Volume 3, (1). Academy of science of USSR, Moscow, 172 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-46-54

OLD AGE IN THE MIRROR OF METAPHOR

Nella A. Trofimova

Saint-Petersburg State University National Research University Higher School of Economics Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-4088-0730

Abstract. The paper gives an analysis of the metaphors of old age that are well-established in German culture. The aim of the study is an empirical analysis of how old age is represented in the German language, reflecting the attitudes of society to old age. The material for the study was a selection of aphoristic and proverbal text fragments that include the lexeme Alter (hohes Alter). The methodological basis of the study is the cognitive theory of metaphor of G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, who argue that metaphors are not limited to the sphere of language and that the processes of human thinking themselves are metaphorical. The study also relies on metaphorical modeling, a theory which makes it possible to identify a system of metaphorical models in the discourse of old age, reflecting the attitude of members of society towards this discourse and its participants, forming a linguistic picture of the world. The analysis identified several metaphorical models; the most popular is the time cycle model (daily cycle, annual cycle), which represent old age as the evening or autumn of life – the time to prepare for the end of the cycle: winter/night is the time of death, when all life in nature freezes, “falls asleep”. Old age is personified as an evil tyrant, robbing an elderly person of external beauty, energy, sometimes even clarity of thoughts.

The natural metaphorical model proclaims the physical and mental functionality and attractiveness of old age: an old person is compared with natural phenomena (gray hair – foam after a big storm at sea). The architectural model represents old age as a building (a prison with the semantics of involuntary alienation from life, limiting the possibilities of movement and communication) or as its element (a balcony, which makes it possible to see wide surroundings and to evaluate what is happening). The semantics of metaphors include an emotional assessment of old age. The high degree of influence of the considered metaphors on the opinions and beliefs of society necessitate further study of the metaphors themselves and the discourses of their functioning. Keywords: old age, metaphor, metaphorical model, discourse of old age, cultural values

Introduction Old age is a significant socio-biological phenomenon, it is a universal of human development, all survivors in the struggle for life are aging, nobody succeeds in avoiding old age. Therefore, old age is certainly important for research by biologists, physicians and psychologists. Old age is also interesting for linguists who consider the discourses and the language of old age, pragmatic conditions for the elderly to communicate with each other and with representatives of the younger generations. This article is an attempt to engage in a linguistic empirical research of “old age” concept reflecting attitudes of society towards it. Objectives of the study The study is aimed at studying the metaphorical content of the “old age” concept in the German language picture of the world and intends to identify the specificity of the “old age” concept in German language and culture.

The material for the study are text fragments including the lexeme Alter (hohes Alter) identified by continuous sampling of dictionaries and the aphoristic texts on Internet sites (143 samples). Methodology The methodological basis of this study is the cognitive theory of metaphor of G. Lakoff and M. Johnson (Lakoff G., Johnson M., 1980; Lakoff G., 1993), who argue that the metaphor is not limited only to the scope of the language; the processes of human thinking themselves are metaphorical. Therefore our ordinary conceptual system within which we think and act is also metaphorical. In other words, a metaphor is not so much a means of describing reality as it is a way of understanding it through known things. We rely also on the theory of metaphorical modeling, which is a further development of the theory of conceptual metaphor and is based on the methodological principles of the cognitive-discursive research paradigm (Baranov A.N., Karaulov Yu.N., 1991; Baranov A.N., Karaulov Yu.N,. 1994; Chudinov A.P., 2001; Chudinov A.P., 2003; Chilton P., 1996; Zinken J., 2002). In this paradigm, the research is aimed at determining the connection of a linguistic phenomenon with the activity of human consciousness (a metaphor as a mental phenomenon) and the specificity of the use of this linguistic phenomenon in communication (the relationship between metaphors and factors of their relevance). The system of metaphorical models in the discourse of old age is an indicator of the state of public consciousness, it reflects the worldview of society, its attitude to this discourse and its participants. Metaphorical models not only form an idea of the object, but also determine the way and style of thinking about it (Arutyunova N.D., 1990: 14). Consequently, the problem of metaphorical transfer modeling turns out to be related to the problem of the formation and functioning of the linguistic picture of the world (Iomdin B.L., 2006). Findings The analysis allowed us to distinguish several metaphorical models. The first of them is a time cycle model: daily or annual. In

48 the first case, old age is presented as the evening of a long day (Lebensabend), full of affairs and troubles, events, joys and sorrows. The evening at the end of this day is old age, a time of rest and preparation for sleep – the departure from life. During this period, all the details of the world and relations in it are perceived unambiguously, without unnecessary embellishment: Das Leben ist gegen Abend, wie die Träume gegen Morgen, immer klarer (K.J. Weber: GZ) The annual time cycle model represents old age as the autumn of life (Herbst des Lebens). The metaphorical transfer is based on comparing life with the passage of time in nature, where the seasons change: life is born and blooms in spring, summer is the period of maturity, and autumn is the time to prepare for the completion of the cycle, accompanied by certain external and internal changes (... dass wir im Herbst und Winter des Lebens starrer und schroffer werden ... (J.W. Goethe: ZA)). Autumn is the time to harvest – the period that a person goes towards the whole life (Das Alter ist Erntezeit, das ganze Leben ist Vorbereitung auf das Alter), this is the time to take stock of life and to prepare to leave this cycle when winter comes – the time of death, when everything living in nature freezes, “falls asleep”. These two metaphorical images – evening and autumn of life – are calmly sad, stating inevitability rather than protesting against it. The metaphors for the association of old age with an incurable disease (Das Alter ist an sich eine Krankheit (Sprichwort: ZTA)), misfortune (Das Alter ist das Übel höchstens ... (G. Leopoldi: GZ)), a catastrophe comparable to the wreck of a ship, after which no one can survive (Das Alter ist ein Schiffbruch (Ch. de Gaulle: GZ) sound completely different. The semantics of these metaphors include a sharply negative assessment of the changes occurring in a person. Old age is personified. The personified image of old age as a two- faced Janus has two representations. One of them is the aggressive old age, a villain imperceptibly creeping up on a person, destroying their beauty (Das Alter ... kommt mit lautlosem Schritt), destroying

49 the beauty of a person with his bony hands (Das Alter streckt aus die Hand, die Schönheit zerstört ...). Old age is a tyrant, taking away strength, energy and beauty, all the joys of life, giving in return only pain and suffering (Das Greisenalter ist ein Tyrann, der alte Freuden der Jugend bei Todesstrafe verbietet (F. de La Rochefoucauld: GZ); Das Alter ... beraubt den Menschen aller Genüsse, lässt ihm aber das Verlangen daran und bringt alle Leiden mit sich (G. Leopoldi: ZTA)). Old age “digs” the face and consciousness with wrinkles (Das Alter gräbt uns mehr Falten in den Geist als ins Gesicht (M.E. de Montaigne: GZ), surrounds a person with an armor of misunderstanding (Das Alter umgibt einen wie ein Panzerschrank (H. Kesten: GZ)). An evil old age puts a person who fell into her hands as a laughing stock, but deprives him/her of the ability to understand this (Das Alter, das den Menschen der Lächerlichkeit aussetzt, nimmt ihm zugleich das Gefühl dieser Lächerlichkeit (S. Prudhomme: ZA)). When summarizing these metaphors an image of an evil bony dwarf demiurge arises, which at some point in time gains power over people's lives and, by virtue of his cunning, makes fun of them, taking away power, external beauty, sometimes even intellect. And only when the victim bores him, he terminates their existence. The second personified image is the image of detachment from the exitement of life, a more subtle emotional mood (a metaphor for tuning a musical instrument), a transition to emotional halftones: Das aber ist des Alters Schöne, / Dass es die Saiten reiner stimmt, / Dass es der Lust die grellen Töne, / dem Schmerz den herbsten Stachel nimmt (F. von Saat: GZ). Personified old age is endowed with specific internal characteristics – it is talkative and fearful: Das Alter ist feigherzig und geschwätzig (A. Schwarzer: GZ), it is ascetic (Das Alter liebt das Wenig ... (Sprichwort: GZ)). Old age has some skills that, however, can hardly be useful in its condition: Was hilft es, seinen

Wagen besser zu lenken, wenn man am Ende der Fahrt ist (J.-J. Rousseau: GZ). The metaphor of driving a car in the above sentence describes the ability of a personified old age to “manage” life situations, to be careful “driving” relationships – to avoid conflicts, not to rush in. The second metaphor – Ende der Fahrt – is based on comparing life with the road, which eventually ends, leaving practically no time left to show the qualities of a good “driver”. The above metaphorical models clearly show a traditionally negative attitude towards the old age, which is closely connected in the European mentality with thoughts about the inevitability of close departure. They are represented, as a rule, in the utterances of the representatives of this social group themselves, who know all the emotional and physical characteristics of old age from their own experience. There is another category of metaphors that deny solitary old age and proclaim its physical and mental functionality and attractiveness. This image has been realized in a wide anti-age discourse for over a century in various texts about good (active, healthy, productive) old age. A positive metaphorical image of old age is built on the basis of several more models. One of them is a natural metaphor when old people are compared with elements of nature, natural phenomena: Weiße Haare sind die Schaumspitzen, die das Meer nach dem Sturm bedecken (C. Sylva: GZ). Gray hair in this sentence is compared to foam after a major storm at sea. The storm metaphorically denotes a life full of events, ups and downs, fortunes and ruins. Another marine metaphor compares old age with a sea wave, which you just need to trust, and then it will allow you to stay afloat for a long time: Das Alter ist wie Woge im Meer. Wer sich von ihr tragen lässt, treibt obenauf (G. von le Fort: GZ). Marine metaphors are interesting for the romanticization of age: the source sphere has such authority and popularity, that even just referring to it causes a positive evaluation effect. Using the maritime sphere as a source of metaphorization again gives access

51 to an integral gestalt of rest / respite after a strong storm, but here the focus is not on the catastrophe, the distress of a shipwreck that will inevitably bring death, but on the fact that the storm is over, the sailor did not die, but gained valuable experience struggling with the waves and adjusting to their rhythm. The conceptual metaphor of life as sailing in the stormy sea (the person being the ship in this metaphor) acquires a clear sound in these statements. Often, metaphors are built according to the architectural model, old age is represented by a building with different architectural features. For example, in the statement Das Alter ist für mich kein Kerker, sondern ein Balkon, von dem man zugleich weiter und genauer sieht (G.R. Weekherlin: ZA), old age is compared to a balcony, which makes it possible to see wide surroundings. The balcony is a metaphor for psychological detachment, distance from one’s impulses and emotions. From the height of the balcony you can calmly evaluate others and what is happening, this is a kind of “look from afar on close things”. The balcony in the above statement is opposed to a building with another functional purpose – a prison. The prison metaphor very succinctly describes the fact of being sentenced to punishment and, as a result, the state of forced (involuntary) estrangement from life, limitation of the possibilities of movement and communication. M. Foucault, who wrote about the prison metaphor, pointed to the fact of the punitive effect of the prison (old age) on the body and soul, described the forms and patterns of prison coercion (emanating from the overseer-physical weakness in our case): solitary contemplation, silence, regular (scheduled) compulsory movements (Foucault M., 2019: 20). The use of the prison metaphor in relation to old age differs from how it functions in other discourses in that in old age there can be no mercy or at least leniency for good behavior, the sentence is in any case carried out. Conclusion The listed metaphorical models do not exhaust the entire pool of metaphors, many of them are still awaiting consideration. But even this small empirical review clearly proves the idea that the

52 metaphor has an important pragmatic function, influencing the opinions of society. The nature of the metaphor, its semantic and social orientation reflect like a mirror the mentality of society itself. The semantics of metaphors of old age include an emotional assessment (neutral (40%) or negative (60%)), which is “woven” into the conceptual system of world reflection and “imposes” a specific view on this phenomenon on speakers. The productivity of a particular sphere as a source of metaphorization is associated with the characteristics of human thinking and the life of a society during the birth of a metaphor. Therefore, the study of the main sources of metaphorization of old age is significant in terms of solving not only cognitive, but also sociolinguistic problems of language science.

References Arutyunova, N.D. 1990. Metaphor and discourse. In Theory of Metaphor. Progress, Moscow, Russia, pp. 5-32. Baranov, A.N., Karaulov Yu.N. 1991. Russian Political Metaphor. Materials for the Dictionary. Institut russkogo yasyka, Moscow, Russia, 193 p. Baranov, A.N., Karaulov Yu.N. 1994. Dictionary of Russian Political Metaphors. Pomovskiy I partnery, Moscow, Russia, 330 p. Chudinov, A.P. 2003. Metaphorical Mosaic in Modern Political Communication. Ural State Pedagogical University Press, Ekaterinburg, Russia, 248 p. Chudinov, A.P. 2001. Russia in a Metaphorical Mirror: a Cognitive Study of Political Metaphor (1991-2000). Ural State Pedagogical University Press, Ekaterinburg, Russia, 238 p. Chilton, P. 1996. Security Metaphors. Cold War Discourse from Containment to Common House. Peter Lang Inc., New York; Bern; Frankfurt/M., 470 p. Foucault, M. 2019. Oversee and Punish. The birth of a prison. Ad Marginem Press, Moscow, Russia, 383 p.

Iomdin, B.L. 2006. Language Model of Understanding. In Language Picture of the World and Systemic Lexicography. Yasyki slavyanskih kultur, Moscow, Russia, pp. 517-614. Lakoff, G. 1993. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. In Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, pp. 202-251. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors We Live by. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 256 p. Zinken, J. 2002. Imagination im Diskurs. Zur Modellierung metaphorischer Kommunikation und Kognition. Bielefeld University Press, Bielefeld, Germany, 263 p. Sources of language material Gutzitiert: Zitate, Sprüche und Aphorismen 1996-2020 (GZ). https://www.gutzitiert.de/zitate_sprueche-alter.html?page=3 [Accessed January 20, 2020]. Zitate zum Alter (ZA) 2016. http://www.hoepflinger.com/ fhtop/fhalter1C.html [Accessed January 21, 2020]. Zitate zum Thema: Alter 1997-2020 (ZTA). https://www.aphorismen.de/suche?f_thema=Alter [Accessed February 20, 2020].

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-55-63

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE BRITISH STANDART OF ENGLISH AND THE NEW ZEALAND VERSION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGES

Irina Kazakova1, Alena Gyrdymova2, Anastasia Podobina3

3Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia 2٫ 1٫ Moscow, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] . ORCID id: 0000-0001-7838-994X 2e-mail: [email protected] 3e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. For a long time the New Zealand version of English language was under the influence of British colonists who affected every aspect of the language, like phonology, lexis and grammar. On account of this, British English started to dominate suppressing minority languages, like the indigenous Te Reo Maori. Due to the colonist’s perception of Great Britain as the motherland that should always be followed, for a long time New Zealanders used the British English Standard. Slowly but steadily it began to change. Time has left an obvious imprint on the New Zealand version of English. Sharing a lot of features with British Standard, it has managed to gain and retain its own originality. Vowel shifts, longer pronunciation and vowel transformation are the characteristic linguistic features of English in New Zealand. The purpose of this survey is to make the comparative analysis of the two versions of English – the British Standard and the New Zealand variant- confirming the presence of existing differences between these options with the opinion poll data based on the online RUDN university survey of bachelors and magistrates. This article presents the main influence streams on the New Zealand variant of English. The major one is considered to be the indigenous Maori language. Apart from that, an impact of Pasifika

55 and Australian English can't be ignored. Also two interesting linguistic phenomena as archaic words and distinctive word forms are covered in the text as well as the grammatic distinctions. The survey has revealed differentiating peculiarities in phonology, lexis and grammar being performed as structured tables. Keywords: New Zealand version of English (NZE), British standard of English (BrE), Te Reo Maori, vowel shifts, diphthongization

Introduction New Zealand is a state located in the southwestern Pacific, in Polynesia, situated on two large islands. Being geographically isolated from its closest neighbours, it did not stop building trade, cultural, political and economic ties with many countries of the world. New Zealand actively participates in international organizations and provides significant assistance to the Pacific island states. There are three official languages in New Zealand: the New Zealand version of English (96% of the inhabitants), Maori, and the New Zealand Sign Language. About 800-900 years ago, the first settlers in New Zealand were Polynesians and only in 1642 European explorers discovered these islands. However, the active development of colonists from the UK began in 1762. In 1840, an agreement between representatives of Great Britain and the leaders of some Maori tribes was signed, regulating the relationship between them (Orange C., 2004: 40). The active policy of the colonists towards the native population led to significant changes in everyday life and had a direct impact on the language. Thus, English has taken a dominant position concerning the regional population.

Table 1. Historical waves of immigrants 1840-1872 3 main waves of European immigrants 1st wave  owing to the New Zealand Company, headed by E. G. Wakefield 2nd wave  caused by the discovery of gold in the city of Otago in 1861; the gold rush dramatically increased the number of immigrants in New Zealand 3rd wave  in the 1870s when the government developed targeted policies for immigrants to move to New Zealand Consequence: caused great linguistic changes The British colonialists launched the process of integration into all spheres of life and the current situation gave the basic prerequisites for the formation of the English language in New Zealand. It should be noted that in New Zealand there was a great diversity of ethnic populations since most of the immigrants were from England, Scotland, Australia, and Ireland. Historian from New Zealand K. Pickens pointed out that in the mid-19th century there were 54% immigrants from England, 16% from Ireland and 15% from Scotland (Pickens K. A., 1977: 70). Also British politics contributed to the prevailing position of the English language and suspended the use of the Maori language. From colonial times until the mid-twentieth century, New Zealanders used words such as Motherland Britain. They often associated their home with Great Britain, which significantly contributed to its conservation. For a long time, the New Zealand language was not perceived as an independent language. The scientific publications of the 20th - 21st centuries were critical and binding. Only by the end of the 1960s, New Zealand speech was perceived as original and distinct from British English. Objectives/Purpose of the study This survey is targeted to compare and analyze the British Standard of English and the New Zealand version of English revealing the facts of their differentiating using the opinion poll data of the online RUDN University research.

Methodology The basis of this study are the analytical works in linguistics of such authors as:  Laurie Braun – a leading expert in the fields of morphology and word formation, especially of the New Zealand English (Bauer L., 2007);  Elizabeth Gordon and Margaret Maclagan – linguistic specialists and NZE language experts (Gordon E., Maclagan M. A., 2004);  Jennifer Hay - Professor of linguistics and Director of the New Zealand Institute of Language, Brain and Behaviour (primary research items in New Zealand English are sociophonetics, laboratory phonology and morphology) (Hay J., Maclagan M., Gordon E., 2008). Results The current study revealed differences in phonology, lexis and grammar. Some of them are presented below considering the most meaningful changes. Phonology Over the time the NZE developed divers sound shifts, e. g. diphthongization, also vowel transformation, moreover a lot of vowels are being pronounced longer than in BrE Standard. One consequence of vowel shifts is the similarity in pronouncing written words alike, like chair and cheer, share and shear. Table 2. Examples of vowel transformations Words New Zealand English British English light /lᴧt/ /lait/ girl /gә:l/ /gɜ:l/ so /su/ /sәu/ every /ivri/ /′ɛvri/ sculpture /′skɔ:lptʃ/ /′skᴧlptʃә/ people /′pei:pul/ /′pi:pl/ waterfront /′wɔ:tәfᴧnt/ /′wɔ:tәfrᴧnt/

The New Zealand version of spoken English was formed under the influence of Scottish English, dialects of the south of England and the Maori Aboriginal language. In New Zealand, British pronunciation is highly regarded - it is associated with education. However, local dialects have a significantly greater influence. In general, it can be said that the vowel system in New Zealand English corresponds to the vowel system of other standard varieties of English, such as RP. Another significant distinction is that the New Zealand has a wide pitch range at the end of a sentence. Due to this the sentences are often being interpreted as signaling a questioning or uncertainty (Gordon E., Maclagan M. A., 2004: 609). Lexis The unique linguistic situation of New Zealand determines its lexical specifics. In spite of various influences, the picture of the language in the country remains largely monolingual. The variations between NZE and BrE Standard came into being not only as a result of Australia’s proximity and the geographical isolation New Zealand’s from Great Britain but also through the adaptation of a significant amount of words from the Maori. Moreover, loanwords from nearby islands, especially from Samoan and Australian English found their place in NZE. These loanwords are exclusive for NZE, they cannot be found in the Standard British English (Bell A., Kuiper K., 1999: 12). Table 3 is based on the studies of such linguists as G. W. Turner, Thomas Burns McArthur, Tom McArthur, Roshan McArthur, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon, and on an online Maori-English dictionary (Turner G.W., 1966: 195; McArthur T. B., McArthur T., McArthur R., 2005: 400; Hay J., Maclagan M., Gordon E., 2008: 108; Māori Dictionary, 2020). According to the estimates, NZE has three to four thousand distinctive words or senses of words. Some examples are given in the table below (Jackson H., Zé Amvela E., 2000: 146).

Table 3. Lexical loanwords in NZE

Description Examples Maori  NZE consists to 0.9% of Maori • kia ora: hello! loanwords words cheers! good luck! best  Except Maori words, that are wishes! rather classical and describe flora • iwi: (noun) group, and fauna, there are words for tribe, nation abstract concepts and tribal • whānau: (noun) arrangements extended family • piripiri → biddy-bid: a plant with prickly burrs (Maori to NZE) • half-pai (also half- pie) from the English word half and the Maori word pai (“good”) meaning something of a mediocre quality Pasifika  More and more interactions • aiga: an extended English between people from the Cook family Islands, Tonga, Samoa, Nieu and • fale: a house New Zealand in recent years • palagi: a non-Samoan  Some Pasifika words entered NZE already Australian  Due to a long history between • larrikin: a hooligan English New Zealand and Australia • dill: a fool, simpleton  A big amount of shared words Archaic  Some currently present lexemes • larrikin: a hooligan words in NZE are actually now viewed as This word was widely archaic in BrE used in nineteenth  Whilst they have disappeared century Britain, but from BrE, they continue to live on does not belong any in NZE longer to BrE

Table 4. Examples of NZE vocabulary

NZE BrE bach (a clipped form of bachelor) a holiday or beach house chilly bin cool box private bag P. O. Box state house council house capping ceremony university graduation Grammar The NZE follows at his biggest extent the BrE grammar. Although, there are some points of significance, in which the languages differ:  The ending –ise or -ize: while Britons use –ise as well as –ize, the New Zealanders exclusively use –ise.  She with inanimate reference: The pronoun she is often used referred to things which are not animate. In BrE it is grammatically correct to use in such cases, e. g. She’ll be all right as in It will be all right.  Us for me: Use of singular us can often be heard in the NZE in contexts like Give us a go, Give us a chance.  Sentence final tags: The use of eh (/eˆ/) at the end of a sentence meaning isn’t it is common in New Zealand.  NZE has a non standard second person plural form youse (also spelled yous), for instance youse guys and you guys. Such grammar variations reveal the uniqueness of the NZE language though BrE and NZE are thought to be similar (Bauer L., 2007: 5). Online Survey at RUDN University On the basis of the information given above the on-line survey at RUDN University was undertaken among bachelors and magistrates in order to make a conclusion for the comparative analysis basing on the opinion poll data. It was aimed at the investigation of how easy students of the first and the finishing years of studying can identify NZE and BrE among other 8 various

English accents. The monologue snippets included words that are characteristic for these accents. The study showed a clear picture of the perception of the emphasis of English on the hearing of students from different courses. The results showed that first-year students mostly defined NZE wrong due to its unpopularity and phonetic features. However, 3rd year students were able to easily recognize NZE guided by such characteristic features of language as the high pitched intonation towards the end a sentences, the use of us instead of me, the interjection eh meaning isn’t it. All together any grammatic rule, that seemed unusual to Standard British English was a clear sign of the New Zealand version of English. Discussion Due to the fact, that New Zealand version of English is actively evolving and is impacted from various sources (like the Americanization that found place in the late 20th century and the early 21st century), it is developing more and more distinctive features. It is of great significance to fixate all new trends on the basis of older studies. The survey shows how the NZE is perceived in terms of an independent language with its characteristic pronunciation. The main difference between NZE and BrE is lexical, although quantitatively speaking the numbers are in the single digits. Notably, most Maori-derived words are included in general categories used to name basic things that had helped the indigenous Maori people and the British colonists to communicate. Therefore, in NZE are currently up to 3 different words for one object from languages such as Maori and the Samoan, that are used to describe almost the same thing but with a slight change of meaning in accordance with the initial definition. Surprisingly, this tendency cannot be found among words derived from Australian and Pacific English. The obvious amount of differences in grammar, pronunciation and lexis may not jeopardize the entire conversation between people, but still interferes with the mutual understanding.

Furthermore, the analysis of the grammar is a badly evolved field but since there is a sufficient number of distinctive features of NZE, there has been quite a number of attempts to structure it. However, for various reasons there is a lack of profoundly analyzed work on this subject. Therefore, the comparative analyses is of great importance, so that over time linguists may get a clear, deeply explored and well structed picture of the New Zealand English.

References Bauer, L. 2007. Some Grammatical Features of New Zealand English. New Zealand English Journal 21: 25 pp. Bell, A., Kuiper, K. 1999. New Zealand and New Zealand English. In: A. Bell and K. Kuiper (Eds.), New Zealand English, Benjamins, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 11–22. Gordon, E., Maclagan, M. A. 2004. Regional and social differences in New Zealand: phonology. In: B. Kortman and E. W. Schneider (Eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany, pp. 603-613. Hay, J., Maclagan, M., Gordon, E. 2008. New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press, Scotland, 164 pp. Jackson, H., Zé Amvela, E. 2000. Words, Meaning and Vocabulary: An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology, 2nd ed. Cassel, London, UK, 216 pp. Māori Dictionary. 2003. URL: www.maoridictionary.co.nz [Accessed March 01, 2020]. McArthur, T. B., McArthur T., McArthur, R. 2005. Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, England, UK, 692 pp. Orange, C., 2004. An illustrated history of the Treaty of Waitangi. Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, New Zealand, 345 pp. Pickens, K. A. 1977. The Origins of the Population of the Nineteenth Century Canterbury. New Zealand Geographer 33: 56-70. Turner, G.W. 1966. The English Language in Australia and New Zealand. Longmans, London, UK, 236 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-64-72

FOREIGN LANGUAGE PHRASEOLOGY IN THE US: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF VERBAL COLLOCATIONS

Natalia F. Mikheeva¹, Pablo Ramírez Rodríguez²

¹, ²Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-0764-2271 ²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. This article discusses one of the main problems that is associated with various phraseological units, in particular the use of verbal language collocations in the Spanish field. F. J. Hausmann was one of the authors who contributed to colocation theory, arguing that the components of collocations do not have a similar status, given that one of them determines the choice of the other. In this case it should be distinguished between a basis (a word that defines a possible combination) and a collocation. Another contribution to the collocation theory, also from a semantic point of view, are the works of I. A. Melchuk with the development of the concept of “lexical function” for describing restricted words and derivation phenomena. V. V. Vinogradov´s contribution to phraseology is invaluable. However, it was D. O. Dobrovolsky who was the forerunner of the idea of interlinguistic phraseological equivalence, insisting that many language phenomena are defined by culture. In the process of learning collocations difficulties arise, since stable phrases are always difficult and impossible to predict. Usually the components of combinations in one language do not coincide with those in other languages, since there is an influence on the language of the culture in which their own use is manifested, even when it comes to the language variation of the same language, in this case Spanish. This

64 article highlights the importance of language variations in Spanish for the study of language collocations as fixed expressions set in a particular culture. It also presents a comparative study of collocations characteristic of spoken Spanish in the United States and, consequently the degree of complexity of its interpretation not only for students of Spanish as a foreign language, but also for its native speakers. Keywords: language collocation, linguistic variation, pragmatics, phraseological unit, colloquial speech

Introduction Today we know the problems that exist in the study of phraseological units. If we go back to the research that has been conducted in this area, we can see that it is not easy to distinguish the concept of phraseological unity because of the large variety of stable expressions observed in the usus. In order for the reader to know what a linguistic collocation is, we consider the term "collocation" as a stable combination of words that corresponds to a certain meaning. So, in Russian it is said произносить речь, (to give a speech) using the verb произносить “to accept” and not дать “to give” as in Spanish dar un discurso. Another example in Spanish is the red wine that is called vino tinto [lit. colored wine] instead of the expected vino rojo [lit. red wine]. They are clear examples of unmotivated stable collocations in both languages that are known to native speakers, but at the same time are not so obvious to non-native speakers. The term "collocation" comes from the Latin words "con", which means "with" and "locare", which etymologically means "connect", so they are a combination of words. Collocations are often unpredictable and not deducible from the basic rules of the language: in Spanish it is usually used spoken dar un paseo (совершить прогулку/to take a walk) or dar una vuelta (совершить путешествие/to take a trip), but hacer una excursión (совершить экскурсию/to take a tour). As we can see, in Russian, a productive model with the verb совершить is used

65 for such nominations, while in Spanish, different verbs are used: the first two examples are based on the model with the verb dar (дать/to give), and the second example with the verb hacer (делать/to do). All this seems obvious when we talk about different languages belonging to different language codes, such as Russian and Spanish. However, referring to the cultural component that we mentioned earlier in the Latin American world, there is a wide variety of fixed combinations that refer to the same meaning. Thus, it would be a contradiction if we say that there are fixed expressions in Spanish, such as language collocations, that do not allow their components to change when other expressions are used in another Spanish-speaking country to denote the same thing. It should also be said that these differences are not only characteristic of the spoken language, but also manifest in the formal language. Each of the Spanish-speaking countries has many proper expressions that are not simple variants of peninsular idioms. According to A. Zuluaga (1980) "No se puede considerar como variantes en sentido estricto las comúnmente llamadas variantes regionales o diatópicas". (“The commonly called regional or diatopic variants cannot be considered as variants in the strict sense”). For example, the Peruvian expression hacer vaca [lit. to make cow] corresponds to the Spanish expression hacer novillos [lit. to make steers] if we want to express the idea of “skipping school”, which will not be understood in Spain if there is no explanatory context. In Mexico, pintar un venado is used for the same expression [lit. to draw a deer]. In Colombia is used in the expression hacer un conejo [lit. to make a rabbit], while in Ecuador prefer hacerse la pava [lit. to pretend to be the turkey], which may be misinterpreted in Spain with an expression that stands for fooling around hacerse el tonto. This means that we are talking about independent combinations, ignorance of which can make it difficult to understand the functional language in question. It does not seem to be a common figurative expression for all Spanish-speaking countries to express the concept of "skipping

66 school". For this reason, some native speakers do not fully understand individual humorous jokes or word games, even when dealing with the same language. In addition to this linguistic diversity, the existence of homonymous forms, such as the expression pelar la pava [lit. to clean the turkey], which in Spain means ligar (to flirt), but in Mexico means matar el tiempo (to kill time). Objectives/Purpose of the study The reason why we chose language collocations as an object of research is due to the high relevance of the topic both from the point of view of translation and from the point of view of teaching languages. One of the language blocks that students should assimilate in order to form language-pragmatic competence are extralinguistic factors and existing language differences, in addition to linguistic factors. We also try to show that on different continents of the Spanish-speaking world there are differences in similar objects in fixed forms of expressions, characteristics of logical and pragmatic combinations of words, and the choice of vocabulary depending on the realities and continental differences. Spoken language is currently a complex reality that is evolving to the point where it is of great interest for linguists to be able to incorporate the presence of new words used in slang in the communication process, and thus establish phraseological equivalences. This is achieved due to the influence in other areas of language and, of course, the media phenomenon in marketing and dissemination of information through social networks. The problem lies in the literary level, that is, in the vocabulary used to reflect external and internal reality with a predominance of expressive and poetic functions that may differ in the language due to cultural factors. Methodology In Spain, the term "collocation" was introduced By M. Seco (1978). Subsequently, this term begins to appear in dictionaries with its own definition. In the 80's, it was still very limited in use, but only in the 90's. this theory began to develop actively.

V. V. Vinogradov (1977) divides phraseological units into stable unmotivated combinations and phraseological combinations in which one of the components is used in the literal sense and the other in the figurative sense. This concept was most acceptable in Soviet times until it became necessary to describe phraseology in other languages, which led to new classifications. I. E. Anichkov (1997) although does not name the concept of "collocation" as such, he proposes it as a new class of classification. A. N. Baranov and D. O. Dobrovolsky (2011) raise the idea of interlinguistic phraseological equivalence and name 4 types of equivalences, insisting that many language phenomena are determined by culture. In this sense, one of the most important aspects of traditional Russian phraseology is that phraseological units are not purely linguistic, but represent a cognitive phenomenon in the language that determines the choice of aspects and their interpretation. Therefore, we should not forget about the contribution of A. Wierzbicka (1991), which showed that the categorization of the language of the world depends largely on culture. Results/Findings The stability of collocations is primarily related to the randomness of the choice of the semantic element. For the collocation “to take a decision”, it is difficult to explain why it is used the verb to make, rather than another one. In Russian for this expression is used the collocation принимать решение using the verb “to accept”. It should be emphasized that the main typological comparisons show that different verbs are used in other languages in this case: To take a decision/tomar una decisión/eine Entscheidung treffen. The irregularity of collocations lies in this arbitrariness. A fundamental concept that encompasses collocations is the property of languages by which speakers "produce" certain combinations of words among a large number of theoretically possible combinations. Depending on the grammatical category and the existing syntactic relationship between collocates, we create their taxonomy for both Romance and Slavic languages.

Dialectology is a discipline that has its own methodology with a significant amount of data on changes, especially phonetic and lexical, and numerous linguistic atlases. As for phraseological diatopic variation, we note that there are few serious studies of diatopic phraseology, and there are no dialect atlases that specialize in phraseology. Although some dialect atlases currently contain information on phraseology, it can be argued that in general diatopic phraseography is still clearly lagging behind in comparison with lexicography or phonetics (Luque Durán, 2008: 8). Another big problem is that expressions collected in dialect dictionaries are often common to all (González Aguiar, 2007: 9), sometimes even phrases that exist in all European languages, as stated by E. Piirainen & J. A. Balázsi (2012). Thus, there are phraseological dictionaries in the Spanish language of Argentina or Chile, completed with phrasemes, which are also given in European Spanish (Barcia & Pauer, 2010: 15). In his dissertation on Chilean phraseology, M. Nilo (2015) believes that at least phrases used throughout the Spanish-speaking space should be distinguished: echar leña al fuego [lit. to throw wood into the fire (to add fuel to the fire)]; tirar la toalla [lit. to throw in the towel]; those used only in Spain: partirse de risa [lit. to break into laughter (to be in stitches)]; hincar los codos [lit. to stick the elbows (to study hard)]; those used in many countries of America: ser uña y mugre [lit. to be nail and mud (to be like two peas in a pod)], but not in Spain: ser uña y carne (to be nail and flesh), and those used only in Chile andar pato [lit. to walk like a duck], which means informally to be broke. K. Kazumi's research (2001) distinguishes between phrases used in Spain and phrases used in America, which makes it possible to establish a boundary between phrases specific to Spain and new World formulations, despite geographical differences that affect these variants. Its surveys identify common speech units used in all Spanish-speaking countries, such as no tener pelos en la lengua “not mince your words” or meter la pata “to put your foot in it”.

However, ganarse las habichuelas “to earn a living” is registered only in Spain, buscarse los frijoles in Peru, buscarse los porotos in Mexico, buscarse la papa in Santo Domingo and ganarse el puchero in Argentina. It is interesting to see how each Latin American country uses the same expression, changing its components according to its culture. In Spain, they cook beans (habichuelas), in Mexico they are called frijoles, while in Santo Domingo and Argentina they choose another type of food that is abundant among the population, such as papa (potatoes) or puchero (stew). Phraseological units are the main obstacle not only for learning foreign languages or translating, but also for understanding between diatopical varieties of the same language. Collocations are considered free combinations of some phraseologists, such as A. Zuluaga (1980). However, their fixation even if biased forces them to resist not only other languages, but also other dialects of Spanish (Luque Durán, 2008: 13). This is the case of the combination mantener una conversación used in Spain. In Chile, armar una conversación is used with the verb armar (to arm), while dar una opinión is used in Spain (to express one's opinion), and in Chile, entregar una opinión is preferred with the verb entregar (to deliver). Regional variations appear in all languages, and in the case of languages such as Spanish, which are spoken by millions of people in many countries there are "a significant number of unique creations specific to each culture and its cultural references" (Mogorrón, 2010: 20). However, Mexico's proximity to the United States and the frequent contacts of its working classes along the border led to a major "smuggling" of words and expressions that were passed from one language to another, contributing to the enrichment of both “slang” and jargon. Both languages have such similar vernacular expressions that they look like literal translations of each other, and it would be difficult to understand where they were coined (De la Rosa, 1939: 11).

The words used in it are not used in their literal meaning, but using their various connotations. In this sense, the American expression To win by the skin of my teeth will be voiced by the Mexican ganar por un pelo de tortuga. In Spain, the expression ganar por los pelos is chosen [lit. win by hair]. In General, different language collocations emphasize the complexity and richness of the Spanish language, which therefore determines the need to create databases that combine not only Spanish expressions, but also most of the expressions used in every country that speaks that language, including the United States. Russian dictionaries and productive collocation models can significantly expand the scope of the Russian language acquisition by foreigners, as well as the Spanish language of the mother country and Latin American countries. Discussion Thus, we can conclude that existing collocations in colloquial speech are based on accepted forms of communication established by society, and national and cultural characteristics may differ geographically even in one state. In modern conditions of a multicultural world and intercultural and language contacts it is necessary to introduce the teaching of the basics of "language variability" into the educational process. The new needs of the world community are experiencing a boom in globalization not only in the political, economic, but also in the language field.

References Anichkov, I. E. 1997. Trudy po iazykoznaniiu. Works on Linguistics 23: 122-140. Baranov, A. N., & Dobrovolsky, D. O. 2011. Semantic relations in phraseology. In Computer Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies: Based on the materials of the annual International Conference “Dialogue” 10: 17-22. Barcia, P. L., & Pauer, G. 2010. Diccionario fraseológico del habla argentina: frases, dichos y locuciones 134(82): 10-55.

De la Rosa, R. G. 1939. El "slang" americano y la jerga mexicana. Revista Iberoamericana 1(2): 365-374. González, Aguiar, M. I. 2007. La fraseología regional del español. Revista de lexicografía 8: 6-13. Kazumi, K. 2001. Colocaciones léxicas en el español actual: análisis formal y léxico-semántico (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. UNED), 325pp. Luque, Durán, J. D. 2008. Cómo las metáforas recurren a conocimientos ontológicos y culturales. Fundamentos teóricos del Diccionario Intercultural e Interlingüístico. journal of theoretical and experimental linguistics 10: 259-266. Mogorrón, Huerta, P. 2010. Estudio contrastivo lingüístico y semántico de las construcciones verbales fijas diatópicas mexicanas/españolas: Quaderns de Filologia-Estudis Lingüístics 15: 179-198. Nilo, M. 2015. Expresión de la afectividad en el español de Chile: estudio lingüístico de cuatro fenómenos relevantes, Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 411 pp. Piirainen, E., & Balázsi, J. A. 2012. Widespread idioms in Europe and beyond. Berlin, Germany, 304pp. Seco, M. 1978. Problemas formales de la definición. Manuel Seco. Estudios de lexicografía Española 42: 15-34. Vinogradov, V. V. 1977. On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language. Izbrannye trudy. Leksikologiya i leksikografiya 31: 140-161. Wierzbicka, A. 1991. Japanese key words and core cultural values. Language in society 20(3): 333-385. Zuluaga, A. 1980. Introducción al estudio de las expresiones fijas. Peter Lang Publishing 23(68): 25-33.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-73-82

SOME SEMANTIC TRENDS IN THE SPHERE OF PREDICATE LEXICAL UNITS

Tatiana Sallier

Saint-Petersburg State University Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-2637-8867

Abstract. The article is devoted to tracing semantic changes in some syntactic structures and lexical fields. The purpose of the research is to establish what factors contribute to semantic changes and whether these semantic changes are systemic or accidental. The methods included semantic, contextual and pragmatic analysis. The research focused on three groups of words – verbs governing the infinitive, verbs governing an object clause and evaluative lexemes. The research made it possible to conclude that verbs governing the infinitive lose their lexical meanings and acquire modal, quasi modal or phasal meanings of wish, intention, graduality or negation, which they don’t have in other contexts. Some words undergo full grammaticalization and become auxiliaries. This transition from lexical to more abstract grammatical meaning can be explained by syntactical context. Whereas the modal seme is regularly reinforced by the infinitive, the lexical seme is only occasionally reinforced and is gradually suppressed. The lexeme displays a semantic shift from concrete to abstract meaning. Verbs governing an object clause have their initial meanings of physical perception or speech weakened and become links between the bearer of information and information itself. Verbs with other meanings used within this construction also lose their initial semantics and acquire meanings of receiving, storing and

73 discharging information. The influence of the context is analogous to that of the previous group of verbs – the lexical seme is rarely reinforced and is therefore suppressed. The same evolution from concrete meaning to abstract takes place. Evaluative lexemes appear in the language as neutral nominations. They have different origins – geographical, zoological or social-, but in the process of usage, the evaluative meaning suppresses the initial denotative element, the lexeme becoming purely evaluative and the denotative motivating seme often forgotten. The evaluative element, initially pragmatic and context-dependent, becomes contextually independent. Evaluative lexeme display the same semantic tendency as those described above – an evolution from concrete to abstract meaning. The three groups of lexemes, despite their semantic and structural differences manifest the same semantic evolution from concrete to abstract. Keywords: semantic evolution, grammaticalization, evaluative lexemes

Introduction The article is devoted to studying some semantic evolutionary processes occurring in the language. The purpose of the present article is to trace some semantic trends caused by syntactic and pragmatic factors. The purpose of the research is to find out whether these semantic changes are accidental or systemic and to establish the general direction of the semantic shift. Methods The methods employed include semantic and contextual analysis, and the analysis of verbal definitions. Collocation analysis was also used to establish various meanings of a lexeme within different syntactic structures. The method of translation analysis helped to establish which elements of meaning were preserved or lost by a foreign language speaker.

Results The research conducted made it possible to draw the following conclusions: The semantics of the lexical units studied displays regular semantic shifts from concrete to abstract; Within certain syntactic structures, these changes are regular and complete, depriving a lexeme of its lexical meaning and transforming it into a modal/phasal identifier. Outside a rigid syntactic structure, the shift is milder and less regular, the lexeme preserving its initial meaning is some contexts and losing it in others. Discussion Verbs governing the infinitive Verbs governing the infinitive display a strong tendency to lose their proper lexical meaning and become modals or quasi modals. The phrase “to be going” with the infinitive has lost the meaning of movement and acquired auxiliary meaning of future; forms of future in modern English are derived from modals, at present a number of verbs, such as to manage, to seek, to mean, to come lose their initial concrete meaning when governing the infinitive and become quasi modals, combining modal meanings with additional semes (graduality for come, result for manage, mental activity for mean.) Other verbs are subject to this semantic trend. See the examples: 1. Mr. Perry is just itching to know what it’s all about (Kaye M.M., 1979: 190) 2. He burned to distinguish himself in battle. (Seton A., 1988: 78) The verb to itch is defined by the Cambridge dictionary as “to have or cause an uncomfortable feeling on the skin”. In (1) it means “strong desire”, as is mentioned by the dictionary for the verb accompanied by the infinitive. The verb to burn in (2) also means “desire”, the seme of physical burning having disappeared. The verbs to burn and to itch are synonyms in this context, though not in other contexts.

The process of “seme suppression”, i.e. that of the disappearance of the “concrete” seme may be also illustrated by examples: 3. They refused to take a penny from Scarlett, telling her that she would do the same for them (Mitchell M., 1964: 300). 4. I refused to be seen in the red pants and yellow parka (Shaw I., 2010: 47). 5. Her cheerful flesh refused to be mortified (Blake N., 1971: 28). The verb to refuse can be tentatively divided into a speech seme and the negation seme. In (3) the speech seme is reinforced by the phrase “telling her, etc”, showing that speech took place. In (4) the speech seme is not actualized, because the character is alone and there is no speech act. In (5) no speech is possible, as the subject is incapable of speaking. If such structures are considered in terms of syntactical context (the notion of syntactical context was introduced by N. Amosova (Amosova N., 1968: 49) it can be seen that the modal seme is regularly reinforced by the infinitive, whereas the other semes may (3) or may not (4,5) be reinforced. This irregularity or absence of contextual support prevents the verb governing the infinitive from fully realizing its lexical meaning, which results in the loss of that meaning leading in some cases to a full grammaticalization of the verb, which becomes a modal link. The regularity of this process can be demonstrated by the evolution of the verbs can and know, deriving from the same Old English root. (for the semantic evolution of the verb can see (Traugott, 1989 and 2017) This process occurs in other languages as well. The French verb savoir to know acquires the meaning of ability when governing the infinitive; the verb chercher in the same syntactic position means “to try”, like the Russian verb “искать” in older texts. So the process of a semantic shift from concrete to abstract (modal and quasi modal) is systemic and affects other languages besides English.

Verbs governing an object clause Verbs governing an object clause change their initial meaning and acquire more abstract meaning of mental operations - receiving, storing or discharging information. See the examples: 6. One can see that you are not one of the family.’… ’The family favours fair hair. Have you not noticed? Yours is dark. (Kaye M.M., 1979: 95) 7. I see I have misjudged you.(Kaye M.M., 1979: 118) In (6) the verb to see bears the meaning of mental activity, because the object clause describes not a visual situation but one inferred by means of logical operations. The visual seme though is reinforced by further context, containing “color” adjectives “fair” and “dark”. In (7) the visual seme of the verb “see” is not reinforced by the context and weakened, because the conclusion the character draws was made on the basis of the heroine’s behavior and not on the basis of visual signals. 8. Canadian doctor and WHO senior adviser says that four groups need to work together to contain coronavirus outbreak (The Star, 2020). 9. The constitution says that the Congress must meet at least once a year (Laws for the nation, 1963: 20). In (8) the speech seme is weakened because there is no speech situation in the context; in (9) the speech seme is absent because the subject is inanimate and the meaning is reduced to imparting information. Other verbs acquire the meaning of imparting information which they don’t have in other contexts: 10. Four of the justices contended that any racial quota system supported by government violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, Oyez, /1979/) 11. Supporters of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal charged that much of the press was opposed to socioeconomic reform. (Kennedy M., 2009) 12. Milton argued that licensing of the press restricted the dissemination of truth (Zelezny, 1993: 218).

13. The report claimed that hundreds of civilians had crossed the border to escape the fighting (The Guardian, 2020). In all the examples the verb loses its initial meaning (to compete for (10), to debate for (11), to demand for (13). The verbs in (10)- (13) are synonyms in this context, though they have different meanings in other contexts. The verbs acquiring the meaning “receiving information” are subject to the same process: 14. She realized that it was useless to talk to him when he was in this condition (Kaye M.M., 1979: 519). 15. One day she finally grasped that unexpected things were always going to happen in life (Pinterest, 2020). 16. From the look of their faces, she gathered that they were annoyed with her (Cambridge dictionary, 2005: 526). In all the three examples the verb means “to understand” and the object clause is the context making the verb realize this meaning. So verbs accepting a clause as an object acquire meanings of receiving, storing and discharging information. In some words their concrete lexical meaning is weakened; others acquire meanings they don’t have in other contexts. But they all become links between the bearer of information and information itself, the abstract seme being supported by the context. Evaluative nominations Semantic evolution doesn’t always require definite syntactic context. To illustrate this point, it’s interesting to trace the history of some evaluative units. Research has shown that evaluative nominations can have different origins – geographical names (Russian жлоб, (From a Byelorussian town of Zhlobin) шпана (initially of Spanish origin) names of animals (swine, bitch, Russian гад (a reptile), сука (bitch) or have historical origins (barbarians, vandals). Both in Russian and in English the nomination of an illegitimate son (Bastard, Russian ублюдок) acquired pejorative meaning). The derogatory meaning may originate on the basis of the type of settlement. Latin “paganus”

(village dweller) became English “pagan” and Russian and Ukrainian “поганый” (bad). Derived from different sources, evaluative nominations display a systemic semantic trend – they lose their initial descriptive meaning and become purely evaluative lexemes. (For descriptive and evaluative components of meaning, see (Wolf, 2002: 28). The process of the semantic evolution can be illustrated by the history of the word “bastard”. Compare the examples: 17. He put a hand on Bran's shoulder, and Bran looked over at his bastard brother. (Martin G., 2019: 134) 18. Yes,' said Monks, scowling at the trembling boy: the beating of whose heart he might have heard. 'That is the bastard child.' 'The term you use,' said Mr. Brownlow, sternly, 'is a reproach to those long since passed beyond the feeble censure of the world. It reflects disgrace on no one living, except you who use it. (Dickens, 2016: 295) 19. I seem to remember hitting that bastard Carlyon. Sorry, Lou, I apologize. (Kaye M.M., 1979: 571) In (17) is exclusively descriptive, there being no evidence of evaluation. In (18) the lexeme combines descriptive and derogative meaning, the latter emphasized by Mr. Brownlow’s response. In (19) the descriptive meaning is absent and impossible, Lord Carlyon being a scion of an aristocratic family. The loss of the motivating descriptive seme can be proved by the facts of translation. As an example, see a fragment of “The first circle” by A. Solzhenitsyn in the Russian original and two translations: 20. Вот стервы, "Дукатом" душат. Буду министру жаловаться, клянусь (Солженицын А.И., 2019: 3). 21. ”The bastards – choking us with Dukats1. I’m going to complain to the minister, I swear I am.” (Solzhenitsyn A., 1968: 3).

1Belomor Dukat is a brand of Russian papirosy cigarettes.

22. 'The swine, those Ducats are poison. I'll complain to the Minister, that's what I'll do (Solzhenitsyn A., 2015: 3) The invective стервы, (originally carrion) in the Russian text is translated by means of invectives with different descriptive motivational seme (bastards in (21) swine in (22), which shows that in all three words the descriptive seme is lost, the three nominations being purely pejorative. It may be seen that evaluative lexemes appear in the language as neutral nominations. Once an evaluative component is attached to them, the process of semantic evolution begins, the evaluative seme suppressing the denotative one, the meaning shifting from more concrete to more abstract. The descriptive seme is often forgotten and the lexeme functions in the language as pure invective. Conclusion The analysis of semantic processes affecting three groups of lexemes demonstrates that all of them display a similar semantic evolution - a drift from concrete to more abstract meanings. This shift may be caused by syntactic (I, II) or pragmatic (III) factors, the former being more systemic. But in all the cases studied the semantic evolution goes in one direction – from concrete to abstract. Once lost, the concrete meaning is not regained. This semantic shift may be a manifestation of a more general tendency – shifting from concrete to abstract meanings. But this requires further research.

References Amosova, N.N. 1968. English contextology. Leningrad Leningrad State University, Leningrad, 104 pp. Blake, N.M. 1971. Malice with Murder. Pyramid, New York, 251 pp. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. 2005. Cambridge university press, Cambridge, 1572 pp.

Dickens, Charles. 2016. Oliver Twist. URL: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46675/46675-h/46675-h.htm [Accessed March 2, 2020] The Guardian. 2020. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/us [Accessed February 28, 2020] Kaye, M.M. 1979. Shadow of the moon. St. Martin’s press, New York, 722 pp. Kennedy, David M. 2009. What the New Deal did. Political Science Quarterly 124(2): 251-268. Laws for the Nation: A Citizenship Reader for Use in the Public Schools U.S. 1963. Government Printing Office, Washington, 34 pp. Martin, George, R. R. 2019. The game of thrones. URL: https://books.google.ru/books?isbn=0553897845 [Accessed May 15, 2019] Mitchell, Margaret. 1964. Gone with the Wind. New York Garden city books, 689 pp. Pinterest. 2020. URL: https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/ 35677022026343396/ [Accessed February 28, 2020] Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, Oyez. 2020. URL: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1979/76-811 [Accessed March 12, 2020] Seton, Anya. 1988. Katherine. Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, London, 575 pp. Shaw, Irwin. 2010. Nightwork. Karo, St. Petersburg, 444 pp. Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. 1968. In the first circle. Aleksander Solzhenitsyn The First Circle Translated from the Russian by Michael Guybon. URL: https://epdf.tips/the-first-circle.html [Accessed May 19, 2019] Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. 2015. The first circle. Translated by Thomas P. Whitney. URL: ttps://www.amazon.com/First-Circle- Aleksandr-I-Solzhenitsyn/dp/B000IGEFT8. [Accessed May 19, 2019]

Solzhenicyn A. 2019. The first circle 52pp. URL: http://www.lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/vkp1.txt [Accessed May 15, 2019] The Star. Canada’s largest daily. 2020. URL: https://www.thestar.com/?redirect=true [Accessed February 25, 2020] Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. 1989. On the rise of epistemic meanings in English. Language 65(1): 31-55. Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. 2017. Semantic change. URL: https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801993 84655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-323?product=orelin: 2017 [Accessed May15, 2019] Wolf, E.M. 2002. The functional semantics of evaluation. Editorial URSS, Moscow, 261 pp. Zelezny, J. D. 1993. Communications law: liberties, restraints and the modern media. Wadsworth publishing house, Belmont, 312 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-83-91

UNIQUENESS OF NEWFOUNDLAND REGIONAL VARIATION OF THE CANADIAN NATIONAL ENGLISH VARIANT

Victoria V. Sokolovskaya

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Military Academy Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3675-087X

Abstract. The article reviews the ways of the evolution of the Newfoundland dialect, which is considered to be a regional variation of the Canadian national English variant. Territorial varieties of the language differ from each other in a unique combination of language features. To be exact they contrast with pronunciation (intonation, stress); grammatical forms; vocabulary, lexical forms and the meanings. Representatives of different dialects live in different regions accordingly. One of the characteristic features of modern dialects is the high variation of the phonetic, word-forming, morphological, semantic, linguistic specificity of the words functioning in the dialect. Dialectologists employ a comprehensive approach in the study of dialects. They take all the features mentioned above into account. A great contribution was made to the study of dialects evolution. It is based on methodological concepts: external factors that influence language development are taken into consideration; dictionaries of dialects are compiled; sociolinguistic research is conducted; historical corpus linguistics is involved. The Newfoundland dialect is of great interest to study. It should be emphasized that the vocabulary of the Newfoundland dialect is characterized by the retaining of the words and their meanings that have disappeared or become archaic in other dialects. The

Newfoundland dialect has preserved the oldest variation of the English language on American continent. This can be explained by the remoteness of settlements that have been isolated for a long time. At the beginning settlers of southwestern England and the southern part of Ireland, brought their own languages with them. They were the first who mainly inhabited this territory. They managed to preserve their languages. The lexical layer has been preserved since the time when immigrants from England and Ireland arrived. The words reflected the daily way of life. Many words described day-to-day activities of the settlers. The vocabulary denoted the process of catching fish (cod), logging, hunting seals, and specified characteristics and particularities. They were age, color, behavior. Part of the lexicon of the English origin has become archaic for other dialects of the Canadian national variant. Territorial remoteness and isolation of the Newfoundland dialect speakers can explain this phenomenon. Thus, English in Newfoundland is more than a dialect of Canadian national English variant, it can be called a "the standard itself". Keywords: the Newfoundland dialect, lexical layer, national English variant, vocabulary, lexicon

Introduction Language contributes to the preservation of national identity and occupies an important place in the culture of the people. The emergence of dialectology as a science is associated with the beginning of an interest in folk speech, "a fundamental and in- depth interest to the folk language and its scientific research" (Zhirmunskiy V., 1954: 66). The emergence of dialects is the result of the evolution of the language. Linguists' interest in in the search for the law of development has been evident since the end of the 18th century. The first professional dialectologist in Germany, Johann A. Schmeller, a contemporary of Jacob Grimm, proposed a theoretical basis for the historical and linguistic description of territorial

84 variants of the German language. He took into account their geographical distribution and the social role of words. The 19th century dialectologists who followed and developed scientific approaches, concepts of Johann A. Schmeller, the founder of scientific dialectology, tried to find patterns in accordance with modern dialects and those that preceded them. They were the first to begin to examine language in space, to identify various areas, aspects of interaction between dialects. When you can see, understand the shift of sounds, word forms, lexical units. General principles that reveal regular changes in the language are highlighted. Studies of such language phenomena are based on direct observations. Scientific principles of scientific knowledge verification are applied. Phonetics is singled out as an independent branch of linguistics, and attention is paid most to its research. The grammar highlights inflection. Morphological phenomena explain the evolution history of Indo-European languages structure. The concept of the root is detailed. The changes that occur in the process of language development are taken into account. First of all, linguistic factors are considered. The social environment, conditions, social atmosphere in which such linguistic changes take place are not taken into consideration. The general tendency of language development processes is not identified. Only modern sociolinguistics begins to investigate the influence of social factors on the use of language. There are some social factors which affect it. They are diverse and include gender, age, ethnicity, religions views, social and educational backgrounds, peer groups and profession, professional activity, cultural practices (Siemund P., 2013: 11). Dialectologists use a multifaceted approach to studying of dialects, particularly, to taking into account the study of phonetics, stress, intonation, morphology, specifics of word formation, syntax, and stylistics.

Dialect geography, linguistics geography begin to be in progress. Dialectological Atlas is compiled and published. Extralinguistic data, factors begin to be taken into account. The diatonic, diachronic, and diastratic characteristics of the dialect must be taken into consideration: the analysis of sound features, the study of dialects through in the light of their historical development, taking into account the social characteristics of dialect speakers. It should be emphasized that in the 20th century new directions as well as the classical approach in dialectology appear. They are structural, generative, and communicative. Uriel Weinreich, an American linguist, is the first to identify and denote structural paradigms when describing dialects, He emphasizes that described components, elements form a system, structure. Uriel Weinreich introduces the concept of a diasystem. In the second half of the 20th century, a new direction in dialectology appeared. It is communicative. The approach is changed, Language learning as a means of communication is being brought to the fore. The communicative paradigm is denoted. Gradually, there is a shift towards a generative paradigm. Speaking is considered to be "flexible activity, as social interaction". There is a growing interest in issues of everyday language perception. Perceptual dialectology is developed. Linguists, dialectologists begin to consider and analyze the features of dialects. The point of view of non-specialists, non-linguists is taken into account. The problem how ordinary people distinguish between language variants is investigated. The emphasis on studying dialects is shifted to the speaker. There is an interest in learning the perception of language in everyday life, situations. Combining and merging the acquired and studied knowledge about the language of the native speakers allows dialectologists to conduct further research. Corpus linguistics is also used in describing dialects of different languages. Reliable scientific data is compiled and dialect data Bank is being established.

Modern dialectology follows the trend when dialects are described by methods of social, corpus, communicative, psychological, and perceptual linguistics. Purpose of the study The goal of the research is to determine the linguistic status of Newfoundland regional dialect in Canada. The territorial variation of the English language in Canada is of great scientific interest, covering linguistic, sociolinguistic, corpus linguistic and extralinguistic factors. There is a process of the language democratization. This tendency is reflected in the change in the language standard, which becomes less mandatory and open to the elements located outside. This process leads to a decrease in the standard level. Methodology Russian (see works of R.I. Avanesov, F.P. Filin, V. Zhirmunskiy, P.S. Kuznetsov, V.E. Goldin N.F. Mikheeva, L.I. Barannikova, V.G. Orlova, L.L. Kasatkin, T.I. Vendina, S.K. Pozharitskaya, and others) and foreign linguists (J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, W. Labov, C. Boberg, Р. Kerswill, S. Dollinger, S. Clarke, etc.) took and take a great interest in detailed study of dialects. Some studied points require further detailed research. There are few works devoted to a detailed study of Canadian national English variant and its dialects. Canadian English is different from the British and American variants. There are a few regional dialects on the territory of Canada. The Newfoundland regional dialect stands out noticeably and is of great interest to study and significantly different from the others. Despite the fact that the language was brought from southwestern England and southern Ireland some centuries ago its English version is still consistent the linguistic roots. Results It must be stressed that there are few scientific papers devoted to the research of regional variations of the Canadian national English variant in the Russian Federation.

The emergence of dialects is of great interest to dialectologists. Canada is a young country. It is necessary to trace chronologically the period of the settlement of the territory of Canada. Who were the first settlers? The English language in Canada was influenced by the languages of the first settlers descendants from southwestern England, and southeastern Ireland, who first appeared in the island of Newfoundland. At the beginning of the seventeenth century the English and Irish went to the territory of Newfoundland for seasonal earnings. They fished for cod, were engaged in logging, and seal hunting. Later separate settlements were established. The language of the inhabitants of the settlements was not changed much, it was preserved (Kirwin, W., 2008: 442). One of the characteristic features of modern dialects is the high variation of the phonetic, word- forming, morphological and semantic particularities of the words functioning in the dialect (Mikheeva N., 2006: 7). It should be remarked that the vocabulary of the Newfoundland dialect is characterized by the retaining of the words and their meanings that have disappeared or become archaic in other dialects (Clarke S., 2010: 102). Newfoundland’s nickname is the rock. It was the first colony of England. English has been spoken there for about 500 years. The Newfoundland dialect has preserved the oldest variation of the English language on the continent of America. This can be explained by the relative remoteness of settlements that have been isolated for a long time (McArthur T., 2002: 220). The lexical layer of the Newfoundland dialect is interesting for research. Its diversity and uniqueness can be explained by taking into account the following factors. First, the settlers of southwestern England, the southern part of Ireland, who mainly inhabited this territory, brought their own languages with them. They managed to preserve them. Second, there were borrowings from European languages, especially from French, Spanish, Portuguese and the languages of the local peoples who inhabited the territory of Newfoundland, called First Nations. A large

88 number of borrowed words describe natural phenomena, especially flora and fauna, toponyms. The lexical layer, which has been preserved since the time of the newly arrived immigrants from England and Ireland, includes words that reflect the daily way of life. You can find many words describing day-to-day activities of the settlers. Vocabulary denotes the process of catching fish (cod), logging, hunting seals, and specifying their characteristics and particularities such as age, color, behavior. Part of the lexicon of the English origin has become archaic for other dialects of the Canadian national variant. This phenomenon can be explained by the territorial remoteness and isolation of Newfoundland dialect speakers. Basically, this vocabulary has been preserved when describing natural phenomena. It reflects the flora and fauna of the region. These words include the following lexical items: horse-stinger means dragonfly; yess – earthworm; gillcup – buttercup; stout – deer fly; duckish means – twilight; droke – valley with steep sides; nuddick – small bare rounded hill describe natural phenomena. Glutch – to swallow; mooch – to play truant from school; toll – to entice, draw, allure reveal everyday activities. Residents of Newfoundland used the following words to describe domestic life: cotterall / cottle / crottle – a metal bar with notches on which pot is hung in fire-place; one of the notches on a pot-hook; drung / drang / drong – a narrow lane or passage between houses, fenced gardens; forel / farel / Farrell / farrow / furl / varl – cover of a book; linny / linhay / linney – shed with lean-to roof and an open front; pook - haycock; spudgel / spudget / spudgin / spudgy – small wooden bucket with a long handle, used to bail water from a deep-keeled boat. As mentioned above Irish is also represented in the Newfoundland dialect. To describe human behavior the following words were used: carawat / corawat – to gossip, talk idly, argue; cugger – to converse; to whisper; rompse / rampse – to fight playfully and

89 noisily, to skylark; scrob / scraub / scrawb – to scratch; to tear the flesh with claws or nails; smatter / smather – to dirty, smear. Negative characteristics of people were described by the words: buckaloon / buccaloon – man of some importance; guy, fellow; gommel / gommil – stupid looking fellow; stookawn / stawkin / stucaun / stukawn – dull stupid person; a careless, lazy person; teak – nickname for an Irishman. Words pampooty – a sock or soft shoe; teeveen / theeveen – a patch put on the upper part of a shoe or boot; denoted clothing. Boneen/bonem – a young pig, puckawn – a goat; denoted animals. The landscape was described by bresna / breastner / breastney / bresney / brishney – a bundle of firewood; load of dry twigs; briss – dry conifer needles; cosh / coish – part of a river estuary cut off from the sea at low tide; crump – small twisted tree or trunk. Pratie / práta / préata – potato, tatie / tatey / teddy / tetty / tiddy / titt – potato, dudeen / dude – short-stemmed tobacco pipe, gombeen / gumbean / gumbeen – small lump of tobacco, esp when used as stakes in a card game; signified food and tobacco. And the other words are of Irish origin: puck – a blow, esp a blow with the horns of a goat; stiel– a rip, tear, slash; tayscaun / taiscown – small quantity; tilly / tally – amount over and above quantity purchased, presented as a gift; weigh-de-buckedy / buckety-board / wady buckedy (board) / wady – moving wood, board; see-saw (HERITAGE., 2020). Discussion Thus, English in is more than a dialect of Canadian national English variant, it can be called a "the standard itself". It should be noted that many words and their meanings are preserved in the Newfoundland dialect, which either disappeared or are currently considered an archaic form. Newfoundland dialect retains its identity and unique vocabulary. The vocabulary of Newfoundland is clearly different to have its own dictionary. The well-known regional Dictionary of Newfoundland English (DNE) was edited by G. M. Story, W.J. Kirwin, and J.D.A Widdowson. The lexical items of Newfoundland dialect preserved their first meanings,

90 which were lost in other English variants. They are used in everyday speech in that distinct geographical region. It is worthy of notice that the speakers along with the standard pronunciation of the Canadian national English variant in their speech preserve Newfoundland linguistic roots and the culture. It is so important especially at globalized age when all the existing territorial, national, cultural, and linguistic boundaries are being blurred. Notwithstanding notable language change, Newfoundland native speakers feel pride in the fact they have been preserving cultural heritage of their ancestors for over four hundred years.

References Clarke, S. 2010. Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 212 рр. HERITAGE. 2020. Dictionary of Newfoundland English. URL: www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/a-z-index.php [Accessed March 01, 2020]. Kirwin, W. 2008. Newfoundland English. In John Algeo (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language.Vol. 6 (pp. 441–55). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 664 pp. McArthur, T. 2002. Oxford Guide to World English, Oxford University Press, 501 pp. Mikheeva, N. 2006. Intervariant Dialectology of the Spanish language. RUDN, Moscow, 117 pp. Siemund, P. 2013. Varieties of English. A Typological Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 308 pp. Zhirmunskiy, V. 1954. German dialectology. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow, 636 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-92-100

NATIONAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY OF THE ARGENTINE NATIONAL VARIANT OF THE SPANISH LANGUAGE

Vyacheslav V. Tkachev

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-3168-958X

Abstract. Studies on the problems of Spanish variability have become extremely popular nowadays. The study of the nature and causes of differentiation in Spanish-American speech is an important task of Spanish dialectology. The scientists call Argentina as a ‘unique Spanish-speaking areolas’. The formation of the national variant of the Spanish language in Argentina is largely determined by non-linguistics factors such as inter-linguistic convergence, mass European immigration, and the geographical, political, and social status of the state. The purpose of the study is to study the peculiarities of the Spanish language in Argentina. To reach the aim the author applied the following research methods: the method of analytical description of language facts, functional approach, comparative method, and the use of the global Internet. Results of the research - this article examines the national and cultural characteristics of the Argentine national variant of the Spanish language. The manuscript analyzes the history of the formation of the Spanish language in Argentina as the Argentine national version of the Spanish language, differences from "Pyrenean Spanish," and the influence of immigrants on the language. The article also clarifies the phonetic, lexical, and grammatical features of the language. Special attention is paid to the absence of the 2nd person

92 plural personal pronoun "vosotros", which is the key difference between the Argentine national version of Spanish and other Spanish variants. The interaction of different languages and cultures in Argentina has had a significant impact on the current state of the Argentine national version of the Spanish language. They gave rise to existing linguistic and cultural differences between the traditional Pyrenean Spanish and the Spanish style of Argentina. Even though each national variant has its national cultural characteristics, however, thanks to the absolute majority of conventional linguistic means, it continues to be the same for all Spanish-speaking states. Our research has shown that the uniqueness of the Latin American version of the Spanish language lies in the ability to maintain its authenticity in the multilingual environment of Latin America, keep and transmit cultural realities from generation to generation. And, at the same time, develop with modern trends in unison. The nature of the Latin American variant determines not only its identity but also opens up prospects for further comparative studies of geographical features of the Spanish language at different levels of the system. Keywords: Argentine national variant of the Spanish language, Spanish, phonetic, grammatical, lexical

Introduction Spanish is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, and the problem of its external variability deserves special attention. There are 20 countries spoken Spanish. The Spanish language of Argentina has many differences from the Spanish language in Spain itself. The language has been enriched with new words, peculiar semantic changes, and speech turns due to unique natural, economic, and ethnocultural conditions in the southern country of Latin America. The Spanish language of the inhabitants of Argentina included a large number of native American names and concepts. Then came borrowings from Italian, Portuguese, French, and other European languages.

An essential role in the formation of the Argentine national version of the Spanish language, as well as the national culture in General, belonged to the Gaucho people. The description of their lives has become the central theme of Gaucho literature specific to Argentina, which belongs to the bright page of Argentine culture. The term 'Gaucho' in the explanatory dictionary 'Argentina' has several meanings, such as 'resident of the Argentine and Uruguayan pampas,' 'good rider'" rude, ignorant and uncouth person.' There are also opposite meanings: 'elegant'" cunning, skilful.' The Gaucho people were free, not dependent on society or the state. The folklore in the culture of the Argentine of the Gaucho takes a prominent place. Most writers and poets created their works in the Gaucho style. They were making Gaucho residents the main characters in literature. The poet Jorge Luis Borges in his poem called 'Gaucho,' wrote that these people were familiar with the smallest details of nature, and they knew what does complete freedom mean. The influence of foreign languages has become crucial for building a common linguistic picture in Argentina. The presence of immigrants in the history of Argentina has developed an understanding of the word. Between 1870 and 1930, the mass influx of immigrants caused the elite to decide that the strategy of modernization is a component of the modern imaginary Europeanization of humanity. "Racial purity" is the pretended beginning of progress. In 1854, immigration from European countries was allowed in the country, which continued until 1930. The Purpose of the study is to study the peculiarities of the Spanish language in Argentina. Methodology Language as a functional system is in a state of continuous movement. The problem of variability of language units has been studied for decades. There are many works aimed at investigating certain aspects of variability. To the classical works of the Russian and foreign linguistics in this area should include researches by

Shuchardt (1950), Zhirmunsky (1954), Canfield (1959), Vidal de Battini (1964), Boretti de Macchia (1977), Nevokshanova (2011) and others. N.M. Firsova (2007) and V.G. Stepanov (1963) investigated the problems of variation in Spanish studies. To understand the national and cultural identity of the Argentine national variant of the Spanish language, we used the method of functional approach, comparative method, analytical description of language facts, and global Internet application. Findings As in most Latin American countries, residents of Argentina almost do not use the polite form «Usted» 'You', as well as «tú» 'you'. They replace the latter with the 2nd person singular personal pronoun "vos", which is replaced by the 3rd person plural form «ustedes». The phonetic structure of "Argentine Spanish "differs from "Pyrenean Spanish." The double «ll» and the letter «y» are pronounced as 'sh.' The people of Argentina, older during it, say the sound is close to the Russian 'zh', but softer. Example: the pronoun 'I' in Argentine will sound like 'sho,' while in Spain it sounds like «yo», in Colombia and Venezuela-as 'jo.' The letter «s» is reduced and pronounced as 'h', which is accompanied by a simple exhalation. Also, the letter «s» before the letter «k» is read as the English sound 'h'. For example, the word «kiosko» - is read as [kyohko], "obelisko" - [obelihko], etc. The linguistic phenomenon «yeizmo» (lleísmo or yeísmo) is the most characteristic, audible and noticeable feature of Argentine speech, which consists in erasing the phonetic difference between /λ/ and /ǰ/. This is because, as with most other Castilian variants in South America or Spain, the boundaries between the palatal consonants LL "elle / doble ele" and Y "i griega" have become blurred over time. This phenomenon is called defonologization, i.e., the loss of phonological opposition. It can be seen in words such as: "cayó" 'fell' and "calló" 'fell silent', "haya" (subjuntivo+participio) and "halla" (find), "malla" 'loop' and "maya" 'Maya – civilization'. These words have similar

95 pronunciation, but different meanings. If earlier the sound /ǰ/ was closer to the yeizmo, identical to the English j, then since the last quarter of the XX century, there has been a tendency to pronounce this sound, which resembles the Russian sound /sh/. Thus, in areas of The La Plata river, yeísmo changed to zeísmo (the French sound /j/, as in the word "jornal"): "calle" – /catze/ 'street'. Everyone links this phenomenon to the influence of Italian immigration, which ignored the deaf pronunciation of consonants. Words and phrases are intoned in Argentina. Ecuadorians, Venezuelans, Peruvians, and Colombians speak the national Spanish language with a single intonation. In the Argentine version of Spanish, there are a dozen intonations borrowed primarily from Italian, that is, the same cardboard Sicilian language with gestures and emotional coloring. The lexical structure of the Argentine national variant of Spanish also has its characteristics, unlike other national options of the Spanish language. To understand where a particular person came from, Argentines use slang expressions. For example, the Lunfardo jargon, which can be used to identify the country of origin of anyone who speaks "Argentine Spanish." For this purpose, there are marker words, for example, the "boludo" lexeme, which in Argentina translates as "dude," shows that this person is a native of Argentina. In contrast, the "cabrón" lexeme indicates an Ecuadorian, "güeva" - a Colombian from Cali. Lunfardo slang began to penetrate the lower and middle classes, becoming an everyday dialect, and then a recognizable symbol that identifies Buenos Aires. Lunfardo was rich in a variety of lexical and semantic word formations, which were based on the technique of metathesis or "vesre" from "revés", ("reverse side"). The meaning of this technique was to invert syllables in words, i.e., "word play" was used. It follows that the "café" lexeme has turned into "feca," "camión" into "mionca," "tango" into "gotán," and "amigo" into "gomía." Lunfardo had a productive lexical potential also because several languages took part in the formation of this dialect, such as Spanish, Italian, Polish, and others. Besides,

"former immigrants managed to start the tango tradition, of which poetic texts became an integral part." The jargon used by the poor classes on the streets has become popular among the national treasure of Argentines. The interest in Lunfardo jargon is growing every year. The Argentine Academy, which was founded in 1962, studies the "lenguaje porteño", monitors its evolution and the spread of dictionaries and glossaries for all interested people in this branch of culture. September 5, 2000, was recognized as a day dedicated to the Lunfardo dialect. The once commoner jargon has long since spread beyond Argentina to neighboring Latin American countries, and the Royal Academy of the Spanish language has officially adopted some words. It should be noted that the spoken Spanish speech of Argentina has a large number of lexical units that are not currently typical of standard speech in Spain. Therefore, they have moved to the group of archaisms. In the Argentine national version, these language tools can be called pseudo-archaisms, since they are stable language units in everyday modern speech. For example, "cuero" used to be translated as "skin" of a person or animal. Now in Spain, "cuero" is only the skin of an animal, and human skin on the Iberian Peninsula is called "la piel," while in Latin America, this word is firmly entrenched in these two meanings. In addition, pseudo- archaisms also include expressions of the Spanish language, which have now taken on a specific connotation in Spain. For example, the verb "yacer" in Pyrenean Spanish means 'to lie, to rest in the grave', and in Argentinean - 'to rest', 'to twiddle'. The verb "recorder" in Spain used to have the same meaning as the verb "despertar" – 'Wake up'. In the Pyrenean version of Spanish, this verb has long been used in the new meaning of 'remember,' while this verb retains its former meaning in Argentina and other Latin American countries (Table 1).

Table 1. Differences between the Pyrenean and Argentina national variants the Pyrenean national the Argentine national translation variant of the Spanish variant of the Spanish language language chico/a pibe/a guy / girl trabajar laburar work camarero mozo waiter coger agarrar to take de prisa apurado quickly cogí un resfriado tengo un resfrío I caught a cold apartamento departamento flat falda pollera Skirt bolso cartera handbag enfadado anojado angry metro subte underground zumo jupo juice piña ananá apple plátano banana banana conducir manejar drive a car nevera heladera fridge pajita bombilla straw cartera billetera wallet ordenador computador personal computer carretera ruta road móvil celular mobile phone dinero guita money mantequilla manteca oil durazno peach Also, a feature of the Argentine national variant of Spanish is the stress on the last syllable in those verbs that are used in the singular and imperative mood. For example, "toma" 'take', "come" 'eat', etc. The grammatical structure in" Argentine Spanish "has changed with the peculiarity of using the conjunction with the pronoun "vos". The grammatical construction in the Pyrenean 'you have' is translated as "tú tienes," and in the Argentine national version of Spanish, it is translated as "vos tenés."

The Descriptive grammar of Spanish contains 4 aspects of the use of 2nd-person pronouns in Spanish language countries. In the first aspect, the classic Pyrenean usage preserves the forms "tú/Usted" and "vosotros/ustedes". Three other elements show the language situation in Latin America and the different levels of distribution of "voseo" and "tuteo" in Latin American countries. An interesting fact is that the pronoun "tú" in the system of personal pronouns in Argentina does not exist at all, despite the cases of its use. This absence indicates the final "recognition" of the "vos" address as a feature of the Spanish language of Argentina. In addition to these changes, the phenomenon of "voseo" also affected the system of non-elementary and possessive pronouns. Also, the system of pronouns of the Argentine national version of Spanish does not include the forms "- os", "vuestro," "- a", "tí", "contigo." The pronoun "vos" in the system of "Argentine pronouns" has the following features: 1) in the function of the subject, the nominal part of the predicate, and the address - "Vos me debés una respuesta" - 'You still haven't answered me'; "¡Vos!Vení acá" – 'You! Come here'; 2) When using a pronoun with a preposition - "A vos te estaba buscando" 'I was looking for You'; 3) the Corresponding possessive pronouns – "Vos y tu hermana se quedan acá-es peligroso salir todavía" - 'You and your sister will stay here – it's still not safe to go out'; 4) the non-Elementary form of the pronoun (in the function of the dative and accusative case) and the reflexive pronoun – "De mí casi no se acuerda y a vos ni te reconoció" - 'he hardly remembers Me, and did not recognize you at all'. The "tú – vos" shift has influenced the structure of the verb conjugation paradigm, particularly in the present tense of the indicative, the present tense of the conjunctiva, and the imperative. Discussion The results of this study show that the Argentine national version of the Spanish language has many differences from the Pyrenean Spanish language in Spain. The use of the analytical method of

99 research helped to discover the features of "Argentine Spanish," to analyze the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical structure of the Spanish language in Argentina. Also, the results of the study can serve as the creation of textbooks for the study of "Argentine Spanish," the creation of dictionaries, etc.

References Shuchardt, G. 1950. On the classification of romance dialects. Selected articles on linguistics 1: 122-140. Zhirmunsky, V. M. 1954. On some problems of linguistic geography. The issue of Linguistics 4:17-25. Canfield, I. 1959.The Spanish pronunciation in Americas, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 128 pp. Vidal de Battini, B. 1964. Spanish of Argentina: study for primary school teachers, cartography by Maria Teresa Grondona, Buenos Aires: Talleres Gráficos, 186 pp. Boretti de Macchia, S. 1977. The Spanish language on the Argentine coast. The pronoun. Rosario, Research Council, National University of Rosario, 47 pp. Nevokshanova, A.A. 2011. Features of the modern language situation in Argentina and their reflection in legislative and didactic texts: abstract of the thesis for the degree of PhD in Philology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Mocsow, 2011, 24 pp. Firsova, N. M. 2007. Modern Spanish in Spain and Latin America, AST: East-West, Moscow, 352 pp. Stepanov, G. V. 1963. Spanish in thе countries of Latin America, Publishing house of literature in foreign languages, Moscow, 202 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-101-112

FOREIGN INCLUSIONS AS THE OBJECT OF METALANGUAGE REFLECTION IN THE ARTISTIC TEXT (BASED ON THE NOVEL BY GR. D. ROBERS “SHANTARAM”)

Alexandra Gamalinskaya

Ural Federal University named after the first President of Russia B.N.Yeltsin, Yekaterinburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract. The research is devoted to the study of the features of metalanguage consciousness of native English speakers and their perception of foreign inclusions. The object of this study is the metalanguage comments of native English speakers on foreign inclusions in a literary text. The subject of the study is the communicative and conceptual reflexives, which describe the nature of the manifestation of metalanguage reflection in relation to borrowings. The analysis is based on the material of the modern literary text, the plot of which is connected with the intercultural contacts of the character. The methods of introducing foreign language inclusions into the text are examined, as well as the methods of the language design of metalanguage comments are analyzed. The uniqueness of the analyzed text lies in the inclusion in the fabric of the novel of units of different languages: Indian language and dialects (Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, European languages (German, French, English and Italian), as well as in Latin, Arabic, and Farsi. As a result of the analysis full, partial, contaminated and zero inclusions were revealed, their varieties and text functions were considered. Two functional varieties of metalanguage contexts were also analyzed. They include communicative reflexives, designed to provide the general understanding of the inclusions,

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101 and conceptual reflexives, which are means of expressing the author's worldviews. Therefore, the obligatory components of the semantic structure of the reflexive are stated: 1) the object of reflection, 2) the status qualifier, 3) the subject of metalanguage assessment, 4) metalanguage characteristic. As reproducible motives of metalanguage conceptual comments in the text the author uses: 1) an emotionally expressive assessment of inclusions; 2) a description of matching / mismatching of the signifier; 3) linguistic commentary; 4) encyclopedic information about the word. Binominative constructions, a question-answer dialogue and revealing the meaning from the conversation process of conversation are the main syntactic methods of introducing definition commentary in the text. In the conclusion the connection between the linguistic status of foreign language inclusions as an object of reflection and the structure of its metalanguage description, objectified as a part of motives regularly used for the metalanguage characteristics of foreign inclusion is revealed. Keywords: foreign inclusions, metalanguage comment, metalanguage context, conceptual reflexive, communicative reflexive

Introduction The phenomenon of metalanguage reflection is considered as a type of linguistic behavior involving observation, analysis of various linguistic facts, their assessment (Bulygina T.V., et al., 1999: 108). Reflections of native speakers on the word, lexical choice, textual transformations is one of the special features of modern mass literature (Chernyak V.D., et al., 2010: 163-164). The intensive processes taking place in vocabulary exacerbate the linguistic reflection of a modern native speaker who, with the help of introspection, seeks to understand the circumstances of the appearing and functioning of a word, assess, and comprehend the meaning of words (Vepreva I.T., 1997.: 88). Borrowing, substandard vocabulary, and occasional nominations become the

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102 object of author's commentary. Language reflection serves as a mechanism for actualization the target orientation of the text; revealing the correlation of the speaker and the addressee images. This process may destroy the automatism of speech as the speaker focuses his attention on the form of utterance, on the way of expression, which is very unusual for most normal speech acts. Objectives/Purpose of the study The purpose of this research is to study the functioning of the metalanguage consciousness of native English speakers in relation to foreign inclusions. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set: 1) to identify examples foreign-language inclusions in the literary text and to determine the ways of introducing them into the text; 2) to determine the functional motives and method of linguistic design of metalanguage information; 3) to form a corpus of reflexives containing implementation of metalanguage consciousness; 4) to analyze the semantic components of metalingual comments and syntactic methods of establishing in the text; 5) to determine the functioning system of metalanguage consciousness in relation to foreign-language inclusions. Methodology The source of the research is the contemporary novel by G.D. Roberts, “Shantaram” which is driven by the artistic originality of this text, interesting not only by plot device, but also by language features. A multilingual world unfolds before the reader, as the characters of the novel speak different languages. The collection of material was carried out by the method of continuous sampling from a written text in the original language. As a result of a continuous sample in the text, 200 examples of foreign language inclusions in Hindi, Marathi and Urdu dialects, European languages (German, French, English and Italian), as well as in Latin, Arabic, and Farsi were revealed.

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The object of this study is the metalanguage comments of native English speakers on foreign inclusions in a literary text. The subject of the study is the communicative and conceptual reflexives, which describe the nature of the manifestation of metalanguage reflection in relation to borrowings. Results/Findings Since the 20th century, much attention in linguistic literature has been paid to foreign inclusions. This term was first introduced by A.A. Leontyev, who described foreign-language inclusions as a result of the interaction of several text segments in different languages. The use of foreign inclusions in a literary text is often associated with the stylistic tasks that the author sets himself. L.P. Krysin believes that the purpose of using foreign-language inclusions is to give speech a special character: a foreign word can be embedded in the speech in order to create a certain color, to highlight some feature whose specificity will be largely lost if the corresponding word is replaced by a translation (Krysin L.P., 1968). According to the method of introducing foreign inclusions into the system of languages in the text, linguists distinguish four types of inclusions: 1) full inclusions are inserted in a section of text without graphic, phonetic and morphological changes, they are not included in syntactic relations in the sentence; 2) partial inclusions are partly assimilated phonetically, graphically or morphologically and are included in syntactic relations, as part of the sentence; 3) contaminated inclusions are considered as a broken speech phenomena, which are constructed according to the laws of a contacting language; 4) zero inclusions, which are translated and included in the original text (Listrova-Pravda Yu.T., 1986). Partial foreign inclusions are characterized by inclusion in syntactic relations with elements of a sentence in a contacting language. Such inclusions in the text of the novel were classified into several types. First of all, this is a foreign word or phrase that has retained its morphological appearance, such inclusions do not have a syntactic connection with the parts of the English sentence.

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This subtype characterizes mainly examples of foreign-language inclusions in European languages. For example: “C'est l'amour, I sighed” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 201). In this case, the French expression c'est l'amour (‘to be in love’) is an independent lexical unit that preserves the original graphics, morphological appearance and syntactic structure. The second subtype of foreign inclusions is characterized by the preservation of the original graphic appearance, but simultaneously by the partial acquisition of the morphological appearance of the English word and embedding in the English concord system: “Perhaps their mode and their politique is the future everywhere” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 29). The third subgroup of partial foreign inclusions consists of foreign words and phrases included in the English text in English graphics, but not having a syntactic relationship with the English sentence parts. This subgroup is represented by the largest number of occurrences in the text of the novel and relates mainly to foreign inclusions in Hindi and Marathi. It is used mainly as a direct speech of the heroes of the novel: “Paous alla! S'alla ghurree! – the children cried repeatedly, grasping my hands” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 75). The fourth subtype is foreign words or phrases that have retained the original semantics and designed in English graphics and grammar. “He has goondas, and those gangsters have made threats, and even done some beatings” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 103). In this case, the word goondas – gangsters (Hindi) has the English plural ending -s. The fifth subtype of partial inclusions used in the text of the novel is a foreign language word, once included in the English language, used in the original sound form in the English graphic. The example is the Sanskrit term bhagwan, often used in Hinduism in relation to the presiding deity (in the text this is one of the names of the God Vishnu), which is part of the English sentence: “But when I saw you tonight, my lord Khaderbhai, I thought that the Bhagwan had brought you here to me” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 104).

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Contaminated inclusions (the phenomenon of broken speech) are English sentences, formulated in violation of the norms of the English language. In the novel they are mainly used in the speech of an Indian guide, accompanying English-speaking tourists. In the text of the novel, such inclusions are expressed by sentences used with foreign morphological and syntactic design, or with violation of the grammatical and lexical structure: “Just a little bit not much too very far” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 13). Zero inclusion is a regular English passage, included in the original speech of foreign characters. The fact that a foreign inclusions intersperse in the text becomes clear only from the author’s explanation: “Don't you ever do that again! – I snapped at him, in Hindi. – Don't you ever run away from me again” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 181). In this study, metalanguage consciousness is understood as the field of reflecting linguistic consciousness aimed at reflecting a language-object as an element of the real world (Kozlova E.E., 2001). It is a combination of knowledge, ideas and judgments about the language, the elements of its structure, their functional features, the norms of pronunciation and a word usage (Kozlova E.E., 2009). The incentives launching reflective mechanisms in relation to borrowing are predetermined by the common goal of communication participants, which lies in achieving effective communication. These incentives include: a) the necessity to comprehend the semantics of a word when it is first presented to a communication partner. The term “first presentation of a word” means a communicative situation in which a communication participant either assumes that the word is unfamiliar to the interlocutor or receives a question about the meaning of the word; b) the necessity to recognize and value a borrowed word or borrowing process. As a result of such an assessment, a native speaker develops a willingness to accept a word in his native

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106 language or reject it. Assessment of the borrowing process regulates the intensity of the entry of foreign words into speech; c) the necessity to determine the place of new borrowing in the lexicon formed by the linguistic personality in order to introduce it as an active unit in the system of the native language. The reflexive is accepted as the unit of analysis. This phenomenon is understood as a metalanguage context, implementing a metalanguage judgment about a language fact. I.T. Vepreva distinguishes two functional types of metalanguage contexts: 1) communicative reflexives aimed at coordinating the interaction of communicants, and 2) conceptual reflexives, which serve as a means of expressing the speaker’s worldview attitudes (Vepreva I.T., 2005: 103). The comments of a communicative type functionally come close to a dictionary definition. The main form of the implementation of the metalanguage function in the comments, designed to ensure the communicative quality of speech clarity, is to assign a value to the object of the reflection. Therefore, communicative reflexives are most concise. M.R. Shumarina has allocated four obligatory components of the semantic structure of the reflexive: 1) the object of reflection, 2) the status qualifier, 3) the subject of metalanguage assessment, 4) metalanguage characteristic (Shumarina M.R., 2011: 70-79). Communicative reflexives include two components: the object of reflection (1), metalanguage characteristic as a description of the lexical meaning (2): “Ha (1) means yes (2), and nahin (1) means no (2), and pani means water, and khanna means foods” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 19). Conceptual reflexives are optional for conveying the objective meaning of a statement; they are not related to actualization of the background knowledge of the author or the reader. In conceptual reflexives, the subjective and emotional judgments of the author, his linguistic taste, and extralinguistic knowledge are explicated. As M.R. Shumarina notes, there is a certain correlation between the linguistic status of the object of reflection (proper and common nouns, abbreviations, precedent texts, etc.) and the structure of its

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107 metalanguage description. There are typical motives, which are standard semantic schemes that regularly implement in metalanguage judgments about objects of the same types (Rytikova E.N. 2010: 204). As the analysis shows, reproducible motives are used in the following conceptual metalanguage comments: 1) emotionally expressive assessment of borrowing by the author or character, 2) description of matching / mismatching; 3) linguistic commentary; 4) encyclopedic information about the word. The reflexive, which is an evaluative commentary, in most cases is characterized by the expression of a positive or negative attitude of the heroes or the author to a foreign inclusion. The function is expressed by speech with inflection, which can be correlated with the situation in which they were spoken: “He says he is so very, very happy (4) to meet you...He says you are the first gora (2) he ever met who can speak Marathi. He says some foreigners (1) speak Hindi, but nobody foreigner can speak Marathi (3)” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 45). The structure of this reflexive includes descriptive information of object meaning (1), the graphic appearance of the word in the source language (2), the subject of metalanguage assessment (3), as well as metalanguage characteristic (4) Thus, conceptual comments are much more diverse in the content than communicative comments. In the example, the Hindi word gora (foreigner) is used to show appreciation of the possibility of English speaking person to use Hindi expressions in his speech. The surrounding context demonstrates the positive motives of usage of the foreign inclusion as it gives a positive attitude to the described situation. In addition in the space of the novel the English speaker used the word gora as a self-respect expression: “That gave me a unique and very significant point of contact with them because I was the only gora any of them knew who could speak Marathi. I was the only gora any of them knew who'd been leg ironed at Arthur Road Prison” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 452).

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The motive of matching / mismatching a foreign word to denoted in conceptual reflexives is mainly implemented in relation to common nouns (names of institutions, organizations, shops, goods and brands): “Your little friend, Prabaker, has put you through the hat test. <…> It was a Borsalino test” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 48). The fact of appearing of a metalanguage comment in most cases is associated with the absence of a logical connection between the expression plan and the name content plan. In the context the author explains the meaning of the expression Borsalino test (Italian brand of hats) by mentioning the historical facts: “The test of a real Borsalino hat is to roll it into a cylinder, roll it up into a very tight tube, and pass it through a wedding ring” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 47). The linguistic commentary on a foreign word is diverse in content: it can include a description of the semantic content, phonetic appearance, and grammatical structure of the word, etymological information, indications of the normative, stylistic or cultural markedness of the lexical unit. “Baba is just a respecting name <…> If we put baba up on the back of your name, or on the name of anybody special, it is like meaning the respect we give it to a teacher, or a holy persons, or a very old, old, old” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 18). “The word bhai, at the end of his name, meant elder brother. It was a term of respectful endearment” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 101). These examples describes the usage of Hindi words in the syntactic structure of names as a stylistic indicator. Also the author of the novels reflects on the appropriateness of using foreign language expressions, especially using native and borrowed vocabulary together. Therefore, the inclusion of borrowed vocabulary is often accompanied by introductory words and sentences (the so-called, as they say, etc.): “– I love the English language, because so much of it is French. – Touché, as we say in English” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 49). The means of the language game in this case enhances the comic effect.

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The motive of the encyclopedic characteristic of the reflection object is implemented through the communication of information about the graphic appearance of the “alien word”, the circumstances of its appearance in the language, historical events associated with this fact of language: “The Borsalino is a garment of the first and finest quality. It is believed to be the most outstanding gentleman's head covering ever made. It is wide- brimmed, in black or white, and made from the furs of the lapin” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 47). Extralinguistic information may include the author’s phraseological reinterpretation and assessment of the word: “The Borsalino is more than just a hat. The Borsalino is a work of art! It was the style expression of first choice by discerning French and Italian gangsters in Milan and Marseilles for many decades. The very name of Borsalino became a synonyme for gangsters. The wild young men of the underworld of Milano and Marseilles were called Borsalinos” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 47). The semantization of foreign inclusions in the novel is carried out through etymological references, literal translation, and the selection of synonyms. Although a significant part of inclusions does not require definitive commentary, since it is familiar to the general reader from medial means. These way is typical for inclusions from European languages: “Alors, let's go!” (French), “What, alone? <…> C'est trop!” (French), “C'est l'amour” (French). In such cases, the only signal of metalanguage reflection in relation to foreign inclusions is graphic means: quotation marks, italics, discharge, capitalization (spelling in capital letters), bold. According to the syntactic methods of describing metalanguage commentary into the text, three main cases can be distinguished. In the first case, the author of the novel introduces a foreign language inclusion in the text without explanation, while the meaning of the word is revealed in the text in the process of conversation: “They have it a message for you, Lin. But there is a vachan, a promise, before they will give it the message. There is a... you know... a catches» (Roberts G.D., 2004: 128). The second way of explaining the meaning of the word is sequence of

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110 questions and answers in a dialogue: “– Now tell me, what is alu palak? – Alu palak is potato and spinach” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 38). The third syntactic form of presenting the meaning of foreign language inclusions is binominative sentences which occurs by entering into the context an equivalent in the original language: “Maza mitra ahey. <…> He's my friend” (Roberts G.D., 2004: 62). Discussion Thus, metalanguage utterances presented in the text of the novel are heterogeneous in semantics and structure. Communicative reflexives, which are a means of borrowing semantization, usually include two component: the object of reflection and its lexical meaning. Binominative constructions and a question-answer dialogue are used to introduce definition commentary in the text. Comments of a conceptual type, carrying complex information about the reflection object, are much more diverse in the qualitative and quantitative composition of the semantic structure of the reflexive. Metalanguage contexts of a conceptual type, often representing compositionally independent fragments of a statement, are marked in the text with graphic means and metalanguage terms. Metalanguage information in conceptual reflexives is regularly accompanied by information about the ethnocultural specifics associated with inclusions.

References Bulygina ,T.V., Shmelev, A.D. 1999. Man about language (metalanguage reflection in non-linguistic texts). Logical language analysis: The image of a person in culture and language, 146–161. Chernyak, V.D., Chernyak, M.A. 2010. Language reflection. Basic concepts of mass literature. Publishing house RGPU after. A.I. Gercena, SPb., Russia, 167 pp. Kozlova, E.E. 2001. Emotional evaluative metaphorical statements in relation to borrowed words in various types of discourse. Bulletin of Tomsk State University 349: 7–10.

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Kozlova, E.E. 2009. Interpretation of foreign borrowings as a way of expressing metalanguage consciousness. Questions of modern philology and methods of teaching languages at a university and school: a collection of articles of XIII international scientific and practical conference, pp. 21–24. Krysin, L.P. 1968. Foreign words in modern Russian. Science, Moscow, Russia, 208 pp. Listrova-Pravda ,Yu.T. 1986. The selection and use of foreign inclusions in Russian literary speech of the 19th century. Publishing House of Voronezh University, Voronezh, Russia, 144 pp. Roberts, G.D. 2004. Shantaram. Abacus, London, the UK, 933 pp. Rytikova, E.N. 2010. Metatext as a global system of designed text of a textbook. Scientific Bulletin of Voronezh State University, pp. 145–153. Shumarina, M.R. 2011language in the mirror of a literary text. metalanguage reflection in works of Russian prose. FLINTA, Science, Moscow, Russia, 328 pp. Vepreva, I.T. 1997. Explicit attitude to the word in modern speech. Russian word in language, text and cultural environment, pp. 88– 96. Vepreva, I.T. 2005. Language reflection in the post-Soviet era. OLMA-PRESS, Moscow, Russia, 384 pp.

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-113-121

THE INTERACTION OF CULTUREAND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Zinaida I. Guryeva¹, Elena V. Petrushova²

²Kuban State University ¹٫ Krasnodar, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. In this paper we are making an attempt of discussing some theoretical problems of textual activity as an important regulator of social interaction in the field of business communication. Business communication is one of the most popular types of social interaction and plays a very important part in human society. It penetrates practically all the spheres of human activity. Although any type of communication is subject to misunderstandings, business communication is particularly difficult. The material is often complex and controversial, and both the sender and the receiver may face distractions that divert their attention. Furthermore, the opportunities for feedback are often limited, making it difficult to correct misunderstandings. To provide a good message and to understand it correctly businessmen must have: professional knowledge of the subject under discussion, language or linguistic competence, communicative competence and cross-cultural competence. Language competence of a native speaker is a natural phenomenon. When we speak of a communicative competence we mean the ability of a language-user

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113 to produce not only a linguistically correct speech utterance but also a communicatively appropriate utterance as well. Communicative competence reveals skills in business letter- writing, in telephoning, in making presentations, in conducting various meetings and conferences, in advertising, etc. Cultural background of communicators is also of great importance. The problem arises when businessmen conclude deals or have negotiations in a foreign language with foreign business partners. The culture of each country has its own beliefs, values and activities. Culture is a key component in business and has an impact on the strategic direction of business. Culture influences management, decisions and all business functions from accounting to production. A business culture will encompass as organisation’s values, visions, working style, beliefs and habits. Different cultures prefer different styles of social interaction. Nevertheless it is necessary to differentiate language and culture. Language reflects not only today’s culture, but traditions of the past as well. good communication is vital for the efficient running of a business. Effective communication will only happen if information is sent, received and then understood correctly. Keywords: business communication, social interaction, language competence, communicative competence, cultural background, textual activity

Introduction Business communication is one of the most popular types of social interaction and plays a very important part in human society. It penetrates practically all the spheres of human activity. Culture is a key component in business and has an impact on the strategic direction of business. Objectives The purpose of the study is reveal the way culture influences textual activity in the process of business communication. We seek to establish general principles governing the organization and use

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114 of Business English and how it is used to create and reinforce social relationships. Methodology The methods applied consisted in observation of speech, mostly written, collection and classification of data, hypotheses, and systematic statements based on the correlation of social and linguistic phenomena. Findings Some examples of information and methods of communicating in business might be: – Setting goals and objectives Organizations rely on communication among employees at all levels to decide on and implement their goals. Most organizations have a variety of formal and informal objectives to accomplish. These goals are established by thinking and talking about them and then committing them to paper. – Making and implementing decisions In an effort to achieve their goals, people in business must make and implement many decisions. They must collect facts and evaluate alternatives, and they do so by reading, asking questions, talking things over with one another, and just plain thinking. Often their deliberations depend on reports that are prepared by others and that analyze the pros and cons of various actions. Then once a decision has been made, it has to be implemented, and this requires more communication. – Measuring results Keeping track of results requires the transmission of information from lower-level employees to management. As the decisions are translated into action, management needs to determine whether the desired outcome is being reached. Statistics on such factors as costs, sales, market share, productivity, employee turnover, and inventory levels are compiled. – Hiring and developing staff Organizations attract, train, motivate, and evaluate their employees by communicating with them. If a company wants to hire someone,

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115 it must first advertise the opening, screen resumes, interview applicants, and eventually make a job offer. Then the new person must be introduced to the organization, instructed in the responsibilities of the position, and motivated to perform. As time goes on, the new employee must be given feedback on her or his performance, which involves more communication. – Dealing with customers All of an organization's interactions with customers involve communication in one form or another. Both written and oral communication are essential to a company's interactions with customers. Even the price tags on products are a form of communication. Sales letters and brochures, advertisements, personal sales calls, telephone solicitations, and formal proposals are all used to stimulate the customer's interest. Communication also plays a part in such customer-related functions as credit checking, billing, and handling complaints and questions. – Negotiating with suppliers and financiers Organizations rely on communication to obtain needed supplies at best prices and to attract investment capital. To obtain necessary supplies and services, companies develop written specifications that outline their requirements. They place orders for materials and bargain to get the best price. To arrange financing, they negotiate with lenders and fill out loan applications, or they sell stock to the public, which involves still more paperwork. Once they have obtained the necessary capital, they must keep their investors informed about the status of the business. – Producing the product The production process is, in part, a communication process. Getting an idea for a new product out of someone's head, pushing it through the production process, and finally getting the product out the door also require communication. Designers draw plans, marketing people conduct studies, and product managers develop sales campaigns. When the time comes for full-scale production, the company prepares a manufacturing plan. Supervisors get instructions and pass them on to production workers. As

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116 production gets under way, workers report any problems that arise. Records are kept regarding raw materials, inventory levels, and product quality. Finally, arrangements are made by phone or in writing for shipping the product. – Interacting with regulatory agencies Government regulation and services depend on a two-way flow of information. Communication also occurs between businesses and government. With input from companies and the public, government agencies establish rules and regulations that both protect companies and ensure that they operate in the general interest. Often, companies must then demonstrate their compliance with regulations by preparing reports that describe their efforts to meet such goals as cleaning up the environment or hiring women and minorities. Should a company fail to respond to government requirements, it may get an opportunity for further communication - in a court of law. Communication can take place between managers and employees, as well as between representative bodies, such as trade unions. Information is also passed to people and organizations outside the company. Communication can be along different routes or channels in the organization. Sometimes it can be between a manager and a subordinate (vertical) or between two departments (horizontal). It can be communiсated downwards, upwards and laterally. Communication media vary from written methods, such as annual reports, to oral methods such as discussions, to the use of information technology, such as a modem or a “fax” machine, videos and electronic mail. Discussion Thus, within the framework of economic, social and cultural context textually organized information is permanently exchanged. As the result of textual activity different texts are produced both orally or in a written form. Nowadays texts become integral elements of human professional experience. Textual activity serves all human material wants indirectly – through the satisfaction of

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117 the most important needs of self-expression, interrelation and interaction of people. Verbal communication is the sum total of all types of speech activity representing the receipt, processing, transmission, storage and usage of both professionally and emotionally relevant information. It is only the efficient verbal activity that leads to mutual understanding and effective business communication. For communication to be effective the correct message must be sent and received. That’s why the sender of the message should think about his or her audience, let them know what to expect, use vivid language, stick to the point, connect new ideas to familiar ones, emphasize and review key points, minimize noise, and provide opportunities for feedback (Hall D., 2008: 216). Decoding a message to absorb its ideas is also a complex process. Our ability to absorb information depends on our past experiences, and over time, each of builds up a particular view of the world. Then when we learn something new we try to fit it into our existing pattern. But if the new information doesn’t quite fit, we are inclined to distort it rather than rearrange the pattern, or we pay more attention to some ideas than to others. Therefore, when we communicate with people who share similar experiences and expectations, much what we say automatically fits into their mental framework. Interestingly enough, one person may react differently to the same words on different occasions. A message that might be perfectly clear and acceptable in one situation can lead to confusion and hostility in another, depending on the emotional relationship between receiver and sender. Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings, business communication is particularly difficult. The material is often complex and controversial, and both the sender and the receiver may face distractions that divert their attention. Furthermore, the opportunities for feedback are often limited, making it difficult to correct misunderstandings. Unfortunately, when business communication goes awry, the consequences can be grave.

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To provide a good message and to understand it correctly businessmen must have: - professional knowledge of the subject under discussion; - language or linguistic competence; - communicative competence; - cross-cultural competence. There is no need to speak here about professional skills of communicators. A businessman usually must have basic knowledge of marketing, production, finances, banking, world trade, etc. Language competence of a native speaker is a natural phenomenon. The problem arises when businessmen conclude deals or have negotiations in a foreign language. In this case the degree of proficiency of a foreign language-user really matters. The range of varieties here is great. There are people who speak two or more languages. They are known to be bilinguals, polylinguals or multilinguals. Some of them have spoken two or more languages since their early childhood and have good skills in listening, reading, speaking and writing. Others acquired foreign languages much later and have no intuitive sense of linguistic appropriateness or awareness of conventions at all. When we speak of a communicative competence we mean the ability of a language-user to produce not only a linguistically correct speech utterance but also a communicatively appropriate utterance as well. A certain communicative situation as a rule requires some definite language means of expression. A communicator should know which of them to use and in what situation. For example, a businessman may choose to inform his partner on the phone or to send him an official business letter or to discuss the matter over face-to-face while having an informal lunch. Of course the language means used in each of these cases will be different. Communicative competence reveals skills in business letter- writing, in telephoning, in making presentations, in conducting meetings and conferences, in advertising, etc.

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Production and reception of speech utterances depends largely on speaker’s psychological and social peculiarities. David Crystal and Derek Davy have hypothesized that any utterance, spoken or written, displays features, which simultaneously identify it from a number of different points of view. Some feature may provide information about the speaker’s regional background or his place on a social scale of some kind; other features may reveal aspects of the social situation in which he is speaking, the kind of person to whom he is speaking, the capacity in which he is speaking and so on (Crystal D., Davy D., 2016: 64). Thus, cultural background of communicators is of great importance. It is a generally known fact that businesspeople of different nationalities sometimes have problems in understanding each other because of differences of ethnic and cultural character. Cross-cultural competence deals with religious, political, philosophical, educational, ethic aspects of communicators’ views. Culture illustrates the accepted norms and values and traditional behaviour of a group. However, culture also evolves over time. The culture of each country has its own beliefs, values and activities. In other words culture can be defined as an evolving set of collective beliefs, values and attitudes. Culture is a key component in business and has an impact on the strategic direction of business. Culture influences management, decisions and all business functions from accounting to production. You may now be thinking predominantly about national culture but this is only one aspect, business culture is its own unique dimension that includes getting off on the right foot, meetings, negotiation, formalities, social media use, internships and work placements and other elements which are highlighted on this website. Business culture is related to behaviour, ethics, etiquette and more. A business culture will encompass as organisation’s values, visions, working style, beliefs and habits.

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Conclusion Different cultures prefer different styles of social interaction. Nevertheless it is necessary to differentiate language and culture. For example, English-speaking world is divided today into many parts from the cultural point of view. Many social groups, which do not belong to Anglo-Saxon tradition, consider English to be their mother tongue. Language reflects not only today’s culture, but traditions of the past as well. For instance, the differences of English spoken by American Negroes and Standard English result from cultural differences of their users. Australian English has also developed a number of features that reflect history, culture and traditions of Australia (Wierzbicka A., 2003: 95). In conclusion it should be stressed that good communication is vital for the efficient running of a business. A company exporting business goods abroad is likely to have major problems if it fails to give the exact time of departure to its dispatch department. Similarly problems will also arise if instructions are not clear and goods are delivered to the wrong address. Effective communication will only happen if information is sent, received and then understood correctly.

References Crystal, D., Davy, D. 2016. Investigating English Style. 16th ed. Routledge, N.Y., USA, 278 pp. Hall, D. 2008. Business Studies. 4th ed., Causeway Press, Harlow, United Kingdom, 812 pp. Wierzbicka, A. 2003. Cross-cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction. 2nd ed., Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 416 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-122-131

COMPETENCE-BASED MODEL OF SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING

Marina E. Korovkina

Moscow State University for International Relations (MGIMO-University) Ministry of Foreign Affairs Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of the paper is to build and describe a competence-based model of simultaneous interpreting (SI). To achieve this objective we use descriptive, comparative and interpreting modelling methods. The text is interpreted under an acute shortage of time, with the interpreter’s simultaneous talking and listening. The competence-based SI model includes three big components related to language and conceptual translator’s thesauri or his/her mental lexicon. The first component is communicative competence related to the language thesaurus. It is one of the core competences for all translation modes, but in SI it should be developed at a very high level. Obviously, there is a trend both in Russia and Europe to train simultaneous interpreters at Master degree programmes, with the communicative competence at C1 or C2 levels, though it has not always been the case. Of course, its acquisition continues in the process of studies at the Master Degree programme, as there is always room for improvement. The second component of the translator/interpreter’s competence is specialized or technological competence (sub-competence), which presents a set of key interpreting skills that manifest themselves in a special and unique way in SI, as they are based on the interpreter’s ability to resort to three most important SI cognitive mechanisms: inferencing, probabilistic forecasting and anticipation, and compression. Their

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122 first most detailed description was made by G. Chernov (Chernov G., 1987) in the seventies-eighties of XX century. We continue their study through a perspective of the interpretative theory of translation (theorie du sens developed by M. Lederer (2003) and D. Seleskovitch (1998)) applied to the SI teaching methods. The ability to make inferencing and anticipation depends on the third component of SI competence model – the knowledge of extralinguistic information. It includes the knowledge of culture, world in general and specific subject areas. This competence needs to be developed not only in the course of formal training. An insufficient number of contact hours means that students should be motivated to enhance their encyclopedic knowledge in the course of their autonomous work. Life-long learning for an interpreter is a must rather than an option. Keywords: simultaneous interpreting, competences, inferencing, probabilistic forecasting and anticipation, compression

Introduction The transition to competence-based approaches in Russia’s Higher Education Area (HEA) has been hard enough. At present, Russian universities have rather well-aligned three-cycle programmes and curricula that have been redesigned to bring them in line with the new Federal Standards and Bologna requirements. The criticisms of the Bologna system, which may have been brought about by a low level of school students’ performance, may lead to a switch- back to an old educational system. Actually, such a set-back be regarded as an anachronism in a current globalised environment. There may be a need to identify the areas of education and knowledge where competence-based approaches should not be applied. But this is clearly not the case with translation and interpreting. Even in the Soviet era the term ‘competence’ and ‘communicative competence’ were actively advocated in the area of foreign language acquisition and translation by a number of researchers, for example, by I. Zimnaya (Zimnaya I., 1978). Today such notions and terms as a competence-based approach, modules,

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123 learning outcomes are widely accepted in Russia’s HEA and some translation and interpreting university departments can boast of a quality education having designed two-cycle programmes and curricula and combined advantages of both the old and new systems. A good illustration of the case is the Master Degree Programme Training Translators and Interpreters for International Organizations at MGIMO-University. A competence-based approach presupposes a need to build a well- defined translation or interpreting competence model. This area of research has been developing with success in Europe (the PACTE, 2005, 2009; Kiraly D., 2013; Gopferisch S., 2009) and in Russia (Gavrilenko N., 2008), among others. These researchers have designed holistic translation models, while we’ll focus on specifics of simultaneous interpreting (SI). It has some generic features common of translation, interpreting, and even other areas of procedural and declarative knowledge, and unique characteristics that make it a very complex cognitive process and one of the most extreme types of cognitive brain activity. Objectives and methods The objective of the paper is to build and describe a competence- based SI model. To achieve this objective we use descriptive, comparative and interpreting modelling methods. Results The text is interpreted under an acute shortage of time, with the interpreter talking and listening simultaneously and activating two speech reception and production channels. The competence-based SI model includes three big components related to language and conceptual translator’s thesauri or his/her mental lexicon. The first component is communicative competence related to the language thesaurus. It is one of the core competences for all translation modes, but in SI it should be developed at a very high level. Obviously, there is a trend both in Russia and Europe to train simultaneous interpreters in Master degree programmes, with the communicative competence at C1 or C2 levels, though it has not always been the case. Of course, its acquisition continues in the

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124 process of studies in a Master Degree programme, as there is always room for improvement. In order to achieve this, we should take into account two aspects. The first aspect relates to the text function. If a text belongs to special communication served by LSP, the acquisition of notions and terms of a specific subject area will make interpreting easier. That is why it is advisable in the course of studies to use texts for training and drilling from some limited subject areas. For example, the MGIMO linguistic Master Degree programme focuses on interpreting UN speeches which include such subject matters as politics and international relations, social, economic and legal issues. The acquisition of terms and notions and a certain (sometimes high) informational redundancy of texts from the above-mentioned areas of knowledge will make the training more efficient. The second aspect that enhances the training efficiency is minding the differences in the world view between the source and target languages (SL, TL). Though C1 or C2 level of communicative competence means that a student is aware of these differences, though it is not always the case. We have devised a system of exercises that highlight these differences. The knowledge of the language asymmetries is also useful for translation, as it improves an idiomatic level of the translated text. Moreover, it is of paramount importance for SI, as it can help to increase the speed of information processing and to avoid language interference. These linguo-specific language structures boil down to metaphoric imagery, metonymic shifts, and implication models at the semantic level, and to significant discrepancies in grammar constructions and stylistic devices in SL and TL. Another important point to be taken in consideration is the direction of translation/interpreting, whether it is direct (to mother tongue) or inverse (from mother tongue), as there are also some specifics in this regard. If the text is interpreted from English into Russian (as these are two languages analyzed in this paper), the main hurdles in interpreting are differences in metaphoric imagery and their frequency of usage, for example: English metaphors feeding trough, foul play,

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125 repercussions and reverberations, grass-root, to be in dire straits, to have a narrow escape, etc.; the second metaphoric meaning: развеять пепел/развеять иллюзию – to scatter ashes/to dispel an illusion. Examples of implication language and speech/text models: the longest post-war delays – самый длительный в послевоенной истории перерыв; …the damage that could be inflicted by a worst-case scenario – к каким негативным последствиям может привести дальнейшее развитие сложившейся ситуации; compliance – соблюдение всех требований действующего законодательства. Grammar animism (grammar metaphor) is also typical of English: Several years of litigation resulted in an out-of-court settlement: Australia consented to pay the island $73 million over a period of 20 years. – После нескольких лет препирательств «зеленый континент» пошел с островитянами на мировую, согласившись выплатить 73 млн в течение 20 лет. This type of grammar constructions needs a transformation in interpreting/translation. Metonymic shifts are widely used in both languages, as metonymy is one of the universal language tools of nomination and mental tools of cognition: Many of those who have lost their jobs are still unemployed. – Многие люди, потерявшие работы, до сих пор ее не нашли. Both languages have specific stylistic devices, for example, alliterations in English and couplets (sometimes they are rhymed) in English and Russian. For example: squalor and misery – грязь и нищета, to toil and moil – тяжело, усиленно трудиться, to do or die – отчаянный, не останавливающийся ни перед чем, doom and gloom – конец света. When the text is translated/interpreted from Russian (inverse interpreting), the focus should be made on grammar transformations, as the word order in Russian is not fixed, and the grammar subject may follow the predicate. Another important disparity between the English and Russian grammar, which should be taken into account in translation/interpreting is a great variety of grammar constructions/sentences/clauses without subject in Russian, which is an absolute taboo in English. In both cases the

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English linguo-specific constructions with grammar metaphors may be used as one of the translation devices, which help to preserve the word order of SL increasing the speed of information processing in SI. These illustrations of some discrepancies between the English and Russian world views (that find expression in the linguo-specific constructions at all language levels) should be mastered by SI Master Degree students. The second component of the translator/interpreter’s competence is specialized or technological competence (sub-competence), which presents a set of key interpreting skills that manifest themselves in a special and unique way in SI. For example, switching from SL to TL and vice versa, the ability to listen and talk at the same time. We regard these skills as aptitudes that may be improved in the course of drilling. Meanwhile, the focus should be made in the course of training simultaneous interpreters on their abilities to use three most important SI cognitive mechanisms: inferencing, probabilistic forecasting and anticipation, and compression. Their first most detailed description was made by Chernov in the seventies-eighties of XX century. We continue their study through a perspective of the interpretative theory of translation (theorie du sens developed by Lederer and Seleskovitch) applied to the SI teaching methods. The abilities to resort to these three mechanisms are generic abilities and skills, as these mechanisms are used in broader contexts, not only in SI, but in this interpreting mode they manifest themselves again in a unique way. First, inferencing means the ability to derive implicatures in the SL text. To be able to do this, the interpreter has to be well-versed in presuppositions of both SL and TL – knowledge shared by the speakers and information recipients. On the basis of different types of classifications we have devised a concise classification of presuppositions that coincides with that of implicatures, as implicatures depend on presuppositions:

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Presuppositions / Implicatures

Referential-Language-based Cognitive-Thesaurus-based

Figure 1. Classification of presuppositions/implicatures

Referential-language-based presuppositions relate to the interpreted text, to its linguistic structures, with their disparities reflecting the differences in the world view between SL and TL. As it has been mentioned above, the knowledge of linguo-specific ways of expressing the thought increases the speed of information processing in the course of SI, and enables the interpreter to derive language-based implicatures. The referential presuppositions, as well as implicatures, depend on the text function and its discursive features. Texts belonging to specific subject areas served by LSP makes interpreting easier, as the interpreter can be familiar with terms and notions from a specific LSP, which are usually repeated in a linear unfolding of text information. LSP denotational function presupposes a good logical structure and argumentation of the text: its good cohesion and coherence, with certain informational redundancy that makes anticipation easier. Good cohesion and coherence are expressed in co-referent chains, repetitions, logical connectors and the presentation of information in terms of theme and rheme (or a sentence functional perspective). Cognitive- thesaurus-based presuppositions reflect the text’s extralinguistic information relating to a broad pragmatic context: knowledge of cultural context, of world in general and of a specific subject area, topic and the communicative situation (speakers, recipients, deixis) of the event to be interpreted simultaneously. This knowledge depends on the interpreter’s conceptual thesaurus, and it makes it possible to derive cognitive-thesaurus-based

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128 implicatures. Both referential-language-based and cognitive- thesaurus-based implicatures facilitate probabilistic forecasting and anticipation, as the latter is also based on presuppositions and anchor words expressing the key text information. As far as the interpreter derives implicatures and makes inferences, he/she also can also anticipate sense unfolding. If the sense forecast is not confirmed by the linearly presented information of the interpreted text, the interpreter makes adjustments and corrections. The third SI cognitive mechanism is compression. Its manifestation in the course of interpreting depends on two factors: on the direction of interpreting and the speaker’s speed. English is more implicit and the examples above illustrate its more implicit presentation of information. If the text is interpreted from English into Russian, the interpreter has to use explication or explicitation. In order to catch up with the speaker, he/she has to resort to sense compression based on the redundancy of text information. In case of inverse translation (from Russian into English) the interpreter has to compress the sense using linguo-specific English semantic and grammar structures. If the speaker’s speed is above 100 – 120 words per minute, the interpreter has to resort to compression eliminating redundant information, no matter what is the direction of interpretation. All the three cognitive mechanisms interact in the course of SI. The specifics of their interaction and methodological aspects of SI teaching related to the respective skills’ acquisition present an interesting and promising area of research. The scheme below illustrates the interaction of the SI cognitive mechanisms:

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Probabilistic Forecasting and Anticipation

Compression Inferencing

Text Function

Utterance Sense and Semantic Structure

Figure 2. Interaction of cognitive mechanisms in SI The third component of SI competence model is the knowledge of extralinguistic information that includes the knowledge of culture, world in general and specific subject areas of knowledge. This competence also represents a generic ability relating to the interpreter’s conceptual thesaurus that needs to be developed not only in the course of formal training. An insufficient number of contact hours means that students should be motivated to enhance their encyclopedic knowledge in the course of their autonomous work. Life-long learning for an interpreter is a must rather than an option. Conclusions Our findings present the SI competence model consisting of three components: the communicative, specialized or technological and extralinguistic competences (or sub-competences), which include, in their turn, a variety of skills and abilities. Their mastery can be achieved in the course of training simultaneous interpreters at the Master Degree programmes level, which is proven by a high level of students’ performance and their subsequent job experience.

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References Chernov G., Ghelly V. 1987. The Fundamentals of Simultaneous Interpreting. Vysshaia Shkola, Moscow, 256 pp. Gavrilenko, N.N. 2008. Teaching translation in professional communication. RUDN, Moscow, 176 pp. Göpferich, Susanna. 2009. Towards a Model of Translation Competence and Its Acquisition: The Longitudinal Study TransComp. In Behind the Mind: Methods, Models and Results in Translation Process Research. Samfundslitteratur, Copenhagen, pp. 12–38. Kiraly, Don. 2013. Towards a View of Translator Competence as an Emergent Phenomenon: Thinking Outside the Box(es) in Translator Education. In New Prospects and Perspectives for Educating Language Mediators. Gunter Narr, Tübingen, pp. 197– 224. Lederer, M. 2003. Translation. The Interpretative Model. St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester, 239 pp. PACTE. 2005. Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Meta 20(2): 609–619. https://doi.org/10.72/02011004ar. PACTE. 2009. Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Acceptability and Decision-making. Across Languages and Cultures 10(2): 207–230. https://doi.org/.10.1556Acr.10.2009.2.3. Seleskovitch, D. 1998. Interpreting for International Conferences. Pen and Booth, Washington, 138 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-132-139

THE CONCEPT OF A VILLAGER IN THE POLYCULTURAL SPACE OF LATIN AMERICA

Evgeniya А. Popova

Moscow State Linguistic University Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The issue of culturally-bound concepts in multinational languages, their common and specific features and the scope of meaning of the words, which denote such concepts, has lately been put under investigation in a large number of works due to its relevance in the globalized world. We assume that one of crucially important subjects in this area is research of additional semantics of the words denoting a villager in Latin American variations of the Spanish language. Studies on history of Spanish-speaking Latin American countries, extralinguistic factors that influenced the development of certain concepts and language units, and etymology of these units make us point out the gradual increase of the distance between the “urban” and “rural” speech. Having investigated 14 words, whose primary meaning is “an inhabitant of the rural area” in different national variants of Spanish (campirano, campisto, chagra, charro, gañán, gaucho, guajiro, huaso, huasteco, jarocho, jíbaro, llanero, montuno, vale), we come to a conclusion that more than a half (9 units) has a secondary meaning “a poorly educated person with village manners”. This fact proves the scholars’ opinion that due to the historically developed gap between urban and rural life the villagers were often looked down by people in towns. There are other common language processes, specified with the help of dictionary, corpus and etymological analysis, that took part in the formation of the “villager” concept in Latin America. Firstly, the meaning of 5 words has extended to

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132 ethnonyms denoting a citizen of a certain Latin American country (charro for Mexico, jíbaro for Puerto Rico, etc.). Secondly, 7 of them have narrowed one of their meanings to “a horseman” or “a cattleman”. Thirdly, 5 words have a meaning with a racial component, which forms a more concrete image of a peasant in different regions of the investigated territory. Finally, we have found out that the evaluation components of the studied words and their actualization change over time and are not always recorded in dictionaries. One of these components is a positive association with the musical culture of the respective countries that occurs when the “villager” concept is mentioned. Keywords: Spanish language, concept, extralinguistic factor, meaning, connotation

Introduction One of the most important factors which determine the lexical originality of Latin American national variants of Spanish, is their separate formation in the respective countries. The linguistic reality of the New World is considered to have proclaimed the idea of cultural diversity, lack of unity and autochthonous evolution of language features. In these terms one can speak about the mutual influence of the standardized diversity caused by urbanization and mass media, and regional varieties, primarily at the phonological and lexico-phraseological levels. At the same time, there are a number of general trends in the development of national variants of the Spanish language in Latin America, connected with extralinguistic factors. One of such trends is the gradual increase (in the course of Latin American history) of the distance between city and rural residents due to their speech. Firstly, the everyday speech of the latter was not so much affected by the political influence extended among the urban population through the press, and this explains its archaic deviation from the national standard. Secondly, ineffective educational policy led to the development of diglossic situations.

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Despite the fact that by 1900 only about 10% of the population lived in cities, in the second half of the 20th century, Latin America was ahead of all the major regions of the world in terms of urbanization. The lack of land and difficult living conditions historically became a significant reason for the “flow” of peasants into cities in the framework of internal migration. This exacerbated the problems of urban employment, the growth of unskilled labor, the emergence of numerous chaotic settlements without basic sanitary conditions. In this regard, as Spanish-speaking scholars put it, peasants in cities were often looked upon with condescension and contempt (See: Moreno Fernández F., 2018), which could not but be reflected in the language. Object and Purpose of the Study The purpose of our study was to analyze the semantics of the “villager” concept in different Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America and to identify their general and specific points. The object of the current research includes lexical units which denote a villager, or a peasant, in Latin American variants of Spanish, and the scope of their meanings. We chose 14 nouns with a “peasant” component in their primary meaning “a person who proceeds from the rural area, and live and work in the country” (persona procedente del medio rural que vive y trabaja en el campo). Our task was to investigate their scope of meaning in various Latin American cultures and to prove the idea that practically all of them, being universal in the first meaning, have additional content and expression and become part of the image of the respective countries. These nouns are as follows (we give them in alphabetical order marking those countries where they are used):  campirano (Mexico, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Ecuador);  campisto/-a (Honduras, Venezuela, Salvador, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Mexico);  chagra (Ecuador);

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 charro (Mexico, USA, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, Salvador);  gañán (south of Peru, Colombia);  gaucho (Argentina, Uruguay, south of Chile, Paraguay, Bolivia);  guajiro (Cuba, Puerto Rico);  huaso / guaso (Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay);  huasteco / guasteco (Chile, Mexico);  jarocho (Mexico);  jíbaro (Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Peru, Cuba, Ecuador, Dominican Republic, Colombia);  llanero (Venezuela, Colombia, Honduras, Chile);  montuno (Panama, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba, Colombia, Peru);  vale / bale (Dominican Republic). Methodology In order to reveal the relevant meaning of the words under investigation in Latin American national variants of Spanish which influence their additional semantics, we first of all turned to acknowledged monolingual dictionaries: the one edited by R. Richard (Richard R., et al., 2006), online dictionaries of Royal Spanish Academy (Diccionario de la lengua Española, 2020; Diccionario de americanismo, 2020), and the online dictionary of Latin American colloquial speech (Diccionario Asihablamos, 2020). We also resorted to dictionaries specialized in certain national variants of the Spanish language, such as, for example, Diccionario mayor de cubanismos (Sánchez-Boudy J., 1999) or Diccionario breve de mexicanismos of Mexican Language Academy (2020). Finally, we used a digital etymological dictionary to find mutually connected historical facts about the language and the countries themselves (Diccionario etimológico de español en línea, 2020).

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After looking up the definitions and etymology of the aforementioned vocabulary units, we verified their actualization in Corpus del Español (2020) by Mark Davis (founded by National Endowment for the Humanities). As an example, let us provide the analysis of the word guajiro which represents the concept of a villager in the Cuban culture. According to dictionaries, this lexical unit has three related meanings: 1) a person who lives in or comes from the rural area – a neutral meaning also registered for Puerto Rico; 2) a poorly educated person with “village” manners – a meaning with strongly negative connotations; 3) a shy person – connotations depend on the context. In addition, we should mention that in the Colombian and Venezuelan national variants of the Spanish language, this lexical unit is a neutral ethnonym denoting either a resident of Guajira – a department of Colombia, or a native of the La Guajira region in Venezuela. In the second case, the dictionaries “add” a racial component to the meaning of the word, which, however, does not have any negative connotations. As for Cuba, the use of guajiro in its second meaning it is always charged with a contemptuous tone (se carga con el tono despectivo), as Spanish scholars put it (Moreno Fernández F., 2018: 196), evidenced by the appeal of ¡no seas guajiro! (“don't be stupid,” “don't be dumb”), registered in dictionaries. If a person is rude in communication, in Cuba he is called guajiro-macho or guajiro-ñongo. It is necessary to denote one more meaning of guajiro – “provincial”, “a person that does not come from the capital” (provinciano, persona del interior del país) stated in Diccionario mayor de cubanismos (Sánchez Boudy J., 1999), which indicates the extension of the original meaning of “a peasant, a villager”. We also consider the etymological analysis of the word guajiro an indispensable part of our study. José Arrom points to the Arawakian origin of the lexeme with the meaning “master,

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136 powerful man” (señor, hombre poderoso), and Sergio Valdes adds that originally guajiro indicated a high social status in Cuba (Diccionario etimológico en línea, 2020). In fact, originally, the word had strongly positive connotations. Besides, there exists a popular folk etymology of the concept of guajiro, which appeared due to the principle of phonetic similarity. The American soldiers called so the Cuban peasants who fought against the Spaniards during the Spanish-American War of 1898. The Cubans are said to have heard the English combination of war hero as guajiro. However, the word guajiro meaning “a villager” appears in Cuban texts much earlier, which can be proved with the help of text corpora: para casarse, como se casó, [...] se había fugado con un joven guajiro del pueblo – “to get married, and she [as we know] did get married ... she ran away with a young peasant from the village” (Cirilo Valverde, 1840 – Corpus del Español, 2020). Thus, the idea of the English origin of this lexical unit seems to be baseless. Results Studies of the other 13 language units concerning the “villager” concept in Latin American national variants of Spanish, according to the aforementioned algorithm, allowed us to find out a number of similar semantic processes and additional meanings in the words belonging to this group. The most evident one is the usage of 8 more words (besides guajiro) in the meaning of “a poorly educated person with village manners” (chagra, gañan, gaucho, huaso and huasteco, in this case pronounced as guaso and guasteco, jarocho, jíbaro and montuno), due to the history factors stated in the introduction. Secondly, several units have a definition with a “racial component” influenced by the ethnical factor: chagra means “mustee” (mestizo) in Ecuador, and gaucho – in Argentina; huasteco is an “indian” (amerindio) in several regions of Mexico, and jíbaro – in Ecuador and part of Peru. On the other hand, the same word, jíbaro, denotes a “white” villager in Puerto Rico and Venezuela.

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The third common semantic trait of the investigated words is the extension of their meaning, on the one hand – to “a provincial” with negative connotations (the mentioned guajiro, and besides – chagra, huaso/guaso and gaucho), and on the other – to the neutrally or positively connoted “inhabitant of a certain country”:  charro – a Mexican person;  gaucho – an Argentinian;  jíbaro – an inhabitant of Puerto Rico;  huaso – a person coming from Chile;  llanero – a Venezuelan. Finally, we consider it important to distinguish a vice-versa process when the “villager” meaning is narrowed to one of its characteristic features. For example, such words as campirano, campisto, charro, gaucho, huaso and llanero have a definition of “a horseman”. Some of them are also defined as “cattleman” (campirano, campisto, gañan, gaucho, huaso, llanero, vale). As a result, we can see that all the described features of these lexical units add to the image of a typical villager in different Spanish- speaking countries. Conclusions To conclude, we would like to emphasize that the found information needs further investigation to be extended and supplemented. The fact is that the actual usage of the analyzed words and the associations they provide do not always coincide with the meanings given in dictionaries. For example, according to native speakers from Cuba and Puerto Rico, such units as guajiro and jíbaro are directly related to the musical culture of the respective countries and in this case their actualization is always positively marked. This point of view can be illustrated with the Cuban style of punto guajiro, the Guajira guantanamera song, the Puerto Rican singer Héctor Lavoe known as jibarito, the radio wave of Puerto Rican music called Radio jíbaro, etc. Thus, we have found out that the concept of a villager is multifaceted in different countries of Latin America, and its further

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138 investigation is undoubtedly important from the cultural point of view. The suggested approach of complex (semantic, pragmatic and etymological) analysis of the words that represent this concept can provide cultural outlines in Spanish-speaking community.

References Corpus del español. 2020. National Endowment for the Humanities. URL: www.corpusdelespanol.org [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Diccionario Asihablamos. 2020. URL: http://asihablamos.com [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Diccionario de americanismos. Real Academia Española. 2020. URL: http://lema.rae.es/damer/ [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Diccionario de la lengua Española. Real Academia Española. 2020. URL: http://rae.es/ [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Diccionario breve de mexicanismos. Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. 2020. URL: https://www.academia.org.mx/ [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Diccionario Etimológico español en línea. 2020. URL: http://etimologias.dechile.net/ [Accessed February 29, 2020]. Moreno Fernández, F. 2018. La maravillosa historia del español. Espasa Libros, Barcelona, S.L.U., 336 pp. Richard, R., et. al. 2006. Diccionario de hispanoamericanismos no recogidos por la Real Academia (Formas homónimas, polisémicas y otras derivaciones morfosemánticas). Lavel, Madrid, S.A., 600 pp. Sánchez-Boudy, J. 1999. Diccionario mayor de cubanismos. Ediciones Universal, Miami, 398 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-140-156

MEME AS A SPEECH GENRE OF THE INTERNET-COMMUNICATION

Natalia A. Prokofeva¹, Ekaterina A. Shcheglova²

²Saint-Petersburg State University ¹٫ Saint-Petersburg, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-3105-4530 ²e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-1778-2021

Abstract. The purpose of this research is the consideration of meme as a specific genre of the Internet-communication. A meme in our understanding is a small multicode text that unites an image and a brief message with contradictory meanings. The important features of memes, in our opinion, are reproducibility and precedence limited with the meme life. Visual and verbal components may be copied and changed both separately and together. The material includes the whole set of memes about Greta Thunberg having appeared in the net after her speech in the UNO. The analytical method corresponds with the research steps, taken to characterize the speech genre from some positions – conditions of meme’s birth and existence, genre model, communicative situation, multicodeness, stylistic features, intentionality, functionality. During the analysis of the mentioned material we distinguished the genre features of meme in each aspect. It is proved that conditions of meme’s appearance and development may be an event, which received an ambiguous evaluation in media, a bright image, able to produce an associative chain, a key word or expression with a logical contradiction. The meme’s genre model pre-supposes the situation which may be comically reconsidered, turned into an amazing game with the audience. Thus, the meme’s appearance itself is connected with ironic

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140 reconsideration of the reality. Meme appeared as the agenda reaction and appeals to the topical background knowledge of a communicator, correlating with the key vocabulary of the current moment. Multicode may be of various forms – image comments, collage, comics. Stylistically meme is characterized with unlimited word freedom, often similar to deliberate primitivity and rudeness of speech expression. The communicative purpose – an offer to laugh together, i.e. meme – is a genre with dominating idea to have fun. The laughter over an event leads to solidarity, refinement and grounding of connotatibe meanings of the epoch key words, incorporating the event into the world view of a contemporary man. Keywords: meme, speech genre, Internet communication, key word

Introduction Internet as a new platform of communication creates prerequisites for formation of a new genre system – appearance of new genre forms (meme (Kepa-Figura D., 2019; Koltunova М.V., 2015), post, demotivator (Popova Т.I., Кolesova D.V., 2015), comment etc) or renovation of old ones (report, interview, commentary etc). This is due to the unique form of presentation of speech material: volume infinity, high efficiency, principal interaction, multicodeness of communication (Vasileva V.V., 2018). Besides, the meaning feature of the Internet communication is the hypertext – the ability of unlimited transfer from one text to another, linked with key words. The Internet text is always an answer to the current situation in the society. The overload of the informational flow defines the bent of the Internet communication for the phatic center of communication. In turn, it brings to life mostly comic speech genres. In nature a man always longs to the play reconsideration of the reality (Huizinga J., 2019), which is the engine of culture and civilization. Moreover, the comic reconsideration of a

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141 phenomenon provides the opportunity for an interesting form of escapism – freedom from the flow of negative information. That is why the new genres, appearing within the Internet communication, have mostly dominating humor focus. For example, such a genre is the meme. Under the meme we understand a small multicode text, containing a visual component (as a rule, a photo or a set of photos of a significant social or political event) and a brief expression-comment, contradicting the image. The important feature of the meme is its reproducibility: the same image may have dozens and hundreds of comment variants, and vice versa, one expression may illustrate different visual material (it is similar to the theory of memes: Dawkins R., 1976; Blackmore S., 1999; Kull K., 2000; Jiang Y., 2012). It means that both verbal and visual components of the meme in equal degree possess the precedence and may be quoted together and separately. Each author longs to win the competitors in irony which leads to the infinite number of meme expressions Along with this it is necessary to distinguish several life stages of the meme: birth, peak of popularity, fading. The meme birth is often connected with a certain ambiguous politically explosive event, which means the opportunity of ironic reconsideration. At this stage a peculiar selection happens: some memes disappear very soon, leaving the consciousness of mass audience, some of them, on the contrary, become popular and provoke a huge flow of speech material. In our opinion, the transition to the second stage of popularity is made through correlating with the key vocabulary of the current moment. This type of lexical units appears at the peak of news wave following the changes in communicative status of common words at the expense of the semantic shift in the meaning (Stern G., 1931; Blank A., 1999). These changes in semantics happen due to the increasing frequency of the word usage, their fixation in the language consciousness of the mass audience in connection with a certain event, the comic reconsideration of the phatic component

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142 of the event. The fixation of new connotative meanings happens in memes. The third life stage of the meme is connected with the loss of topicality. Gradually the event leaves the agenda and memes also disappear. This does not exclude, of course, the periodical comeback to the meme which died out. Objectives/Purpose of the study The purpose of our research is to present the meme as a specific speech genre of the Internet communication. Methodology The methodological foundation of our research is the approach to the meme as a specific speech genre, possessing the complex of fixed genre features (Bakhtin M. M., 1996). The material in this case includes all the memes appearing in the Russian-speaking Internet after Greta Thunberg’s speech in the UNO. Such a choice is influenced by many factors, among them: 1) a wide public explosion after this event; 2) the transition of the word combination Greta Thunberg into a new communicative status of the key one (it is proved with statistic data and semantic analysis of the usage contexts); 3) ambivalence of perception of 16-year-old eco activist – difference of presentation of Greta Thunberg in the Western and Russian media. As in the Russian media space the Norwegian school girl and her speech became a fruitful ground for comic reconsideration, we though it possible to concentrate on the Russian-speaking part of the Internet (Runet).

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Conditions of meme existence So, the conditions for meme’s birth and existence are the following: 1) an important event, which potentially may be ironically reconsidered (an increased interest to the 16-year-old teenager, going on a strike to attract the attention to environmental problems):

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2) a bright visual component: a photo, able to launch the chain of associative thinking (similarity of Greta Thunberg with Hitler and Lilla My):

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3) the speech element – a key word or expression – creating the effect of logical contradiction (phrase schemes “stole my childhood”, “stop/enough (doing something?) because…”:

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Meme genre model The meme genre model (Vezhbitska А.A., 1997) may be presented as follows: There is some situation which may be comically reconsidered up to absurd. I know that you will like the play of meanings. I suggest laughing together. Communicative situation The appearance of meme is connected with ironic reconsideration of the reality. Within the informational flow mostly with negative color the reader demands the emotional outbreak. The ironic comments which are offered in memes provide the necessary emotional relaxation. A meme appears as the topical reaction. It is always late, following the event with the analytical genres. The meme appeals to topical background knowledge of the audience, correlating with the key vocabulary of the current moment. The creation of a meme is connected with associative thinking through violation of the logical laws (a character says the words which do not relate to the communicative situation) and incorporation of the situation into the system of background knowledge of the language world view bearer (associative links with fiction or historical context).

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Multicodeness The crucial feature of the meme is a close connection between visual and verbal components. The meme works like this 1. a comment to the picture:

2. a set of brief remarks of the character, systematically illustrating one event in comics:

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3. a collage of some visual images, meaning the clash of key historical moments and topical reality:

The visual component is closely connected with the verbal one. The meaning of speech accompaniment is within a witty comment to a seemingly serious event. As a rule, it breaks the expectations: violation of logical laws, selection of words, which do not

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149 correspond with the situation etc. This is the way the comic effect is created. Stylistic features The stylistic features include unlimited freedom of word. We notice frequent use of colloquial stylistic. The vocabulary greatly longs to colloquial units and nonliterary lexemes, including obscene words. The syntax demonstrates deliberately distorted sentence construction: simplified clumsy syntax or, vice versa, anti-elliptic constructions – both are used to imitate the everyday informal communication. On the whole we may speak about the deliberate primitivism and rudeness of meme’s speech accompaniment. This reveals the special familiar tonality of the Internet communication, disappearance of distance between communicators, imitation of informal communication. Intentionality The communicative purpose of the addresser is the offer of the mutual laughter. The meme is a genre with dominant focus on entertainment, emotional relaxation. The phatic character of the meme meets the expectations of the audience, surfing the Internet. The main task of the speech genre is to support the communication and intellectual game: creating and guessing the implied meanings within the context of background knowledge of the author and the audience. Functionality The important moment is also the comic implication of the text. The irony over the event serves the solidarity, the incorporation of the event into the world view, the refinement of connotative meanings of the epoch key words, which in turn multiplies the points of communicators’ contact in the apperceptive base. Thus, the foundation of the analysis for each single case includes the revealed basic genre characteristics. Findings The popularity of the word combination Greta Thunberg has rapidly grown since 23 September 2019 when the 16-year-old girl

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150 delivered the speech at the UNO summit. If the Western media discussed the event seriously, it was comically reconsidered in the Russian ones. This provoked the semantic shift in the word meaning and its fixation as the key one. It was also influenced by multiple copies of the verbal and visual components in memes.

The cited sample is a series of photos of G. Thunberg, demonstrating her motions and gestures during the speech. These are very expressive images, showing the speaker in the emotional midst of the speech. Such motions are character for a person, irritated with something or convinced at something. While creating the speech accompaniment we notice the metonymical substitution – G. Thunberg’s words are replaced with the obscene words. The

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151 next step for understanding is in the semantic emptiness of the obscene vocabulary, which may express almost any meaning – a sharp judgment or high praise, which exactly happens: instead of protecting the environment Thunberg tells the viewer a recipe of meat balls with a very good result – f*cking good. This is the way the author evaluates G. Thunberg’s speech as the meaningless, semantically empty one. This connotation – absence of meaning – is fixed with the key word. The described meme plot is variable:

For most memes the visual component is the photos of the eco activist, delivering the speech in the UNO. As in the previous case, the frequently copied image, showing the distinctive gestures of G. Thunberg, has been selected:

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This example the gestures relate to the verb demanded and the obscene word, stressing the peremptoriness of the demand. The verbal component is connected with the topical political situation around the Ukraine – the conflict in relations between the Ukraine and Russia, the difficult situation in the Black and Azov seas. The humor is based on the contradiction between the content of the demand and the purpose of G. Thunberg’s activity to solve the environmental problem. Thus, it ironically shows, first of all, the absence of meaning in the schoolgirl’s protest (no meaning – it may be replaced with anything), secondly, the mismatch between G. Thunberg and the role she performs or she was given (an illiterate schoolgirl, skipping classes at school, can not dictate the world the only correct direction of development). The connotative meanings “ill person” and “instrument of manipulation” are acquired by the key word Greta Thunberg and fixed.

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This is another meme appealing to G. Thunberg’s speeches where she says about the cruel attitude towards nature and natural resources. The logical contradiction is between Thunberg’s phrase and the advertising slogan free-will milking. The absurdness of both phrases is under consideration: a cow can not agree to be milked, but the exploitation of natural resources can not be evaluated as cruel. In the result the set expression check and mate with the positive evaluation is addressed to the advertising method of the milk-producing company and stresses the nonsense of the 16-year-old eco activist’s speeches. The connotation of the key word “nonsense” goes affront.

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Discussion So, we think that the meme is an independent speech genre of the Internet communication, possessing a number of specific features: 1) a brightly expressed comic component, appearing due to the comic reconsideration of the event (the appearance of the meme is caused by logical contradiction in the foundation of an event, a phrase or a photo); 2) multicodeness – close interaction of visual and verbal components, taking various forms (comments to the picture, collages, comics); 3) set stylistic features – deliberate rudeness and simplicity of the speech component; 4) phatic focus: the main task to support the communication by engaging the addressee in the intellectual game; 5) special functionality – fixation of connotative meanings of the epoch key vocabulary, incorporation of the event into the world view. Acknowledgements The study was conducted with the support of the grant "Humour as a communicative resource in a digital news environment" (Agreement with the RSF No. 19-18-00530 of 07.05.2019).

References Bakhtin, М. М. 1996. Speech genres' problem. In: Bakhtin М. М. Collected works in 7 v. Russian vocabularies, Russian Dictionary publ., Мoscow, Vol. 5, pp. 159–206. Blank, A. 1999. Why do new meanings occur? A cognitive typology of the motivations for lexical Semantic change. In: Blank, A., Koch, P. Historical Semantics and Cognition. Mouton de Gruyter publ., Berlin/New York, pp. 61 –99. Blackmore, S. 1999. The Meme Machine. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 264 p. Dawkins, R. 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 224 p.

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Jiang, Y. 2012. On the Formation, Replication and Transmission of Strong Memes and their Cognitive Psychological Motivations. Theory and Practice in Language Studies 2(2): 398–401. Huizinga, J. 2019. Homo ludens. Аzbuka-klassika publ., Мoscow, 400 p. Kepa-Figura, D. 2019. (Internet-)mem as a new media genre. Questions' statement. Media linguistics 6(1): 103–121. Koltunova, М. V. 2015. Media memes in political propagandistic discourse. Media linguistics 3(9): 85–94. Kull, K. 2000. Copy versus translate, meme versus sign: development of biological textuality. European Journal for Semiotic Studies 12(1): 101–120. Stern, G. 1931. Meaning and change of meaning with special reference to the English language. Elander publ., Göteborg, 456 p. Popova, Т. I., Kolesova, D. V. 2015. Informations' visualization as a tendency of modern text develope. Media linguistics 4 (10): 85– 94. Vasileva, V. V. Multicodeness of media text. In: Duskaeva, L. R. (ed.) Media linguistics in terms and concepts: dictionary- reference. Flinta publ., Мoscow, pp. 88–91. Vezhbitska, А. A. 1997. Speech genres. Genres of speech 1: 23– 33.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-157-166

LINGUISTIC REFLECTION OF COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERDISCIPLINARITY AND INTERDIRECTIONALITY

Aliaksandr Barkovich

Minsk State Linguistic University Minsk, Belarus e-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0000-0001-8469-8431

Abstract. The issues of language functioning in the context of a deep seated unity of knowledge are more important ever. Rapid technological progress conditions actualization of science commonality which touches inner and outer positioning of linguistics, too. Nowadays communicational interdependence and mutual influence of different directions of cognitive activity create particular demand for knowledge interpretation of some universal format. Appropriate methodological framework is linguistics. Contemporary linguistics is equipped with statistical instrumentality, is computer-mediated, and is characterized by an increased methodological mobility and pliability. This allows realizing wide interdisciplinary assortment of meta-language means. Objects of linguistic study are dynamically been changing. This stipulates permanent development of related knowledge. It is remarkable that narrow specialization creates many lacunae in the scientific sphere: breakthroughs in particular directions are actively and fruitfully developed while systematic and complex work remains in the shadows. Interdisciplinarity and interdirectionality allow to cope with this fragmentality of knowledge which prevents to exploit the full potency of the really unified linguistics. In turn, some specialization is useful while creating interdisciplinary research teams that can effectively

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157 realize the benefits of every highly specialized deposit into syncretic knowledge. One way or another, the linguistic reflection mirrors and masters a multifaceted symbiosis of knowledge. Researchers often face the problem of choosing priorities from among a number of reliable promises. Thus, the perspectives of computer-mediated communication promote the participation of a large number of specialists from related scientific fields. But the narrow technical approach to communicational methodology is often incomplete and one-sided. With that, the number of philologists specialized in information-problematics remains catastrophically small. Simultaneously this deficit is promptly filled with a number of specialists from related scientific fields, including mathematicians, engineers and sociologists. Meanwhile, the deficit of mass competence in applied linguistics is compensated for by the active involvement of a huge number of “neighbor-specialists” in humanities. On one hand, the scope of communication knowledge is very broad and comprehensive but on the other, knowledge of a language is not yet equal to professional linguistic competence. Significant changes have occurred in science due to the establishing of empirically oriented and computerized paradigms in the middle of the 20th century. These changes unhesitatingly turned science toward synergysm, including interdisciplinary and interdirectional science development. Keywords: interdisciplinarity, interdirectionality, linguistic reflection, applied linguistics, synergism

Introduction Today’s methodological preconditions mean the synthesis of a new interdisciplinary apparatus. Probably, all new knowledge is, at least initially, interdisciplinary. Interdisciplinarity means combining the research tools of different origins to work as a single functional model. The common areas of interdisciplinarity are sometimes formed by components that don’t exist in a “pure” form: one discipline modifies another in accordance with the

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158 prospects of interaction (Widdowson H., 2005). Some sources of linguistics partly existed long ago while others are principally new, which makes the related scientific support sophisticated enough. Objectives The aim of this study is to verify the essence of the object – peculiarities of linguistic reflection of communication in the context of interdisciplinarity and interdirectionality. Related generalizations are important in the meta-descriptions of a wide range of linguistic issues regarding interdisciplinarity and interdirectionality. Until the middle of the 20th century, when structural linguistics dominated – and empirical data deficiency – it was acceptable to make far-reaching conclusions based on some individual facts of language. This technique was even supported by argumentation: “It is not necessary to wait for the accumulation of an unlimited number of utterances to see the syntactic rules, because they precede the appearance of all this set” (Levi-Strauss C., 1964: 16). Why not explore something new? With the help of computer technologies, a huge mass of texts are now available for research and generalization. On the other hand, if we consider all of the latest knowledge, the theory of language will require substantial modernization. There is no reason to avoid it, but it has to be done carefully, saving workable achievements. The main objectives in this regard is reaching consensus in scientific reflection of linguistics whose problem domains are still artificially divided and discordant. Methodology New knowledge reciprocally influences the phenomenological core of linguistics. As a result of such interaction, the spectrum of seemingly independent methodologies began to unify, reaching a new interdirectional quality of knowledge as the highest form of their fusion. This creativity, focused on a linguistic understanding of mental, psychological, neuro-, social, cultural and other kinds of activities, is embodied in related hybrid scientific paradigms such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and others. Of course,

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159 extensive human and technical cooperation takes place there: Corpus linguistics, computational linguistics, speech synthesis, informational linguistics, etc. The modeling of scientific reflection – according to its contents identity – has a complicated and integrated character. The main dimensions here are phenomenological and methodological. They create a scientifically verified phenomenological-methodological unity of new quality, fitting the new communicational reality. In the meantime, the complex methodology of interdisciplinarity, as well as the interdirectional kind, does not contradict some methodological priorities. With that, linguistic argumentation has the upper hand. One way or another, the language nature of any human communication – including its computer-mediated incarnation – predetermines the priority of linguistic ideology in any informational activity. As a core of the conceptual and categorial apparatus, linguistics creates a peculiar quality of cognitive activity. Linguistics includes elements of different sciences in a certain proportion, and in such an integrated form is an inexhaustible source of new stages in the development of donor sciences. On the other hand, the extralinguistic components of the joint paradigm (technical as well) play an important role, too. The involvement of such components often improves the accuracy and verificatory possibilities of research results and determines their universal comprehension and prospects. Moreover, as a rule, technical components provide a viable orientation of related computer-mediated communication activity. With that, technical support should not substitute all the linguistic instrumentality in communication research (Barkovich A. 2015b: 16). One way or another, this nature of interdisciplinary work makes available the wide use of multiple techniques from the outside of the “classical” theoretic core. Specifics of linguistic interdisciplinarity and interdirectionality An essential trait of contemporary linguistics, interdisciplinarity is a characteristic of all contemporary science – to some degree. In this way, we are moving step by step towards a noospherical

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160 synergism of science. It is noticeable in corpus linguistics, for instance. Up to about ten years ago it was not considered an independent branch of linguistics but rather a part of computational linguistics. Today, corpus linguistics is developing successfully as an independent discipline, a methodological basis of efficient research practices including, in turn, computational linguistics (Barkovich A., 2016). Its main methodological sources are linguistics, computer science and statistics. Corpus methods and tools are used for creating an effective linguoinformational platform for research (Barkovich A., 2015a). One way or another, corpus linguistics is truly interdisciplinary and it is still developing while interacting with other linguistics directions. Corpus linguistics is demanded for theory and practice, often playing an important role in related studies. It is needed as verified empirical grounds for generalizations. The convergence of the theory of language and applied linguistics into inner-linguistic interdirectionality is indicative in this respect. Interdirectionality means combining the research tools of different directions of a discipline to work as a single functional model. Thus, applied linguistics has been the focus of linguists’ attention since the beginning of the era of mass computerization of knowledge. Foreign language teaching is traditionally included in applied linguistics. This is certainly right: understanding of applied linguistics as the practice of foreign language acquisition is typical in traditions of linguistics. With that, applied linguistics is extremely widely regarded: “Of course, if the source of applied linguistics (the training, student curricula for beginners) is generally agreed, there is no reason in principle why applied linguistics should not take an interest in anything to do with language. That no doubt is the position taken by a publisher such as Mouton de Gruyter by devoting a forty-five page brochure to its applied linguistics list” (Davies A., 2007: 5). Since their appearance, artificial languages were automatically included in the applied linguistics sphere. Moreover, it is artificial languages that determine the mainstream of applied linguistics

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161 now. They contribute to specific work to improve the interaction between humans and computer programs, correlating human knowledge with databases. With that, applied linguistics on its own cannot provide the solution to all related issues. It demands the mass involvement of theoretical knowledge, which is inevitable here. At the proper time, when practically-oriented generative linguistics was initially added to the theoretically-oriented structural linguistics, it was quite reasonable. Linguistics became much more balanced and useful due to such fusion. Obviously, there is enough space for other new linguistic paradigms, too. Moreover, it looks like the more complex approach with synthetic instrumentality is realized. In this context, informational linguistics, being initially actualized as the direction of applied linguistics, has already outgrown applied linguistics frames and could become the umbrella methodology for the theoretical- practical support of communication (Barkovich A., 2020). Researchers often face the problem of choosing priorities from among a number of reliable promises. The perspectives of contemporary communication promote the participation of a large number of specialists from related scientific fields. The ability to operate a computer, knowledge of its capabilities and mechanisms of information mastering are important requirements for any specialist today. With that, the number of philologists specialized in information-problematics remains catastrophically small, but this deficit is promptly filled with a number of specialists from related scientific fields, including mathematicians, engineers and sociologists. By the way, they are proud of their association with linguistics. Meanwhile, the deficit of linguists in applied linguistics is compensated for by the active involvement of a huge number of “neighbor-specialists”, for example, mathematicians and engineers. Such transferring is justifiable and is, generally, a positive factor, and understandable because of deep involvement of linguistic knowledge in every aspect of human activity. Thus, linguistic structuredness is useful in mathematical knowledge

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162 particularly: a formal language is first of all a language: “As we shall see, the situation in mathematical linguistics is quite similar: many parts of the subject would fit nicely in algebra and logic, but there are many others for which methods belonging to other fields of mathematics are more appropriate. Ultimately the coherence of the field, such as it is, depends on the coherence of linguistics” (Kornai A., 2008: 1). Discussion This linguistic universalism is conditioned by a very simple factor: the end user of all speech practice products is a human being. It is difficult to even imagine how many “translators” from the artificial languages of computer-mediated communication, particularly, into natural languages and vice versa will be needed in the future. It seems that these times are quietly coming. The appropriate consideration of functional semantics demands not only a textual but also a contextual analysis involving the communicational structuredness of speech. Related attempts are reasonably oriented towards the modeling of communication though often fragmented and illustrative. A methodological compromise at the intersection of mathematics and linguistics was presented for the variable abstract logic (linguistic) and its system implementation (mathematical) simultaneously (Zadeh L.A., 1965). Naturally, program tools are useful to operate on sophisticated models and can estimate statistics: the modern neural network does something like this. But the main issues here are as follows: what to estimate and who the expert will be: an inventor (or seller) or a communicant (or customer). Linguistics has always been influential in scientific activity. Today this influence has become even stronger, often changing the fundamental traits of a research stratege: “Everything makes for the anticipation that these parallel researches will engender new disciplines and will converge in a real science of culture which will lay the foundations for a theory of the symbolizing activities of man” (Benveniste E., 1971: 27).

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In turn, linguistics – like every scientific discipline or direction – needs a methodologically and phenomenologically verified conceptual apparatus. According to V.I. Vernadsky’s views, manifested in 1944 (before the computer-era), the vitality of science in principle basically depends on such an apparatus: “The power of scientific knowledge depends primarily on the depth, completeness and rate of reality reflection in it. Without scientific apparatus, even if there were mathematics and logic, there is no science” (Vernadsky V.I., 1991: 162). In the middle of the 20th century – when the World Wide Web did not exist even as a project and the prospect of the creation of artificial intelligence was not so urgent – the continuity of scientific traditions allowed the great physicist Albert Einstein to foresee today’s “technological challenges”. He emphasized the reasonable proportionality of scientific knowledge, which is impossible to separate from its language roots: “When language becomes thus partially independent from the background of impressions a greater inner coherence is gained. Only at this further development where frequent use is made of so-called abstract concepts, language becomes an instrument of reasoning in the true sense of the word. But it is also this development which turns language into a dangerous source of error and deception” (Einstein A., 1942: 109). The narrow technical approach to communicational methodology is often incomplete and one-sided. This scientific positioning is often weak and debatable: “Today the media are filled with absolutely insane ravings of people about the language. It is good, of course, that people are trying to talk about it. But it causes either laughter or tears: how some amateurs try talking about Linguistics” (Plungyan V., 2011). In other words, the specialized competence of researchers-linguists is desirable. Thus, Ferdinand de Saussure described related problematics over a hundred years ago. Of course, everybody can learn languages and acquire related scientific competence: “Still more obvious is the importance of linguistics to general culture: in

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164 the lives of individuals and societies, speech is more important than anything else. That linguistics should continue to be the prerogative of a few specialists would be unthinkable – everyone is concerned with it in one way or another” (Saussure F. de, 1959: 7). But, at the same time, mastering a language, naturally, means linguistic competence, the absence of which is crucial in linguistics-dependent spheres: “But – and this is a paradoxical consequence of the interest that is fixed on linguistics – there is no other field in which so many absurd notions, prejudices, mirages, and fictions have sprung up” (Saussure F. de, 1959: 7). Findings On one hand, the scope of linguistic knowledge is very broad and comprehensive but on the other, knowledge of a language is not yet equal to professional linguistic competence. One way or another, significant changes have occurred in science due to the establishing of empirically oriented and computerized linguistics in the middle of the 20th century. These changes unhesitatingly turned science toward synergysm, including interdisciplinary and interdirectional science unification. In linguistics, it stimulated the appearance of principally new paradigms. With that, the linguistic potential for contemporary communication has still been exploited only very superficial. The problems of achieving the balance and harmonization of competences, related to practice, are challenging and demanding.

References Barkovich, A. 2016. Corpus Linguistics: The Specifics of Modern Meta-Descriptions of Language. Tomsk State University Journal. 406: 5–13. DOI: 10.17223/15617793/406/1. Barkovich, A. 2020. Informational Linguistics: The New Communicational Reality. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, 271 pp. Barkovich, A. 2015a. Linguoinformational Specificity of Computer-Mediated Discourse. Belarusian State University, Minsk, 304 pp.

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Barkovich, A. 2015b. The Study of Computer-Mediated Discourse: The Methodological Aspect]. Vestnik of Nizhny Novgorod Linguistics University. 30: 38–48. Benveniste, E. 1971. Problems in General Linguistics. University of Miami Press, Miami, VIII + 317 pp. Davies, A. 2007. An Introduction to Applied Linguistics: From Practice to Theory. Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh, 199 pp. Einstein, A. 1942. The Common Language of Science. Advancement of Science. 2 (5). 109. Kornai, A. 2008 Mathematical Linguistics. Springer, London, 289 pp. Levi-Strauss, C. 1964. Mythologiques. Le cru et le cuit. Plon, Paris, 404 pp. Plungyan, V. 2019. Why Languages are so Different. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaBfdka20nE. [Accessed March 12, 2019]. Saussure, F. de. 1959. Course in General Linguistics. Philosophical Library, New York, 240 pp. Vernadsky, V.I. 1991. Scientific Thought as a Planetary Phenomenon. Science, Moscow, 271 pp. Widdowson, H. 2005. Applied Linguistics, Interdisciplinarity, and Disparate Realities. In Directions in Applied Linguistics. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, 327 pp. Zadeh, L.A. 1965. Fuzzy Sets. Information and Control 8: 338– 353.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-167-178

DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE OF PRESCHOOLERS USING CREATIVE GAMES AND EXERCISES

Ekaterina M. Kosheleva

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The article is devoted to the problem of improving the level of foreign language speaking skills. Over the past decades, the concept of “communicative” has become the most frequent and modern, since communicativeness is the basis for building the educational process, especially with preschool children. Under the concept of Russian education modernization, the issues of communicative teaching of the English language are of particular importance. The point is that communicative competence (CC) acts as an integrative goal, focused on achieving practical results in mastering the English language. Also, it is intended for the education, upbringing, and personal development of the student. The formation of foreign language communicative competence of preschool children is the primary goal of teaching foreign languages. The integrative goal of FLT to preschoolers is the formation of elementary CC at an affordable level for the child in the main types of speech activity: listening, speaking. Elementary CC presents the ability and willingness of a preschooler to carry out interpersonal and intercultural communication in a foreign language in a limited circle of typical situations and areas of communication available to the child. It includes ways of interacting with others, teamwork skills, and

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167 ownership of various social roles in the team. The child must be able to introduce himself, ask a question, answer the utterance. Today, the problems of communicative - cognitive development have not lost their relevance and attract the attention of many academic psychologists and specialists in the field of early learning of a foreign language (L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Davydov, A.N. Leontyev, D. B. Elkonin). The article presents an analysis of the problem of the development of communicative competence of preschool children in a preschool. The article describes the characteristics and the structure and components of CC in preschool education; shows the relevance of the critical competencies formation in preschool age. The author reveals the role of the use of creative exercises in classes in kindergarten for the personality formation of a modern child, disclosure of his/her world, accumulation of experience in communication and interaction with the world. An example of practical training is given and conclusions are drawn that can be taken into account as practical recommendations in the development of the educational complex. Keywords: English language teaching, preschoolers, communicative skills, creative tasks and games

Introduction The current state of early learning of foreign languages is characterized by the fact that, firstly, the practical mastery of foreign languages has become an urgent need for vast sections of society. Secondly, the general pedagogical context creates favorable conditions for differentiating foreign language learning, using a flexible system of choosing conditions and their options studying. Teaching English at a preschool age promotes the intellectual growth of children, accelerates their language development, forms essential elements of social competence; consolidates useful skills of interaction with the teacher, parents, and peers; trains universal cognitive actions and prepares for school education.

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The main guidelines in solving the problems of children's education, according to scientists, are the competencies of preschoolers. Teaching preschoolers a foreign language should be communicative when the child masters the language as a means of communication. That is, not only assimilates individual words and speech patterns but learns to construct statements using the models he knows following his/her communicative needs. It is the use of game learning techniques that allows laying the foundations for the formation of the main components of educational activity: the ability to see the goal and act following it, the ability to control and evaluate their actions, and the effects of other children (Bondarenko A.K., 2002: 14). Through the game, the child masters the activities with objects, learns the world around him, and the relationships of people. The game makes the child show creativity, invent, invent. The organization of gaming activities, which makes even the most simple statements exciting and meaningful, is the primary condition for teaching a foreign language at preschool age. Game methods and techniques cause increased interest and positive emotions in children, help to focus on the educational task, which becomes not a foreign-imposed, but a desired, personal goal. Purpose of the study The purpose of the article is  to substantiate the feasibility of developing foreign language competence scientifically,  to conduct a comparative analysis of foreign and domestic scientific works,  to give an example of a lesson using educational and creative games,  to consider the structure of the communicative competence of preschool children and present the results of an experimental study. Methodology The period of preschool childhood is sensitive to the formation of the essential qualities of the personality, its intellectual and speech development. Therefore, the problem of preschooler's personality development a whole and its communicative - cognitive

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169 development, in particular, has always been the focus of attention of psychologists and teachers and has been studied in many works (L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Davydov) Communicative competence, according to S.A. Shatrova, presupposes a rich behavioral repertoire, flexibility, and adaptability in the choice of means of communication and psychological distance, taking into account the needs and individual characteristics of communication partners (Shatrova S.A., 2010: 15). The formation of this competency is a prerequisite for successful communication with native speakers, as well as for familiarization with the country's culture of the language being studied, for a better understanding of the culture of their own country, the ability to represent their state in the process of intercultural communication (M. Z. Biboletova, N. D. Galskova) From the position of I. A. Zimnyaya, communicative competence refers to the group of competencies characterizing the interaction of a person with other people (Zimnyaya I.A., 2004: 12). L. Trubaichuk notes the importance of such skills in preschool children as to perform duties, provide all possible assistance to adults, empathize, have a positive attitude towards people, and put themselves in the place of another. Among the essential formed qualities, she considers social experience, social activity, kindness, honesty, mercy, hard work, responsibility (Trubaichuk L.V., et al., 2013: 23). According to O.S. Ushakova, in parallel with the development of coherent speech, the grammatical structure of speech is improved, and the semantic side of the word is mastered. At this age, the necessary mastery of the mother tongue system is completed, although the word-creating process is still active (Ushakova O.S., 2016: 300) According to O. M. Eltsova and A. L. Prokopieva, the formation of the initially connected speech skills is the ability to intelligently and consistently talk about what they have seen, to express their thoughts in correctly constructed phrases to speak expressively -

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170 already stages of older preschool age (Eltsova O.M., 2016). They conclude that learning coherent speech is becoming a leading task. Learning to storytelling contributes to the development of creative design and the formation of such a quality of coherent speech as content, consistency, expressiveness, and clarity (Eltsova O.M., 2016: 83). Structure of communicative competence The communicative competence of preschool children and its structure has three components: motivational-personal, behavioral, and cognitive element. A motivational-personal element is expressed in the child’s orientation towards communication and its characterological features that determine the nature of communication, monitor the pace of speech and control his emotional state, and keep himself in control in a conflict situation. The behavioral component is determined through communicative skills, the way of responding to a situation, the first experience of interaction, the ability to attract others to oneself, strives to achieve a goal, follow generally accepted norms of behavior, realize and control one’s behavior. The cognitive component is a system of knowledge about communication as a process of interaction: information about behavioral characteristics, personal qualities, feelings and emotions that affect communication, ability to navigate the conversation, respond to criticism, help peers, listen to their thoughts, ability to express themselves. All of the components and named skills are the basis for the full formation of the personality and affect the CC formation. They allow the preschooler to predict communication, focus on the interlocutor, get used to, and manage the communicative situation (Vygotsky L.S., 2005: 410). The communicative competence of preschoolers develops simultaneously with the formation of the diverse activities of the child (cognitive, playful, labor, productive, creative). The most important thing in communication activity is precisely gaming

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171 activity. Thanks to the gameplay, children come into numerous contacts, and thus, they develop their speech and learn the basic norms of communication. The subjective position of the child and his high activity in free communication positively affect the formation of communicative competence. For the development of the communicative competence of a preschool child to be effective, certain conditions must be met: stimulation of communicative activity, through the use and formulation of problem tasks and situations, the creation of cases in which the child can demonstrate his communicative abilities and praise him for his success, remove communicative barriers. It is necessary to teach the baby to express feelings, thoughts, emotions, needs with the help of speech and facial expressions, develop non- verbal vocabulary, ensure the simultaneous execution of educational and independent activities, create and design game situations that would motivate the child to communicate. When communicating with children in the process of educational activities, teachers must abide by some rules. Children need to listen to the end, even when there is not much time, do not interrupt their speech. In communication, it is required to use some methods of pedagogical influence, such as persuasion and suggestion. For the conviction to be successful, one should be most firmly confident in what has been said; it is very accessible to present arguments to children, and at the same time, be patient and calm. Observance of all these rules and recommendations will help the educator to develop his pedagogical tact, better understand the preschooler, and become more insightful. The child, in turn, will have the necessary harmonious conditions for developing communication literacy, and an excellent example to follow. The development of lexical and phonetic skills Any language is represented by phonetic, grammatical, and lexical material, and the study of this language consists directly in the development of this material by mastering the main types of speech activity. Less attention is paid to the phonetic aspect of education since, during this period, children have a process of developing

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172 pronunciation skills in their native language, which is more important than the process of improving English pronunciation. So, at the initial level of teaching a foreign language, the main emphasis is on the development of children's understanding of spoken English and the foundations of pronunciation and elementary speaking skills are laid: • full perception develops through the constant use of primary English words; • phrases and speech cliches memorizing from songs; • recognition and use of simple words occur during the game. Pupils best remember vocabulary when a teacher demonstrates the word's meaning visually using pictures, toys, gestures, facial expressions, or objects. Since pre-schoolers have primarily developed figurative memory, visual aids serve not only to reveal the meaning of a word but also to memorize it. The next step is to activate the vocabulary. Besides, drawing is the predominant form of children's creativity at an early age. Therefore, the creative potential of the child should be taken into account as much as possible in the process of teaching his English vocabulary, which explains a large number of tasks for coloring, cutting and pasting, dots, and other tracings when working out the studied words. The musical type of activity is represented by songs that help consolidate the linguistic material, expand and consolidate lexical units and speech patterns. Practice shows that after learning a poem, rhyming, their lexical content is included in the active vocabulary of the child. Learning poems, rhymes, and songs contribute to the development of speech in general, increase vocabulary, improve pronunciation, increase children's activity. The phonetic principle solves one of the most critical tasks of language teaching at the initial stage - the pronunciation. This work continues from lesson to lesson. Vivid images and the ability of children to easily imitate sounds help children in a relaxed, playful form master the difficult English phonetics.

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As a phonetic charge, children are better acquainted with sounds using the notorious Tales of the Tongue. You can invent various stories about the adventures of the "tongue" yourself and work out the necessary sounds (Verbovskaya M.E., Shishkova I.A., 2004: 5). Among the phonetic games used at the initial stage of training, one can distinguish puzzle games, simulation games, competition games, games with objects, mindfulness games, lotto games with sounds. The most effective type of game for teaching speaking is a role- playing game. A game is an emotional activity of a child. The playing child is in a good mood, active and friendly. With its help, children learn to transfer actions from one condition to another, begin to animate inanimate nature, create elements of the new. It is how imagination, thinking, creative abilities, speech development, moral-volitional qualities of a personality, interest in the figure of another are brought up. Given the age and individual characteristics of preschool children, it is necessary to use as an important methodological technique a game that allows you to create a situation in which the child will not be able to "remain silent". Findings To develop the communicative competence of the English language, in the children's development center, classes were held for 30 minutes, two times a week for ten preschoolers aged 6-7 years. For the development of speech, the teacher sets the following tasks: - formation of primary skills of dialogic and monologic discourse in English; - development of speech hearing, memory, attention, thinking; - extension of vocabulary, construction of dialogical, and monologue speech skills in English. Classes were held in modules (Greeting, My Toys, Learning to Count, My Family, Pets, Professions, My Home), had a playful character, any task turned into an exciting and fulfilling task for

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174 the child. Each lesson was emotionally colored, poems, songs, puzzles, rhymes were selected according to the content of the lesson. Theme 1 Greeting Using typical phrases of speech etiquette Hello, hi, good morning, goodbye. The introduction of speech patterns. My name is ... / I am ... using a large attractive toy, such as Tommy lion cub (I am a lion. My name is Tommy). Introduction to the questions "What is your name ?, Who are you"? Lion cub Tommy meets with children. Then the guys get to know each other. Theme 2 My toys Introducing the "My favorite toy is ...? ". The game "What is missing?" - What was hidden? (Children, at the request of the teacher, close their eyes, the teacher hides some toy, then asks the children to open their eyes and asks what was hidden, the children should correctly name the hidden toy in English). The game "What are the toys?" Children call the size of the toys: "a big bear - a little bear." The guys talk about their favorite toy with the help of a teacher in English (2-3 sentences). Topic 3 Learning to Count Please familiarize yourself with numbers using large numbers of posters, commenting on It is one. It is two ... , Learning how to count with the help of counting sticks. How old is who? Introducing the How old are you? I am 5/6. "Game "Big footprints" (On the floor, there are paper footprints with numbers, first in ascending order, then in the scatter. Children follow in the footsteps, calling the number they are stepping on. Sing together. We learn the song "7 steps". Topic 4 My Family Acquaintance with the new vocabulary (mother, father, sister, brother, grandmother, grandfather) using tabletop-plane theater. The game "Tell me about yourself" (The guys list their family members using the "I have …" structure). The game "Confusion" (the teacher shows the drawings of family members already familiar to the children and calls it "He is father", if what is said

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175 corresponds to the image - the children clap their hands, if not - the children stomp), drawing up a dialogue. Learning family poems. Topic 5 Pets Acquaintance with the new vocabulary (large pictures with the image of animals and voicing their names). We play with animals. The game "Find the Beast" (soft toys-animals are laid out in front of the children. The teacher suggests the child to find one or another animal, "Lena, find a dog, please." Forest clearing. Introduction of the structure "I have ...", a compilation of a monologue (the guys sit in pairs against each other. Children hold their favorite soft toys brought from home and tell speech to each other. We are playing with animals. Guess the Learning of the Teddy Bear verse. Drawing by dots. The teacher gives children some pictures with numbers from 1 to 10; calls in English the name and color for this qi Frames; children should color the image correctly. Theme 6 Professions. Acquaintance with new vocabulary on the topic of the profession using large pictures. Design Introduction What would you like to be? What is your father? What is your mother? The game "Who needs what for work?" (The teacher shows and names various objects for this or that work in English, children must guess the profession). Theme7 My home Children get acquainted with the new vocabulary of names of furniture (bed, table, chair, sofa, wardrobe, etc.) My room. Everyone talks about his place. Children portray it all in pictures. We play with toys! Introducing the "Where do you live?" We ask the animal toys where they live—consolidating vocabulary on the topic with the help of dramatization of the tale "The Wooden House" (Teremok). During the lessons, games were used that develop memory and help to absorb the material (Shalaeva G.P. 2007: 6). In a game situation, it is easier for children to learn speech structures from each other: 1. "Do you know animals?"

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After studying the topic of "animals", the teacher lists several subjects. As soon as he calls the animal, the children clap their hands. 2. "I will freeze." Children stand in a circle in the center of which there is a presenter (Santa Claus). He calls in English those parts of the body that he wants to freeze (eyes, ears), and the children hide them. 3. And After studying the word "And," children are invited to name any two subjects, be sure to use the union "and." 4. What is missing? After studying a new topic, for example, "toys," the teacher arranges the studied toys, then asks the children to close their eyes, and at this time hides some toy, then asks the children to open their eyes and asks What was hidden? What is missing? Children must guess and name the hidden toy in English. Any child can also act as a host. By the end of the training, students mastered the vocabulary of 40- 50 words in English, ten finished speech samples: I ... (name). Me ... (age). I see ..., I can ..., I love ..., I have ..., I can ..., How old are you ?, What is your name ?, Do you know how ?, Do you have? And also 7-10 verses, rhymes songs. Co. According to the results of practical exercises, the development of CC was noted, which ensures the development of memory, logical thinking, imagination, linguistic reflection as a process of preschool child's awareness of his speech activity. As well as the cognitive culture of the preschool child's personality, that is, the child becomes a linguistic personality. Discussion Teaching children a foreign language should be communicative when the child masters the language as a means of communication. That is, he/she not only assimilates individual words and speech patterns but learns to construct statements according to the models he knows following his communicative needs. Communication in a foreign language should be motivated and focused. It is necessary

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177 to create a positive psychological attitude in a child in a foreign language. The way to create such a positive motivation is the game. Game activity as a means of developing the speech activity of preschool children allows the child to master a foreign language under appropriate conditions successfully. The basis of the game technique is the creation of an ideal situation and adopting a particular role. This approach leads to the stimulation of the independent progress of the personality of the preschooler due to cognitive, emotional, and communicative activity in various fields of activity. It will further contribute to its comprehensive development, being the embodiment of the main idea of modern preschool education. The classes' success is determined by the active interaction of adults and children and depends on the establishment of friendly contact with the child.

References Bondarenko, A.K. 2002. Didactic games in kindergarten. Pedagogy, Moscow, 115 pp. Eltsova, O. M. 2016. Children's speech creativity based on a fairy tale. Childhood-Press, St. Petersburg, 192 pp. Shalaeva, G.P. 2007. English for children. Eksmo, Moscow, 32 pp. Shatrova, S.A. 2010. Formation of communicative competence of future teachers. Volgograd Pedagogical University, Volgograd, 26 pp. Trubaichuk, L.V., Pronyaeva, S.V. 2013. Pedagogical strategy and tactics organizations of the integrated process in preschool education. Knizhnaya palata, Moscow, 173pp. Ushakova, O.S. 2016. Come up with a word: speech games for preschoolers. Sphere, Moscow, 208 pp. Verbovskaya, M.E., Shishkova, I.A. 2004. English for kids. Textbook. Publishing House Rosmen-Press, Moscow, 250 pp. Vygotsky, L.S. 2005.Thinking and Speech. Collected Works, 2nd ed. Pedagogy, Moscow, 504 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-179-187

TRANSFERRING OF DIFFERENTIAL MEANINGS IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

Narkiza A. Moroz1, Oksana P. Lazareva2

1, 2University of Tyumen Tyumen, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. This article is devoted to a comparative linguistic- cognitive study of the poem “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol and its most authoritative English versions. The aim of this research is to study and analyze the transferring of the differential meanings of the poem in the process of translating it into English. Setting this goal makes it necessary to solve the following tasks: consider the theoretical foundations of the Gestalt-synergetic model of the translation process; examine translation as a system for transferring differential meanings of the text of Russian culture into the text of English culture on the basis of the Gestalt- synergetic model of the translation process; analyze the features of the author’s language and compare them with the translated English versions. According to the goals and the tasks, our particular attention is paid to a set of methods of modern cognitive linguistics and translation theory, such as: cognitive - discursive analysis, comparative analysis; descriptive - analytical method; classification of the results and a continuous sampling method. In our paper, the focus of attention is on the study of the features for the interaction of languages and cultures in the translation space on the basis of the Gestalt-synergetic approach described by L.V. Kushnina. The translation process is presented as a set of

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179 operations on the meanings of the original text carried out by English interpretors. During the translation a constant dynamic synergetic process of transferring the meanings of the original text into the meaning of the English text occurs. The findings suggest that such differential meanings can be determined as modal, individually-shaped, associative-semiological, reflective and irradiating. The originality of our solution lies in the fact that the study of the cognitive aspects of the translation can be analyzed as a complex process of sense transposition or transferring of differential meanings. The comparison of the original text and its English translations allows us to state that the work of N.V. Gogol causes a serious problem for interpreters. In this regard, they often seek for their own solution justified by various factors of linguistic and cognitive approaches. Keywords: differential meaning, translation, interaction of languages, interpretation

Introduction Scientists and researchers of different generations are considering the same problems but from different points of view. This fact also concerns the problem of translating works of art into another language, transferring linguistic, ethnographic and cultural realities. In regards with this works by Nikolai Gogol are generating considerable interest in terms of interpretation into foreign languages. It is obvious that the national color and originality of his masterpieces are particularly difficult for translators. “The differences in the systems of the English and Russian languages may limit the possibility of full preservation in translation of the content of the original and will require structural and semantic changes” (Kuznetsova V. Y., 2019: 159). Nevertheless, Gogol’s works have been translated into many foreign languages. Quite recently considerable attention has been paid to translation challenges of his novel “Dead Souls”.

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It is common knowledge that the process of translation is presented as a set of operations on the meanings of the original text carried out by translators. In the course of translating there is a constant dynamic synergetic process of transferring the meanings of the original text into the meanings of the translated text. The present article serves as an introduction to the way of transferring the meanings of the poem “Dead Souls” into its English versions suggested by D.J. Hogarth (Gogol N.V., 2003), Christopher English (Gogol N.V., 1987) and Robert A. Maguire (Gogol N.V., 2004). While analyzing the cognitive aspects of the translation the focus is on the text as the subject of the intersection of languages and cultures, where transferring several meanings in the process of interpretation occurs. Objectives of the study The aim of this research is to study and analyze the transferring of the differential meanings of the poem in the process of translating it into English. Setting this goal makes it necessary to solve the following tasks: - consider the theoretical foundations of the Gestalt-synergetic model of the translation process; - examine translation as a system for transferring differential meanings of the text of Russian culture into the text of English culture on the basis of the Gestalt-synergetic model of the translation process; - analyze the features of the author’s language and compare them with the translated English versions. Methodology and Methods The methodological basis of this research is the achievements of such areas of modern science of language as cognitive linguistics: A. Vezhbitskaya (1992), E.S. Kubryakova (1997), R. Langakker (1991) and others, translation theory: Ya.I. Retsker (1974), L.S. Barkhudarov (1969, 1975), A.D. Schweizer (1975, 2009), V.N. Komissarov (1984, 1990), L.K. Latyshev (1983, 2001), T.A. Kazakova (2001), the concept of translation space and harmonization of translation: L.V. Kushnina (2003, 2004), etc.

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This work is based on the principles of a cognitive approach to translation practice. According to the goals and the tasks, our particular attention was paid to a set of methods of modern cognitive linguistics and translation theory, such as: cognitive - discursive analysis. To illustrate the results, comparative analysis was performed. Descriptive - analytical method was also used as an effective way to study the issues in a scientific way. Classification of the results and a continuous sampling method were performed to illustrate the findings. In this paper we explored the possibility of analyzing the process of transferring the meanings of the original text into the meaning of the translated text with the help of the Gestalt-synergetic approach described by L.V. Kushnina. According to the researcher the meaning of the text is contrasted with the concepts of “meaning” and “content”. Etymologically, it is associated with the "spiritual state of a man." The meaning of the original text is transferred into the meanings of a foreign language text "being divided" into several meanings, which L.V. Kushnina calls as differential. Such meanings exist in addition to the actual meaning formed in an explicitly expressed text (Kushnina L.V., 2003: 66). Reflecting the explicit text the actual meaning is intermediate between the content and the meaning so it is explicit. All other differential meanings are opposed to the content, they reflect the fields of the translation space, so they are implicit. Each differential meaning is transferred depending on the configuration of the translation space and on the specific translation situation. “The paroemiological corpus of the language reveals the fundamental values of linguistic culture, and also helps to detect linguistic-specific signs of the studied concept” (Dzyubenko A.I., et al., 2019: 605). Comparing the poem “Dead Souls” and its English-language translations, we came to the conclusion that the description of the cognitive aspects of the translation of a work of art using the Gestalt-synergetic paradigm by L.V. Kushnina is essential. This

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182 approach considers the poem as a combination of elements - symbolic units characterized by integrity due to the unity of semantic connection, i.e. based on the study of transferring of differential meanings: modal, individually-shaped, associative- semiological, reflective and irradiating. The essence of differential meanings can be represented as following. The modal meaning is the deep meaning that is laid down in the text by its author. The individually-figurative meaning reflects the field of the translator. The associative semiological meaning implies culture and intercultural communication. The reflective meaning reflects the field of the recipient. The irradiating meaning being the source of the thoughtfulness of the text reflects its energy field or emotional significance. It has been identified that in the cognitive aspect of the translation of the poem the modal meaning is the most essential meaning, as it expresses the deep sense of the work and it clearly reflects the author’s position, expressing his communicative-pragmatic intention. The modal meaning is a collective concept through which a set of different views on the world of the author is indicated. Within the framework of this meaning, the author’s idea of himself can be reflected, his correlation with a certain community and reckoning with a certain group is vital. The position of the author acts as a significant guide in the translation, in this regard, the transferring of the inner meaning embedded in the work is of primary importance. According to L.V. Kushnina, the source of modal meaning is the pretext. It means "a manifestation of implicit meaning of the text that gravitates to expressing the author’s position.” (Kushnina L.V., 2004: 102). The attitude of the author and his life position largely determine the subjectivity of the modal meaning. In order to transfer the modal meaning, the translator should abstract from verbatim characteristics that mask the author’s disposition and his attitude to the context. The degree of abstraction, determined by the depth

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183 of the modal meaning, depends both on the genre of the translated work, the visual and narrative tools and techniques used by the author, and on the personality characteristics of the author. It is known that thanks to modality the subject of speech most clearly expresses the author’s intention, convincing the recipient to accept his opinion on reality. L.M. Lapp in his works proves that the modality of the text, thus, contributes to the personification of the subject of speech in the text (Lapp L.M., 1993: 10). We associate the modal meaning with the modal tone of the novel. This term refers to the types of utterances that dominate the text (Lapp L.M., 1993: 12). Their identification is necessary in order to determine whether Nikolai Gogol describes the events in his original text as a passive observer or as an active performer. Findings Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into analyzing the ways of transferring differential meanings of the original poem into the meanings of the translated texts has been successful. From the outcome of our study it is possible to conclude that while transferring the modal meaning of the original text the translators face some difficulties. Several extracts illustrate that Nikolai Gogol acts as a passive but not impartial observer. There is a shadow of subtle humor and ingratiation before the reader in his speech. At the same time, the reader has the feeling that N.V. Gogol retells what he read earlier or he is looking through an album with illustrations, commenting on the most colorful moments and periodically bringing to the forefront the dialogues of the characters (a technique widely used in cinema), acting as a “silent witness” of what is happening. The similarity of the grammatical construction of translated sentences and the original, noted by R. Maguire, allows us to convey the intriguing tone that permeates the idea of the author, addressed to an impersonal reader, “without naming”. It has been found that the modal meaning in the translation by C. English, despite the similarity of the grammatical construction, is somehow distorted: "But the reader will be apprised of all this

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184 gradually and in good time, if he has the patience to read through the story we offer him." Apparently, the translator positions himself in the text as a "partner" of N.V. Gogol, translating the phrase "the proposed story" as (literally) "the story that we offer." A similar conclusion follows from our analysis of the works by N.V. Gogol, as a result of which it was established that the first- person narrative is not peculiar to him, especially in the plural (Moroz N.A., 2015: 138). In the translated variant by D. Hogarth, we have noticed the similarity in design and character to the transferring of modal meaning. However, we noted a lesser degree of verbosity than that of R. Maguire and C. English. We also highlighted the erroneous interpretation of linguistic realities, including that noted by other translators. For example, N.V. Gogol uses an idiom that was not adequately translated by the translators, which caused pluralism in terms of transferring the final phrase: “...концу, венчающему дело”: R. Maguire - “enterprise”, K. English - “affair”, D. Hogarth - “work”. It is obvious that the phrase reflecting the linguistic reality is based on the recombination of the proverb “конец-делу венец”, the English analogue of which “all is well that ends well” was not used in any version of the translation, while it would be very appropriate for the exact transmission of the semantic load. Thus, taking into account the polysemy inherent in the word “дело”, it seems to us that the translations under study posed the problem for the English reader to adequately perceive language realities or, in other words, the dilemma of context matching with literal interpretation. So, from R. Maguire’s translation, “enterprise” is perceived as “enterprise, business” or, more rarely, “adventure” (in a negative way). The “work” used by D. Hogarth is perceived as “mechanical work, labor”. In this regard, the translation of C. English is the closest to the context. The features of Gogol’s creativity left an imprint on the nature of the translation of his works. The author’s text is characterized by the harmony of internal thinking and the consistency in the presentation of thoughts.

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A comparison of Gogol's poem and the works of English-speaking writers allows us to state that the work of N.V. Gogol poses a serious problem when translating into English. Asymmetry of background knowledge, lack of understanding of the author’s intention, inability to “read between the lines”, which is relevant for this work by N.V. Gogol, as well as an inaccurate historical and cultural component, leads to translation difficulties. In this regard, translators most often seek their own solution, justified by various factors of linguistic and pragmatic orientation. Comparative analysis of the poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" and his three translations was performed on the basis of the study of transposition of differential meanings: modal, individually-shaped, associative-semiological, reflective and irradiating. Conclusion It was found that modal meaning is a key in the cognitive aspect of translation. Our analysis showed that, with respect to the transposition of the modal meaning, R. Maguire achieved the greatest progress, since his translation to a greater extent conveyed the intriguing tone of N.V. Gogol. The individual-figurative and associative-semiological meanings are most subtly captured in the translation of D. Hogarth, which accurately conveys the irony of the Gogol’s text and the idea of a special way for Russia. The radiating meaning is achieved by transferring the energy field, which is best seen in the translation by C. English. The particular difficulty is on the transferring of reflective meaning, where the differentiation of the original text and translations is clearly manifested due to the use of an adaptive translation strategy. So, the study of the cognitive aspects of the translation of the poem on the basis of the Gestalt-synergetic approach makes it possible to analyze translation as a complex process of transferring several meanings: modal, individually-shaped, associative-semiological, reflective and irradiating.

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References Gogol, N.V. 2004. Dead Souls, Translated by Robert A. Maguire, Penguin Books, 465 pp. Gogol, N.V. 1987. Dead Souls, Translated by Christopher English, Raduga Publishers, Moscow, 423 pp. Gogol, N.V. 2003. Dead Souls, Translated by D.J. Hogarth, Dover, 296 pp. Dzyubenko, A.I., Zyubina, I.A. 2019. On intercultural aspects of concept “wealth” interpretation present time perspective. Functional Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Translation and Interpreting Issues Proceedings, vol. 6, RUDN, pp. 598-607. Kushnina, L.V. 2004.The interaction of languages and cultures in the translation space: a Gestalt-synergetic approach, PhD Thesis, Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Perm, 437 pp. Kuznetsova, V. Y. 2019. Peculiarities of translation of different types of metaphors in publicistic texts. Current Issues in Modern Linguistics and Humanities. RUDN, Moscow, pp. 151-160, DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-151-160. Lapp, L.M. 1993. Interpretation of a scientific text in the aspect of the “subject of speech” factor, Irkutsk; Publishing House of Irkutsk University, 218 pp. Moroz, N.A. 2015. Translation as an integrity of cognitive operations over the meanings of an original text. Philological Sciences. Issues of Theory and Practice 4 (46): 137-139.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-188-198

PUBLICATION OF THE RUSSIAN-GERMAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ON INSTAGRAM AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR CROSS-LANGUAGE INTERACTION IN THE RUSSIAN-GERMAN BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

Tatiana V. Chernukha

National University of Science and Technology MISIS Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Despite changes in political relations between Russia and Germany, trade relations between the two countries continue to develop. On the one hand, access to the Russian economic market for representatives of Germany in Russia provides, among other things, knowledge of the Russian language. On the other hand, representatives of Russian business are actively using both English and German to communicate with German partners; employees of Russian-German companies also, as a rule, speak German and English. As a result, in and between companies a certain multicultural environment is created, which contributes to a certain extent to the development of languages. Internet resources contain great potential for the development of such a multicultural environment, one of the leading ones, Instagram (Instagram). Instagram is one of the best platforms for companies to communicate with partners and colleagues. In Russia, the interests of the German business community are represented by the Russian-German Chamber of Commerce (Deutsch-Russische Auslandshandelskammer (AHK), which includes 900 companies. In its active work aimed at developing cooperation between German and Russian companies, AHK uses

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Instagram, publishing messages on events in the Russian-German business environment in German and Russian. Instagram tools, for example, hashtags, help to disseminate the publication, expand the target audience. The aim of the work was to consider the features of interlanguage interaction based on the use of the most popular hashtags in the publications of the AHK and the identification of the most typical structural lexical models. The report attempts to consider the following aspects: - hashtag as a marker of interest in publishing - the most productive ways of forming lexical units of a given vocabulary layer - Features of interlanguage interaction in the formation of this vocabulary layer As a result of the semantic and statistical analysis of AHK publications, the following conclusions were drawn: - the most popular hashtags include #PartnerInMoscow, #PartnerInRussland, #Германия #Deutschland, #Russland, #Россия - the most typical model - abbreviation + noun (AHK- Veranstaltung) - Partnerships in the Russian-German business environment are closely related to intercultural linguistic interaction, mutual enrichment of languages. For example, use in Russian and German “АНК встреча - AHK-Treff” Keywords: multicultural communication, development of languages, productive ways of forming lexical units

Introduction Despite changes in political relations between Russia and Germany, trade relations between the two countries continue to develop. The Russian market is attractive to German business. Germany ranks second among Russia's foreign trade partners after the People's Republic of China. In total, there are about 5,000

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189 companies with German capital in Russia. Their combined turnover is $ 50 billion. On the one hand, entering the Russian economic market and successfully conducting business by German representatives in Russia ensures, among other things, knowledge of the Russian language and its use in professional communication. On the other hand, representatives of Russian business are actively using both English and German to communicate with German partners; employees of Russian-German companies also, as a rule, speak German and English. As a result, in and between companies in the process of intercultural linguistic interaction, a certain multicultural environment is created, which contributes to a certain extent to the development of languages. Internet resources contain great potential for the development of such a multicultural environment, namely social networks, for example, one of the leading ones, Instagram (Instagram), whose number of users around the world in 2019 reached 895 million. Instagram is one of the best platforms for brands, and an opportunity for companies to attract and communicate with potential consumers, as well as with partners and colleagues. Objectives/Purpose of the study In Russia, the interests of the German business community are represented by the Russian-German Chamber of Commerce (Deutsch-Russische Auslandshandelskammer (AHK), which includes about 900 member companies from Russia and Germany. In its active work aimed at developing cooperation between German and Russian companies, AHK also uses Instagram, publishing messages on current events in the Russian-German business environment in German and Russian. Instagram tools, for example, hashtags, help to disseminate the publication, expand the target audience. The subject of the study was to identify the features of the formation and functioning of vocabulary in the interaction of German and Russian languages in the Russian-German business environment.

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The purpose of the work is to consider the features of interlanguage interaction based on the use of the most popular hashtags in the AHK publications and highlighting the most typical structural lexical models of the German language. This goal provides for the solution of the following specific tasks: 1) identify key concepts, keywords (hashtags) as a marker of interest in publishing; 2) to investigate, due to which potential features of the language, units of a given vocabulary layer are created; 3) identify the most productive ways of education; 4) to study the features of interlanguage interaction in the formation of vocabulary of the Russian-German business environment, especially the contacts of languages and interlanguage transformations. The basic provisions developed by M.D. Stepanova (Stepanova M.D., 2007: 57), I. Bartz and V. Fleischer (Fleischer W., Barz I., 1995: 44) in the field of lexicology, word formation, communication made up the theoretical basis of work. The empirical basis was a linguistic analysis of the publications of the Russian-German Chamber of Commerce (Deutsch-Russische Auslandshandelskammer (AHK) on Instagram. Methodology The method of continuous sampling was analyzed 110 lexical units. The analysis of the material was carried out on the basis of the following methods: general scientific conceptual modeling; methods of word-formation analysis of the word and analysis of the immediate components; transformational analysis, contextual analysis and analysis of models of translation equivalence. The classification was carried out on the basis of the criterion of representativeness of the analyzed models, determining the frequency and usability of units, which was generalized in statistical calculations.

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Discussion The concept of "hashtag" is considered as a keyword or several words of a message, hashtags are added to signatures or comments to publications and shown in the search results for hashtags. This increases the chances that different audiences and communities will learn about the company and publication (Instagram Help Center, Instagram Business Team) Instagram developers recommend using 9 types of hashtags for the company: • Hashtags that indicate your product or service, #coffee shop • Hashtags indicating the scope of activity, for example, #travelphotographer • Hashtags for industry communities on Instagram, for example, #bakers instagram • Hashtags for specific events or seasons, for example, #differentcollection • Hashtags with location, for example, #isybirislove • Hashtags for every day, for example, #mondaymotivation, • Hashtags related to company activities, for example. #development • Hashtags with abbreviations, for example, #kvsk (coffee in one's mug) • Hashtags with emoticons, for example, #shoes� The desire of the authors of AHK publications to attract as many Instagram users as possible is quite obvious. The publications use a large number of different types of hashtags, for example: “🇩🇪 Am 24. Oktober trafen sich unsere Mitglieder zum traditionellen Networking bei gehobenem Ambiente im Ararat Park Hyatt in Moskau … #PartnerInRussland #PartnerInMoskau #AHK #Германия #Deutschland #Russland #Россия #Russia #business #бизнес #wirtschaft #экономика #businessmen #businesswoman» An analysis of the use of hashtags in AHK publications, in terms of their popularity among Instagram users, allowed us to identify

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192 the most common ones that are often used when searching for information on this topic. These hashtags include the following keywords or word combinations: #Россия (47 742 649 publications), #Deutschland (14 194 917 publications), #Германия (2,063,155 publications), #Russland (322,786 publications), #dualeausbildung (3,761 publications), #PartnerInRussland (84 publications), #russlandmeister (74 publications), #PartnerInMoscow or #PartnerInMoskau (31 publications). Reaching an audience of more than 700 people. The highlighted hashtags are both indicators of interest in this topic, as well as markers of Russian-German business vocabulary. Summarizing the recommendations of Instagram developers on the use of certain types of hashtags and the analysis results, we can divide the above hashtags into two groups: 1. Hashtags of general importance, having a generalizing character, for example, #Россия, #Deutschland, #Германия, #Russland. The use of such hashtags makes it possible to attract a wider circle of Instagram users to the publication, often people who are unprofessionally interested in this topic, who may later be interested in the topic of Russian-German relations and to some extent will contribute to its development. 2. Hashtags that have a more specific meaning and are aimed at a specific target audience. These are the hashtags #dualeausbildung, #PartnerInRussland, #russlandmeister, #PartnerInMoscow (PartnerInMoskau) The use of hashtags of the first and second groups by the authors of AHK publications can be regarded not only as a desire to expand the target audience, increase interest in the activities of the AHK, but also as attracting interest in the topic of Russian-German relations. As you know, the development of society, the emergence of new social phenomena, the development of science and technology - all

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193 these events are accompanied by the appearance of special words. Activities conducted by the AHK, their involvement in events of reality is no exception. Russian-German business relations, reflected in the publications of the AHK, were the basis for the development of a certain layer of vocabulary, which is a collection of lexical units of a special language. These are, for example, lexical units denoting the general concepts of Russian-German relations: “AHK-Treff”, “AHK-Mitglieder”. A feature of special vocabulary is the specificity of the relationship of its units with concepts and named objects (either conceptual or substantive connections prevail). In words of general vocabulary, naming ordinary everyday objects and associated with generally accepted concepts, these connections are more uniform (Superanskaya A.V., 2003: 26) An analysis of the formal structure of these lexical units indicates that the considered lexical units have the usual morphemic word- formation structure of the word and obey the norms of the corresponding language, that is, word-formation is carried out in accordance with the word-formation patterns of the German language. Consideration of word formation as a complex process, as a system for modeling lexical units, allows to reveal both the patterns of formation of these units, and the most productive methods, models of the formation of lexical units of a given vocabulary layer. It should be noted that the “model” is understood as a typical structure, when “a series of words is combined according to the principle of a general word-form” (Stepanova M.D., 2007: 51). Based on the analysis of the vocabulary of AHK publications, the most productive models and word-building constructions, reflecting the dynamics of word-formation processes - word- building models were identified in German; Complicated and truncated lexical units. The concept of “compounding” is considered on the basis of the definition given by V. Fleischer, I. Bartz: “compounding is the combination of several words, each of which is called a component

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(Kompositionsglied), into a new word called a compound or composite (Kompositum, zusamengesetztes Wort) (Fleischer W., Barz I., 1995: 92). As a result of the analysis of vocabulary, it was revealed that 80% of lexical units are formed using phrases. Based on the classification of M.D. Stepanova (Stepanova M.D., 2007: 111), complex nouns of the structural genetic and syntactic- semantic type of connection between the components of a compound word were identified. From the point of view of the structure of the components of a compound word, polysyllabic and polysyllabic nouns were identified. Full nouns made up 12% of 110 units, for example: Mitgliedermagazin. Uncomplicated nouns accounted for 88% (of 110 units) (AHK- Sommerfest) Moreover, 88% of the considered lexical units of the structural genetic type (total number - 110 units) are formed using the s-connecting element, for example, Mitgliedsunternehmen. Based on the classification of complex nouns according to the type of syntactic-semantic connection, the components of a compound word were identified: 1) definitive complex nouns. The components of definitive complex nouns are interconnected by submission: one of the components defines the other (for example, AHK- Mitgliederversammlung). It should be noted that the frequent use of one word as a determinant contributes to the generalization of concepts. 2) compound composite nouns consisting of components connected by an essay, none of them defines the other and syntactically nouns are equal. (e.g. Russland-Konferenz) The formation of compound words (Inizialkurzwörter) is closely related to the use of compound words and stable phrases, of which they are a conditional abbreviation. In their structure, they stand out as a special type of monomorphic words (Stepanova M.D.,

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2000: 197). The desire of the language to compress verbose names, compress complex phrases, compound words leads to the creation of abbreviations. As a result of the study, the most common type of abbreviation was identified - abbreviations formed from initial syllables or randomly selected parts of complex words and phrases (AHK - Auslandshandelskammer) Analysis of the formation of these units allowed us to identify the most typical word-building constructions, such as: - “abbreviation + noun” (Аbk. + Sub.). For example, AHK- Veranstaltung, AHK-Treff, AHK-Komitee. The determining components indicating the relationship with this vocabulary layer were: the abbreviation “AHK” and English-language abbreviations (for example, “CFO”, “CFO - Konferenz”); - “noun + noun” (Sub. + Sub.). For example, Russland-Konferenz, Deutschland-Alumni with the defining components Russland, Deutschland As mentioned above, AHK publications are made in German with translation into Russian. When translating into Russian, the most typical model is the abbreviation + noun model (Аbk. + Sub.), However, the defining components can be either the abbreviation “ВТП” or the abbreviation “AHK” itself, for example, “ВТП- член”, “встреча ВТП”, but “AHK-встреча”. The translation from German into Russian is found in the following form: “Russland- Konferenz in Berlin” - “Russlandskonferenz in Berlin” - “Конференция ВТП по России в Берлине”, which may be explained by a direct relationship with the organizer of the conference - the Russian-German Chamber of Commerce (Российско-Германская внешнеторговая палата (ВТП). It should be noted that the formation of such lexical units arising in the framework of communication on Instagram is largely determined by the process factor (the constantly emerging realities of the Russian-German business environment require names) and the formation of such lexical units is a dynamic process. Part of the educated lexical units, perhaps, will continue to be used, part

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196 doomed to rapid disappearance. In addition, publications are aimed at a specific audience, professional communication, therefore, in publications in both German and Russian, it is possible to use lexical units with direct translation into Russian, for example, “Grüner Pukt - Зелёная точка”, or use in translation abbreviations or names in German, for example, “эксперты AHK”, “DIHK и ВТП встретились с министром промышленности Мантуровым”, … конференция совместно с Объединением торгово-промышленных палат Германии (DIHK)”, “…DIHK представляет интересы более 3 миллионов германских предприятий”, “AHK International в Москве" All this, on the one hand, reflects the features of communication in the Russian-German business environment, but on the other hand, it promotes inter-linguistic interaction, enrichment of languages, even if the use of the lexical units that appear is temporary. At the same time, close interlanguage interaction can be the basis for the development of further friendly, partnership relations between Russia and Germany. Conclusion As a result, the semantic and statistical analysis of the publications of the Russian-German Chamber of Commerce on Instagram led to the following conclusions: - Hashtags are both indicators of interest in this topic, and markers of Russian-German business vocabulary, the most common: #Россия, #Deutschland, #Германия - the most productive models include collocation models; compound and truncated lexical units - the most common constructions are “abbreviation + noun” (Аbk. + Sub.), “noun + noun” (Sub. + Sub.) - the professionally oriented, multicultural environment of the target audience of publications contributes to inter-linguistic interaction, the enrichment of languages - all this is reflected in the language, in this case both in German and Russian, in the interaction of languages and inter-lingual transformation. The German language in the publications of the AHK takes a leading

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197 position, as it is focused primarily on the German-speaking audience, but the Russian language is also affected. So, as a result of the translation, lexical units formed on the basis of foreign- language models appear in the Russian language. Interlanguage influence promotes the transformation of lexical units, the appearance of additions, omissions, equivalents. The source language changes its role, and lexical units formed in German are perceived directly. The lexical units analyzed during the study allowed us not only to identify trends that reflect the dynamics of the creation of lexical units of the German language, inter-lingual interaction in the communication process in the Russian-German business environment, but once again draw our attention to the fact that the language is directly related to the processes taking place in society. Publishing AHK on Instagram is only part of the business activity between Russia and Germany. However, I would like to assume that even if such a small part promotes inter-linguistic interaction, the expansion of the corps of German and Russian, then in the future this may provide an opportunity for closer partnership mutual cooperation between Russia and Germany.

References Fleischer, W., Barz I. 1995. Word formation of the German contemporary language. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer publishing house, 382 pp Stepanova, M.D. 2007. Word Formation of the Modern German Language / Ed. T.V. Stroevoy Publ. 2-nd, rev. KomKniga, Moscow, 376 pp. Superanskaya, A.Y., Podolskaya, N.V., Vasilyeva, N.V. 2003. General terminology: Theoretic problems. Editorial URSS, Moscow, 243 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-199-205

MULTICODE COMMUNICATION AND ITS LINGUISTIC PROFILE IN MASS MEDIA MATERIALS

Elena V. Yakovleva¹, Ruben Agadzhanyan²

¹Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ²School No. 166 Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Modern language diplomacy depends for its efficiency on an expert use of all interactive formats offered by mass media platforms and beyond. The presentation focuses on the results of linguistic analysis to which mass media communication samples were subjected on a multicode basis. The terminological packaging of the matter reflects its IT strategy management features and addresses issues of cultural preference, language encoding, synergetic public appeal and digital format mastery. The competitive spirit of modern mass media is being constantly challenged by the growing demand of the audience and is ushered forth by the rocketing competence of the latter. The presentation makes full use of representative sample materials in Russian and English. Each item meets expectations of the audience keen on critically following the data, the progress and the aftermath of a political scandal event masterfully served in the format of an emotionally touched up communicative act. The multicode linguistic profile characteristics of the video episodes dealt with reveals a synergetic interaction of word, non-verbal signal, gesture, body language, video format features and digital effects. The logic of the presentation would lead to synergetic interpretation of mass media format features which would allow for a view of synergetic interdisciplinary direction of research as a method of study

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199 applicable to processes of different nature liable to self- organization. The potential of cognitive modeling synchronized with speech modeling can hardly be overestimated. The material presented is a proof of happy industry strategy multiplied by effective communicative skills and digital technological aptitude. Human language potential leads the way in contemporary synergetic studies offering new knowledge of meaning and sense formation in communicative acts and processes as part of modern methods of language study. The materials selected for analysis and presentation come from the popular political, analytical program «60 minutes» (Russia 1 TV Channel) and representative episodes of «CNN News» Channel. The results of the research conducted could be tested and verified in the practical course of English classes, they can also serve a valuable contribution to a course in effective communication. The presentation may pave the way for a full-scale academic research. Keywords: Communicative act, language diplomacy, synergetic method, mass media format, digital technology, non-verbal characteristics of a speech act

Introduction The point that a text is more than a language construct has long ceased to raise many a brow. Nowadays a variety of sign elements are included into printed and digital media matter of sorts, popularly referred to as texts. In linguistics the code profile of a language appears to be well- defined, as it includes signals of different layers of language study organized in accordance with a certain pattern to convey information presented in such a way, that it makes the resulting construct clear and available to the sum total of the recipients aware of the code used (Galperin I., 1981: 30). Thus, both regional and social dialects, professional slang and other stylistic varieties of the language system take part in an interplay to form the literary accepted norm of a given national language. As such they perform individual functions assisting man

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200 in acts of interpersonal communication of various kinds. The above mentioned interpersonal communication is part of social interaction between and among individuals working towards specific subcodes (Shipova I., 2013). It is in these subcodes that texts, written and oral, are created to serve the purpose of effective interpersonal exchange of bulks of information. Less and less man is aware of the minutest distinctive features and constituent parts of these subcodes to such an extent that the choice of the latter is made almost synchronically to induction of mental operations. What has been said above accounts for the role of several languages, some of them foreign, in human interpersonal interaction. True, only one of them would be holding the status of a native language (NL), whereas all others, no matter how advanced the knowledge and competence in them the speaker chooses to reveal, remain in the characteristic position of a foreign language (FL1, FL2, FL3). Since NL and FL in all of their varieties intertwine in the process of subcodes’ exchange, the effect of multicoding is achieved. Mass media materials, particularly mass media texts provide the learner with the rich corpus of examples, each highlighting its multicode profile to the best of its language ability. Purpose of the study The research conducted is meant to illustrate the main characteristics and constituents of a mass media video text revealing multicode characteristics irrespective of the language, gender specifics and content peculiarities. Multicoding viewed as a general language code addresses the literary norm of a national language allowing for its subdivision into a number of subcodes. The subcodes in question may have regional, professional or stylistic coloring, each fulfilling its own function in the process of interpersonal communication within the scope of a definite type of a person´s social activity (Shipova I., 2013). The material analyzed reflects national specificity of interpersonal mass media type of communication in English and Russian, as the

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201 sample materials studied aim at appealing to the broadest circles of the corresponding national audience.

Methodology In view of revealing and systematizing the multicode characteristics of video materials to be subjected to the analysis, we have chosen two extracts from Channel Russia One analytical talk-show «60 minutes» (issued 05.03.2020) referred to as Text A and CNN World news (issued 17.02.2020) referred to as Text B. First a few words of what brings these stories together and what sets them apart. Both passages deal with world events of current importance and considerable viewers’ interest. Text A is a synergetic sketch portraying Saint-Petersburg medical services and facilities as they brace for the attack of the fearful COVID-19 in Russia. The story of Text B is a masterfully prepared narrative highlighting the local Syrian civilians’ concerns, fears and hopes in the face of terrorist attacks in the Idlib de-escalation zone. Apart from the current ring of the subjects taken up, both texts impress by the dynamics of the narrative, the apt appropriateness of the discourse euphemisation and the eye-catching brightness of the visual sequence. However, the multicode framework, adopted by each company respectively accounts for perceivable differences between Text A and Text B in terms of both detailing and digital media artistry of the presentation. The method of analysis used was comparative and contrastive description of the materials’ multicode profile. Findings Text A was all done in one language – Russian. However, structurally it consisted of a number of speech episodes in linear progression. First, both hosts introduce the subject in a brief address to the viewers as the come closest to the cameras. The effect achieved was that they address the audience directly, shortening the distance between the studio and the homes of the viewers. At this point, the hosts are given in close-up. As the announce the theme of the episode, the corresponding title appears

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202 on the large screen behind their backs and also on the floor under their feet, saying in large lettering «COVID-19». Interestingly enough, since it is far from being the first time that the subject of the coronavirus threat was dealt with on Russian television in general, and by «60 minutes» in particular, the audience could notice that the title-line “Коронавирус” has been substituted for by terminologically involved «COVID-19». The multicode characteristics of this episode depend for their comprehensive profile on the use of several windows on one screen, in each of which the footage is on display simultaneously: window 1, ½ of the screen size, runs the footage from the hospital. The audience can assess, how efficient the building looks, how busy the medical traffic is, how cool the personnel and how unperturbed the patients giving interviews on mobile phones from behind the glass partitions. Window 2, ¼ of the screen size, focuses on a reporter working from the premises of the hospital, answering the questions from the studio hosts and experts. Window 3, also ¼ of the screen size, shows the studio in close-up with the camera passing from one face to another, picking on the expression of focused concern here and furrowed brow there. The hosts bravely parade their gender differences and well-fitted competent clothing in bright shades of the national flag. On the whole, despite the uniformity of the linguistic characteristics, the general multicode profile of the episode is fairly deep – the idiomaticity of the journalese used, the vivid coloring of the picture and multisource reference testify to by the content of the narrative produce the impression of thorough analysis of the event, properly verified facts and impressively arranged visual effects. Having analyzed Text B, we have noticed a difference in the structure and arrangement of the material by comparison with the above discussed features of Text A. Here the multicode characteristics are achieved the expense of the use of two languages, since the interview is done in English and Arabic and the correspondent is switching from one language to the other as she interprets for herself and the audience. The episode begins with

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203 the close-up on two hosts sitting at a desk in the New York studio. No subject line appears, no visual effects are made use of. The people seem to be discussing the issue privately against the background of a bright urban view of the city. The introductory words being said, and the problem outlined, the episode allows for a realistic footage from Idlib featuring the locals engaged in their daily concerns. We can see several families on the threshold and inside their homes – mothers and fathers surrounded by their numerous children – all worried and apprehensive of the instability of their life, they are eager to answer questions on. The camera picks out images of poverty, destroyed urban structure and ruined economy. The correspondent – a woman dressed as a local – talks to the civilians in a tired and sad voice, as if echoing the discouraged attitude the people find easy to share with the camera. During the episode the audience can here an announcement coming from the local authorities on the loud speaker. However, despite the fact that CNN chose to support the announcement by a running line which says: «Warning! Russian fighter jet in the air», the announcement seems to have no effect on the people in the picture, as they carry on with their immediate concerns. Thus, if the initial idea was to catch the expression of mortal fear on their faces, the chance was lost. On the whole, the episode produces an intense emotional impact by an almost fictive footage and production. Discussion There is every reason to believe that the multicode characteristics of the material described above root in the synergetic nature of digital media narrative and is meant to be perceived by the audience. The artistic presentation of the material appeals to the aesthetic feeling of the audience revealing specifications of verbal and non-verbal nature. It is obvious that here we deal with synergetically involved language of description, the order characteristics of which reflect the fluctuative nature of the process. In other words, for the system to pass to the new stage of stability it has to lose its former stability at the expense of a random fluctuations. Thus, the stage of coherence is registered which is

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204 understood as the result of keeping the correlation between different phases of processes constant (Goural, 2007: 7). At the same time, it would be to the point to mention that formatted, as it may seem, a media material addressing the broadest audience follows the principle of chaos as the new type of synergetic fluctuation. The materials analyzed illustrated how a text can be supported, developed, enriched and carried farther at the expense of graphical and other non-verbal imagery, both static and dynamic. The study of the material led us to the conclusion that digital technologies are fully capable of bringing to life a new kind of reality that is making use of the multicode synergetic potential of the product. The artistic profile of the latter challenges and reflects human creativity.

References Goural, S. 2007. Synergetic and linguosynergetic. Vestnik of Tomsk State University Tomsk 302: 7-9. Shipova, I. 2013. The functional essence of multicode multilayer language sign (in German fictive texts). In Historical and socio- educational thought. KМАPPPКС, Krasnodar, pp. 289-293. Galperin, I. 1981. Text as the object of linguistic study. Nauka, Moscow, 148 p. CNN News World. 2020. URL: https://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2020/02/17/syria-idlib- assad-russia-military-campaign-bombings-damon-pkg-intl-ldn- vpx.cnn [Accessed 02. 17. 2020]. 60 Minutes. 2020. URL: https://60-minut.su/60-minut-vypusk-ot- 05-03-2020-novyj-sluchaj-koronavirusa-v-rossii.html [Acсessed 05. 03. 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-206-214

“SOFT POWER” AND CROSS-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR OF THE RUSSIAN YOUTH

Anna V. Glagoleva1, Evgeniya A. Kuznetsova2, Yulia N. Zemskaya3

1, 2, 3Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ²e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-8288-8047 ³e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-1180-0057

Abstract. The globalization as a phenomenon affects to various spheres of life in modern society. At the same time the blurring of distinction often takes place in the thrall of instruments of "soft power”. American political scientist Joseph S. Nye included language and culture among them. They allow getting the desired result on the basis of the voluntary participation, forming a system of life values and norms of behavior through images and artifacts. One of the most effective sources of cultural influence is a literature. Attractive worlds are created by the word. The ideological orientations transmittable by the book may have an impact not only on the representations and actions of an individual or a social group, but also on the way of life of the society, or the development and history of the state. The authors of popular books are influencers that shape public opinion. They are able to affect on the behavior of the general public. Which writer today influences the formation of the views of modern youth? What books do they read? Who of contemporary and historical authors can be "regent of dreams" of Russian students? How far does the national literature give way to

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European, American and other conveyors of artistic images and meanings? The answers to these and others questions were received in our study whose purpose was to research the system of values and stereotypes, the communication behavior and models of Russian youth. In December 2016, we conducted a survey of 170 students of a various degrees of higher education studying at the Institute of World Economy and Business of the Faculty of Economics of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (IWEB RUDN University). We invited them to answer anonymously the questions of the survey, which consists the several informative modules, including describing the formal demographic and behavioral characteristics of respondents. The results of the study allow us to conclude that the part of the Russian students knows the world and Russian literature quite well in spite of the common opinion about the low level of Russian school education and the disinterest in books. Keywords: intercultural communication, soft power, survey, Russian studentship

Introduction The scientists talked about “soft power” in the 90s of the XX century, when global changes due to the end of the Cold War and the process of globalization began to be comprehended by philosophers, economists, politicians, sociologists, etc. The first time this term was used in the 1990 in the work “Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power”, authored by Joseph S. Nye, a famous American scientist and professor at Harvard University. He tried to understand the nature of American leadership in the 20th century, what the America’s strength provides her with this position. She grappled with various external and internal challenges throughout the 20th century, when even the Americans themselves didn’t believe in the power of their country. The USA nevertheless managed to achieve world hegemony. This became possible due to

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207 the correct combination for using of the country's resources, according to J.S. Nye. “As has happened many times in the past, the mix of resources that produce international power is changing… The United States today retains more traditional hard power resources than any other country. It also has the soft ideological and institutional resources to retain its leading place in the new domains of transnational interdependence” (Nye J.S., 1990). In autumn 1990, the American political scientist gave a definition of the term “soft power” and characterized it in detail in the article “Soft Power” in the magazine “Foreign Policy” and much later in the book “Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics” published in 2004. He relates the army and the economy to traditional hard power tools and writes: “New power resources, such as the capacity for effective communication and for developing and using multilateral institutions, may prove more relevant… The changing nature of international politics has also made intangible forms of power more important. National cohesion, universalistic culture, and international institutions are taking on additional significance. Power is passing from the "capital-rich" to the "information- rich"” (Nye J.S., 1990). J.S. Nye describes as the main attribute of the "soft power" such features as the attractiveness and the so-called co-optive, and notes that this tools are not new: “Co-optive power - getting others to want what you want - and soft power resources - cultural attraction, ideology, and international institutions - are not new” (Nye J.S., 1990). In addition, the carriers of “soft power” can be language, music, books, films, TV-shows and even Coca-Cola or jeans. “According to past studies by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the United States has been exporting about seven times as many television shows as the next largest exporter (Britain) and has had the only global network for film distribution. Although American films account for only 6-7 per cent of all films made, they occupy about 50 per cent of world screen time… The American language has become the lingua franca of the global economy” (Nye J.S., 1990).

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His views haven’t changed over time. In 2006, J.S. Nye had the article “Think again: Soft Power” published in the same “Foreign Policy” with the following thesis: “Soft Power Is Cultural Power Partly. Power is the ability to alter the behavior of others to get what you want… A country’s soft power can come from three resources: its culture…, its political values…, and its foreign policies» (Nye J.S., 2006). In 2012, he described “soft power” as follows: “The best propaganda is not propaganda” (Nye J.S., 2012). Nye’s ideas were picked up widely. The statesmen and public figures, politicians (Gates R.M., 2007), scientists (Fan Y.S., 2008, Gallarotti G., 2010, Mattern J.B., 2007) and journalists (Chernenko E., 2013) appealed to them. There were attempts to measure the "soft power" and on this basis to take the country rating. For example, in 2018, Great Britain took the first position, France had second place, and Germany closed the top three in the annual ranking “The Soft Power 30” by Portland Communications and the USC Center on Public Diplomacy. (McClory J., 2018) The rating methodology of The Soft Power 30 involves an assessment of a number of parameters, including culture. The influence of culture in general and literature in particular on public mood cannot be overstated. It uses as an instrument of soft power and allows to convey an ideas, create virtual reality and egg on certain actions. Books can influence not only on the ideas and actions of an individual or a social group, but also the way of life of a society or the development and history of a state. Objectives/Purpose of the study In this regard, the questions arise about which of the writers influence on the formation of the views of modern youth? Who of contemporary and historical authors can be "regent of dreams" of Russian students? How far does the national literature give way from European, American and other? The answers to these and others questions were received in our study whose purpose was to research the system of values and stereotypes, the communication behavior and models of Russian youth.

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Methodology and sub headings In December 2016, we conducted a survey of 170 students of a various degrees of higher education studying at the Institute of World Economy and Business of the Faculty of Economics of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (IWEB RUDN University). We proposed them to answer anonymously the questions of the survey, which consists the several informative modules, including describing the formal demographic and behavioral characteristics of respondents. We used different formats of questions - open, closed and semi-closed, that allowed respondents not only to choose one or another position, but also to argue it if necessary. The results of the survey allow us to assess the potential of cross- cultural communications of Russian youth, the impact on their worldview of works of Russian and foreign literature, as well as immersion in the cultural context. Results/Findings The formalization of received answers gave the following picture. 18.8% of surveyed students didn’t name the favorite books. The other respondents named 66 books of Soviet and Russian authors and about 150 foreign works. The most of respondents' favorite books have authors, so the time of their creation can be determined. Among the works of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, two works by W. Shakespeare deserved the love of RUDN University’s students: “Romeo and Juliet” and “Twelfth Night”. Among the books written in the 18th century respondents noted the posthumous autobiography of B. Franklin. 19th century literature was closer to the students. Among the 16 books mentioned by the respondents and created in the first half of the century were the works of J. Austin, V. Hugo, J. Goethe, E.-A. Poe, A. Dumas, O. de Balzac, the Brontë family and even the book of A. Schopenhauer, as well as A. Griboedov, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol and I. Goncharov. The second half of the 19th century was marked by 25 works of Russian and foreign authors, including L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, N. Ostrovsky, I.

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Turgenev, V. Korolenko, S. Northup, C. Dickens, L Carroll, T. Reid, J. Verne, F. Nietzsche, G. de Maupassant, J.K. Jerome, O. Wilde, M. Corelli, B. Stoker. The RUDN University’s students aren’t stranger to the works created in the 20th century with such awareness of classical literature of the 19th century. However, if in the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century we observe notional “parity” of the influence of the work of Russian and foreign authors on the respondents, then starting from the second half of the last century the situation is changing. During this period, the thought leaders of modern students became: 20th century. 00s - J. London, A. Chekhov and L. Tolstoy, 20th century. 10s - T. Dreiser, J. London, A. Kuprin, A. Green, S. Yesenin, 20th century. 20s - F.S. Fitzgerald, F. Kafka, E. Zamyatin, M. Bulgakov, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, A. Belyaev, V. Nabokov, 20th century. 30s - A. Huxley, M. Mitchell, J. Amadou, F.S. Fitzgerald, N. Hill, J. Steinbeck, J.-P. Sartre, A. Ostrovsky, V. Kaverin, A. Volkov, 20th century. 40s - A. Rand, A. de Saint-Exupéry, J. Orwell, E. Ilyina, B. Pasternak, 20th century. 50s - R. Bradbury, J. Salinger, E.-M. Remarque, J.R.R. Tolkien, F. Sagan, S. Lem, A. Brushtein, M. Sholokhov, A. Solzhenitsyn, A. and B. Strugatsky, 20th century. 60s - D. Keyes, E. Burges, K. Kesey, J. Cortazar, C. Vonnegut, J. Susanne, G.G. Marquez, A. Haley, F. Dick, M. Puzeau, A. Charlier, B. Vasiliev, 20th century. 70s - R. Bach, Y. Pshimanovsky, H.S. Thompson, S. King, C. McCullough, C. Bukowski, E. Uspensky, S. Dovlatov, 20th century. The 80s - E. Tofler, M. Kundera, P. Süskind, I. Asimov, A. Sapkovsky, P. Coelho, K. Bulychev, 20th century. 90s - B. Ellis, I. Yalom, A.-M. Zelinko, C. Palahniuk, J.R. Martin, J. Rowling, F. Begbeder, A. Golden, R. Green, J. Belfort, J. Harris, P. Zherebtsova, P. Sanaev, V. Pelevin, B. Akunin, N. Perumov, V. Sinelnikov.

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The beginning of the 21st century was marked by a large number of authors whose books impressed contemporaries. N. Geiman, M. Levy, Y. L. Vishnevsky, D. Brown, D. Preston and L. Child, M. Stavrow, L. Weissberger, G.-D. Roberts, J. Pickout, D. Mitchell, J.S. Foer, J. Grogan, K. Ishiguro, E. Gilbert, R. Cloter, S. Mayer, D. Setterfield, O. Kenichi, H. Murakami, H. Hosseini, S. Collins, L. Jewell, M. Petrosyan, R. Sharma, D. Glukhovsky, L. Ulitskaya, V. Pozner, I. Urgant, E. Vodolazkin, Z. Prilepin and other authors created the resonant works that the respondents named among their favorite books. The most popular writer named by RUDN University’s students was J. Rowling with a cycle of 7 books about the boy who survived. E.M. Remarque is next in the list of authors of the most widely-read by the respondents. Russian students are well-versed in his books “The Black Obelisk”, “Spark of Life”, “A Time to Love and a Time to Die”, “Arch de Triumph”, “Heaven Has No Favorites” and “Three Comrades”. 4 authors at once are at the top three: L. Tolstoy, Strugatsky’s brothers and S. King. Among the favorite books of the respondents were 5 works by these writers. The Interviewees noted the books of L. Tolstoy as “Childhood. Boyhood. Youth”, “Resurrection”, “Anna Karenina”, “War and Peace”, “A Calendar of Wisdom”. The respondents remembered A. and B. Strugatsky for their works “Hard to Be a God”, “Monday Begins on Saturday”, “The Kid from Hell”, “Noon: 22nd Century” and “The Inhabited Island”. S. King was among the most widely read authors because of his famous works “Misery”, “The Dead Zone”, “Carrie”, “It” and “The Shinning”. Among the favorite books of the study participants are 4 works by F. Dostoyevsky (“Uncle's Dream”, “The Gambler”, “The Idiot”, “Crime and Punishment”) and M. Bulgakov (“Notes of a Country Doctor”, “The White Guard”, “Heart of a Dog”, “The Master and Margarita”), F.S. Fitzgerald (“The Last Tycoon”, “Tender is the Night”, “The Great Gatsby”) and R. Bradbury (“A Sound of Thunder”, “Dandelion Wine”, “The Martian Chronicles”, “Fahrenheit 451”).

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The most popular authors in terms of the number of votes are: 1. M. Bulgakov (26 answers), 2. L. Tolstoy (18 answers), 3. F. Dostoevsky (17 answers), 4. E.-M. Remarque (17 answers), 5. J. Rowling, R. Bradbury, G-D. Roberts (10 answers to each). At the same time, the Top 10 favorite books by the number of votes included: 1. “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov (22 answers), 2. “Crime and Punishment” by F. Dostoevsky (12 answers), 3. Series of novels by J. Rowling about Harry Potter (10 answers), 4. “The Picture of Dorian Gray” by O. Wilde (9 answers), 5. “Three comrades” E.-M. Remarque (9 answers), 6. "Shantaram" G.-D. Roberts (9 answers), 7. “Pride and Prejudice” by J. Austin (8 answers), 8. "1984" by J. Orwell (8 answers), 9. “Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy (8 answers), 10. “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy and “Me Before You” by J. Moyes (7 answers by each). Discussion The results obtained indicate that the students of IWEB RUDN University have a platform for successful cross-cultural communication. The knowledge of national and world literature, absorption in the contemporary art context, cultural and historical erudition are the foundations of a successful career and social interiorization in a multicultural environment. This is evidence that the stereotypes about the today’s youth don’t correspond to reality. The myth “modern children don’t read books” demonstrates their failure in relation to students of one of the leading universities in Russia. The respondents read books of various directions, genres and forms: from classics to autobiographies and science fiction, from saga novels to short stories. The potential of Russian literature as an instrument of soft power is far from exhausted. M. Bulgakov, L. Tolstoy, and F. Dostoevsky still delight readers and influence the formation of their worldview

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213 and value system. They remain the “mastermind” in Russia. The national works of the second half of the twentieth century found to be less relevant for representatives of generation Y or Z. But modern Russian literature and culture has all chance to regain lost ground and restore its influence on the world stage.

References Chernenko, E. 2013. From the position of “soft power”. Kommersant 6 (5037). URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/ doc/2105575 [Accessed March 12, 2020]. Fan, Y. 2008. Soft power: the power of attraction or confusion. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan Т. 2, № 4: 147-158. Gallarotti, G. 2010. The Power Curse: Influence and Illusion in World Politics, Boulder. Lynne Rienner Press, 207 pp. Mattern, J.B. 2007. Why Soft Power Is Not So Soft. In: Power in World Politics. Felix Berenskoetter, M. J. Williams, eds. Routledge, 328 pp. McClory, J. 2018. The Soft Power 30: A Global Ranking of Soft Power. Portland. URL: https://softpower30.com/wp-content/ uploads/2018/07/The-Soft-Power-30-Report-2018.pdf [Accessed July 18, 2018]. Nye, J.S. 2012. China's Soft Power Deficit To catch up, its politics must unleash the many talents of its civil society. The Wall Street Journal. URL: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702 304451104577389923098678842 [Accessed March 5, 2020]. Nye, J.S. 1990. Soft Power. Foreign Policy, v. 80, n. 153. URL: https://ru.scribd.com/document/355658823/Soft-Power-Nye- Foreign-Policy-1990 [Accessed March 5, 2020]. Gates, R.M. 2007. Secretary of Defense. Landon Lecture (Kansas State University). Manhattan, Kansas. URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20100801065608/http://www.defens e.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1199 [Accessed March 6, 2020].

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SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-215-223

REPRESENTATION OF RUSSIAN ANTHROPONYMS IN THE OXFORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WOMEN IN WORLD HISTORY

Elena A. Barsukova

Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Over several decades imagology has yielded a vast number of studies on the image of “the other”, or different countries and cultures foreign for the agent that explores them. The sources of such works are multiple: fiction, folklore, history, political studies data, etc. While almost all dictionaries, except for terminological ones, can be regarded as a treasury of cultural information, reference books are not among the thoroughly studied sources in imagology. Recently, however, a number of dictionaries and encyclopedias have been scrutinized with the objective to analyze the image of Russia, namely Russian precedent names in the Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture, the image of Russia in the Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, the concept “The War of 1812” in English and American encyclopaedias, and the image of Russia in the New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. The present paper focuses on the Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History issued in 2008 in four volumes. According to the Introduction to the encyclopedia, the edition covers the role

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215 women played throughout world history. It includes over 650 biographies of influential women and 600 articles on related concepts. The objective of the present research is to study the choice and presentation of the Russian female anthroponyms defined in the Encyclopedia. Special attention is also given to the character of the lexical items used within the selected entries. The study revealed 40 anthroponyms that belong to women of Russia, which makes up 6% of the whole body of biographies. They are mainly devoted to women who are characterized by an active stance on social issues, with a proportion of them being committed to the feminist cause. Statistically, the most represented groups are women’s rights activists, rulers and nobility members, and literary workers. The Encyclopedia presents a highly positive appraisal of lives and careers of the women under consideration while putting emphasis on some adverse conditions that they were forced to face in their lifetime in Russia. Keywords: Imagology, Russia, history of women, axiological vocabulary, image

Introduction Over several decades imagology has yielded a vast number of studies on the image of “the other”, or different countries and cultures foreign for the agent that explores them (Papilova E.V., 2011: 31). The sources of such works are multiple: fiction, folklore, history and political studies data, etc. While almost all dictionaries, except for terminological ones, can be regarded as a treasury of cultural information, reference books are not among the thoroughly studied sources in imagology. Recently, however, a number of dictionaries and encyclopedias have been scrutinized with the objective to analyze the image of Russia, namely Russian precedent names in the Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture (Marinina E. V., 2017), the image of Russia in the Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (Polubichenko L. V., 2010), the concept “The War of 1812” in English and American encyclopaedias of the 20th – early 21th century (Belgorodskaya L. V., 2012), and the

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216 image of Russia in the New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know (Barsukova E.A., 2019). The present paper focuses on the Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History issued in 2008 in four volumes. According to the Introduction to the encyclopedia, the edition covers the role women played throughout world history. It includes over 650 biographies of influential women and 600 articles on related concepts. Objectives/Purpose of the study The objective of the present research is to study the choice and presentation of the Russian female anthroponyms that are defined in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Special attention is given to the character of the axiological lexical items used within the selected entries. Methodology The methods involved in the study are comparative analysis, quantitative analysis, as well as semantic analysis of the lexical vocabulary under consideration. All items identified as Russian (e.g. Kovalevskaia, Sofia – pioneering Russian mathematician), Soviet (Mamontova, Tatyana – pioneering Soviet feminist) or Bolshevik (e.g. Kollontai, Alexandra – Bolshevik feminist) were considered. The selected anthroponyms were classified into several categories based on the status and occupation of their owners. The axiological vocabulary used in the definitions was differentiated according to its connotations. Result/Findings The study revealed 40 anthroponyms that belong to women of Russia, which makes up 6% of the whole body of biographies. These are women of various classes, occupations and political views, who represent different historical periods. It should be noted, that the women of the late 19th-early 20th century form the most represented group. In the course of classification of the material, the names were divided into the following groups according to the status and occupation of their owners. The most represented are the four groups: rulers and nobility; feminists or

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217 women’s rights activists; poets, writers or journalists; and artists. The body of the selected anthroponyms also includes revolutionaries, combat soldiers, a film director, a ballerina, a cosmonaut, a composer, a mathematician, and a sculptor. In certain cases the classification is relative since a number of women described in the edition were quite versatile, and could fit into several categories. For instance, Sofia Kovalevskaia was not only a pioneering mathematician, but also a writer and a social activist. Similarly, Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova apart from her instrumental role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to Russia is known as a memoirist. Vera Figner, being a revolutionary and human rights activist, is also described in the Encyclopedia as a memoirist and poet. It is evident that a certain proportion of the women under consideration had literary careers. To make the task of categorization feasible we relied on the first definition in the entry. Representation of Russian feminists or women’s rights activists in the Encyclopedia Russian feminists and women’s rights activists form the most represented group in the edition. The Encyclopedia presents biographies of 10 women’s rights activists (Armand, Inessa; Chekhova, Maria; Filosofova, Anna; Kollontai, Alexandra; Krupskaia, Nadezhda; Kuliscioff, Anna; Mamontova, Tatyana; Pokrovskaia, Maria; Stasova, Nadezhda; Trubnikova, Maria). It is worth mentioning that the scope of activity of the activists in question went far beyond feminism. Maria Pokrovskaia for instance was a physician, while Allexandra Kollontai is also described in the Encyclopedia as an author and diplomat. Maria Chekhova is defined as a Russian educator, while in the biography of Nadezhda Krupskaia we find that besides being the Bolshevik Party secretary and Vladimir Lenin’s wife, she was a founder of the Soviet educational system. This numerous group of feminists and women’s rights activists could be joined by another three names that belong to Russian revolutionaries (Figner, Vera; Perovskaia, Sofia; Spiridonova, Maria). Even though the first

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218 definition in their biographies is “a revolutionary”, they can be considered as social activists. Vera Figner, for instance, according to the Encyclopedia, was a human rights activist for political prisoners, memoirist and poet. Thus, the group makes up a third of the selected entries. Overall the biographies celebrate the contribution of the women in question to the social and historical change in Russia. The Encyclopedia presents “influential women who led important lives” (Oxford Encyclopedia, 2008: xix), and the choice of axiological vocabulary is in line with this message. The lexical items used in the biographies normally have positive connotations: e.g., Kollontai, Alexandra – a sensitive chronicler of the emotional struggles of women seeking to free themselves from patriarchy; Spiridonova Maria - an icon of the Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917; combined womanly virtue with the heroism of oppositional terrorism; a martyr-heroine of the Revolution; a national symbol of “oppressed, sick and desecrated Russia”; Perovskaia, Sofia - revered as a martyr to the cause, an icon exemplifying the purity and self-sacrifice inherent to the female revolutionary); Kovalevskaia, Sofia - a shining example of what women could achieve given the right circumstances. Representation of Russian rulers and nobility in the Encyclopedia The category of rulers, and members of nobility is represented with 8 names (Catherine II of Russia; Dashkova, Princess Ekaterina Romanovna; Elizabeth I of Russia; Glinskaia, Elena; Paleologue, Sofia; Panina, Countess Sofia; Sophia Alekseevna Romanova; Boretskaia, Marfa). The significance of the figures in question is enhanced with the help of axiological vocabulary that bears strong positive connotations. For example, the representation of Catherine II of Russia can be characterized as highly favourable (“rightly considered one of Russia’s greatest rulers, she ushered in a flowering of Russian culture and intellectual life”. Similarly, the contribution of Elena Glinskaia is portrayed in a positive light (“her administration introduced a uniform monetary system

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219 throughout Moscovy and laid the groundwork for local judicial reforms”). The Encyclopedia, for instance, also emphasizes the prominent role of Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova (“exemplified the Enlightenment ideal of the educated woman, was instrumental in bringing Enlightenment ideas to Russia”). Representation of Russian writers and poets in the Encyclopedia Russian literary tradition is represented in the Encyclopedia with the biographies of 8 writers and poets (Akhmatova, Anna; Bunina, Anna Petrovna; Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna; Gippius, Zinaida; Gurevich, Liubov; Mamontova, Tatyana; Tsvetaeva, Marina; Verbitskaia, Anastasia). Axiological vocabulary of high register is used in the biographies of Marina Tsvetaeva, (indisputably one of its [the early twentieth century] geniuses), Anastasia Verbitskaia (a one-woman publishing phenomenon; astounding success; enormous popularity), Zinaida Gippius (one of the leading figures of the Russian Symbolist movement). According to the Encyclopedia, some of the women who excelled at their literary careers were thoroughly involved in the feminist movement. For instance, the biography of Tatyana Mamontova defines her as “a pioneering Soviet feminist”, “the driving force behind the clandestine self-publication (samizdat) of […] Zhenshchina I Rossiia”. The defense of women’s rights is also emphasized in the entry on Liubov Gurevich (“focused her efforts on widening the role women could play in contemporary cultural politics; her ridicule of bourgeois morality in family matters”). Representation of Russian artists in the Encyclopedia Female artists of Russia are represented in the Encyclopedia with 5 names (Goncharova, Natalya; Popova, Liubov; Rozanova, Olga; Stepanova, Varvara; Udaltsova, Nadezhda). It should be noted, that all of them belong to a single artistic movement, avant-garde. The biographies praise the talent and creative output of the artists, as well as their constant striving to break out of conventional art: “the primary woman artist of twentieth century Russia, bold in both art and life” (Goncharova, Natalya); “pioneer in modern art; her art pointed to the future” (Rozanova, Olga); “exemplified the

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220 extraordinary prominence of women artists in Russia/influential career/ brilliant series” (Popova, Liubov); “one of the most vibrant of the twentieth century” (Stepanova, Varvara). The Encyclopedia emphasizes the fact they were prone to reject traditional feminine fashion: “her work was both indebted to and deviated from traditional feminine forms of artistic practice” (Popova, Liubov); “vehemently rejected fashion and the feminine craft traditions of textile production” (Stepanova, Varvara). Other biographies of women of Russia in the Encyclopedia Nine biographies do not fall into the categories described above. They belong to two women involved in the military: a combat soldier (Bochkareva, Maria) and a cavalry officer (Durova, Nadezhda). The Encyclopedia describes the life and accomplishments of a Russian ballerina (Pavlova, Anna). There is an entry on a Soviet cosmonaut, the first woman in space (Tereshkova, Valentina), and a sculptor (Mukhina, Vera). The edition pays tribute to composer Sofia Gubaidulina and film- director Kira Muratova by including their biographies. Moreover, there is an entry devoted to the pioneering Russian mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia. Since inclusion in the Encyclopedia implies recognition, the portrayal of the outstanding women is most favourable, moreover a proportion of biographies emphasize their contribution to the feminist cause: “a pioneering mathematician and feminist” (Sofia Kovalevskaia); “produced by a female sculptor and representing the woman as strong and dynamic, Mukhina’s monument [Worker and Collective Farmer] has sometimes been hailed as an assertion of women’s equality in Soviet society” (Mukhina, Vera); “a high-profile representative of Soviet women” (Tereshkova, Valentina). The portrayal of Russia in the biographies under consideration Quite naturally, the biographies put the outstanding women into historical and social context of their time, thus creating a certain image of the country they come from. We can find some descriptions of the Russian state in the entries under consideration: “a chaotic, poorly managed governmental apparatus”; “the

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221 neglected central administration; fledgling manufacturing industries” (Catherine II); “autocratic rule” (Chekhova, Maria); “Russia’s violation by the autocratic state” (Spiridonova, Maria). Since the major part of the biographies are devoted to social activists, the entries concentrate upon social problems of the country: “dissatisfied with her life of a social butterfly in Saint- Petersburg, her awareness was sharpened by summer sojourns on the estate of her despotic father-in-law, who kept a “harem” of peasant women”; “established an early shelter for battered and divorced women and their children” (Filosofova, Anna); “the unequal treatment of women encountering stereotypical assumptions about girls’ “empty-headedness” and inferiority” (Stasova, Nadezhda); “the appalling conditions in Soviet maternity wards” (Mamontova, Tatyana). The theme of state persecution is also omnipresent in the biographies: “she was subjected to two years of internal exile because of state persecution of her husband” (Mukhina, Vera); “at the height of Stalin’s purges, the atmosphere was oppressive”; “in the Soviet Union her work was banned until the 1980s” (Tcvetaeva, Marina); “persecution of rebellious peasants”; “beating and torture by police officials at the time of her arrest” (Spiridonova, Maria). Conclusion The analysis has demonstrated that the biographies of women who are identified as Russian in the Encyclopedia are rather scarce (6% of the biographical entries). They are mainly devoted to women with an active stance on social issues, with a proportion of them being committed to the feminist cause. Statistically, the most represented groups are women’s rights activists, rulers and nobility members, and literary workers. The Encyclopedia presents a highly positive appraisal of lives and careers of the women under consideration while putting emphasis on some adverse conditions that they were forced to face in their lifetime in Russia.

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References Barsukova, E.A. 2019. The image of Russia in the New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What every American needs to know. Current Issues in Modern Linguistics and Humanities: Proceedings of the 11th All-Russian Research and Methodological Conference with International Participation. Moscow, pp. 656-665. Belgorodskaya, L.V. 2012. The concept “The War of 1812” in English-language encyclopedias of the XX – early XXI centuries. Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 4 (20): 229-231. Marinina, E. V. 2017. Russian precedent names as an element of the English Linguistic Culture (on the material of Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture). Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta. Ser. 19. Lingvistika I mezhkulturnaya communikatsia 4: 41-52. Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. 2008. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Vol. 1-4, 2400 pp. Papilova, E.V. 2011. Imagology as a Humanitarian Discipline. Rhema 4: 31-40. Polubichenko, L.V. 2010. The image of Russia in the Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Ser. 19. Lingvistika I mezhkulturnaya communikatsia 1: 46-64.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-224-231

ETHNIC STEREOTYPES IN THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF THE MODERN IMAGES OF WAR AND PEACE (BY THE MATERIAL OF THE RUSSIAN, ENGLISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES)

Elena A. Golubenko

The 21st Research Testing Institute of Military Automotive Vehicles of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation Bronnitsy, Moscow region, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-3105-264Х

Abstract. In modern society, in the epoch of the globalization and escalation of the world, the social war and peace phenomena play an important role, since they occupy one of the main places in the life of any nation. Despite the fact that images of war and peace have been the objects of the research in a number of theses, they were not the objects of the comparative analysis of linguistic consciousness of the native Russian-, English- and Japanese- speaking people. Especially they were not the objects of the psycholinguistic experiment as ethnic stereotypes to identify the specifics of the three cultures in the aspect of civil and military society in the Russian Federation, Great Britain, the United States of America and Japan. The object of the study is the ethnic community as a carrier of national specific features and as a subject of interethnic dialogue of three different cultures – western, oriental and Eurasian. The main method of the research was comparative analysis. Along with this, the study used the method of free associative experiment, the method of directed associative experiment, method of subjective definition, method of “Semantic gestalt” (Yu. N.

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Karaulov), method of field stratification (I. A. Sternin, A. V. Rudakova), the method of statistical analysis. When analyzing the results of our study, we tried to identify a number of ethnic stereotypes that are particularly characteristics of each ethnic group separately, thus trying to draw preliminary conclusions about differences in the linguistic consciousness of the native Russian-, English- and Japanese-speaking people within the framework of understanding the two modern social war and peace phenomena. Thus, the study findings consist in the identification of the Russian, English and Japanese ethnic stereotypes about the two social war and peace phenomena, confirmed by the results of a psycholinguistic experiment. Keywords: ethnic stereotype, psycholinguistic experiment, ethnos, war, peace

Introduction Ethnic stereotypes summarize the social and historical experience of the nation; accumulate all the good and evil from the past. On the one hand, the ethnic stereotype is a kind of accumulator of the traditional experience, and on the other hand, it is an axiological standard. Many of the ethnic stereotypes date back to the times of the antiquity and folk epics. The ethnic stereotypes owe their origin to the national customs, traditions and mores. The ethnic stereotypes are stable behavioral patterns developed within a given linguistic and cultural area. The existence of the ethnic stereotypes occurs at the level of the everyday consciousness and determines the mode of behavior of the ethnic group as a collective personality. The ethnic stereotypes form a complex system of norms, assessments, positions and regulations that model the world of the ethnic group as a specific reality. The ethnic stereotypes are relatively stable, inaccurate, emotional and evaluative judgments about the system of the ethnic and cultural characteristics of particular people, the typical intellectual, moral, physical and spiritual qualities and properties that characterize this ethnic group.

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Object The object of the study is the ethnic community with the combination of the national and specific features; a subject of the interethnic dialogue of three different cultures. Purpose The purpose of the study is comparison of the ethnic stereotypes analyzed on the images of war and peace in the linguistic consciousness of the Russian, English and Japanese respondents from the two social groups – the civilians and military personnel. Methods The main method of the research was comparative analysis. Along with this, the study used the method of free associative experiment, method of directed associative experiment, method of subjective definition, method of “Semantic gestalt” (Yu. N. Karaulov), method of field stratification (I. A. Sternin, A. V. Rudakova) and method of statistical analysis. Discussion An ethnic stereotype is “a schematized image of one's own or someone else's ethnic community that reflects simplified knowledge (sometimes one-sided or inaccurate, distorted) about the psychological characteristics and behavior of the representatives of a particular ethnos and on the basis of which a stable and emotionally colored opinion about this or that ethnos is formed” (Krysko V.G., 2008: 71). V.G. Krysko notes that the social stereotype is generic in relation to the ethnic one. An ethnic stereotype is a collective image that reflects the ethnic characteristics of the ethnos. Based on his/her own experience, a person usually classifies the familiar things as “his/her own”, and the unfamiliar things – as “someone else’s”. The first, as a rule, receives a positive assessment, and the second receives a negative one. National attributes are evaluated with a “plus” sign, and everything foreign that goes beyond the familiar gets a negative rating (Krysko V.G., 2008: 71). V.P. Trusov and A.S. Filippov argue that ethnic stereotypes are generalized ideas about the different ethnic and cultural communities. These generalizations

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226 are characterized by increased emotional stability and do not always adequately reflect the real features of the object of stereotyping. The formation of stereotypes is based on the principle of saving cognitive resources for mastering a large amount of information, formulated by W. Lippman, as well as the desire to protect group values (Trusov V.P., Filippov A.S., 1984: 18). A.K. Baiburin rightly believes that ethnic stereotypes are inseparable from the public consciousness and self-consciousness of the ethnic group representatives. The mechanism of stereotyping allows not only to accumulate socially useful knowledge, but also to organize it in a certain way. “Storage, transmission and accumulation of social information involve its ordering and, secondly, the selection of the most significant fragments” (Baiburin A.K., 1985: 38). I.B. Hasanov concludes that an ethnic stereotype is a special case of implementing a social stereotype. The scientist believes that the ethnic stereotype is similar in nature to the social setting. Ethnic attitudes incorporate people’s judgments about the ethnic community to which they belong. Hasanov understands the ethnic stereotype as “a stable, schematic and emotionally colored opinion of a nation about another one or about itself” (Hasanov I.B., 1998: 199). Z.V. Sikevich believes that ethnic stereotypes act as an empirical indicator of the national character of a certain ethnic community. At the same time, an ethnic stereotype has a number of features: 1) reliability (the inconsistency of the stereotype depending on sympathy or antipathy that one can feel towards another people); 2) projection (individual psychological characteristics that one can find in new expressions or non-standard situations); 3) reverse influence (the ability of a positive stereotype to provoke a negative one when comparing two ethnic groups); 4) the property of positive stereotyping (Sikevich Z.V., 1999: 180). According to A.P. Sadokhin, the content of an ethnic stereotype reflects a fragment of the worldview and exists in the human mind.

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The ethnic stereotype is a mentally rigid (due to the ethnic and cultural peculiarities) understanding of the subject or situation. The scientist believes that ethnic stereotypes are often primitive, is a product of ordinary consciousness. It often results in assigning a “label” to the object of stereotyping. The content of stereotypes is determined by a group of factors such as: 1) specificity of the stereotyped group (social and cultural features of this ethnic community); 2) social, political and economic conditions for the development of a particular ethnic group; 3) duration and depth of historical contacts with other ethnic groups (Sadokhin A.P., 2006: 191). Linguistic perspective for understanding the nature of the ethnic stereotypes, according to L.P. Krysin, consists of two stages. The first stage is aimed at identifying the characteristic of intellectual, psychological, anthropological and other features of a particular ethnic community. At the same time, the criteria of frequency, mass character and temporal resistance serve as conditions for crystallization and cementing of stereotypes of everyday consciousness. The second stage involves the analysis of the linguistic units that can be interpreted as linguistic tools and speech forms of ethnic stereotypes explication (Krysin L.P., 2002: 171- 172). Results As a result of our psycholinguistic research of the modern images of war and peace, we were able to identify the most striking ethnic stereotypes of the native Russian-, English- and Japanese-speaking respondents. The Russian linguistic consciousness is characterized by the following stereotypes: 1) the perception of war as part of the history of the country; 2) predisposition to decisive actions, a sense of danger, aggression; 3) the need to protect their homeland on their land from the encroachments of enemies; 4) the militarized nature of the Russian linguistic consciousness;

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5) the idea of armed conflict as violent death and destruction of the enemy; 6) the ineradicable collective memory of Russians about wars with those ethnic groups that did not capture the defeated, but destroyed them. The English linguistic consciousness is characterized by the following ethnic stereotypes: 1) perception of war as a means of solving global problems in the sphere of maintaining peace and tranquility on the planet; 2) identifying war with the idea of success and effectiveness of combat operations; 3) conducting armed actions on the territory of other countries to protect their interests; 4) rejection of the ethics of war; 5) the idea of competition; 6) the collective memory of the Englishmen goes back to the medieval code of chivalry. The Japanese linguistic consciousness is characterized by the following ethnic stereotypes: 1) the perception of war as a way to maintain state sovereignty and resolve international disputes; 2) development of the national security concept with the right to “collective self-defense”; 3) conducting the fight against international terrorism in order to solve their own problems in the field of national security; 4) focusing on the independence of the nation; 5) the idea of protecting the state; 6) the collective memory of the Japanese people represents “defensive nationalism” and protective patriotism. As it turned out, the native Russian-, English- and Japanese- speaking respondents have a similar understanding of the social phenomena of war and peace. At the same time, both in the minds of the civilian people and among persons directly related to the war (military personnel), they are clearly divided as absolute opposites. All respondents distinguish these images as something extremely

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229 negative (war) and positive (peace). This proves their rejection of war and their desire for peace. Conclusion Thus, the identified stereotypes for images of war and peace directly depend on the level of development of the respondents’ linguistic sense. The psycholinguistic experiment allows you to “get” into the linguistic consciousness of native speakers and is one of the best ways to solve this matter. Analysis of the experiment results with their subsequent interpretation helps to determine the respondents’ real understanding of the social war and peace phenomena. The psycholinguistic experiment occupies a special place among other methods of reconstruction of linguistic consciousness, since the researcher can get to the verbal memory and thinking of a certain ethnic group as close as possible. Besides, the results obtained during the study of images of war and peace as two interrelated social phenomena can help in anticipating tensions in the world and balancing international relations that help to strengthen the unity of the multinational world. The analysis of the revealed ethnic stereotypes shows that the characteristics of the armed conflict and the attitude to peacetime in the three compared ethnic groups are almost identical. However, there are also differences. In the Russian linguistic consciousness, war is perceived as violent death and deprivation of life. In the English linguistic consciousness it is perceived as a contest, dispute or struggle of the strongest. In the Japanese mind war is an absolute rejection of any kind of cruelty that results in armed conflict or fight. All respondents are unanimous in their opinion, associating the image of peace with harmony between people and the fact that there is no war as such, i.e. the correct way of life, the prevalence of positive emotions and compliance with the system of values adopted in a particular culture and satisfaction with life. In addition, we found that the linguistic consciousness of the civilians and military personnel in the Russian, English and

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Japanese languages has a number of distinctive features. First and foremost, the military and civilian respondents have unique cultural and social experiences that are influenced by social and living conditions, service hierarchy, military service procedures and legal status. Secondly, the linguistic consciousness of the military and civilian respondents is based on a set of concepts that are individual for each social group. Thirdly, in comparison with the military respondents, the linguistic consciousness of civilian respondents is not subject to such drastic changes, since the study of linguistic consciousness is strongly linked to the linguistic worldview, reflecting national and specific features of thinking and its relationship with the surrounding reality. Representatives of certain cultural environment often share common perspectives of the worldview. This cultural interpenetration is manifested in social identity and understanding of the surrounding world and all social phenomena associated with it from a certain angle.

References Baiburin, A.K. 1985. Ethnic aspects of the study of stereotyped behaviors and traditional culture. Soviet Ethnography (2): 36–46. Hasanov, I.B., 1998. National stereotypes and the “image of the enemy”. In: Y.L. Chernyavskaya (Ed.), Psychology of ethnic intolerance. Harvest, Minsk, pp. 196-218. Krysin, L.P. 2002. Linguistic aspect of studying ethnic stereotypes (problem statement). Meetings of ethnic cultures in the mirror of language: (in a comparative linguocultural aspect). Research Council for the history of world culture (1): 171– 175. Krysko, V.G. 2008. Ethnic psychology. Academy, Moscow, 320 pp. Sadokhin, A.P. 2006. Ethnology. Gardariki, Moscow, 287 pp. Sikevich, Z.V. 1999. Sociology and psychology of national relations. Mikhailova V.A., St. Petersburg, 203 pp. Trusov, V.P., Filipov, A.S. 1984. Ethnic stereotypes. Ethnic psychology: ethnic processes and people’s way of life (1): 3 – 21.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-232-244

LINGUISTIC BASIS OF USING CREOLIZED TEXTS IN EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Svetlana V. Pervukhina1, Oksana A. Evtouchenko2, Liliia Iu. Kotliarenko3, Mikhail P. Churikov4

1Don State Technical University Rostov-on-Don, Russia 2Volgograd State Technical University Volgograd, Russia 4Rostov State Transport University 3٫ Rostov-on-Don, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-5475-8384 2e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-6280-4731 3e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-7321-4788 4 e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-7775-8731

Abstract. Language teaching can surely benefit from a theory of creolized texts. A creolized text is a text combining verbal and non- verbal information. It was broadly studied on the material of caricatures, cartoons, comics, and advertisements. Yet, their research in teaching materials can make a noticeable contribution to the theory of creolized texts. Reliance on mass media impacts the principle ways of how people receive information from the world. Non-verbal channels have grown to be more extensively used, forcing out verbal channels. People tend to prefer watching films and listing news lines of social nets to reading books or full-length articles in newspapers. The information around us has shown a tendency to change its format – from verbal to a non-verbal form. From a linguistic point of view, we see in it a tendency to exploit a different means of information

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232 representation – an image instead of a word. It shows syntactic characteristics of a sign. Meanwhile, switching to a new syntactic system leads to peculiarities of producing and receiving information. We used semiotic methodology in this research using a syntactic nature of a sign. Perceiving and exchanging information occurs through creolized texts in different social spheres. We see a profound uninvestigated potential of usage of such texts in the language-learning classroom. Here we describe some theoretical basis for exploiting creolized texts in a foreign language classroom. Our research aims at studying the functions of a creolized text that can be used in a language classroom: visualization, sense production, emotional impact, text compression, providing social background. The visualization consists in using the photo or the picture in a creolized text. Every time we deal with the picture, we refer to the first signal system, so all conceptual information can be brought to the mind. The leading role may be played by a verbal part; in that case the non-verbal part of the text performs emotive, illustrative, and attractive functions. Yet, there are some cases when the non-verbal part plays a leading role; it visualizes a part of reality, serves for sense production on the one hand, and text compression on the other hand. Keywords: Creolized texts, clip mentality, semiotics, non-verbal and verbal communication

Introduction Language teaching can surely benefit from innovative linguistic approaches. One of them is a theory of creolized texts. A creolized text is known as a text combining verbal and non-verbal (visual and audial) information. It was broadly studied on the material of caricatures, cartoons, comics, and advertisements. Actually, with the development and extensive use of the Internet, creolized texts (CTs) have become the most widely-spread texts in the mass media, as some researchers highlight (Platonova Iu., Tarasova E., Golubinskaya A., 2015; Vashunina I., Matveev M., Tarasov E.,

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2018). We can make a hypothesis that reliance on mass media impacts the principle ways of how people receive information from the world. Non-verbal channels have grown to be more extensively used, forcing out verbal channels. People tend to prefer watching films and listing news lines of social nets to reading books or full- length articles in newspapers. The information around us has shown a tendency to change its format – from verbal to a non- verbal form. We see in it a tendency to exploit a different means of information representation – an image instead of a word. It shows syntactic characteristics of a sign, in terms of Peirce’s theory (Peirce C.S., 1977). Meanwhile, switching to a new syntactic system leads to peculiarities of producing and receiving information. This tendency is worth considering in educational environment. Purpose of the study We aimed at investigating the functions and characteristic features of creolized texts to show the basis of “clipped mentality”. Clipped mentality is understood as consuming visual information much better than verbal text. It leads to less motivation to read texts rather than watching visuals. We propose specific methodology of text transformation to be used in the classroom to avoid this syndrome. Methodology Functions of a creolized text Perceiving and exchanging information occurs through CTs in different social spheres. Some spheres are impossible to imagine without CTs (biology, medicine, physics, etc.). In some spheres, CTs can be a useful advantage (literature, languages, etc.).The process of deciphering of a CT consists of “stacking” image information and verbal information, and creating a new meaning out of these sources (Gladkaya N.V., 2017: 426). Besides, CTs provide necessary context for triggering communication in class (Verbickij A., 1991). Storytelling is of paramount importance in mastering a foreign language as well as mentality development (Chiu S., Koong C.-S., & Fan S.-H., 2012).

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We see a profound uninvestigated potential of usage of such texts in the language-learning classroom. This potential is based on the syntactic qualities of a sign and Pierce’s triadic model (Pierce C.S., 1977), and the possibility to replace verbal information with non- verbal in certain contexts. Such replacement may pursue different goals which are discussed below. Here we will describe some theoretical basis for exploiting creolized texts in a foreign language classroom. The CTs have the following functions: visualization, sense production, emotional impact, text compression, providing social background. The visualization consists in using the photo or the picture as a kind of an imprint from the real world. Every time we deal with the picture, we refer to the first signal system, so all conceptual information can be brought to the mind. Besides, this part of the world image provides a necessary context for the information comprehension, perception, and interpretation. Originally, the word ‘context’ was used in linguistics, but it can be applied to the educational situation and finding meanings of visuals at the lesson. Moreover, the visualization of a situation can lead to activating knowledge about social behavior in this situation, its antecedents and consequences (Verbitskij, 1991: 33-34). This feature is widely used while involving videos in class (Bajrami L. & Ismaili M., 2016), nevertheless, carefully sorted pictures can play the same role. Referring to the first signal system in this case is vital for providing both cognitive and social information, which will be discussed later. Let us illustrate this thesis with an example on Fig. 1.

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Figure 1 On Fig. 1 there is a photo of changing the guard, the British specific tradition. The photo shows the solders’ form and swords. It is something that should be seen and not described to provide the correct image in mentality. The verbal part of this CT explains what is happening in the picture. Still, the second signal system is important to supplement the visual image. Second, sense production. The first signal system provokes personal experience, connected with it. In some visuals, the non-verbal component may show contradiction with the verbal part, as in Fig. 2. It is an illustration of Uriah Heep from a story “David Copperfield” by Ch. Dickens. This CT (its both components) depicts the hypocrisy of Uriah’s nature. The true nature of this character is well-revealed by the artist: a grasping grin, sharp features, predatory teeth disagree strongly with his self-description “humble” in the verbal part of the CT. Moreover, the non-verbal part of the CT in the graded reader substitutes a rather long part of the original story describing this character.

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Figure 2 Third, emotional impact. Coognitive and emotive information go hand in hand together. Even in exchanging messages people tend to use emoji to accentuate their emotions (Sampietro A., 2019). The style of a picture can trigger either positive or negative emotions of the reader. The way the artist highlights different aspects of the situation and people in the picture can express the artist’s emotions. Let us see the emotional impact of the CT on Fig.3. It clearly shows emotions of the characters of the story – Angus McAlister, the gardener, and its employer. “Non-verbal signs of emotional communication … are also ethnically and culturally specific” (Larina T.V., 2015: 148), so CTs communicate extremely important information through their non-verbal part.

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Figure 3. Some exaggerated features (wry smiles, unkempt hair, a creased hat) show climax of emotions, followed after the characters’ heated discussion. Fourth, text compression. Importance of visuals and CTs in professional and literature texts has already been discussed in (Petan A. S., Petan L., & Vasiu R., 2014; Aslan C., 2010). Taking into consideration the ability of a visual to transfer coognitive and emotive information perceived through a personal experience, we can judge about activating quite a large amount of information. It is streamlined by a verbal part of a creolized text. The best example of text compression is graphs and tables. They provide information in a systemized way. Talking on the scheme or a graph is used in IELTS exams. Actually, it can also be used for illustrating a specific technical topic in a SPE class.

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Figure 4 Fig. 4. represents a scheme of constructing a tap. The verbal part of this CT gives the necessary vocabulary for parts of a tap and a tool for fixing. With the knowledge of verbs, the students can describe the process shown in this picture. The same function can be performed by a series of pictures (cartoons).

Figure 5 Fig. 5 provides a graph, where data is compared. It is abstract information that can be amplified into a rather long speech. Fifth, providing social background. Our factual material shows that different types of creolized texts have solid social background that can be linguistically analyzed and used in a foreign language classroom. A little bit earlier we talked about importance of using

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239 context for visualization. There is another important point to be mentioned. The verbal part performs another context to direct and limit the meaning origination. In Fig.6 you can see an illustration to a graded reader ‘Love story’, actually written on the basis of a scenario to the same-named film. The film came first, it was extremely popular. No wonder it became the basis for a book, and then for a graded reader. This text illustration is a shot from the film, a very tense moment, when Oliver, a self-reliant and assertive young man, having cast away his pride, comes to his father to ask for money for his wife who is dying from cancer. This scene is a mile-stone in father-son relations in the story. Actually, the scene can trigger a heated discussion basing on the events from the book or from the knowledge of the film. It can give ground for different opinions on the situation: from the father’s side and from the son’s side.

Figure 6 If the readers do not know the story, and just rely on their experience, this CT may become a ground for a discussion, exchanging opinions, guesses about what might be happening.

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To sum it up, CTs are of great importance in language learning classes with students of humanitarian and technical specialities, they can be used for cross cultural studies as well. Communication is an essential part of education in general, so student oriented textbooks contribute to the success and results significantly. CTs make course books more student-friendly in both linguistic and non-linguistic spheres. Using the potential of a creolized text Now it is impossible to communicate information in mass media without creolized texts. It is very natural to focus the attention on the image rather than the text. The tasks targeted at the verbalization can help develop the ability of verbal communication. The pragmatics of the images allows discussing the image itself, the emotions those are aroused by it, the perspectives of developing the situation. Results Our material shows that both parts of a CT play equally important roles in sense production. The leading role may be played by a verbal part; in that case the non-verbal part of the text performs emotive, illustrative, and attractive functions. Yet, there are some cases when the non-verbal part plays a leading role; it visualizes a part of reality, serves for sense production on the one hand, and text compression on the other hand. CTs can be used for teaching all skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening (in case of audio component in its part). CTs are a starting point of teaching speaking. Though images are widely used for this purpose, and their usage has been carefully discussed in (Harmer J. et al., 2007), creolized texts still present something more than just a picture. Its verbal part performs a directive function in provoking thoughts and ideas to be described. In graded readers, adapted for learners of different levels, the verbal part of a cartoon can be a citation of a book, referring to a definite part/episode of a story. The non-verbal part, in its turn, gives an emotional impulse for discussion.

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Creolized texts make course books more student-friendly in both linguistic and non-linguistic spheres. Here are some examples of creolized texts in non-linguistic courses. A language system has got enough notions and words to describe the world. But detailed elaboration bears a very personal character. This feature can be vastly exploited in the language-learning classroom. Actually, students can write a verbal part for a picture themselves, explaining why they have described this picture in this way. CTs is a fruitful source for a mixed-abilities class, for their understanding does not depend on the student’s language abilities, they can be a starting point for speaking and writing tasks. Ability to express one’s point of view can provide ground for ecological upbringing of students (Peng J.-E., 2019). Moreover, such tasks may help develop creativity (Doron E., 2017). Discussion The above-said shows that the shift to expressing ideas through images reflect a syntactic nature of a sign. The information can be represented by words, pictures, formulas, etc., according to specific nature of a sphere of sciences. In linguistics, expressing thoughts and ideas verbally is of paramount importance. The tendency of using non-verbal means of expressing thoughts and ideas is absolutely evident. In our opinion it can lead towards some undesirable consequences. As a result, people acquire what is called ‘clip mentality’. Exploiting words, enlarging students’ thesaurus leads to expressing more sophisticated ideas, which can be expressed only by words. More than that, language is connected with thinking. Reading sophisticated ideas and expressing them with their own words favours development of mentality. This is the reason why the tasks for analyzing CTs, reading and writing about CTs are of paramount importance in educational environment.

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References Aslan, C. 2010. An analysis of Turkish and French literature textbooks’ outer structure and visual elements. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 880–889. Bajrami, L., & Ismaili, M. 2016. The Role of Video Materials in EFL Classrooms. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232: 502–506. Chiu, S., Koong, C.-S., & Fan, S.-H. 2012. Icon Design Principles for Preschoolers: Implications Derived from Child Development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 64, 228–237. Doron, E. 2017. Fostering creativity in school aged children through perspective taking and visual media based short term intervention program. Thinking Skills and Creativity 23: 150–160. Gladkaya, N.V. 2017. Logoepistems in Creolised Texts of Internet Discourse. Vestnik RUDN. Linguistics 21 (2): 424-437. Harmer, J. 2007. How to teach English. Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, 288 pp. Larina, T.V. 2015. Pragmatics of Emotions in Intercultural Context. Vestnik RUDN. Linguistics. 1: 144-163. Peirce, C.S. 1977. Semiotics and Significs. Ed. Charles Hardwick. Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana, 201 pp. Peng, J.-E. 2019. Understanding willingness to communicate as embedded in classroom multimodal affordances: Evidence from interdisciplinary perspectives. Linguistics and Education 51: 59– 68. Petan, A. S., Petan, L., & Vasiu, R. 2014. Interactive Video in Knowledge Management: Implications for Organizational Leadership. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 124, 478– 485. Platonova, Iu., Tarasova, E., Golubinskaya, A. 2015. Creolized Text as a Form of Modern Educational Discourse. Worldwide trends in the development of education and academic research, 15- 18 June 2015. In Proceedings – Social and Behavioral Sciences 214: 788-796.

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Sampietro, A. 2019. Emoji and rapport management in Spanish WhatsApp chats. Journal of Pragmatics, 143: 109–120. Vashunina, I.V., Matveev, M.O., Tarasov, E.F. 2018. Impact of creolized text on its significant perception. Journal of Psycholinguistics. 4 (38): 34-53. Verbickij, A.A. 1991. Aktivnoe obuchenie v vysshej shkole: kontekstnyj podhod. [Active teaching at higher school: contextual approach]. Vysshaya shkola, Moscow, 207 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-245-252

URBANISTIC ASPECT OF EXTENDED FAMILY COMMUNICATION IN MODERN INDIA (EVIDENCE FROM CONTEMPORARY HINDI PROSE)

Anna Chelnokova1, Ekaterina Kostina2

2Saint-Petersburg State University 1٫ Saint-Petersburg, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-3077-6382 2e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Fast changes in people’s everyday life lead to particular difficulties in communication, both on personal and social level. These problems can be clearly traced at the extremely opposite points of urbanization process, i.e. in the cities and in the country. After coming from the village to the city or back to the village (weather for a short period or to stay forever), members of traditional extended families experience serious changes in their private and group psychology: the hierarchical order of the family itself should be reconsidered and traditional roles within the family are also often subject to change. These self-identification crises appear to be manifested clearly on the communicative level. Based on several modern Hindi stories by Phanishwarnath Renu, Bhishma Sahni, Krishna Sobti, Chitra Mudgal and other contemporary writers, the authors of the paper consider the basic linguistic aspects of communication, e.g. pronominal and verbal systems of politeness, particular cases of subordination shift, various models of addressing each other (patronyms, appellatives etc.), as they reflect a shift in traditional social roles of members of a traditional Indian extended family undergoing the process of urbanization. As it is shown in the paper, the context, in which such shifts can be traced in the most clear and consistent way, is usually based on

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245 the manifestation of chronotopos and typical motives related to it (e.g. home, road, moving) in the texts, among which the village- and city-chronotopos appear to be the most common and significant. The authors consider both content and expression planes and apply the method of linguistic description on the basis of continuous sampling and contextual analysis, discussing not only the linguistic form but also the suprasegmental characteristics of every communicative act and when possible trying to come even to psycholinguistic conclusions. Following the literary material by different writers, the authors of the paper examine and classify the most vivid examples, analyze their nature both from the linguistic and the social points of view and finally draw conclusions about the features of the hierarchical relations between the participants of communication. Keywords: communication theories, extended family, Hindi pronouns, subordination system, politeness shift, modes of address

Introduction This paper presents an attempt to analyze the main strategies and particular aspects of communication between extended family members in modern reality. The main focus is made on the situations when serious changes both in life and psychology appear because of moving from a village to a city and back. Huge urbanization taking place in India nowadays proved to be a “bloodless revolution” causing crucial changes in social structure of large and inhomogeneous Indian society. Objectives / Purpose of the study Our main objectives are typical cases of communication between the members of a traditional Indian family experiencing urbanization in modern India as shown in contemporary Hindi prose. The purpose of the study is to formulate the main characteristics and issues of the urbanization process and classify the most vivid examples (linguistically and socially) using the literary material.

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The goals are to show and evidentiate the difference between the city language and the country language and to trace the lexical and grammatical features of communication between the extended family members in this context. Methodology As the research is mostly focused on the reflection of sociolinguistic category of pronominal and verbal politeness and the shift between the forms of different degrees of respect, both linguistical and sociological methods were involved. Among the linguistical methods, one should mention the linguistic description on the basis of continuous sampling and contextual analysis, the application of which allows to take into consideration not only the linguistic form but also the suprasegmental characteristics of every communicative act. Discussing communication matters we also applied theorizes and practical methods developed within the frames of the Family System Theory, Role Theory and Rule Theory of Communication (Beth A.L.P., 2006). Since work with the literary material requires special treatment of the text, which must always take into consideration its fictional nature, some methods of literary studies – mostly narratological analysis and the chronotopos conception by Mikhail Bakhtin - were also applied when necessary. The subheadings of the paper are: Traditional extended family in modern urbanizing India. An overview of the literary material used. Degrees of subordination and models of address in modern Hindi. Communication theory and the methods of its application. Examination of the degrees of politeness and forms of address used by husbands and wives in the context of urbanization: masculine perspective. Examination of the degrees of politeness and forms of address used by husbands and wives in the context of urbanization: feminine perspective.

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Results / Findings The linguistic materials analyzed in general prove to demonstrate the gradual corruption of the traditional, hierarchic family system in modern urbanizing world. The lexical and grammatical features of communication between a husband and a wife are rather strictly controlled by the traditions and religious beliefs, but at the same time are always subject to modifications arising from the exact family relations. The main reason for it is that the spouses are usually of approximately the same age and occupy the same position in the social hierarchy; still their roles cannot be called symmetrical as the wife is traditionally considered inferior to the husband. It is especially obvious from the examples of the shifts in politeness degree which appear to be not homogeneous in village / city and feminine / masculine perspectives. The shifts mark the gap between etiquette situations when traditional norms are usually followed and day-to-day communication which appear to be much neutral. In general the villagers and women show less modernity in their language but at the same time, playing the role of recipients, they passively experience the widest range of changes. To sum up, we shall point out that any such shift marks the flexibility of traditional family roles in modern times which indicates the move from functional hierarchical communication to personal context-restricted communication. A binaural opposition “village-city” in majority of cases appears to be the global context for the changes analyzed. Discussion (1) In India, the difference between the city language and the country language is well perceived by the speakers themselves, who may easily shift between the idioms under certain conditions. The villagers usually speak a regional dialect and use the forms of neutral or intimate degree of politeness. (2) Despite the fact that grammar reference books usually prescribe usage of honorific āp for a wife addressing her husband with neutral tum or even impolite or intimate tū in return (see Jain Dh.

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K., 1969: 93), the literary examples clearly demonstrate that irrespectively of the place of habitat, age or the social background, the most frequent are the neutral forms of politeness, where both the husband and the wife address each other with tum. On the other hand, the switch from a familiar to the honorific form may hint at the change in a girl’s perception of her friend as the future husband, as it was wittily used to the best effect in a Bollywood movie Band Baaja Baraat. Usage of the lower degree by the husband in a city family denotes occasional burst of feelings (either romantic or negative). However, in the country husbands may prefer the intimate/impolite tū as the unmarked form of address. The usage of the intimate/impolite tū is almost impossible for a woman addressing her husband even when she is angry with him. Under such conditions, the honorific forms become the only way for a woman to express the change of her attitude towards her husband (Chelnokova A.V., Kostina E.A., 2018: 291-292). Although the āp forms are not typical for villagers, examples of a wife regularly addressing her husband with āp can be found in literary sources. This usually marks a great respect and difference in position between the members of the couple. In the story “The last night” by Kashinath Singh, a woman from the country willing to observe all traditions and customs, but married to a city man, addresses him with āp. In return, he usually uses tum (Kumar S., 2014: 85). However, the author leaves a hint that the members of this family do not occupy totally different places in the hierarchy as the man refers to his wife using the honorific plural forms of the 3rd person. In a city family, regular usage of āp by the wife usually denotes the distance between the spouses rather than extra respect or subordination. This distance may be due to the unfamiliarity (a newly-wed couple), disparity of years (e.g. “The nine years younger wife” by Ravindra Kaliya) or estrangement: thus in a separated city couple from the story “One more life” by Mohan Rakesh, we see the wife (who is more willing to retain the distance)

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249 using āp-forms and the husband using tum-forms (Kumar S., 2014: 23). (3) A woman is not supposed to address her husband either by name or by any of the multiple words with the meaning of “husband”. Thus each and every woman develops her own strategy in addressing her spouse. These strategies form a kind of a hierarchy from the most conservative to the most liberal ones. 1. No appellative at all; the most traditionally-oriented women address their husbands with the help of the 2nd person Imperative usually followed by the honorific particle jī or by a formula “Do you listen?” 2. “The father of my children / my son” or “The father of (child’s, mostly male, name)”. 3. Using appellative “Sir” (sāhab) (Kumar S., 2014: 89). 4. With the use of home nick-names having no phonetic resemblance with the full name (Misra K.S., 1977: 48), like Balamu for Tirbeni (Kumar S., 2014: 117), the most common of which is “(my) king” (rājā) or “(my) great king” (mahārājā). It may be also connected with Hindu wedding ceremony, when a groom plays the role of a king. The use of such names can be traced only in the day-to-day communication; such appellatives can never be used in any official or etiquette situation. They indicate either intimate or sarcastic mode of communication. In city families not only women – who usually do so following traditional prejudice that every time she calls her husband’s name she drinks out his life strength – but also husbands do not often address their wives by name but they do it for different reasons. In fact they are allowed to do so by the tradition but they use this privilege mostly in the day-to-day communication, as in Dhirendra Asthana’s story “Pita” (Sharma R., 2014: 106), and avoid calling their wives by their first names in an etiquette or ritual context. Different nature of avoiding the use of first names in the cases of husbands and wives is precisely described in the story “Sanatan Babu’s couple” by Kunal Singh: “A wife should be silent. She has no name. A wife should be addressed just as a “wife”. Wives may

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250 have different names – Bela, Pushpa, Putul, Parul, Sarla, Champa, Jinuk, Jumpa and others. The whole world of women’s names. But in our world men do not know these names. A woman doesn’t call her husband’s name because she respects him. Such silence do speak really much. Sometimes a wife telling another woman about her husband uses “my sir” or “my lord” and they both smile. One should always remember this” (Kumar S., 2014: 169-170). The widest spectrum of forms of address is used by the main character Mitro for her husband Sardari Lal in the story “To hell with you, Mitro!” by Krishna Sobti. Occasionally she even uses his first name (mostly its second part “lāl” meaning “baby”) but always does it together with the honorific particle “jī”, showing traditional esteem for her husband. However the most common appellative she uses both to express irony or affection is mahārājā. From time to time, for the same purpose, she invents new poetic names, e.g. harman maulā - “the lord of all hearts”; ḍholjānī -”my dear drummer” (ḍhol is a little drum playing a special role in the wedding ceremony); mohane rā̃jhan - “charming beloved”, chaunā-maunā - “little calf” (Sobti K., 2017: 1904, 1773, 1801, 1809). No other women in the stories examined use the appellatives of this kind to address their husbands. Addressing his wife, a man can also avoid her name or any other form of address in favor of “Listen” or constructions like “Mother of my children” (in traditional village families). In general, husbands appear to be less inventive in the ways they address their wives. At the same time they use more often the subordination shift in the second person forms.

References Beth, A. L. P. 2006. Family Communication: Nurturing and Control in a Changing World. SAGE, Santa Barbara (California University), 368 pp. Jain, Dh. K. 2019. Verbalization of Respect in Hindi. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30029211?seq=1#page_scan_tab_con tents [Accessed February 29, 2019].

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Kumar, S. (ed.). 2014. Kahaniyan Rishton Ki: Dampatya. Rajkamal Prakashan, Dilli, 176 pp. Misra, K.S. 1977. Terms of Address and Second Person Pronominal Usage in Hindi. A sociolinguistic study. Series in Indian languages and linguistics VIII. Bahri Publication, New Delhi, 74 pр. Sharma, R. (ed.). 2014. Kahaniyan Rishton Ki: Pita. Rajkamal Prakashan, Dilli, 143 pp. Sobti, K. 2017. Mitro marjānī. Kindle Edition. Rajkamal Prakashan, 1911 pp. Chelnokova, A.V., Kostina E.A. 2018b. Linguistic Aspect of Family Communication in a Changing World (A Case Study of Hindi Short Story “To Hell with You, Mitro!” by Krishna Sobti). Functional Aspects of Cross-Cultural Communication and Translation Problems: 279-297.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-253-260

NEGATIVE SOCIALISATION VIA THE MEANS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSE BOOKS

Inna V. Kharlamenko

Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-0340-7311

Abstract. The article is devoted to negative socialisation effects in the process of learning English as a foreign language. Socialisation is a process of personality formation in a certain social environment, as well as getting life experience, assimilation of norms, values, and rules of behaviour. Education is one of the most powerful tools of socialisation, which is why authors of textbooks and teachers should be extremely careful when choosing the content of the teaching materials. Teaching materials can carry neutral, positive and negative socialisation effects. Negative socialisation comes out in socially unacceptable modes of behavior both in aggressive actions to the person himself/herself and to the environment and society around. Negative models can easily be accepted by the young generation, especially in case they are demonstrated in school course books. Foreign language textbooks should be designed on the basis of a range of methodological principles including the principle of cultural value. Topics of murder, theft, defamation, suicide and leaving people in danger are seen as methodologically wrong as they can lead to negative socialisation effects. Examples of tasks published in some foreign language textbooks, which potentially lead to negative socialisation, are demonstrated. Such books do not have to be approved by the Ministry of Education in Russia for the usage at schools in the role of the main educational source. Nevertheless,

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253 they can be chosen by teachers as additional materials at school or as the main course books in terms of vocational education. The cases presented are seen by the author of the article as dangerous due to the fact many young people in Russia tend to consider the lifestyle of some European countries more preferable than the one in their own country. Thus, the young reader is more vulnerable to the influence of content of learning materials published by foreign publishing houses. The lack of educational potential can have a devastating effect on the young generation. The author recommends to carefully analyse the content of the course book by the teacher before using it in the classroom and either avoid the methodologically incorrect materials or design new exercises to make the tasks more methodologically acceptable. Keywords: socialisation, negative socialisation effects, methodological mistakes, course book, learning materials

Introduction According to V. N. Turchenko’s ideas, socialisation is «the process of inclusion of the growing generation into the system of social roles determined by the socio-economic structure of a given society by means of the active assimilation and development of the existing system of values and norms of behavior» (O’Dell F.A., 2010: 47). That means that the society represented by adults transmits social norms, values, and rules of behavior acceptable in the society to the young and thus supplies the development of future generations with a system of interpersonal and intercultural ways of communication. In pedagogy there are two main approaches to the problem of socialisation of children. In terms of the leading adaptational approach, socialisation is considered as a process of integration of the individual into various types of social communities through culture, values and norms, which is the basis of socially significant personality traits formation (Nikolaeva Y.M., 2006: 1-2). The society controls its individuals and the way they follow the norms with the help of sanctions, which regulates the formation of the

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254 personality in the process of socialisation. The second approach, on the other hand, is based on the activities and self-reflection the individual performs evaluating their own personality traits in a certain pedagogical situation and forming future educational needs. Nowadays there are a lot of factors, which affect the socialisation process of children, such as the Internet (Lee C. K., & Conroy D. M., 2005), sport (Macphail A., Gorely T., & Kirk, D., 2003), religion and media (Moberg M., Sjö S. 2014), etc. However, education is one of the most powerful tools for the transmission of sociocultural ideas to the children, which is why learning material designers and teachers themselves must be concerned about the course book content and its influence on the learner’s ideas about the surrounding world and the system of relationships between the people. A.L. Leutina conducted a survey on 100 pedagogical articles, dedicated to the educational process, and published in the period 2006-2013. According to the findings, the authors of the articles mentioned are mostly focused on the categories «deviation» and «socialisation», which demonstrates that the process of socialisation is seen as the main aim of the education (Leutina L.A., 2014: 155-156) and the dark side of it is deviation. Since education can have such a great impact on children’s lives, it is necessary to analyse how teaching materials socialise the growing generation and whether they carry neutral, positive or negative socialisation effects. Negative socialisation comes out in socially unacceptable modes of behavior both in aggressive actions to the person himself/herself and to the surrounding environment and society. Negative models can easily be adopted by the young generation, especially in case they are demonstrated in school course books. The purpose of the study is to examine foreign language teaching materials and illustrate methodologically incorrect texts and exercises in English language course books, which can potentially have negative socialisation effects on the growing generation.

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Methodology In our research we analysed a range of well-known and widely- used in Russia English language course books published by foreign publishing houses (Cambridge University Press, Macmillan, Pearson, Oxford University Press) concerning acceptance of the topics used in the texts and exercises. Later examples of inappropriate text were discussed with 15 educators in order to find out their opinion, whether the texts are potentially dangerous to the learners in terms of socialisation effects. Results/Findings It should be noted that modern learning materials have a lot of advantages as they include a variety of authentic audio and video texts, which is how «students learn not only the English language, but they perceive world culture in its diversity» (Kitaeva E.M., Ozerova O.V., 2019: 127). Secondly, each complex of learning materials consists of not only a course book and a workbook, but also includes tests, e-components, etc. Thirdly, the material designers provide the educator with detailed methodological recommendations and hands-outs in the Teachers’ book. Nevertheless, we found two examples of inappropriate texts, which are presented below. Complexes of learning materials published by foreign publishing houses do not have to be approved by the Ministry of Education in Russia for the usage at schools in the role of the main educational source. However, they can be chosen by teachers as additional materials at school or as the main course books in terms of vocational education. Example 1. Messages 2. Student’s Book (Cambridge University Press) is designed for A2 level. This means that in the realities of our country this book will be used by students at the end of primary or early secondary school. The authors introduce «The Ballad of Billy Magee» to practice the Past Simple Tense (Goodey D., Goodey N., 2013: 32). Here we will summarise the ballad for the readers. The ballad tells a story of Billy who is a victim of life circumstances that lead to his death. A chain of events is as

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256 follows: a divorce of his parents soon after his birth; a difficult childhood, when it was not even possible to go to school; constant pastime on the street; a horse theft committed by Billy’s brother Frank; murder of the sheriff committed by Frank; slanderous accusations of Billy by Frank and, as a consequence, arrest of Billy; indifference of the judge to Billy and unwillingness to get to know the true facts; an unfair sentence; Billy's death in prison. In order to practice the Past Simple Tense in speaking and writing the authors of the course book offer an after-text exercise with Frank’s confession. Ex.4 p. 32 «Imagine you’re Frank. Your brother is dead and now you’re sorry. Share your ideas and then write Frank’s story. Life wasn’t easy when I was young. My father left when I was three. Billy and I didn’t go…» Negative socialisation effects are as follows: 1) children can take as a model either Billy or Frank and later behave either as a helpless victim (Billy) or an unpunished bully (Frank); 2) in the after-text exercise with Frank’s confession they have to say/write ‘I stole a horse’, ‘I killed the sheriff’, ‘I lied that it was my brother Billy who killed the sheriff’, ‘I didn’t care that Billy was arrested’, ‘I didn’t care nobody heard Billy’s words of innocence’, etc., which can have a devastating effect on the psychological condition of young learners. Example 2. New Headway. Student’s Book. Upper-Intermediate (Oxford University Press) is designed for upper-intermediate level learners. This means that in the realities of our country this book will be used by secondary school students. The authors introduce an authentic story «The Clinging Woman» by Ruth Rendel (1974). Ruth Rendel is a famous British horror and detective writer. In the story, the main hero tried to commit suicide once and the main heroine did it four times in at least three different ways. Here is how the main hero behaves during his wife’s final attempt to take her own life: «He discovers Lydia has taken an overdose of sleeping pills. She is still alive. He is about to call for an ambulance when he makes a big decision. He goes out of the house and doesn't

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257 come back until several hours later when he knows his wife will have died» (Soars J., Soars L., 2014: 162). The negative socialisation effects are clear. Firstly, the learners can adopt Lydia’s model and in any difficult situation turn to committing suicide as a way of getting rid of the problems. It is especially dangerous for teenagers who can hardly control their emotions and are psychologically unstable. Secondly, at least three different ways of committing suicide are mentioned in the text: a jump from the high balcony, gassing oneself in the oven and taking an overdose of sleeping pills. That means adolescents may start thinking of possible ways of taking their lives in different ways. Thirdly, students can adopt the main hero’s model of behavior, for whom it was normal to leave his wife in danger and get rid of the problems with his wife by letting her die. It is it's worth remarking that in Russian legislation leaving a person in danger is considered a crime. Fourthly, the rising generation in Russia tend to consider European lifestyle as a preferable one, so they are more vulnerable to the ideas coming from foreign publishing houses. The presented examples were discussed with 15 educators at a conference in Lomonosov Moscow State University in 2019. 13 of the respondents were against using such teaching material at their lessons and shared the opinion such texts are dangerous for the Russian learners from socialisation perspective. One of the educators strongly disagreed with the majority of respondents as she shared the techniques of provocative education and was sure it is necessary to show cruelty and bad sides of life even to young learners in order to prepare them for the future difficulties in life. One more teacher, who initially was against the idea of negative socialisation, reconsidered her position during the discussion. Discussion English language learning complexes, published by foreign publishing houses have a lot of advantages both for teachers and learners as they are full of authentic materials and give a chance for the learners to get acquainted with other cultures. They are often chosen by teachers as additional materials at school or the

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258 main educational source in vocational education. Nevertheless, such materials do not have to be approved by the Ministry of Education in Russia. That is why some of the texts and exercises can be potentially dangerous to students, especially in case of young learners. Topics of murder, theft, defamation, suicide and leaving people in danger are methodologically wrong and most educators share the opinion such texts and exercises should be avoided in pedagogical practice. The lack of educational potential can have a devastating impact on the growing generation, which leads to negative socialisation effects both to the children themselves and to the environment.

References Goodey, D., Goodey, N. 2013. Messages 2. Student’s Book. 12th printing. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 144 pp. Kitaeva, E.M., Ozerova, O.V. 2019. English textbook: a tool for enabling cross-cultural competence. In: Current issues in modern linguistics and humanities, Proceedings of the 11th All-Russian Research and Methodological Conference with International Participation, Moscow, March 15th, 2019, pp. 122-131. Lee, C.K., Conroy, D.M. 2005. Socialisation through consumption: teenagers and the internet. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ), 13(1), 8-19. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441- 3582(05)70064-1 [Accessed March 20, 2020] Leutina, A.L. 2014. Children Socialization in Contemporary Pedagogical Research. Educational Studies 3: 152-173. URL: https://doi.org/10.17323/1814-9545-2014-3-152-173 [Accessed March 20, 2020] Macphail, A., Gorely, T., & Kirk, D. 2003. Young people's socialisation into sport: A case study of an athletics club. Sport, Education and Society, 8(2): 251-267. Moberg, M., Sjö, S. 2014. Mass-Mediated Popular Culture and Religious Socialisation In Religion, media, and social change, Granholm, K. (Ed.). Routledge, New York, pp. 99-117.

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Nikolaeva, Y.M. 2006. Personality Socialization as a Problem of Social Synergetics, PhD Thesis, KSU, Kazan, 330 pp. O'Dell, F.A. 2010. Socialisation through children's literature: the Soviet example (Vol. 25). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 290 pp. Soars, J., Soars, L. 2014. New Headway. Upper-Intermediate. Student’s Book. Fourth edition. Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 168 pp.

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LINGUISTICS AND THE HUMANITIES – INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES IN RESEARCH AND TEACHING

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-261-274

DIGITALIZATION OF SERVICES AT EXAMPLE OF LANGUAGES’ TEACHING

Galina Deryabina¹, Nina Trubnikova²

²Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia ¹٫ Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id : 0000-0001-7227-9459 ²e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id : 0000-0002-4148-4588

Abstract. The study aims to identify the major technological and digital trends affecting the transformation of existing business models, including the ones in services’ sector at example of languages’ teaching. The authors work with open international and domestic sources by applying the comparative analysis and own empirical experience to find out the major emerging development patterns and implications at current methods of work. The findings of benefits and disadvantages of emerging business models allow developing the recommendations for the adjustments of existing businesses. The authors identified such global trends in digital technologies influencing the development of services’ sector of business as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Prognostic and Behavioral Analytics, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Internet of Things (IoT).

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Most of services’ industry sectors (marketing, retail, finance, HR, education) began actively incorporating the above-mentioned technologies. The digital technologies possess the number of benefits while also raise some issues that should be taken into consideration by the management of the companies. The major focus of the study given to the change in educational methods highlights the disruptive nature of the shift happening in educational business models that might transform the university teaching by gradually replacing it by “non-professional” teaching by the experienced professionals. Practical implications This study helps to systematize the conceptual and practical knowledge of the companies and professionals involved into the development and implementation of the modern digital solutions, and to develop the corresponding recommendations. Keywords: digital trends, digital education, digitalization of services

Introduction There was an interesting thought of one of IT experts about his feeling of stepping the emerging future reality. Indeed, all the previous transformational revolutions: agricultural, industrial and even technological one took the years and the generations to live through. While nowadays, the neo “micro” revolutions (from mobile to biotechnologies) happened already several times during the life of one generation. Moreover, it seems becoming the every-day reality in future. We will soon start living in the constantly transforming emerging future or futuristic present, a sort of the “live science fiction”. Technologies are intermixing, and the borders of material, biological and digital worlds are evanescing (The 4th industrial revolution, 2016). Discussion and Findings Digitalization is a way to translate a huge amount of information into units and zeros - a language that computer might understand

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(Digitalization as process of digital transformation of society, 2020). The digital revolution has generated a new way of doing business, which destroys the standard business models at a high speed. Over the past decade, many companies with a short history of operations, consciously choosing the digital style, have created the new industries with a combined capitalization of more than one quintillion dollars. Uber, the world's largest taxi service provider, does not have a single car. Facebook and Twitter, two powerful media players, do not create any content. Alibaba, the most expensive retail company of our time, has no inventory, and Airbnb, a leading provider of short-term rental services, does not own real estate (Digitalization: to keep the competitive advantage, 2018). Global technological trends Today we can distinguish several major trends:  Artificial Intelligence (AI). Worldwide Artificial Intelligence spending reached $ 35.8 billion in 2019. They are expected to more than double to $ 79.2 billion in 2022 (Trepolsky, 2019), with already successful examples of AI such as IBM Watson, SAP Leonardo and Salesforce Einstein. Current scientists predict 80% of new technologies having signs of artificial intelligence by 2021. Until 2023, artificial intelligence and deep learning methods will replace traditional machine learning as the most common approach.  Prognostic and behavioral analytics. Customer Experience Analytics (CXA) is another growing trend when behavioral scenarios are built based on several types of data to gain a holistic understanding of customer mood, satisfaction, and loyalty.  NLP. The natural language processing (NLP) is one of the most promising developments that improve understanding of user behavior along with the use of machine learning and artificial

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263 intelligence. It is becoming the major feature in development of voice resources like Siri, Alexa, and Google Home, as well as voice applications for home assistants (30 big tech predictions, 2020).  IoT. Internet of Things (IoT) is a combination of the digital and physical worlds, the introduction of AI into devices in millions of homes across the planet. B2B sector is becoming one of the main consumers of IoT solutions. According to a recent European SAS study, the companies find the main IoT benefits in contact with consumers (20%), automatic diagnostics (17%) and asset tracking (16%). At the same time, a number of concerns has raised. First, the degree of security of such systems (22%), also the need for real-time data analysis (22%) and the difficulty of adapting to cultural changes (20%) (The 4th industrial revolution, 2016). Digitalization of services The digitization process has touched all areas of the business: from getting and retaining of new customers to managing the company's reputation in Internet. Digitization of data in business reduces costs, increases profit and increases the pace of economic development. The second direction, “digital enterprises”, means the work with cloud technologies and remote workgroups. With further development of technologies the non-“digital business” will have the difficulties to survive. Let consider the major trends in digitalization of services:  Marketing services. With the digitization of data, marketing is also undergoing the significant changes. In the near future, Artificial Intelligence might become a driving force for many services and will give the audience recommendations on products, communicate with consumers and create the content.

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Chat bots as technology, based on artificial intelligence, provides the customers with the opportunity to receive answers to questions at any time. The personalized content might get the higher trust of the clients and help to retain them. Video-marketing is one of the major trends with multiple Internet channels like YouTube, direct broadcasts at Facebook, video posts in other social media, mini-video emails etc. The most popular video content today is educational, entertaining as well as «live» stream video (Trepolsky D., 2020). Influential marketing is a modern version of word of mouth. Influencers, including celebrities and bloggers from Instagram or from YouTube, give recommendations, talk about products and help promoting the brands by disseminating information about it through their channels. Visual search technology might greatly facilitate our lives: a person take a picture of an object and instantly find it in Internet. Augmented Reality (AR) technology is moving from fiction to our world. QR tags, AR games, special applications, digital animations and even virtual reality glasses - all this can be a digital marketing tool. Programmed marketing uses AI to automate the purchase of advertising and helps to target a specific audience. Automated systems work quickly and show information to the most interested users. Push notifications become more personalized and unusual to keep users interested in a brand, product, or site. Neuro-marketing is a study of customer behavior, methods of influencing it, human reactions to advertising and various ways of promotion. The information received can be used to optimize content, adjust the strategy, evoke the necessary emotions and reactions and increase the effectiveness of marketing. The use of AI leads to the automation of marketing and sales. Automation opens up the enormous opportunities, from

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265 maintaining of loyalty, optimizing of voice search queries, to predictive analytics, and creating of personalized access to the site for each user.  Retail services. Among the main trends, the founder of Retail Prophet sees the further development of a subscription model of consumption. Sales of goods under this scenario demonstrate the 100 percent annual increase. The second driver for the development of the segment is delivery variability - 58% of respondents said they would be happy to purchase products on one marketplace, however forced to switch between the platforms in search of the most convenient scenario (New Retail Forum. Digitalization of retail, 2019).  Bank services. Over the past few years, the banking system has undergone big changes. The emphasis on delivery of digital services and exceptional interaction with customers was caused by the restructuring of the financial market, in particular the development of cryptocurrency, bitcoins and block chains. Accenture conducted a global study of Banking Technology Vision 2019 (Main trends in digitalization of banks, 2019), where identified the five trends that will have the greatest impact on the banking sector in the coming years: the use of DARQ technologies (which includes distributed registry (D - DLT), artificial intelligence (A - Artificial intelligence), augmented reality (R - Extended reality), quantum computing (Q - Quantum)), personalization of customer needs, amplification employee skills; cybersecurity risk management; and transferring most services 24/7.  HR. Digital processes significantly change the HR way of work. Thanks to new tools, specialists can communicate with candidates through mobile applications, social networks and cloud technologies.

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We can distinguish several trends in HR technologies development (Tyutyunikov V., 2018):  HR-automation (paper workflow, recruiting, attestation, education, staff involvement, HR band monitoring, HR analytics) – see Table 2.  Smart-recruiting (recruiting robots, chat bots, targeted advertising of vacancies, new tools for assessing of candidates).  Digital education (mobile trainings, adaptive learning using AI, personalized trainings, learning performance assessment: measuring ROI of learning).  Education The education sector is also undergoing irreversible changes. The most important trend is getting the additional education (Kaku M., 2020). It is gaining momentum, gradually establishing links with higher educational institutions. The most popular specializations are data analysis, machine learning, financial instruments, programming etc. Online education is considered as one of major Internet trends 2019 (Internet trends, 2019):  The transition of American universities to online learning models;  4.5 billion hours of «how-to» videos on YouTube;  Coursera: nearly 40 million registered users from around the world in 2018. The way of learning itself is transforming as well:  Memorization will cease to be important, due to accessibility of information and acceleration of the search;  Concepts and principles will be more important than memorization and theory;  Teachers will become the mentors by giving the personalized career advices, assessing the work and being the role models. Transformation of process of foreign languages’ teaching The digitalization has touched the area of foreign languages teaching as well by quickly transforming the traditional ways of

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267 education:  The emergence and growth of professional online communities (example, profi.ru (Choose the professionals, 2020);  The study of language online via messengers (Skype, WhatsApp, etc.);  Numerous e-books and audio courses, available for free in Internet;  Multiple language mobile applications. The major apps for learning of languages (Muchkin D., 2019):  Duolingo (Fig. 1). Education takes place in a playful way: via guessing the words, making sentences and completing tasks with a timer.

Figure 1

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 Memrise (Fig. 2). The portal allows learning the languages by using the interactive tasks, video dialogs and allowing creating the own training courses.

Figure 2.  Busuu (Fig. 3) uses the neural networks to create an individual training plan for each user.

Figure 3.

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 Babbel (Fig. 4) allows you to learn a language by using the interactive dialogs and a speech recognition system.

Figure 4.  FluentU (Fig. 5) creates the language environment for user by offering the thousands of videos in selected language.

Figure 5.

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 MosaLingua (Fig. 6) helps to learn the words and phrases. A special system calculates how often the user needs to repeat the learned material.

Figure 6.  The Mixxer (Fig. 7). An interlocutor search platform developed by Dickinson College of America. Talking with a native speaker is a very effective way to upgrade your skills.

Figure 7.

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 Speaky (Fig. 8). Social network for finding of native speakers and communicating with them.

Figure 8. While, there are certain advantages and disadvantages of digital foreign languages’ learning (and teaching). For teacher:  Benefits: ability to connect from any place (remotely), easier to find the target audience via communities;  Disadvantages: increased competition (anyone can become a teacher); future probable replacement of university education by online “nonprofessional” education. For student:  Benefits: wide choice of tools and experts in teaching with variety of experiences; lower costs of learning; the modern apps allow learning several languages in parallel at the relatively low costs.  Disadvantages: difficulties in learning of language from scratch just in app without a teacher (especially, in regards to grammar, writing technics and absence of dialogue); limitation in learning of writing / instant check of work.

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Conclusions The conducted analysis allowed identifying the major technological and digital trends, including the services direction. Digitalization might have the multiple advantages:  high competitiveness;  simplification of work with information;  establishment of positive image;  improving customer loyalty to the brand;  money saving. The digitalization of education might fully transform the existing models of teaching and educational methods and tools that should be taken into close consideration by the Universities.

References 30 big tech predictions for 2020. 2020. Business Insider Intelligence. 57 pp. - https://www.businessinsider.com/intelligence/30-big-tech- predictions-for- 2020?IR=T?IR=T&itm_source=businessinsider&utm_medium=c ontent_marketing&itm_term=content_marketing_leadgen_text_li nk_40-big-tech-predictions- 2019&itm_content=leadgen_content_marketing_text_link&itm_c ampaign=content_marketing_leadgen_link/ [Accessed March 6, 2020]. Choose the professionals. 2020. URL: https://profi.ru/ [Accessed January 11, 2020]. Digitalization as process of digital transformation of society. 2020. - https://mentamore.com/socium/didzhitalizaciya.html/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Digitalization: to keep the competitive advantage. 2018. - http://vinconet.com/didzhitalizaciya-kak-ne-poteryat- konkurentnoe-preimushhestvo/ [Accessed February 25, 2020].

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Internet trends. 2019: news from Silicon Valley. 2019. URL: https://vc.ru/future/72079-internet-trendy-2019-goda-novosti-iz- kremnievoy-doliny/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Kaku, M. 2020. Future of technologies. URL: https://vc.ru/future/72474-mitio-kaku-o-budushchem-tehnologiy/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Main trends in digitalization of banks. 2019. URL: http://hr- elearning.ru/hr-digital-trendy-i-tekhnologii-2019-goda-o- kotorykh-govoryat-hr/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Muchkin, D. 2019. 38 useful online learning resources. URL: https://lifehacker.ru/2015/07/23/37-sajtov-dlya-obucheniya/ [Accessed January 15, 2020]. New Retail Forum. Digitalization of retail. 2019. URL: https://spark.ru/startup/53ac28f1d290d/blog/53181/new-retail- forum-didzhitalizatsiya-ritejla/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. The 4th industrial revolution: what to expect? 2016. URL: http://23vek.ru/blog/public/chego-ozhidat-pokupatelyam-i- biznesu-ot-chetvertoj-promyshlennoj-revolyutsii/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Trepolsky, D. 2019. Twenty major trends of digital-marketing 2020. URL: https://vc.ru/marketing/102519-dvadcat-glavnyh- trendov-digital-marketinga-2020-goda/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Trepolsky, D. 2020. 10 prognoses for next generation: AI, Personalization, and Digitalization. URL: https://vc.ru/future/96889-10-prognozov-na-sleduyushchee- desyatiletie-iskusstvennyy-intellekt-personalizaciya-i- didzhitalizaciya-cheloveka/ [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Tyutyunikov, V. 2018. HR Digital: trends and technologies 2019. URL: http://hr-elearning.ru/hr-digital-trendy-i-tekhnologii-2019- goda-o-kotorykh-govoryat-hr/ [Accessed February 25, 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-275-283

METHODOLOGY INTEGRATING HARD AND SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

Natalia A. Medina Brakamonte1, Elena Kitaeva2

¹, ²Saint-Petersburg State University Saint-Petersburg, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-0563-4542 ²e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-4000-7771

Abstract. The study is aimed to show the efficacy of the open pair educational technology in developing professional qualities and soft skills, including cross-cultural communication ones, in university students. At present, this technology allows to concentrate on motivating students to develop various types of communication skills and take into consideration emotive and motivational components of the educational process. Students’ class work based on open pair technology stipulates that all students perform the roles of a “Student” and a “Teacher”, the roles and partners being switched on a constant basis. Thus, communication skills, which actually include such activities as people management, coordinating with others, emotional intelligence and negotiation, become essential for successful outcome of the learning process. Along with communication skills, the educational environment encourages students to develop other soft skills, among them being complex problem solving, cognitive flexibility, decision making, etc. Sixty master's students majoring in psychology and studying in Saint-Petersburg State University participated in the experiment. The students were randomized in three experimental and one control group. The researchers implemented the following methods: a pedagogical experiment and psychodiagnostic

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275 approach, the latter including psychodiagnostic questionnaires: Sociometry; Diagnostic evaluation of socio-psychological climate in a work group; Evaluation of psychological climate in a study group; C.E. Seashore psychometric test; questionnaire WAM (wellbeing, activity, mood); Self-esteem questionnaire, cross- cultural awareness questionnaire. The methodologies applied in the experiment made it possible to evaluate the nature of communication among the participants and assess the latter during the educational process which incorporated open pair technology. The results show that students involved in open pair work educational settings tend to exhibit higher academic achievements and stronger acquisition of soft skills. The lesson design enhances the development of communicative skills. The teaching/learning technology develops managerial skills such as planning, organization, motivation and control. Consequently, collaborative learning can be viewed as a strong potential for developing soft skills and professional competencies. Nowadays, when a traditional teacher-up-front style of instruction dominates in higher school on the one hand, and on the other, distance/on-line learning is actively introduced in higher school, new educational technologies focusing on face-to-face communication should attract educationalists’ interest. Keywords: learning management, personality development, soft skills, cross-cultural communication

Introduction Changes in the world educational environment require to focus the primary attention on innovative teaching/learning forms which can enhance educational outcomes. A lot has been said about the importance of the soft skills/social competences as essential in a successful professional life. V.K. Dyachenko remarks that “group teaching/frontal teaching, even if the content is extremely valuable, fails to develop personality qualities in students that are essential in the modern world” (Dyachenko V.K., 2006: 150). Harvard University, the Carnegie Endowment and others confirm that

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276 professional success is shaped by the level of soft skills by 75-85% and only 15% are related to hard skills (Watts M., Watts R., 2008, Griffin P., 2016). Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development highlights the importance of developing a balanced set of cognitive, social and emotional skills to face the challenges of the 21st century (OECD, 2017). It is stated that these skills are in priority as compared to academic achievements. It is necessary to point out that the set of soft skills can change with time. Thus, according to the report made by the World Economic Forum (2018), the most required skills in the nearest future will be critical thinking, creativity, complex problem solving, people management, coordinating with others, emotional intellect, judgement and decision making, negotiation, cognitive flexibility (WEFORUM, 2018). As we can see, most of the abovementioned skills require well developed communication competences including intercultural ones. At present, student population practically in any university is highly diverse in terms of culture; by the latter we mean not only those who come from other countries, but also those who affiliate themselves with different religious traditions and denominations, come from various ethnic/regional backgrounds in multinational countries, are exposed to various specific cultural forms of behavior, belong to people with disabilities. To address the development of cross-cultural competence, to debunk prejudices, fear and mistrust, and to overcome lack of understanding about the complex layers in understanding situations of access and equity, discrimination and the abrogation of human rights for marginalized communities (Mlcek S., 2014), it is necessary to introduce relevant learning methodologies aimed at developing soft skills in general, and cross-cultural competence in particular. Many researchers stress the role of curriculum, course and class design changes at universities to strengthen intercultural effectiveness (Gonzales H., 2017; Berdrow I., Bird A., 2018), and suggest that “a very elegant way of offering soft skills training to

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277 students is to embed it into the teaching of hard skills course. This approach to practicing soft skills requires some re-thinking and re- planning of existing hard skill courses” (Schulz B., 2008: 147) The objectives of this study are to analyze open-pair work methodology with the focus on its potential as an effective tool for developing professional competencies along with soft skills including cross-cultural ones, i.e. to integrate the development of hard skills and soft ones in one course. In collaborative learning, students participate in small-group/pair activities in which they share their knowledge and expertise. In these student-driven activities, the teacher usually acts as a facilitator (Medina Brakamonte N.A., 2015). Methodology The open-pair/group educational technology can be described as following: the study process is going on in groups and/or pairs where partners are constantly changing. These groups/pairs will be referred to as open groups/open pairs. The model of the teaching/learning open pair process consists of several stages. The first step of work with open pair learning starts with “Launching” stage, i.e. when every member of a group is exposed to the course content. There are various versions of the launching stage, the one used in the experiment is the following:  The teacher explains the format of the process, requirements, forms of assessment;  Sociometric sampling is conducted in order to reveal the soft skills development at the beginning of the experiment;  The teacher designs the course specifying subject topics and organizing them in modules. He/she focuses on the didactic aim of the course, as well as competences students should acquire. Each topic includes informative part and assignments for unsupervised work. The latter covers reproductive element, practicing new skills, as well as synthesis and implementation of them in new particular conditions. Each module finishes up with an oral and/or written test.

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The second step is working in open pairs/groups. The roles in a pair are shared as Teacher-Student. Each student has the role of both a teacher and a student. While being a “Teacher”, a student first masters the topic, which was offered to him/her as a home assignment. He/she explains the topic to “Student” and evaluates “Student’s” knowledge. Then, they swap the roles. Consequently, each participant involved in this work masters two new topics (one at home and one at the lesson). After that, students change partners. Now, each student presents the topic which he/she learned from the previous partner. Preparing the assigned topic students should be ready with learning materials (mind maps, spider grams, lists of new terms and their definitions, video/audio material). Students work with each other explaining new material, organize and conduct group/class discussions and debates, carry out evaluation of their partners work. The teacher provides students with sets of home and class assignments, conducts tests at the end of each module and a final course test. Teachers control and monitor each stage of the teaching/learning process, being a facilitator and a monitor of the learning process. The final step is assessment which can take various forms. Evaluation of student’s performance includes teacher’s and peer’s assessment. Teachers evaluate student’s performance and achievements conducting continuous assessment and final tests. However, students are involved in the assessment process as well. The teacher designs assessment criteria for students at the initial stage, then students having discussed them can introduce some criteria they think to be essential for their work, e.g. adequacy of examples, comfortable presentation pace, politeness and patience while introducing new material, etc. Students assess their partners first from the point of view of students answering the question how good the “Teacher” was, and assessing from the point of view of “Teacher”. The total result of each student consists of three components, i.e. academic performance (the teacher), skills to present and explain material (“Student”), motivation and involvement in the studying process (“Teacher”). The assessment

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279 methodology, where a student plays actually a leading part, is integrated into the learning process (Senichkina O., Kitaeva E., 2017). Experiment The aim of the experiment was to demonstrate the efficiency of the technology in developing professional qualities in combination with soft skills, and to show the benefits of the technology while teaching/learning English for Specific Purposes (ESP).The experiment was conducted in Saint-Petersburg State University. 60 Master Degree students majoring in psychology participated in the experiment. Methods applied in the research: pedagogical experiment, psychodiagnostic, the latter including psychodiagnostic questionnaires: Sociometry; Diagnostic evaluation of socio- psychological climate in a work group; Evaluation of psychologic climate in a study group; C.E. Seashore psychometric test; WAM (wellbeing, activity, mood); Self-esteem questionnaire, Cross- cultural awareness questionnaire (Mason J. L., 2002). Teaching ESP in sphere of psychology Before starting the experiment, students were asked what class design would be preferable for them. The majority of students (93 %) were in favor of a more creative atmosphere. Teachers designed the course according to requirements of the Curriculum in collaboration with the Faculty of Psychology staff involved with the same students, thus outlining the professionally relevant topics. The methodology foundation for the course was that of open pair/group educational technology. The average grade at the final achievement test at the end of the course showed that 20% of the students received grade 100%, while all of them passed the test. All the students said that their speaking and listening skills improved significantly. Findings The obtained results show that psychological climate in experimental groups improved as compared to baseline data. Group Unity Index in all groups is estimated as being above the

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280 average, namely it is 11.6. The index has not changed within the “high” and “above average” value limits. While analysing psychological climate components, it was revealed that behaviour component is constant in all groups and can be diagnosed as contradictive. Emotional and cognitive components are positive in all groups and are within the range +0.33 and +1; moreover, they become higher as compared to baseline data in experimental groups. WAM questionnaire results show that such characteristics as “sense of well-being”, “feeling of being strong”, “energetic”, “agile”, “quick”, “efficient”, “happy”, “joyful”, “cheerful”, “active”, “healthy”, “optimistic”, “full of aspirations”, “satisfied”, “enthusiastic” dominate in all experimental groups. Results obtained at the end of the course show that the collaborative open pair teaching/learning model can relieve stress and study load to some extent, in comparison with statements made by student from the control group. It is essential to stress the fact that the open pair methodology is specifically efficient in developing responsibility in students as an integral part of the learning process. Every student is responsible for teaching other sand their academic achievements. Moreover, teaching/learning communication is conducted among people with various individual characteristics and social background. Nowadays, student population in the Saint-Petersburg University is extremely diverse in terms of geography, culture, family environment. Statistics show that about 74% of first-year students come from all over Russia, carrying with them variety of cultures, regional accents, everyday life customs and traditions. The educational settings, inducing the necessity to effectively communicate and be responsible for the mutual results, shape the communication and cross-cultural competences in the professional sphere. Cross-cultural awareness questionnaire showed significant growth in intercultural awareness among students, developed during the face-to-face communication, while performing various

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281 tasks, organizing activities, assessing peers’ academic and communication performance. Sociometry methods applied in the open group/pair methodology are efficient, as they convey information on relations among members of the study group and their evolvement during the study. The methods of mutual choice identify informal leaders; that can result in relation regulations, relieve stress in a group and motivate all members of the study group. It is essential to study general components of the psychological climate, its components and characteristic features of group- members, as they correlate with parameters indicating possible influence on the general atmosphere in the study group, as well as development of soft skills. Conclusions The experimental study shows that students taught in collaborative educational settings tend to exhibit higher academic achievement and master soft skills. Communicative skills develop due to the educational process design. It is proved by psychological climate and its components. High aacademic achievements ensure the steady development of cognitive abilities. The technology of open group/pair work shapes and develops managerial skills such as planning, organization, motivating and control. Consequently, the technology presented in the article can be viewed as a strong potential for integration of developing soft skills and professional competencies.

References Berdrow, I., Bird, A. 2018. Development and Assessment of Intercultural Effectiveness: A Learner-Centered Approach. Journal of Education, 198 (2): 136–145. Dyachenko, V.K. 2006. Didactics. Narodnoye Obrazovaniye, Moscow, Russia, 400 pp. Gonzales, H. 2017. The intercultural effectiveness of university students. Psychology, 8 (12):2017-2030.

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Griffin, P. 2016. Schools require analytics. URL: http:// www.edutainme.ru/post/griffin/ [Accessed December 21, 2019]. Medina, Brakamonte, N.A. 2015. Independent learning within collaborative approach. Ananyev Readings – 2015 Fundamental Issues in Psychology, Conference Proceedings, 20-22 October 2015. St. Petersburg, pp. 184-185. (in Russian). Mason, J. L. 2002. Cultural competence self-assessment questionnaire: A manual for users. Portland. Multicultural Initiative Project, Graduate School of Social Work Portland State University, USA, 53 pp. Mlcek, S. 2014. Are We Doing Enough to Develop Cross-Cultural Competencies for Social Work? British Journal of Social Work 44 (7): 1984–2003. OECD (2017), Better understanding our youth’s social and emotional development. URL: https://ioe.hse.ru/data/2017/02/28/1166064287/OECD [Accessed December 03, 2019]. Schulz, B. 2008. The importance of soft skills: Education beyond academic knowledge. Nawa Journal of Communication 2(1): 146- 154. Senichkina, O., Kitaeva, E. 2017. Some Aspects of Teaching and Assessment in Developing Professionally Oriented Communicative Competence in Foreign Languages. GSOM Emerging Markets Conference 2017 Book of abstracts. Graduate School of Management, St. Petersburg University, pp. 327-329. Watts, M, Watts, R. 2008. Developing Soft Skills in Students. URL: http://l08.cgpublisher. com/proposals/64/index_htm [Accessed January 17, 2020]. WEFORUM 2016. URL: https://reports.weforum.org/future-of- jobs-2016/shareable-infographics/. [Accessed November 14, 2019].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-284-293

THE RATIONALE OF AN INVARIANT-BASED TEXTBOOK THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Elena S. Orlova

N.I. Lobachevsky Nizhny Novgorod State University Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The elaboration of a textbook theoretical design is conventionally conceived as a manifold of broadly-focused premises establishing essentials relevant to the principled status of a theory in general. Moreover, a second language textbook theory (SLTT) derives from the broad-ranging theory of second language acquisition (SLA) reconstituting SLA patterns in transformed projections. Textbook theory thus being inextricably linked with the science of language acquisition, there inevitably emerges a controversy over the multiplicity, if not infinity, of SLA regularities and the necessitated selectivity of textbook basics. In this regard there emerge limited and limiting concerns. Certain assumptions about L2 learning which are prevalent in society and education now rest on the teacher-centered, or ‘delivery’ centered view of language acquisition, thus displaying short-term performance concerns. Current trends towards mastering real L2 communication in the forms of activities and tasks replicating those of real life often create an illusion of high-level performance demonstrated in class. Real-world task-use situation are highly fluid and infinite in number and therefore those specifically chosen and designed for language learning might verbally differ from actual occurrences in social intercourse. It is usually not the learner who chooses instructional tasks. Hence language acquisition gets

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284 a tint of imposition and lack of motivation on the part of the individual. On the other hand, the longer-term developmental concerns of students and society at large are sidelined as the deep-rooted language essentials are marginalized and supplanted by a diversified set of language elements oriented at task-based activities. Hence the crucial issue of any textbook development is the proportion of theoretical to practical knowledge which generates the necessary and sufficient whole for the learner to master a language and be able to develop their competence further autonomously. The Universal Invariant-Based Binary Predication Theory offers a solution to the problem through the application of a minimal sense unit. It claims that the least meaningful unity is the result of two different language elements - argument and predicate - naturally fitting together. The Theory’s commitment to the overall content homogeneity of terms allows for a longitudinal representation of any textbook conception regardless of the approach chosen. The holistic model provides for an efficient inventory of theoretical premises and practical means of language acquisition. Keywords: language acquisition, textbook theory, binary theory, binary predicative unit

Introduction A second language textbook is a systematic work comprising various facets of discourse and communication. A textbook is assumed to maximally correspond to the student’s intellectual and verbal activity, thus creating optimal conditions for the student self-expression by second-language means. The elaboration of a textbook notional design is conventionally conceived as a manifold of broadly-focused premises establishing essentials relevant to the principled status of a theory in general. Moreover, a second language textbook theory (SLTT) derives from the broad-ranging theory of second language acquisition (SLA) reconstituting SLA patterns in transformed projections.

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Textbook theory thus being inextricably linked with the science of language acquisition, there inevitably emerges a controversy over the multiplicity, if not infinity, of SLA regularities and the necessitated selectivity of textbook basics. In this regard there emerge limited and limiting concerns. First, a textbook theory might correspond only to a particular part of SLA, with the major portion of it left uninvolved for the reason of the latter being overloaded with the parameters of adjacent fields. It is the obvious heterogeneity of SLA that prevents from constructing a holistic theory both of itself and its textbook derivation. The limitation can be traced in the design of any particular textbook: the vexed question is always about what is to be included and how to select the content. Here we deal with the crucial issue of which part of theoretical and practical knowledge is necessary and sufficient for the learner to master a language and be able to develop their competence further autonomously. The second limitation is that certain assumptions about L2 learning which are prevalent in society and education now rest on the teacher-centered, or ‘delivery’ centered view of language acquisition, thus displaying short-term performance concerns. Current trends towards mastering real L2 communication in the forms of activities and tasks replicating those of real life often create an illusion of high- level performance demonstrated in class. Real-world task-use situation are highly fluid and infinite in number and therefore those specifically chosen and designed for language learning might verbally differ from actual occurrences in social intercourse. Moreover, it is usually not the learner who chooses instructional tasks. Hence language acquisition gets a tint of imposition and lack of motivation on the part of the individual. The Universal Invariant-Based Binary Predication Theory offers a solution to the problem of SLA and SLTT limitations and discrepancies due to its commitment to the overall content homogeneity of terms specified for both the domains. The homogeneity established allows for a longitudinal representation of any textbook conception regardless of the approach chosen.

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Purpose of study The main goal of the study is the development of a language acquisition conceptual base advocated by holism. The fundamentals of the theory rely on a continuous patterned and structured whole forming a unity across the complex and variegated SLA area, thereby forming a longitudinal model of SLA theory transposed over to the SLTT conception. The latter is constructed by a coherent methodology with a universal capacity for collaborative efficacy of various SLA modules which enables the transfer of knowledge and training across different theories and practices on the base of invariant universal criteria. Language, communication and inner thought activity of the individual are treated as the indissoluble unity of the underlying minimal constituents, without which language acquisition would not be what it is and on which all its development is founded. In fact, acquisition can be represented as a complex intellectual whole since the aggregate of the three values determines a vision of a higher order independent of the particular learning conditions. The systematization of the three fundamentals of language acquisition implies a highly theoretical assumption of their mutual belonging to each other. The systematic development of their interdependence occurs in accordance with the duality (binary) principle which manifests itself in that each value is a permanent symmetrical counterpart of SLA basic concepts and statements. Three types of values (language, communication, verbal thought) are interconnected and correlated by so-called connection axioms and their logical premises, which are two by two dual. Their higher-order duality is realized and further advanced by a universal functional unit operating across the SLA modules thus providing the wholeness of the SLA theory evolved from the idea of binary opposition. The idea is further expanded and transposed over the corresponding second language textbook theory, whose domain remains proportionally congruent with the SLA theoretical model.

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Methodology The point is that it is not just or even mainly the natural variety of research views that accounts for the heterogeneity of the area content and also encourages the further analysis of existing and emerging SLA trends. At the moment it is the need for a fundamental uniting platform capable of encompassing the SLA constituents, which are considered to be relevant to the field. Broadly speaking, the prospect for the creation of a textbook theory seems to be more of a hypothesized nature, and it might seem to be a little premature to venture into this kind of theorizing. Nevertheless, the ultimate goal of producing a SLTT against a cohesive background of SLA supported by acknowledged scientific principles appears to be achievable on condition that the adjacent areas are envisaged in the form of a complex regarded as a domain in its entirety. The issue is what kind of fundamentals should be employed in the solution of the mega-problem posed. According to the basics specified, the developed theory should be closed with respect to a certain logical sequence. Put it another way, an adequate conceptual tool is to be found, due to which a methodology for a balanced holistic comprehension could be feasible. The solution is offered by the binary theory instrumentation that supports a methodology for a balanced holistic comprehension. The theory considered claims that meaningful unity is the result of two different language elements - argument and predicate - naturally fitting together. Being distinct from one another they are nonetheless complementary, i.e. they combine well together to form a unit. The unit takes shape in the process of predication which can be referred to as the act of joining initially independent objects of thought expressed by self-determining words - predicate and argument - in order to convey any idea. Predication is a most important function of language cognition due to which the real and individualized worlds converge in the learner’s mind. Hence predication is not just a common fundamental of language, social intercourse and individual inner thought activity but actually a

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288 medium creating the environment in which all three spheres mentioned function cohesively. The SLA - SLTT Universal Invariant-Based Binary Predication Theory is identified in terms of its domain, content and procedural phenomena, principles, rules and regularities, binary opposition logic and idealized object. By the same token, it can be represented as a complex intellectual whole since the aggregate of the three values determines a vision of a higher order independent of the particular learning conditions. The interdependence of three values (language, communication, verbal thought) transpires in accordance with the duality (binary) principle stated above. The external binary projection is epitomized by the opposition of reference and predication basic to any language regardless of its structure. Two predicatively joined items - argument and predicate - is the start of any communication. To be more exact, the unification of the opposed fundamental origins of thought and speech is implemented in the phenomenon. The argument refers and points to an entity, while the predicate specifies the first by providing some kind of information about it. The predicate is seen as an element capable of taking arguments at some underlying level. Predication explicates genuine features of language at large which reveal themselves in the form of a junction of the deepest content and most surface expression means. The generation of predications is the most important function of cognition, due to which the real and individualized worlds mentally converge. Being independent of the particular content of a discourse fragment, the minimal binary predication formula can be used as the underlying element of overall language acquisition modeling, learning unit and assessment base. The use of binary units can be instrumental in establishing a dynamic congruence of the learner mental codes and L2 speech patterns due to the extension of the idea of argument-predicate interrelations and rules of their chaining. The structure of predication reproduces an invariant constituent of thought - speech process and explicates its entireness and permanent reproducibility in all the diversity of particular

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289 communicative contexts. Therefore, the binary predicative logic ranges over the unified holistic domain of language acquisition, with its provisions installed in both SLA and SLTT. Results Invariant predicative unit technology opens up new opportunities for the solution to the ever-existing problem of the representation of language functional space, with the systematic proportions of discourse duly preserved. Binary predicative units are universal building blocks that invariably act in the process of sense formation replicating themselves in each of the three functional areas of SLA (language, communication, individual mental activity). Therefore, a concession-making model of an L2 study course can be developed on the base of measurable proportions set by specific types of binary predicative units and their concatenation patterns involved. It is true that particular speech operations could be modeled, implemented and performed without the help of a comprehensive invariant generalization. But the structure of freely developing unpredictable discourse cannot be seen and shaped without the aid of a universal invariant code. It is binary predicative units that frame the overall structure of speech - thought interaction allotting to words their places within comprehensive relations. A great advantage of binary textbook theory over either language system learning or communicative approach extremes results from the fact that its conception is able to reveal and make use of reproducible ubiquitous universal patterns whose value have not been specifically highlighted before. The domain of the invariant-based SLA theory is proposed as the function of the individual’s verbal thought of the premises of language systematics and socialized communicative patterns. The textbook theory domain counterpart is represented in the form of the acquirer’s status defined as a condition arising out of their mental capacity, language structure analysis and public station. The acquirer’s status determines the nature of their communicative capacities and the character of verbal intercourse purposefulness of L2 speech as well as their language knowledge. The parameters

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290 mentioned correlate with the idea of the content and procedural phenomena (the inventory modules) of the invariant-based textbook theory. Principles, rules and regularities are implemented through the types of speech alternately practiced: outward, written, egocentric and inner. The domain, phenomena and functional media are symbolically presented in the table below. The Universal Invariant Textbook Theory Framework THE AQUIERER’S STATUS MODULES AND MODUS OPERANDI (MO) Language ← Communicative ← Introspective → (socialized) → (verbal thought) Language ← Introspective ← Communicative → (verbal thought) → (socialized) MODES:TYPES OF SPEECH Vocal Written Egocentric Inner (outward, oral) The generation of predications is the most important function of cognition, due to which the real and individualized worlds mentally converge. Being independent of the particular content of a discourse fragment, the minimal binary predication formula can be used as the underlying element of overall language acquisition modeling, learning unit and assessment base. Discussion In much of the literature related to holistic solutions to various problems there are at least three main trends points of reasoning. The first one is “that only whole theories or whole belief systems really have meanings, so that the meanings of smaller units … are merely derivative” (Fodor J. & Lepore E., 1992: x). Secondly, for the realms mentioned to be formatted as a holistic system, there should be specified a property or properties intrinsic to each constituent area and “characteristic of them solely within the whole’ (Esfeld M., 1998: 3). Thirdly, there should be determined a way of establishing a common property unifying the system. L. Vygotsky was the first to point to the futility of analyzing the properties of speech and thought by elements. The scientist insists

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291 that analysis into elements be replaced by analysis into units: “Units are products of analysis that correspond to specific aspects of the phenomena under investigation. … unlike elements, units are capable of retaining and expressing the essence of that whole being analyzed” (Vygotsky L., 1986: 211). A. Carsetti argues that the deep-level processes of articulation are determined “by the ongoing choice of new modalities”, with the autonomous selection made by meaning (Carsetti A., 2010: vii). The author sets out that its autonomy is not brought about fortuitously. The meaningful selection “is not … concerned with the game of “possibles”, offering itself a simple channel for pure chance, but with providing a channel for the articulation of the “file” in the humus of a semantic (and embodied) net in order to prepare the necessary conditions for a continuous renewal and recovery of original creativity “ (Carsetti A., 2010: vii). The ongoing choice of meaningful elements occurs in the mode of constant and consisting process of binary predicative unit concatenation. G. Englebretsen points out that “the idea of a binary analysis for logical syntax has had a strong and lasting appeal throughout the history of logic and is well entrenched in today’s standard system” (Englebretsen G., 1996: 4). The invariant textbook theory rationale exposes an agreeable functional conjunction between sense generating elements. Binary predicative units organically interwoven into the process of language acquisition form a most natural assimilation model. The reciprocal units of all the sets function synchronically, with some of them being more pronounced in a particular module of the theory domain.

References Carsetti, A. 2010. Causality, Meaningful Complexity and Embodied Cognition. (Ed.). Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York: Springer, 315 pp.

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Englebretsen, G. 1996. Something to Reckon With. The Logic of Terms. The Philosophica Series. 48. University of Ottawa Press, 274 pp. Esfeld, M. 1998. Holism and Analytic Philosophy. Mind 107(426): 364 – 380. Fodor, J. & Lepore, E. 1992. Holism. A Shopper’s Guide. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, Masschusetts, 144 pp. Vygotsky, L. S. 1986. Thought and Language. (A. Kosulin, trans.). MIT Press, Cambridge: MA, 342 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-294-304

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN ADAPTIVE TEACHING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Marina G. Petrova1, Mohsen Khalil2

1, 2Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-9147-6199 2e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-3142-2092

Abstract. At first, the humanities were the basis of human education in academic disciplines. The humanities are known to be the study of modern and ancient languages, literature, philosophy, history, human geography, law, politics, religion, and art. The humanities were the methods of research and development in ancient Greece to improve human potentials and teach them and new generations to adapt to their society. Today we are faced with a new value of this term because of the fast development of our planet. This term evolves into digital humanities, which means the same thing as traditional humanities but with new methods added. In digital humanities, we can use computing systems, so this area allows us to have an intersection between computing (digital) technologies and the discipline of the humanities. With their development, electronic education is becoming a promising direction, meeting the needs of modern society as much as possible, the hallmarks of which are working with a large amount of information on a mobile/electronic medium, and analyzing it in a short time. There is no doubt that thanks to a single informational, intellectual, educational environment, people interested in gaining knowledge are already virtually interacting (this is not only about teachers

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294 sharing their pedagogical findings and research results, but also about virtual assistants - chatbots), stimulating development electronic, distance, mobile education. The article highlights the issues of adaptive learning in digital humanities and a mixture of modern language teaching methods and AI. It proposes the classification of teaching strategies that have five categories: direct teaching, indirect teaching, interactive teaching, independent study, and experiential learning. Besides, the authors study the best AI programming languages, helping the educators implement them into the teaching process and offer the use of chatbot as a virtual assistant for students and a teacher. The post-graduate students of the Institute of the Foreign Languages (RUDN University) learn Academic English with the help of chatbots, which help to improve grammar and skills in research paper writing, expand professional vocabulary and develop professional competences of Ph.D. students. Keywords: Artificial Intelligence (AI), foreign language teaching (FLT), digital humanities (DH), chatbot

Introduction Digital humanities (DH) are one of the recent studies, which gives the humanities the possibility to develop and preserve all their education in an artificial memory. This artificial memory can be used to translate words or to find synonyms thanks to the internet and discoveries. Scientists and researchers use DH to think differently and to use computing methods to understand the traditional humanities, human history, languages, and other areas of studies (That Camp Paris, 2011). Today books are talking about using digital humanities in classrooms. Roberto Casati, director of education at EHESS, director of research at CNRS and François Taddei, director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (CRI), mentions that pedagogical sciences are changing. If people don't follow this change, then they will be obsolete (France stratégie, 2017). We can't walk against the technologies and the development of our world, so we must change our methods to integrate this new

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295 type of thinking. One of the challenges is the AI (Artificial Intelligence). The birth of the AI starts from 1921 in a play called "Rossum's universal robots" written by the author Karel Capek, this play represents robots that can think. From 1950 it was the scientists' turn to imagine intelligent machines. The British mathematician Alan Turing published an article named "Computing Machinery and intelligence" to discuss how to know if an intelligent machine approaches human intelligence, today this method knows as "Turing test." In summer 1956, American scientists John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, Claude Shannon in Dartmouth college for a conference for the first time employed the term "Artificial Intelligence" to descript intelligence machines. Today all social networks are connected, and the AI helps to recognize the data of any information, for example, facial recognition system, handwriting recognition, machine learning, and auto-evaluation. Still, we can mention a new type of solution with the development of Deep Learning. A computer is not at all smart. It serves merely to transform inputs into outputs with programs' help. A definition can be in this way: an application is a complex calculation performed by a computer to stupidly solve any problem for a given subject in our case; the question is about a universal method for adaptive teaching to a foreign language. Indeed, without intelligence, our program will not be so useful, so that why we are talking about AI. AI is the set of theories and techniques used to create machines capable of simulating human intelligence. In this case, we can talk about machine learning (Fig. 1). Machine learning is the liaison between performance, task, and experience. We can speak of learning algorithms, and there three most common methods: Supervised Learning, Unsupervised Learning, and Reinforcement Learning.

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Figure 1. Machine Learning algorithm Adaptive learning is one of the most challenging areas of AI application in education. The level of knowledge of those who begin to study science is different. And the abilities, life experiences, and motivations are different. Therefore, the program always seems too easy for some of the students; it is unbearably difficult for others. It is convenient for someone to perceive the material in one form—someone in another. As a result, the teacher always faces an insolvable task: how to ensure acceptable performance of low-achieving students and not discourage the desire of advanced students to learn accessible material?

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Adaptive technologies should solve this problem. It is assumed that artificial intelligence will track the progress of each student and either align the educational course with the student’s ability or inform the teacher that the students had a poor grasp of the lesson or they have successfully internalized the curriculum. Experiments to introduce such programs into a previously conservative learning process are conducted by many advanced technology companies. However, the Russian market is still dominated by the view of high-tech education as utterly remote, preserving the paradigm of the linear course: an online course. One of the few platforms that allow online course creators to use the capabilities of adaptive technologies using artificial intelligence is Stepik. But there are less than ten courses on it. Elements of adaptive technologies are also used in projects for children and adolescents, such as logic like, which offer programs for the development of logical thinking, in the project for self- training for the Unified State Exam Examiner. Experiments on the introduction of adaptive technologies in training are carried out in commercial projects in the field of HR. Today the most noticeable are Competentum, Ispring, E-mba on the Russian market. There are attempts to implement AI when teaching languages (Skyeng, Lingualeo, Websoft), as well as programming and design (Geekbrains, Netology). The purpose of the study is to research programming languages for AI and machine learning for selecting the FLT techniques and creating a virtual assistant based on Artificial Intelligence. Methodology With the development of digital technologies, the opportunities and needs of education have increased many times, as a result of which all participants in the educational process need to be able to use and apply them in practice. A change in the paradigm of the educational process has led to a rethinking of its structure and applied technologies, highlighting the informational ones (Chernyshkova N.V., 2016).

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Since the distinctive features of modern higher education are flexibility, efficiency and practical orientation of learning, such a knowledge exchange marks the transition from the traditional reproductive transfer of knowledge to a creative form of learning with its innovative methods, structures, means (Martynenko E.P., 2016; Moor P.K. & Moor S.M., 2016). It became possible also thanks to the advent of Web 2.0 technologies. The latter has become a prerequisite for the emergence of smart education, flexible learning that operates in an interactive educational environment using content from around the world that is in the public domain. The teacher's task is to intensify the use of electronic resources, to ensure their reasonable and justified use, which, in turn, requires continuous improvement of his qualifications, the development of the so-called "innovative individual trajectory of a foreign language teacher" (Kozarenko O.M., Karsenty T., 2019 : 132). According to the figurative definition of the German philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), language is the soul of the people; it captures its entire 'national character.' Learning a language is to create in students' minds, a character of a foreign national, and to be that character (Shukin and Florova, 2015). There is a better understanding today of what constitutes effective teaching and learning. A better understanding of teaching and learning styles provides a better appreciation of what is the most appropriate way to meet the individual needs of students. Educators also realize that learning is an interactive process and that students need to actively participate in practical, useful, relevant, and challenging tasks if they are to respond to the challenges posed by the curriculum successfully. Today if we take an example from our university RUDN University to learn a foreign language, it looks like traveling to other countries without crossing borders. At RUDN University, there are many international students from Asia, Europe, Latin America, and Africa (for example, Arabs,

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Spaniards, Turkic people, Chinese people, Persians, and other people). Every year the direction of RUDN University organizes concerts in the International culture center (Interclub). Teaching strategies determine the approach a teacher will take to achieve specific goals. Table 1. Teaching strategies

The procedures are classified into five categories: direct teaching, indirect teaching, interactive teaching, independent study, and experiential learning. Teaching methods are used to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and the learner will participate during the lesson. A given method is often associated with a given strategy, but some techniques can also be found in a variety of approaches.

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Table 1 presents the most common teaching methods taken from each of the five teaching strategies. What students learn depends not only on what they are taught but also on how an educator teach them, their level of development, interests, and experience. It means that we must, therefore, choose very carefully the methods used to present materials. Results Artificial intelligence is an extensive and growing technological field. It means that AI can be implemented in different programming languages in foreign languages learning, and teaching. However, it is still challenging to determine which of the languages should be used for AI development. The best AI programming languages, helping the educators implement them into the teaching process, are shown in Figure 2.

Julia: symple syntax, deep maths Haskell: lax semantics, strong roots static typing

R: vector computing, functional C++: faster execution and lower programming, object‐oriented latency, neural networks programming

Lisp: quick prototyping MATLAB: easy‐to‐use language capabilities, a collection type with integrated graphics, ML and library, support for symbolic AI projects expressions

Java:provides search algorithms Python: implements various AI and neural networks; offers algorithms; allows to create neural graphical representation, networks with useful libraries for debugging, and scalability developing AI

Figure 2. AI programming languages in teaching process

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Julia is a high-level, general-purpose programming language developed by Jeff Besancon, Stefan Karpinsky, Viral B. Shah, and Alan Edelman in 2009. It does not include the need for a separate compilation by speed. Simple syntax and deep mathematical roots make Julia a friendly. It supports machine learning platforms (TensorFlow, MXnNet), includes the foundation for machine learning and AI (Flux), mathematical syntax, and a programming language for data analysts. As a result, Julia offers the perfect way to express algorithms. This language will be useful for applications in bioinformatics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, engineering, data science. Haskell is a standardized, universal programming language designed with lax semantics and strong static typing. Initially developed in 1990, Haskell is mainly used in academia, although there are some examples of its use in industry and commerce for projects in AT&T, Facebook, Google, and others. Haskell is based on the semantics of the Miranda programming language and allows efficient libraries to implement AI algorithms. R is a unique programming language and a free, open-source software environment for statistical computing and graphics. Developed in 1993 by Ros Ithaca and Robert Gentleman, R is widely used among data analysts to develop statistical software and data analysis. It is also used in new-style artificial intelligence and general machine learning. R provides several such kinds of programming, as vector computing, functional programming, and object-oriented programming, and is considered as one of the leading standard languages for finance, biology, and medicine. MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory) is a proprietary programming language developed by MathWorks. It is an easy-to-use language with integrated graphics that allows developers to visualize data and get meaningful information from them. MATLAB is the right choice for machine learning and AI projects for visualization and matrix execution tasks. Lisp is one of the oldest programming languages available but remains one of the preferred AI development options because of

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302 its unique features. It is a practical mathematical notation for computer programs. Thanks to its flexibility, Lisp offers quick prototyping capabilities, a collection type library, support for symbolic expressions, and more. Java, a popular programming language, can also be considered the right choice for AI programming, as it provides search algorithms and neural networks. It is an easy-to-understand language that offers graphical representation, debugging, and scalability. Its portability makes it the preferred implementation for various applications based on the availability of different built-in types. Python is a widely-used programming language and can be used to implement AI because of the seamless and straightforward structure that it offers. The Python syntax makes it easy to implement various AI algorithms, which also reduces development time compared to other available programming languages. Using Python allows users to create neural networks with a set of useful libraries that can be used to develop AI. Other features include the ability to test algorithms without the need to implement them. It also supports object-oriented, functional, and procedural-oriented programming styles. That is why the postgraduate department of the Institute of Foreign Languages at RUDN University preferred this program in chatbots’ creating for Academic English. The chatbot has subsystems: choice of journal, cover letter, glossary, assessment & testing, personal message from Ph.D. students to the teacher (Feedback). The subsystem Glossary includes professional terms in three areas of the postgraduate studies: Education and Pedagogical Sciences, Linguistics and Literary Studies, and Psychological Sciences. Three groups of Ph.D. students write glossaries and dialogues for chatbots. Discussion The use of AI tools in teaching a foreign language helps to increase students' interest in the subject and enhance their speech and cognitive activity, develop independent work skills and work in a team, and effectively form all types of speech activity. Systematic

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303 work with computer tasks creates stable, independent work skills for students, which leads to a reduction in the time to complete standard tasks and allows them to increase the time to complete creative work.

References Chernyshkova, N. V. 2016. Information and communication technologies as a tool to improve the effectiveness of teaching a foreign language at a university. In: Proceedings of the V international scientific and practical conference Axiology of foreign language education, pp. 642-648. France stratégie. 2017. URL: https://www.strategie.gouv.fr/debats/evolution-methodes- pedagogiques [Accessed February 25, 2020]. Karsenti, T., Kozarenko, O. 2019. New technology trends and innovative teaching of foreign languages: what are the most effective teaching strategies? XLinguae 1(12): 128-144. Martynenko, E.P. 2015. Use of SMART-technologies in the development of students' professional personality. In: Proceedings of the III International Scientific and Practical Video Conference «E-Education: Prospects for Using SMART Technologies», Tyumen: Tsogu, 26 November 2015, pp. 105-107. Moor, P.K., Moor, S.M. 2016. Virtual interaction in the modern educational space. In: Proceedings of the III International Scientific and Practical Video Conference «E-Education: Prospects for Using SMART Technologies», Tyumen: Tsogu, 26 November 2015, pp. 10-15. That Camp Paris. 2011. URL: https://tcp.hypotheses.org/318 [Accessed March 04, 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-305-313

LANGUAGE POLICY AND MULTICULTURAL TEACHING IN ZAMBIA

Marina G. Petrova1, Mwanza Makina Dean2

1٫2Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-9147-6199 2e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Language education is an essential tool for successful human life in a multicultural and multilingual community of people. Knowledge of a foreign language of international significance gives an individual a chance to take a more prestigious position in society, both socially and financially. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly clear that the wealth of culture in the modern market economy and the development of information technologies are human resources, which act as the primary strategic factor of economic and social progress. In solving this problem, an important role is given to language education as a factor that turns a person into a developed personality. It expands his/her social and economic freedom and mobility. The article considers problems of the language policy and multicultural teaching, peculiarities of multilingual and multicultural education in Zambia. Integrative learning of two or more languages involves the formation of bilingualism or multilingualism. The concept of 'multilingualism' is determined as the development of interlanguage and intercultural relationship. It is a necessary condition for communication between people representing different societies and ethnicities. The interpenetration of languages is a tool for uniting peoples, understanding and strengthening friendly and good-neighborly relations between

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305 representatives of different countries. It contributes to the preservation of the multi-ethnic and multicultural heritage on a global scale. The modern process of teaching a foreign language (FLT), built on a communicative basis, with a focus on the student's personality and taking into account the language situation in the multinational country, forms a broad humanistic view of the world around the people, based on universal values, and makes a significant contribution to improving the humanitarian content of national education. As a result of comparative analyses, the author discovered that the curriculum and its teaching and learning in educational institutions of Zambia are thoroughly multicultural. Zambian students can critically evaluate various language policies, teaching practices, and planning programs implemented in multilingual education settings. Keywords: English, multicultural teaching, multilingualism and multiculturalism, interdisciplinary training, language policy in Zambia

Introduction Zambia is a multicultural country located in the southern part of Africa. Its geolocation has allowed people from different places to settle in the land throughout history. Most of the Zambian indigenous are from the Bantu family. There are 72 languages and dialects in Zambia. It is found that Zambians are exposed to different languages depending on the pursue of career and environment. Just like every other nation can see themselves being a diplomat in a specific country, that means they have to learn basic rules, culture and way of living for them to fit in, language is the foundation of this all. One must get acquainted with the foreign policies as the English saying goes “when you are in Rome do what the Romans do.” English was declared the national language adopting the former colonial style, at independence in 1964. It is the official language and the dominant language of business and education. English is

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306 the first language of only 2% of Zambians but is the most used second language because it is the necessity tool for communication amongst most educated Zambians and people with English language skills alike in general. English can be learned in all parts of the country, from primary to secondary level of education. From an early age, one will learn how to read and write in almost any school in the country. Indeed, one might opt for a more advanced curriculum and may apply in specific institutions like Acacia International School, a registered Cambridge international school that follows an integrated curriculum combining the Cambridge Primary Curriculum and the Zambian National Curriculum. Baobab College has internationally recognized qualifications through Cambridge Assessment International in England, British Council in Zambia, which is the UK’s international organization for cultural relations and educational opportunities in Zambia and International School of Lusaka. Some Zambian citizens have their preferable language of choice: French, Chinese, Russian, and so on depending on their career. It has come to our understanding that it is essential, especially in the twenty-first century, to know more than two languages because one may never know in which part of the globe they might end up. The Purpose of the study is to give a detail analyses to the language education in Zambia. Methodology and subheadings A wide range of theoretical studies, significant scientific contribution and practical experience of domestic and foreign figures in the field of pedagogy, methods of teaching languages and cultures, sociology, psychology, indicate the need for in-depth analysis and study of the phenomena of multilingualism and multiculturalism in the field education. Many scientists (Baryshnikov N.V., 2002; Rosenzweig V.Yu. 1972; Shcherba L.V., 2008; Ter-Minasova S.G., 2000; Vereshchagin E.M., 1969; Vygotsky L.S., 2005) recognized the positive impact of multilingualism on human thinking. They noted that polylinguism,

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307 firstly, does not impede the mental development of an average person. Secondly, it contributes to its creative thinking and is, therefore, one of the conditions for mental development. The training program for students in multilingual and multicultural education should be comprehensive and cross-cutting. Its implementation contributes to the complex nature of training, the systematic formation of necessary competencies, the continuity and consistency of their acquisition’s procedure (Kuchieva L., 2006: 25). The paradigm of multilingual education provides for a radical rethinking of the process of teaching foreign languages. A student who enters a university from the first days should clearly understand the prospect of mastering foreign languages and strive for it using the entire arsenal of educational technologies, including interactive, distance forms and teaching methods that help optimize the assimilation of the material. For the successful study of one, two or several foreign languages, educators develop a special algorithm, create a specific basis, a foundation that strengthens not only language skills, but introduces students to different ways of thinking, to a new attitude, and forms intercultural communicative competence. This fact enhances the ability not only to maintain their socio-cultural identity but also to show a desire for respect for other cultural and ethnic communities (Sidakova N.V., 2018: 210). Within the framework of interdisciplinary training, a positive trend has developed: students who already speak one foreign language and learn a second language are characterized by a higher level of learning, and this is a facilitating factor in further work with the language. Findings Throughout the last five decades, as the world is advancing Zambia along with it, Zambians have been more exposed to the outside world, thus bringing more foreign languages into Zambia as well as the need to study foreign languages at high demand. Communication is the vehicle of culture, and therefore, studying

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308 foreign languages helps one to experience a new culture. International organization for cultural relations and educational opportunities in Zambia and International Scholl of Lusaka demonstrate how studying foreign languages links people to the world and global opportunities. From the point of Intralinguodidactics, it may be expedient to consider the best educational institutions (Table 1). Table 1. Language educational institutions in Zambia Educational Program Languages Results Institution The university of high quality Zambian Bachelor in Zambia (UNZA) academic languages, Literature, programs English, Bachelor in French French, Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics, Bachelor of Arts in Zambian languages Confucius Institute short course basis Chinese Certificate at the University of on 19 teaching Zambia (CI- sites UNZA) The French School distance learning, French Diploma of Lusaka class lessons (professional secondary school) Russian Center of Mathematics and Russian Certificates (A1- Science and Science languages B1) Culture (RCSC) in accordance to the Russian curriculum Chinese school in Chinese language Chinese Certificate Zambia courses The University of Zambia (2020) offers high-quality academic programs through the Department of Literature and Languages, drama, theatre, and film. At the undergraduate level, one can apply

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309 for a degree in Bachelor of Arts in Literature, Bachelor in French, Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics as well as Bachelor of Arts in Zambian languages. For master’s degree or postgraduate level, offered is the Master of Arts in Linguistics, Master of Art in Literature, Ph.D. in Linguistics (by theses), and Ph.D. in developing competences in some local and foreign languages (University of Zambia, 2020). To develop competences in several local and foreign languages, short courses such as Chinese, Japanese, English, and French are also available for admission. The first Chinese school in Zambia offering Chinese language courses was opened in October 2009 through the relationship of the Chinese Embassy in Zambia and the Ministry of Education of Zambia share. The courses in this school are categorized into three parts according to levels of education offered, which are early-age education (2 to 6 years old), preadolescent children, and adulthood (University of Zambia, 2020). And in July 2010, the Confucius Institute at the University of Zambia was established, under the direct leadership of Hanban (Confucius Institute, 2020) with the Hebei University of Economics and Business (Confucius Institute, 2020). Teaching under the Department of Literature and languages, the first class of the Chinese language was established at UNZA. The initial stages involve teaching of Chinese language on a short course basis. Nineteen teaching sites have been set up throughout Zambia during the past six years since the establishment of CI-UNZA. The latest statistics show that the number of Chinese language learners in Zambia has reached an estimated total of 8,500. It includes under the Chinese degree program from CI-UNZA, primary and secondary school students, students of Kungfu, and so on. CI-UNZA is mainly spearheading all Chinese language-related education in Zambia. The French School of Lusaka was established in 1980, through the initiative of French residents in Zambia with the support of the French Embassy to Zambia. The Agency supports the French

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School for French teaching abroad (AEFE). The school curriculum is supported by the French ministry of education and by the AEFE until junior school. After that, the students switch over to the CNED (French national Centre for distance learning). The lessons are uploaded online, and homework is submitted for marking online to the CNED in France. Professional secondary school teachers have class lesson times with the students. Children learn to work independently with the added benefit of a small classroom environment. The French school of Lusaka has 110 pupils, from 30 different nationalities ranging from pre-school to high school (France in Zambia, 2018). The Russian Center for Science & Culture (RCSC) in Lusaka, also known as The Russian Cultural Center, was founded in 1989 and is in the forefront in teaching Russian culture in Zambia. The Rossotrudnichestvo rules the institution in Zambia. The main objectives of the RCSC are to maintain and develop positive bilateral relations between the people of Russia and Zambia by facilitating information about Russia, its culture and language, and encouraging cultural development through supporting activities such as the Arts, fields of Education, Commerce, Science and Sport (Russian Center, 2020). Located in the town center of Lusaka, the Cultural Center hosts many cultural activities which are aimed at connecting young people, scientists, artists, investors, intellectuals from Russia, and Zambia to promote cooperation between the two nations and develop positive approaches and ideas. At the Russian center, students study from A1 to B1 level, which is regarded as the first semester of preparatory faculty in the Russian education system. The primary purpose of the Russian center is to prepare students that intend to study in Russia. Students learn mathematics and Science languages following the Russian curriculum; they have lessons on Russian culture where they watch Russian history movies, listen to famous classic Russian songs, learn about Russian food and dances. Each year more than 200 students from different parts of Zambia apply to the Russian center.

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At the end of each year, the students with the best academic results are awarded scholarships to study in Russia in conjunction with the Russian embassy to Zambia. The center has guests from Russia to interact with the students directly. They engage in different games and activities such as chess, soccer, sketches in the Russian language, and so on. In this way, it helps students gauge their level of understanding. The center invites students from across the country as well as from outside the country to compete in mathematics, science, and Russian language Olympiads. Through these Olympiads, the selection of qualified with the best results is made. Given the fact that students at the center are familiar with the mathematics and science languages, they stand a better chance of getting better grades once they come to Russia for preparatory faculty; hence most students with Russian language knowledge are privileged. Discussion The modern University in Zambia is a multicultural space due to the interaction of representatives of various nationalities, ethnic groups, and religions. Therefore, the studied phenomena of polylinguism and multiculturalism should be multidimensional. The management and teaching staff of the University are always faced with the task of carefully preserving inter-ethnic balance among students, attentive attitude to the issues of multicultural education, understanding the problem of interaction and language learning.

References Baryshnikov, N.V. 2002. Ethnolinguodidactics and the Russian language. World of Russian words 2: 54-56. Confucius Institute. 2020. The University of Zambia 2020. URL: https://www.unza.zm/confucius/about/introduction [Accessed March 03, 2020]. France in Zambia. 2018. Embassy of France in Zambia, 22 May 2018. URL: https://zm.ambafrance.org/The-French-School-of- Lusaka [Accessed March 03, 2020].

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Kuchieva, L.A. 2006. The problem of training teachers for the multilingual education system. In Proceedings of the international scientific conference "Multilingual education as the basis for the preservation of the linguistic heritage and cultural diversity of mankind". Publishing House of SOGPI, Vladikavkaz, 24-28 pp. Russian Centre for Science and Culture in Lusaka. 2020. General Information of Russian Center if Science & Culture. 2020. URL: http://zmb.rs.gov.ru/en/about [Accessed April 29, 2020]. Sidakova, N. V. 2018. Revision of priorities and values in polylingual and polycultural education. Azimuth of Scientific Research: Pedagogy and Psychology 1(22): 208-212. Vereshchagin, E.M. 1969. Psychological and methodological characteristics of bilingualism. Publishing House of Moscow State University, Moscow, 160 pp. Vygotsky, L.S. 2005. Pedagogical Psychology. AST: Astrel: Lux, 671 pp. Rosenzweig, V.Yu. 1972. The main issues of language contacts. New in linguistics. Language contacts, PROGRESS publishing, Moscow, Vol. 6, 536 pp. Shcherba, L.V. 2008. The language system and speech activity. LKI, St. Petersburg, 432 p. Ter-Minasova, S.G. 2000. Language and intercultural communication, Slovo, Moscow, 624 pp. University of Zambia. 2020. Department of Literature and Languages. URL: https://www.unza.zm/schools/humanities/departments/literature [Accessed March 03, 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-314-329

TEACHING SPANISH AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND PRAGMATICS IN DISCOURSE TO HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENTS

Marina Vorobiova Munguía¹, Pablo Ramírez Rodríguez²

¹, ²Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. This paper discusses one of the main problems faced by foreign students studying English as a first and Spanish as a second foreign language, that is to say, the use of different discourse markers in spoken language. A discursive marker is an immutable linguistic expression that does not perform a syntactic function, but is a limiting element whose main function is to promote understanding and consistency of speech. These markers endowed with a certain pragmatic role, differ according to the predominant role they play in this context, indicating the difficulties they face in their interpretation and translation into another linguistic code. In addition, it is noted that such particles appear in different contexts, performing functions that do not correspond to those that they performed by default. Therefore, it is desirable that Spanish- speaking students become familiar with these units, so that they can give speech consistency and cohesion in accordance with the morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic properties that arise during communication. This work emphasizes the importance of speech acts arising in speech depending on the context. To achieve the goals, few the most commonly used discursive formulas in greetings are presented as an example, which are used as a replica in the confirmation to contrast their use and behavior in English and Spanish languages, as they can vary depending on the context,

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314 and therefore increases the degree of difficulty it presents for translation into Spanish. In addition, it is emphasized that routine formulas are a key example that provides a great cultural footprint, contributing to the development of communicative competence. We also discuss how modern linguistics assumes that languages cannot be described simply as a combination of phenomena, since they should be considered as internal systems used by speakers and how language speakers can use imagination to form new statements from a combination of existing elements, so language is a complex mechanism that allows you to combine elements to form statements. And finally, we argue that the “Grammar of Constructions” should turn to research in pragmatics, analysis of discourse and analysis of conversations in order to include categories that accurately describe contexts for using constructs. Keywords: pragmatics, phraseology, discourse, American English, Spanish

Introduction Today, starting with the formal aspects of syntax, such as generative theory, described in Principles and parameters, Principles and Parameters (Chomsky N., Lasnik J., 1995), the idea of introducing a pragmatic dimension in parsing is unusual, thus creating a new cognitive-functional vision, and expanding the boundaries for translation into other languages. In this case, the idea and purpose of creating a common analysis model for grammatical structures in a situation of interaction in different languages, in our case, Spanish and English (American version), arises. As you know, discursive formulas are complex objects that present a number of difficulties, firstly, for their lexicographic description, and secondly, when trying to embed them in general ideas about the structure of the language. For the same reason, the task in this paper is to describe the most relevant discursive formulas used in the spoken language of the Spanish language according to the pragmatics parameter, conduct a

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315 comparative analysis with American English and create a set of colloquial discourse formulas in both languages. The peculiarity of the formulas chosen for consideration in this study lies in its external form and meaning. This paper includes simple discursive confirmation formulas that are often used in speech. Since the work presents expressions that are non-compositional, i.e. fixed formulas, whose value cannot be predicted from the sum of their elements, they, without a doubt, relate to constructions. However, they have properties that significantly distinguish them from all the others, and the most important of them is the significance of the pragmatic component. It follows from this that discursive formulas are pragmatic constructions that are used in the context of a speech act, and each of them is a complete speech act. This work is based on two theoretical foundations, which are relevant topics of linguistic research: phraseology and analysis of discourse in interaction, pragmatics, by combining both approaches and using Spanish-English translation comparisons. Among these phraseological statements is a subclass consisting of formulas well known to speakers of any language, since they are often resorted to in everyday life. Objectives/Purpose of the study We believe that the study and use of certain phraseological units is not a matter that should be focused on higher levels as has traditionally been done. Moreover, we will try to prove the importance of the work of lexical segments from the first levels, so that students from the very beginning of training will already identify these fragments, study them and use them in context. In addition, in accordance with this position, we concluded that from the basic levels there are prerequisites for linguistic knowledge in connection with the communicative ability of foreign speakers to interact in certain communicative situations at the appropriate level. The various characteristics of ordinary formulas make them a necessary element in our didactic programming for the

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316 development of communicative and intercultural competencies of students. It could be the complex lexical units that speakers use primarily in certain communicative interactions of the social and everyday life in which they perform a linguistic function related to the communicative intention of the interlocutors. An important sociocultural and pragmatic burden of routine formulas arouses interest and motivation of students who are attracted to phraseology due to cultural components that are identified with their own culture and which are unknown and surprising. Thus, formulas are ready-made statements that speakers make when the situation justifies them. True, not all of us participate in the same socio-cultural events. It all depends on the type of speaker, personal or professional situation and other factors. Nevertheless, it is well known that everyone practices the vocabulary of colloquial speech, as this is the only verbal activity that all members of the community naturally share and which is characterized by their spontaneity. In turn, it has a large set of expressions that people use in the usual way to perform certain ritual speech acts, such as gratitude, congratulation or rebuke. Methodology Work in the classroom with the fixed expressions contributes to the implementation of a number of attitudes, such as observation, analysis, reflection, comparison or decision making, which help the development of intercultural competence of students working on concepts, related to other ways of understanding the world through the sociocultural aspects that underlie phraseological units in general, and routine formulas in particular. While working with the usual formulas in the classroom, their training in context should be encouraged in order to promote the development, at the same time, of the communicative and intercultural students’ competence of Spanish and English. In the course of the activity and practice, teachers should take into account not only the formal characteristics of routine formulas, such as their possible fixation and idiom, but also issues such as the registry to which they belong, or frequency of use, level of training at which you can work on the

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317 basis of the aforementioned characteristics and communicative functions that are the linguistic indicator or cultural content that we intend to consider, as well as the intercultural aspects that we want to demonstrate. We believe that work which is primarily aimed at developing cross-cultural competence teachers should pay attention to the typology of exercises that give the activity a sense of cross-cultural dialogue while developing understanding in context and meaningful practice. Therefore, to contribute to the acquisition of routine formulas, the pragmatic adaptation of students in their communicative interactions and reflections on the cultural aspects associated with the language and culture of the student, as well as with the language and culture in English or Spanish. Based on this, we worked in this area with the idea that all languages have prototypes, which are the most ideal representation of reality for most people in society. From a selection of a number of everyday situations of interaction we tried to comprehend what prototypical expressions are in their culture to perform certain communicative functions, if any, and how they are also expressed in Spanish or English. This will reflect, for example, how to express appreciation or rejection in each culture, what factors play a role in these situations when deciding how we address our interlocutor, and what fixed expression we use in relation to these factors, if any formulas that are used by default, or for speaking in both cultures. Thus, the student will be able to learn and evaluate which aspects should be taken into account when interfering in the conversation, which formulas must be acquired to facilitate communicative interaction, and which should be known, but which can be discarded if they are not considered basic or prototype. Results/Findings When learning a foreign language, situations are very common in which we do not know how to react, especially in communication situations, such as accepting an apology daily or simply responding to gratitude. If the teachers remember and observe the students on a daily basis, one can see that there are many uncomfortable

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318 situations caused by the lack of knowledge of certain social interaction formulas that foreign language students encounter, especially at the initial levels, when they do not know how to respond to the greeting, presentation or congratulations during daily interactions. Following the description of the lexical units of G. Corpas, it is noticeable that they are characterized as “habitual and stereotypical formulas of social interaction that perform certain functions in predictable, routine and, to some extent, ritualized situations”, and which are classified in phraseological statements along with paremias as “phraseological units of speech” with the character of expression, which differ from paremias by the absence of text autonomy, since their appearance is determined to a greater or lesser degree accurate communication situations (Corpas G., 1996). These formulas are used by default by presenters in social communicative situations for greetings, apologies, thanksgiving, promises, etc., or with the function of opening, closing, or switching to speech. Thus, being connected with a specific situation and composing linguistically and socially established elements they become part of the lexical component of speakers and become necessary to ensure communicative success, pragmatic and sociocultural adaptation in a communicative exchange. In relation to the lexical approach, the speakers preserved these minimal units of communication in the mental lexicon as a whole and in specific situations use them and interpret them as such. In addition, the fact that they are determined by the communicative situation makes them predictable in certain contexts. Thus, according to G. Corpas, “they contribute to faster language processing, so that speakers can spend more time planning longer units of speech and taking care of the social aspects of communication” (Corpas G., 1996), and on the other hand, as J.B. Yagüe explains, “they approve of the principle of comfort because the speaker is not forced to develop his whole speech, but uses

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319 these predefined formulas that his interlocutor recognizes and which leads to faster and more effective communication” (Yagüe J.B., 2003). With respect to the formal characteristics of ordinary formulas, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that they are dependent on the context, they are endowed with varying degrees of fixation and idiom. This means that variants of the same formula that were established as a result of use and possible opacity in the meaning of some of them should be clearly worked out with the students, depending on the learning objectives of the current process, the needs of students and the level at which they are. In this way, students will be aware of this and will receive more information when using them. Finally, taking into account functional, semantic and pragmatic criteria, routine formulas can be used in various communication situations. On the one hand, discursive formulas are those that organize a conversation or discourse and include the formulas “opening” or “closing”, as well as “transition”. Psychosocial formulas, on the other hand, are those that express the speaker’s feelings and facilitate the development of social interactions, such as commits, expressive expressions, etc. All of these characteristics which are mentioned above make routine formulas an achievable learning goal for elementary students and very profitable in their social interactions, given that they do not have a strong knowledge of the new language, they will provide them with fluency and relevance, as well as help to get pragmatic the result, being able to focus their efforts on creating new information that they want to offer, and not so much on developing these communicative acts. From what is currently associated with the process of teaching and learning, two characteristics of routine formulas can be distinguished: their predictability and the fact that they seem to be related to situations of social interaction. With this knowledge, teachers can work on them in the classroom, anticipating their needs in accordance with the linguistic functions that they have as their learning objectives

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320 and always accompany them with the context of their use in communicative exchanges. Taking into account the question of the communicative profitability of this type of complex lexical units and the fact that they are understood as a whole, it is interesting to think about working with routine formulas based on the concept of the importance of pedagogical segmentation of the lexicon: “a language consists of traditional grammar and vocabulary, but often from prefabricated blocks consisting of several words” (Lewis R. D., et al., 1997). The focus is on teaching vocabulary as a goal that will help students develop communication skills in the language they learn. The goal is to learn how to communicate, and this is a vocabulary that gives meaning to communication. Unlike other didactic approaches, in which vocabulary is another part of the set of knowledge that needs to be developed, the lexical approach protects the lexical concept of the language and improving the communicative competence of students by constantly influencing the input and awareness of the division of the language into prefabricated blocks acquired as those that form the basis of fluency in speech. According to R. D. Lewis, the teacher should help the student to become aware of these segments, which will help to reflect and assimilate both the lexical elements and the phonological and grammatical aspects. In fact, another of the principles on which this theory is based is the concept that the language is formed by grammatized vocabulary, that is to say, this idea is based on the “principle of idiom”. When understanding the language as a set of ready-made blocks, these segments should be taught from a lexical point of view, without their internal analysis, especially in the first moments, a fundamental problem for working with ordinary formulas from the initial levels. English examples: A: Hi/Hello. How are you? B: Great, thanks. And what about yourself? A: I’m just fine, can’t complain.

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321 or A: Hi. What’s up? B: Not much. I’m just hanging out. or A: Hi. How’s it going? B: Pretty good. You? Spanish examples: A: ¡Hola! ¿Cómo estás? B: Muy bien, gracias. Y tú ¿qué tal todo? or A: ¡Hola¡¿Cómo andas? (¿Qué hay?¿Qué haces?¿Qué te cuentas?¿Cómo vas?) B: Bien, ¿y tú? A: Pues por aquí. The analysis of grammatical structures in the situation of oral interaction shows research, lexical and syntagmatic categories that have hardly been studied by traditions. Among these structures are: discourse markers, used as tools by which speakers perform an act of communication through connection functions, discourse information, mode expression, or contact control between interlocutors. Grammar of constructions is a set of sentences that have the same goal: the requirement for grammatical construction as the main unit of linguistic analysis. Such grammatical constructions are defined as stable formal and interpretive elements with varying degrees of structural complexity and schematics. According to this approach, the linguistic knowledge of the speaker is described as a system of complex constructions in which vocabulary, syntax, phraseology and even discursive patterns interfere. Therefore, a distinction is made between central and peripheral structures depending on their importance in building the grammar of a given language. As regards the origin of the “Grammar of Structures” it appears to be difficult to clarify and outline the birth of this theory. Nevertheless, we can answer that the origin of this theory was based at Berkley University of California, USA, by Charles J.

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Fillmore and George Lakoff in the eighties. Both authors advocated the creation of Generative Semantics, a trend that emerged from the Generative Grammar in the sixties, whose maxim was to place value in the center of research as well as integrate contributions about pragmatics into the semantic component of theories speech acts or conversation logic. Some basic principles of the constructionist model such as the relationship between form and meaning or the inclusion of pragmatics in the characterization of meaning, originate in two theoretical contributions. On the one hand, “Case Grammar” (Fillmore Ch. J., 1968), where the author emphasizes the importance of correlating linguistic forms with meanings, and on the other “Frame Semantics” (Fillmore Ch. J., 1977), where the author suggests that the meaning of linguistic expressions was based on structured representations of his own experience the speaker. G. Lakoff for his part points to various works prior to his constructionist approach that compositional analysis is insufficient to explain the meaning of some specific structures, so he argues that structures have their own meaning (Lakoff G., 1977). In the nineties the book "Constructions" was published, a work in which the development of "Grammar of Structures" stands out. The work of “A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure” (Goldberg A. E., 1995) goes beyond linguistic communication to become a reference point for structural grammar for its contribution focused on the relationship between the verb and its additions. After these fundamental contributions, many works were written on the “Grammar of Structures”, which moved from a more closed area to a research center in various universities around the world. Modern linguistics assumes that languages cannot be described simply as a combination of phenomena, since they should be considered as internal systems used by speakers. In addition, language speakers can use imagination to form new statements from a combination of existing elements, so language is a complex

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323 mechanism that allows you to combine elements to form statements. Since its first statements (Chomsky N., 1957), generative grammar has served as a model for guiding linguistic research with a number of hypotheses, such as: language ability is an autonomous cognitive ability, language ability is innate in a person or language ability has a modular structure, so that each component forms its own representation. The idealization adopted by N. Chomsky focuses on the distinction between competence and efficiency. Generative grammar suggests that the study of the communicative and social aspects of language is beyond the scope of competence. The use of certain interrogative or exclamatory sentences is not part of the speaker’s competence, but is a broader theory of performance. The focus of generative research on the N. Chomsky model is to achieve explanatory adequacy. Therefore, the interest of generative grammar is focused on the formulation of general and abstract principles of universal grammar, i.e., on explaining the mechanisms of universal grammar in the simplest and most general way, excluding other essential aspects for understanding human language as an internal character (intonational, semantic and pragmatic), and of an external nature (historical, sociolinguistic, etc.). Both the “Grammar of Constructions” and the generative grammar (Goldberg A. E., 2003) agree that language is a cognitive system that has mechanisms that allow combining units to create new sentences, so an exact theory is absolutely necessary. The direction of generative grammar does not currently consider it necessary to have grammatical constructions, but only vocabulary and computer systems to take into account the syntax of the language. However, “Grammar of Structures” suggests that grammatical constructions are the basic units of analysis, since they allow you to interconnect forms with their meanings, given the nature of the grammar. “Grammar of Structures” is trying to show that the acquisition of grammar is possible from interaction

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324 with other people through cognitive mechanisms or the search for patterns Similarly, the approaches of constructionists emphasize that the behavior of some structures cannot be explained from general principles. As an example, although Spanish is considered a zero- subject language, in some constructions the subject is mandatory (Hilferty J., 2003). Otherwise, the statement is not grammatical. a. Soy médico y Sonia es enfermera. ‘I'm a doctor and Sonia is a nurse’. b. Sonia es enfermera y soy médico. ‘Sonia is a nurse, and I'm a doctor’. Currently, linguistic thinking tends to establish a strict separation between the knowledge that speakers have and the way these speakers use that knowledge. One of the most attractive aspects of grammar constructions for analyzing grammatical structures in an interaction situation is the inclusion of a pragmatic dimension, which is necessary because of the existence of pragmatic information encoded in syntactic structures. Formal approaches to pragmatics have established a clear separation between grammar and pragmatics (Fillmore Ch. J., 2006). On the one hand, grammar is associated with an explanation of meanings, regardless of context, use, or ultimate goal. Pragmatics, on the other hand, are primarily mechanisms that explain the intentions by which speakers use language expressions in specific contexts. From this point of view, pragmatism should take into account interpretation mechanisms based on ‘local and special cultural conventions’, for example: the Spanish convention as politely rejecting an invitation, and logical mechanisms based on common- sense reasoning ‘common sense’. This colloquial implication is presented in the following examples: Spanish example: A: ¿Tienes fuego? ‘Do you have a lighter?’ (Lit. you have fire) B: No fumo. 'I do not smoke.

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English example: A: Would you like to stay? B: Well, you know, I don’t wonna be the third wheel here, so I’m gonna get going. To characterize the pragmatic value of grammatical constructions, it is necessary to answer two questions: what aspects of interpretation are traditionally associated with the grammatical construction and which theoretical tools are necessary for an exhaustive description of the type of contribution that the construction makes for the interpretation of the statement (types of contexts and linguistic functions). As for the types of pragmatic information that can be expressed through grammatical constructions, there is no definite sentence. For this reason, the “Grammar of Constructions” should turn to research in pragmatics, analysis of discourse and analysis of conversations in order to include categories that accurately describe contexts for using constructs. Discussion Most of the structures cited in spontaneous spoken language are within the framework of the expression of pragmatic functions. That is, you need to think about what is the linguistic form issued by the speaker, and what is the contribution to the interpretation of the statement. The syntactic structure always includes discursive information (Montolío Durán E., 1996). According to the models described in Principles and parameters, Principles and Parameters (Chomsky N., Lasnik J., 1995) and Programa minimalista, Minimalistic Program (Chomsky N., 1999), a detailed analysis of grammatical constructions should reveal more general principles of language functioning, so the interaction of the interests of the formal aspects seems to diverge. This explains why linguists dedicated to describing grammatical structures in interaction chose to turn their attention to other theories in the field of pragmatics, discourse analysis, or speech analysis.

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The most constructive studies of linguistic theories are given in the areas of discursive markers that give the impression of the existence of two types of grammars: ordinary grammar, made up of general language constructs, and peripheral grammars, which made up constructions in terms of pragmatics and discourse. The concept for many linguists from a cognitively functional point of view is knowledge of the language, that is, knowledge of the use of the language (Cuenca M. J., 2003). In this sense, the grammar of constructions can correspond to this description. (Goldberg A. E., 2006; Kay P., Fillmore Ch. J., 1999). Situations in which a cultural shock occurs can also be productive in developing intercultural competence. Teachers can perform actions based on social situations that may not exist or differ from the student’s culture. During the training, the student should strive to understand why certain types of behavior occur in societies where they speak Spanish or English, why people act in a certain way in certain interactions and, therefore, based on the use of certain routine formulas in relation to their communicative intention and sociocultural aspects that define them. It is also necessary for understanding other people in his own culture, putting forward hypotheses, for example, about situations in which we show our agreement in a conversation, and about the different types of expressions that we can use to do this. Also about the formulas that are usually used to interrupt our interlocutors interaction or how we express our rejection at different times. In these examples of practice, one can observe how to use ordinary formulas as an element that helps students to be aware and inform of cultural aspects that go unnoticed, therefore it becomes possible for the teacher to work on various aspects that are necessary for development, so that students are effective interlocutors in their communicative exchanges in Spanish and English. In everyday life each person is surrounded by communication situations in which expressions are used, many of them fixed and idiomatic, which are part of the social interactions that speak Spanish or English and without which communication can be

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327 difficult. Knowing these phraseological units that are used in a predefined and institutionalized way can help second and third language learners improve their ability to interact in most everyday situations and, therefore, their communicative competence in Spanish or English, such as routine formulas. Based on the foregoing, routine formulas are a linguistic reflection of familiar communication situations. They are expressions that are established socioculturally due to their repeated use in certain everyday situations, until they become an integral part of the development of certain conversational exchanges between community speakers.

References Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures Mouton. Syntactic Structures 9: 13-17. Chomsky, N. 1999. Un programa minimalista para la teoría linguistica. El programa minimalista 3: 40-58. Chomsky, N., & Lasnik, H. 1995. The theory of principles and parameters. In The minimalist program, MIT Press, Cambridge, pp. 13-128. Corpas, Pastor, G. 1996. Manual de fraseología. Gredos, Madrid, 334 pp. Cuenca, M. J. 1995. Mecanismos lingüísticos y discursivos de la argumentación. Comunicación, lenguaje y educación 7 (2): 23-40. Fillmore, Ch. J. 1996. The case for case Syntax-Semantics Interface in Psych-verb Constructions 201: 1-88. Fillmore, Ch. J. 1977. Scenes-and-frames-semantics. In A. Zampolli (ed.) Linguistic Structures Processing, pp. 55-81. Fillmore, Ch. J. 2006. Frame semantics. Cognitive linguistics: Basic readings 34: 373-400. Goldberg, A. E. 1995. Constructions: A construction grammar approach to argument structure. University of Chicago Press. Chicago, 271 pp.

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Goldberg, A. E. 2003. Constructions: A new theoretical approach to language. Trends in cognitive sciences 7 (5): 219-224. Goldberg, A. E. 2006. Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in language. Oxford University Press on Demand, Oxford, 280 pp. Hilferty, J. 2003. In defense of grammatical constructions. PhD Thesis, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 380 pp. Kay, P., & Fillmore, Ch. J. 1999. Grammatical constructions and linguistic generalizations: the What's X doing Y? construction. Language 64 (30):1-33. Lakoff, R. 1977. What you can do with words: Politeness, pragmatics and performatives. In Proceedings of the Texas conference on performatives, presuppositions and implicatures 6 (3): 79-106. Lewis et al. 1997. Implementing the lexical approach: Putting theory into practice. Language Teaching Publications 3(1): 223- 232. Montolío Durán, E. 1996. Gramática e interacción. In A. Briz & al., Pragmática y grámatica. Libros Pórtico, A Coruña, 342 pp. Yagüe, M. I., & Maña, A. 2003. Un modelo de control de acceso basado en la semántica. RedIRIS: boletín de la Red Nacional de I+ D RedIRIS 66: 63-66.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-330-343

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SPATIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ON MASTERING OF YOUNG LEARNERS’ COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN THE ENGLISH LESSONS

Andrey A. Bogatyrev¹, Julia S. Berova²

¹, ²Moscow Pedagogical State University Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Teaching within frame of new educational standards implies adopting by educational institutions and teachers a learner- centered educational paradigm. This causes a certain revision of a must have educational process conditions set. Learning a foreign language can be viewed as a multi-faceted process. Recently, researchers began to pay more thorough attention to language teaching management as a special source of learners’ performance. It includes designing the learner’s studying activities environment. The language learning environment can be considered as a system of cultural, social, psychological and pedagogical conditions. Nowadays communicative competence has become the main objective of learning foreign languages. Thus, creating a new EFL learning environment can be viewed as a way of solving this challenging task, based on application of new technologies for supporting and developing young learners’ communication skills in the English lessons. The purpose of this article is to describe the components of the spatial-environmental technology and to test its influence on young learners mastering communication skills in the English lessons at school. The optimal language learning conditions should be used by teachers in classroom. The methodological notion of language learning environment embraces a set of such components as a special teaching strategy, classroom

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330 management, authentic materials, resourceful teaching and purposeful application of visual aids, cooperative learning and a package of methodological tools for designing and implementing EFL learning activities. During our research experiment, a group of young learners was observed. Pupils passed a test in English at the first and at the final stages of experimentation in order to measure the level of their speaking skills in English and the range of its development. A template of five-point Likert scale was used for pupils’ communicative skills assessment. Its values ranged from “1” indicating ‘none’ to “5” indicating a ‘very high’ level of EFL communication skills proficiency. There were used such communication skills indicators as pronunciation, grammar and wording, as well as EFL interactive communication readiness’s measurable variables. The analysis of educational outcomes of the English lessons, based on the spatial-environmental technology, exposed accountable progress in developing of young learners’ EFL speech and improvement of their communication skills. Keywords: the spatial-environmental technology, communicative skills, elements of language environment

Introduction Within context of world political, economic, cultural and social integration and globalization process, there is an increasingly strong evidence for the EFL skills demand in real life. English proves a useful tool of intercultural interaction and business communication worldwide. English as a Foreign language teaching in a modern school is based on the competence approach within frame of communicative paradigm. It means that the goal of teaching is the development of practical communication skills. The key issue of target-centered formation of communicative competence is providing reliable educational conditions for application of EFL knowledges and skills into practice in real speech situations. However, providing a fully authentic environment for the mastering of communication skills in English in Russian schools seems to be a very difficult educational task.

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The idea of research is based upon the supposition that the spatial- environmental technology can prove a powerful tool of effective organizing the EFL classes. It could contribute as incentive to learners’ speech activity in a target language and provide useful guidelines for development of communicative competence of the learners. The hypothesis of the study is that purposeful creation and exploitation of constructed English language environment provides superior expedient conditions for modelling realistic communication situations, inspiring pupils’ speech activities. The purpose of the study is to describe a set of the key components of the spatial-environmental technology and to elicit its influence on mastering communication skills of young learners in the English classroom lessons. The problem of the development of children' ability to communicate in foreign language has been researched by many scientists. The main findings and conclusion are presented in the theory of speech activity by A.A. Leontiev, I.A. Zimnyaya, the theory of foreign language education by E.I. Passov, the methodology of teaching foreign languages by I.L. Bim, G.V. Rogova, A.N. Schukin, the theory of personality development, activity, communication by L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov, the theory and technology of developing foreign language education by Z.N. Nikitenko and many others. Among the key reasons that have a significant impact on the successful development of communication skills are the creation of motivation, providing learners’ involvement in the educational process, the formation and satisfaction of ‘communicative- cognitive needs’ (Zimnyaya I.A., 1985: 47). The above-mentioned factors are actualized through the creation of a functional language environment in the lesson. In the theory of the spatial-environmental approach developed by Yu.S. Manuylov, the pedagogical environment is a “system of actions with the environment, providing its transformation into a means of education” (Manuylov Yu.S., 2008: 22). The term of action is the

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332 key definition of the spatial-environmental technology as a theory of indirect impact on learner. Yu.S. Manuylov describes the management cycle consisting of three actions with the environment. These actions are ‘diagnosis, design and production’ (Manuylov Yu.S., 2002: 29-30). They turn a learning environment into a learning tool and help to manage the studying process. Methodology Nowadays the teacher in the school performs a large number of functions and responsibilities. His tasks in the lesson are not limited to presenting material for study. The teacher should be educated and help to deepen the knowledge of learners in different areas of human life. This is especially true for foreign language lessons. Acquisition of a foreign language implies immersion in foreign cultural environment, mastering the rules of etiquette, social standards of life in the target language country, understanding of the social and economic conditions of life, the cultural values of native speakers. Among the main components of the spatial-environmental technology that could involve in the target foreign language, culture, history, social life, and produce impact on the formation of learners' communication skills, we can distinguish: 1) lesson management and classroom management; 2) exploiting classroom as a showroom; 3) using authentic materials; 4) practicing resourceful teaching and purposeful application of visual aids; 5) developing a package of methodological tools for project activities; 6) providing conditions for cooperative learning. The teacher’s task is to fill in some of these components, which Yu.S. Manuylov in his study of the spatial-environmental approach refers to the term of ‘niche’ (Manuylov Yu.S., 2008: 21). ‘Niche’ means a limited space of possibilities through which it is possible to indirectly influence on an individual and stimulate his

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333 development. To fill in a ‘niche’ means to include in the lesson the proper content, ‘trophics’ (Manuylov Yu.S., 2008: 22). Psychologists consider a learning environment as a “part of sociocultural environment, where goals and meanings of education are achieved” (Likova I.A., Kozhevnikova V.V., 2017: 2). This means that for successful development of young learners’ communication it is better to base it on sociocultural, personal and universal meanings. New cultural experience is a key factor of child’s socialization as is a communication. The close connection of the culture and a learning environment is viewed as a way for young learners to “assimilate universal human experience as something external, but also help to make internal, so that based on this sociocultural experience, a child could transform his natural skills to the possibility of a ‘second birth’ – it is self-actualization, discovery of his “I” and own life path” (Likova I.A., Kozhevnikova V.V., 2017: 6). Many studies of the influence of learning environment on educational process admit its huge impact on the quality of education (cf. Bobadilla A.S., 2018: 567). The problem is how to find a compromise between learner’s expectations about learning environment and school administration system and teacher’s intention about this. “Discrepancies between teachers and students’ interpretation of a learning environment will usually result to substandard use of learning environment” (Bobadilla A.S., 2018: 568). On the one hand, Teacher’s teaching methodology and one’s ability to create a psychologically pleasurable environment in English classroom plays an important role in the creation of an effective learning environment. On other hand, the teacher’s effectiveness is depended on the quality of school technical equipment such as providing opportunity for teaching EFL classes with a moderate number of learners, available teaching materials, convenient system for monitoring learner’s progress.

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Lesson and classroom management A lesson is a basic unit of the language learning environment. It is a ‘niche, where the learner’s personality is formed and improved. Various opportunities are provided for the development of learner’s cognitive, intellectual, emotional, linguistic abilities in the lesson. The teacher should prepare the lesson with the appropriate content or ‘trophics’, to enrich the educational environment. For this purpose, the teacher should possess and apply competences in different spheres of human life: psychology, philosophy, history, culture, economics, politics, music, art and constantly professionally develop. ‘Trophics’ can be viewed as a source of formation, development and upbringing of the personality of not only of the learner, but also of the teacher. Modern teacher’s roles in the lesson are not limited to the process of direct organization of educational activities. At different stages of the lesson, a teacher could use different behaviors or roles, depending on the application of certain learning styles to certain learners’ needs. For instance, a teacher may act as a planner, a manager, an observer, a facilitator, an assessor and as a rapport builder. Regarding this multi-modality of Classroom roles performance, the teacher should prepare a lesson in such a way that it could satisfy children’s communicative and cognitive needs. The teacher should motivate pupils to further learning of the language, inspire them to start a conversation, provide immediate assessment and feedback, as well as encourage learner’s autonomy. The teacher should try to create such a functional, interactive environment in which learners feel themselves comfortable and are not be afraid of making mistakes. The effective learning environment is a place, where the active use of interrogative forms is welcome and the friendly and respectful relationship between learners and teacher are enjoyed. The correct managerial actions of the teacher with the environment – ‘diagnostic’, ‘design’ and ‘producing’ (Manuylov Yu.S., 2008:

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22) can help one to create an effective functional environment for pupils’ teaching and development during the lesson. A classroom as a kind of showroom The modern class for learning of foreign language can be partially classified as ‘niche’, and partially as another component of the theory of the environmental approach – ‘stikhiya’ (Manuylov Yu.S., 2008: 22). On the one hand, portraits of the most famous and outstanding English and English-speaking performers, actors, artists, historians, politicians, scientists, geographical maps, grammar tables, posters with idioms and collocations, bookshelves with foreign literature, state symbols and images of popular sights should help learners to immerse in a foreign language cultural context. On the other hand, due equipping English classroom may probably contribute to the creation of a favorable and productive atmosphere of the lesson. It could help to tune the leaners in to the process of foreign language acquisition, arouse learners’ interest and desire to search and get new knowledges. It can serve as an incentive for the development of communication skills. A class is a place, where a learner can immerse oneself in the target language, satisfy one’s cognitive and psychological needs, and apply theoretical knowledge to practice. Authentic materials Authentic materials can also be categorized as ‘stikhiya’. They are directly related to creating motivation for learning a foreign language, stirring up inner curiosity, encouraging actions, educational communication with peers and a teacher. We must not forget that the creation and use of authentic materials should be consistent with the goals and interests of learners. We can distinguish: audio content (sounds, music, songs), video content (films, cartoons, podcasts, ads), books, radio, texts, newspapers, the Internet and social networks. There are some examples, how we can use the authentic materials in the English lessons. It could be reading a topic or an interesting article, discussing traditional holidays, public holidays, listening to songs of famous English- speaking singers, discussing key ideas of a song, reading a book or

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336 its fragments, watching short cartoons and holding a discussion after that, communication and exchanging of experience with native speakers on the forum or through special IT platforms, friendly correspondence, acquaintance with the art of the target language country through on-line excursions to great museums and exhibitions, etc. The use of authentic texts, audio-video materials, reading comics and books could play an important role in immersion in the culture of the target language country. “Authentic texts provide the best source of rich and varied comprehensible input for language learners” (Mishan Freda, 2005: 41). Teaching aids and visual aids Teaching and visual aids are equipment which is available in the classroom or can be brought inside the class to increase the effectiveness of the educational process. The teaching aids are a whiteboard, an interactive whiteboard, a projector, a computer, speakers, interactive teaching applications like SMART Notebook etc. Visual aids help the students to learn the material - flash cards (can be with words, sounds, sentences), puppets – they are dolls of people or animal which are controlled with hands inside, various graphs and charts, realia – there are real objects which can be brought into the classroom for learning new words or building a dialogue, playing and role communicative activities, modeling specific situations from the life of English society, family. Visual aids can be also classified as ‘stikhiya’. They help to involve children in studying process and capture their attention, give an impulse to their communicative and cognitive activity. Package of methodological tools for project activities The package of methodological tools for project activities includes road maps, route and grading sheets, a list of possible educational products, instructions for the presentation and protection of project work, etc. An educational and cognitive activity with gameplaying elements is the leading activity in primary school. Within frame of educational process, pupils, working in group, can create their own educational products in English (poems, fairy tales, comics, theater

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337 scenes, models, plans, advertisements, illustrations, infographics, etc.). Therefore, for a more effective organization of the learning process, it is important to create such conditions, a functional, creative environment, which will stimulate children to acquire new knowledge by interacting with classmates and creating of a collective educational product. For this purpose, design technology and group projects are used. During the implementation of the group project, the teacher should design motivating stimuli to involve young learners in verbal interaction in English. This will contribute to the development of not only formal linguistic competence, but also such valuable communicative competence components as learner’s ability to conduct a dialogue, hold a discussion, as well as the ability to negotiate, to defend one’s point of view. Group project activities can be organized in the form of distance learning projects with pupils and native speakers, including online communication, web conferences about project conducted. Cooperative learning There is another type of activity that could positively affect the development of interpersonal communication in English in the lesson. There are various options for the teacher to organize learner’s interaction with one another: Formal cooperative learning – the process of students’ group learning to solve a certain problem – e.g. writing a joint report or discussing some issues in teams. Informal cooperative learning – a sparkled short-term learners’ interaction, lasting 2-3 minutes in the classroom during the lesson. Cooperative base group - the interaction of pupils in the long term, sometimes for several years. To sparkle pupils’ communicative interaction, we could use various educational role-playing games in the lesson, stimulating task-based learning, brainstorming, information gap activities, the jigsaw method, case-study, interviews or surveys, competitions and etc.

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Findings The purpose of our study, was to apply and to check the influence of a various spatial-environmental technology solutions on mastering of young learners’ communication skills in English as a foreign language. To conduct the pilot experiment, we took group of 28 5th grade pupils in public school and split it (in an alphabetic order) into two groups of 14 pupils in each. The pilot experiment research had been carried out successively for 8 weeks. To check the level of English before starting our experimental research, we gave learners “Family and Friends Placement Test”. The results are presented in the table 1. Table 1. Results of the placement test Score/Grade Group 1 Group 2 0-22/ Grade 3 0 0 23-47/ Grade 4 4 5 48-75/ Grade 5 10 9 The results showed that the level of English in both groups are quite comparable. Group 1 was chosen as an experimental group. Group 2 was chosen as a control group. The study consisted of 3 stages: a diagnostic level, technology approbation, and final assessment results processing and interpretation. At the first stage, we assessed the level of speaking skills in English. For this purpose, we used the “Cambridge English: Key Schools speaking test”. The testing consisted of two parts. Part one (5-6 minutes): first the examiner asked a learner and his/her partner some questions about daily life, past experience and future plans. Part two (3-4 minutes): a learner and his/her partner conversed with one another. Each learner asked and answered questions. As learners did the task, we listened to them and evaluated the level of three specific skills: (1) English pronunciation, (2) English grammar and wording, (3) interactive communication. For informal assessment a five-point Likert scale was used. Assessment score ranged from “1” indicating a rather low level of communicative skills possession to

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“5” indicating a very high the level of achievement at development of communication skills. The five-point Likert scale criteria are presented in the table 2. Table 2. Five-point Likert scale of communicative skills assessment Pronunciation Wording and Interactive Points Grammar Communication Correct stress and Grammatical and Maintain simple 5 intonation, clear lexical accuracy is high exchange, don’t understanding require any support, no pausing and clear meaning Reasonable using Some basic Has some difficulty 4 of stress, correct grammatical errors, but to exchange intonation, meaning is clear, information, mispronunciation vocabulary is sufficient pausing, but s are noticeable, to respond, but some meaning is still but clear in inappropriate lexis is clear general marked, quite accurate Not always clear Grammatical structure Quite difficult to 3 enough to and lexis are limited to simple exchange understand, basic words and information, frequent errors phrases, frequent frequent pausing, errors, often difficult to requires support understand, meaning is not always clear Pronunciation is Grammatical structure Considerable 2 mostly and lexis are limited to difficulty to simple promiscuous, basic words and exchange very difficult to phrases, very frequent information, understand, very errors, which impede frequent pausing, frequent errors understanding need additional support Almost unable to communicate (no meaningful language) 1

All testing data had been collected and analyzed. The results are shown in the table 3.

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Table 3. The results of the “Cambridge English: Key Schools speaking test” Subskills Group 1 Group 2 Pronunciation (m) 4 3 Grammar/Vocabulary (m) 3 3 Interactive Communication (m) 3 4 The average mark was counted for each group for each of the three subskills. m= (L1+L2+L3…+Ln)/n ‘m’ stands for the average mark Ln denotes the number of learners n – denotes total number of learners The second stage was the technology approbation. We applied the spatial-environmental technology to English lessons using a whole set of language teaching environment components. These were: teacher’s lesson and classroom management, using the classroom as a showroom, authentic materials, teaching and visual aids, the package of methodological tools for project activities and cooperative learning. At the final stage of experimentation, we used the same “Cambridge English: Key Schools speaking test” for processing and interpretation of results by a five-point Likert scale (in the same way as at the first stage of experimentation). The results of learners’ communicative skills final assessment are presented in the table 4. Table 4. The results of the second “Cambridge English: Key Schools speaking test” Subskills Group 1 Group 2 Pronunciation (m) 5 3 Grammar/Vocabulary (m) 4 3 Interactive Communication (m) 5 4 Descriptive and inferential statistics revealed that the level of learners’ communication skills in the experimental group 1

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341 increased observably. We could trace the development of learners’ speaking skills in such proficiency aspects as a pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, interactive communication. Discussion The research results elicited the beneficial impact of a set of spatial-environmental technology tools and teaching solutions, based on a purposeful strategy of developing young learners’ communicative skills within frame of interpersonal communicative tasks solving. A complex approach was used for assessment of three aspects of young learners’ EFL speech performance. The young learners’ educational results speak up for applying spatial-environmental technology to EFL communicative competence formation and disseminating best teaching solutions. One of limitations of the research results was imposed by a limited number of participants. So, one needs to involve more pupils into experimental activity to check replicability of the results achieved in this study. Conclusion The most important conclusion drawn from the research results is that the development of communication skills can be stipulated with purposeful teaching strategy based on a well-organized language learning environment. Due to the fact, that it is quite difficult to create a fully authentic environment for improving young learners’ speech in English in Russian schools, we tried to elaborate a technological way around. We proposed a different spatial-environmental technology, based on language environment’s components, to model realistic communication situations. To master learners’ communication skills in English, the teacher can use in EFL lesson effectively a purposeful combination of teaching tools and solutions, based on a set of the following components: classroom management, extensive application of various authentic materials, teaching and visual aids, a package of methodological tools for project activities, organization of a classroom as a showroom and designing a special interactive space

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342 for cooperative learning. In case of systemic educational environment approach, the immersion of the child in foreign language activities is carried out in a comprehensive manner. One must keep in mind that learning environment is a system of conditions and goal-centered educational actions.

References Bobadilla, A. S. 2018. Assessment of students’ learning environment and its relationship on the teaching learning process. International Journal of Advanced Research 6(11): 567-579 Likova, I.A., Kozhevnikova, V.V. 2017. The formation of communication in the educational environment (Education and development toddlers). Kazan pedagogical journal 3 (122): 92-99 Manuylov, Yu.S. 2008. The article of conceptual foundations of the spatial-environmental approach in education. Pedagogy. Psychology. Social work. Juvenology. Sociokinetics. Bulletin of Kostroma State University of Nekrasova 1(14): 21-27. Manuylov, Yu. S., 2002. The spatial-environmental approach in education, 2nd ed. Publishing House of the Volgovat Academy of Public Administration, Moscow-Nizhniy Novgorod, 157 pp. Mishan, Freda. 2005. Designing Authenticity into Language Learning Materials. Intellect TM, Bristol, UK/ Portland, OR, USA, 346 pp. Zimnyaya, I.A. 1985. Psychological aspects of teaching speaking a foreign language: teacher’s book, 2nd ed. Prosvescheniye, Moscow, 160 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-344-356

DIDACTIC ASPECTS OF TEACHING OF AUDIOVISUAL TEXTS TRANSLATION : METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGIES

Alla H. Guseva

Russian State University for the Humanities Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The publication is devoted to the current format – audiovisual text (AVT), translation features, software used and translation technologies. The article analyzes the learning process of the translation technique, provides classification, strategies and stages of AVT translation. In accordance with the transition to FSES 3 ++ the Russian State University for the Humanities (RGGU) has developed a new educational paradigm, which integrated specialized disciplines to form and improve professional information technology competencies of undergraduates in the educational programs of higher educational institutions. The discipline «Electronic translation resources» («ETR») is a course given to the first-year undergraduates of the Institute of Philology and History of the RSUH («Linguistics» degree, «Translation and Translation Studies» specialization). The section «AVT Translation Process: Linguistic Support (LS) and Specialized Software (SS)» is reasonably made a separate thematic unit of «ETR»: AVT translation is the new independent linguistic discipline that requires appropriate approaches to the study and determination of level of ICT involvement; this translation specialization is of demand at the labor market, and that increases motivation to master the necessary professional competencies.

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The purpose of the publication is to present AVT translation as a multi-stage process from pre-translation analysis to actual translation; to formulate the framework of processing AVT in open source software. The integrative approach to selection of didactic material format for teaching of AVT translation, as well as development of methodological concept of teaching how to work with LS and SS represent the research methodology. ICT’s are used in comparative analysis and typology of translations, processing of foreign language hypertext, working with multilingual database, developing of interactive thematic glossary, processing and translating of audio and video texts, and media. Practice in «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS» is carried out in accordance with the topic of the final project on the material of the selected AVT (documentary, feature film, television program, AVT media). Discussion A) The language aspects of AVT adaptation are concentrated around the concept of film dialogue, which is singled out as a special type of the text with its own structure, purpose, and features. B) In the film translation practice, the main stage is represented by linguistic and literary analysis of the audio track, implying that students work according to the proposed plan: description of the biographical events of the director and the screenwriter that influenced the work and features reflected in the film; formulation of social significance and artistic value of the work. C) It is advisable to apply the following translation strategies: 1. The strategy of reflecting cultural-born speech actions. 2. The strategy of maintaining the overall «tonality», reflected in making the translated AVT sound natural and accessible. 3. To save the features of the spoken text when transmitting semantic content, revealing the coloring of the foreign language culture, reflecting the intent of the director and author of the script, ensuring understanding of events occurring on the screen.

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Keywords: audiovisual text, translator electronic resources, translation process, pre-translation analysis, specialized translation software, teaching of translation

Introduction The rapid development of audiovisual communication in the 21st century and popularization of cinema, which has high ideological and spiritual potential, both in traditional and online formats, has provoked the emergence of the new activities that require additional professional competencies. In this context, the translation profession is considered as one of the key ones, and the current state of the world cinema, globalization of economy and interpenetration of cultures challenge the translation community: to communicate not only meaning, but also keep adequacy, clarity, intelligibility and equivalence of the audiovisual texts (AVT) translated, as well as all the qualities and characteristics of the original speech, regardless of the source language, situational and sociocultural contexts. Teaching a foreign language, as well as special courses aimed to develop and improve future professional translation competencies in the time of digitalization of almost all areas of economy, politics, science, culture and art, requires significant modernization and revision of the format and content of didactic materials, development of new methods and technologies of educational process. Let's consider the features of the translation of audiovisual texts and the main provisions of the teaching methodology of translation practice used in practical exercises in the discipline «Electronic Translation Resources» («ETR») (section «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS»). As the fundamental ideas, we propose to accept the following points: 1. The most promising tools for intercultural interaction, cooperation and information exchange are linguistic support,

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346 specialized translator software, foreign-language electronic resources, authentic documentaries and feature films, television programs, media materials available online and in the Internet archives. 2. Audiovisual translation is a translation of multimodal and multimedia texts into another language and their transfer to another culture. The features of audiovisual translation, unlike other types of the text, represent various specific aspects of the object of this type of translation – AVT; verbal and non-verbal information is transmitted simultaneously acoustically and visually and the linguistic aspect plays the secondary role. Objectives/Purpose of the study Analysis of the methodological concept of the discipline « Electronic Translation Resources» (section «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS»); description of the technologies and software used in AVT translation. The purpose of the work is to present the translation of audiovisual texts as a multi-stage process from pre-translation analysis to actual translation; to formulate the framework of processing AVT in specialized translation software. Methodology and subheadings The integrative approach to selection of didactic material format for teaching of AVT translation, as well as development of methodological concept of teaching how to work with LS and SS represent the research methodology. 1. Introduction 2. Subject and purpose of the study 3. Methodology and subheadings 3.1. Semantic field of AVT translation 3.2. Translating of movie dialogs 4. Result / results 4.1. Methodological concept of «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS» 4.2. AVT Translation technologies

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5. Discussion 5.1. Educational process and translation practice 5.2. Conclusion Semantic field of AVT translation Traditionally, the difficulty of translating audiovisual texts lies in the need to adapt the text to a foreign language culture built on a different system of values and concepts. In this regard, it should be noted that a prerequisite for the translation process should be complete understanding of AVT with an adequate presentation of the final translation, taking into account the stylistic and lexical features of the spoken author’s text on the screen. The translator does not have crucial role in duplicating and creating of the final version of the AVT translation, and the main feature of this type of translation is the need to prepare an adequate text in the language of translation, ensuring synchronous syllable articulation and video with pace of speech and duration of individual replicas. The AVT format is understood as documentary, feature films, television programs, AVT media. It should be clarified that to complete the final project, undergraduates choose the translation of a feature film as an AVT format in 70% of cases. Translating a film, a number of features should be noted: the discrepancy between the volume of the text and the sound time; the use of compression or expansion techniques in translation; taking into account the speaker’s cultural level, his age, contextual meaning of phrases, syllable imagery, etc. Translation of films is a cultural and social phenomenon in which there occur a lot of changes over time and due to technological progress, but a translator must have a unique combination of skills such as: «1. ability to perceive foreign oral speech by ear in all its stylistic, psychophysical and ethnographic variations; 2. ability to differentiate the primary from the secondary; 3. knowledge of system equivalents and ability to quickly extract them from RAM; 4. knowledge of situational idioms; 5. correct speech, speaker skills», etc. (Kuzmichev S.A., 2012: 147).

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Translating of movie dialogs In the learning process, the term «movie dialogs» is used to denote the entire linguistic system of the film, which is understood as the «verbal component of the feature film, the semantic completeness of which is ensured by audiovisual (audio-visual) series in the general discourse of the film» (Gorshkova V.E., 2006: 26). The film dialogue as a separate type of the text is characterized by such categories as: 1. general text (information content, connectedness, wholeness, semantic meaning, prospectus and retrospection); 2. socio-cultural (transfer of national-specific realities, proper names and speech characteristics of characters). In the most cases, translation of a movie is a translation of speech, dialogue of heroes – «movie dialogs» (the term was introduced by V.E. Gorshkova). Translating film dialogs, it is important to take into account factors such as tone, volume, tempo, timbre of the speech, sound time (timing), and pragmatics of the utterance. Translation with subsequent professional dubbing of films can be divided into three types: 1. Duplication. 2. Lipsink. 3. Voiceover. The indispensable condition for the translation of a feature film should be complete understanding of the text with adequate representation of translation with stylistic and lexical features of the original spoken text, as a result, undergraduates are offered a creative task – to make pre-translation analysis of a feature film, implying preparation for the actual translation and including the following steps: 1. Spectator viewing to understand overall vision of the subject of the translation and familiarization with the plot, theme, idea. In this case, special attention should be paid to personalities to understand their thoughts, feelings, emotions, experiences. 2. Collection of information about the film, its history, plot, heroes, creators: articles, comments, biographies, interviews. If there are

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349 literary sources, they should be studied: for example, in order to identify established translations of proper names and terms. 3. Analytical viewing implies the presence of editing or dialog sheets, where, in addition to the replicas of the characters, their emotions and events in the frame are described. During the initial viewing of the film, time codes are affixed at the beginning of each scene or episode, short and long pauses in each phrase are indicated, and that should be subsequently reflected in the translation. Replicas are also noted where the text is pronounced at a fast pace, which is necessary for subsequent partial reduction in translation; marking up the tempo and rhythm is needed to facilitate the work of actors in dubbing, and sometimes additional compression of the text is needed. The optimal strategy for the translator is to keep as much as possible the features of the spoken text when transmitting the semantic content of film dialogs, as well as and to show the color of a foreign language culture in replicas, intonation image of the characters' speech and humor, that reflects the intent of the director and author of the script, and also facilitates understanding of the evеnts on the screen. In the course of work on the final project and preparation for intermediate certification, undergraduates improve the professional competencies necessary for effective and correct translation activities in the field of film translation, taking into account the need to use ICT in the current environment. Result / results Methodological concept of «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS» The section «AVT Translation Process: Llinguistic Supports (LS) and Specialized Software (SS)» is reasonably made a separate thematic unit of «ETR»: AVT translation is the new independent linguistic discipline that requires appropriate approaches to the study and determination of level of ICT involvement; this translation specialization is of demand at the labor market, and that increases motivation to master the necessary professional competencies. «ETR» has a modular structure, ICTs are used in

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350 comparative analysis and typology of translations, processing of foreign language hypertext, working with a multilingual database, developing of interactive thematic glossary, processing and translating of audio and video texts, creating of virtual management system «Translation Agency», translation activities in linguistic and sociocultural communication and media. «ETR» is considered as applied discipline due to the individual tasks in various software and motivating to intensify cognitive and creative activities in ICT translation in the practical module. The practical tasks «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS» are carried out by undergraduates in accordance with the topic of the final project on the material of the selected AVT (documentary, feature film, television program, AVT media) and help to solve the following: 1. To introduce to the translation features of AVT and peculiarities of translation activities in the current environment; 2. To develop the ability to apply the theoretical knowledge in practice in translation of film dialogues and substantiate their translation decisions using ICT; 3. To teach to determine the degree and level of translation equivalence comparing it with the original using up-to-date software tools (audio and video formats); 4. To teach translation analysis, analysis of AVT structure and identification of the content to be transferred based on TM technologies; 5. To improve the skills of working on a personal computer and in network environments using text editors, electronic encyclopedias, lexicographic databases, specialized linguistic support and translation software. With regard to the professional use of linguistic support and specialized software tools in translating of a film dialogue text, the graduate students study «the dynamics of the word in the language in the certain historical period» (Zhdanov E.A., 2012: 389), compiling a dynamic type lexicographic database, containing «lexical categories and groups that are most actively used and form

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351 the linguistic consciousness of contemporaries» (Thesaurus of modern Russian language, 2006: 6). Further, the undergraduates proceed directly to the translation activities, the main stages of which are text structuring in accordance with the lexical and stylistic (grammatical) features, translation of a representative fragment of a film, comparative analysis of the original and translation, subjective and predictive analysis of the original text and the text of translation, recording of a movie dialogue using SS. With reference to the substantive aspect of «ETR» - «AVT Translation Process: LS and SS», it should be clarified that the undergraduates study the features of pre-translation analysis of films, study the language aspects of translation, determine the translation strategies of film dialogues, explore the process of forming terminological vocabulary, analyze and improve movie translation techniques and methods. In the context of «ETR», this type of work is one of the ways to update knowledge about the film dialogue translation types and methods, it develops the translation skills using TM technology, and also allows to determine potential topics of the final qualification work. AVT Translation Technologies Development and improvement of professional translation competencies during work with AVT implies not only introduction but also work in SS demos. So, we briefly describe the main up- to-date translation software for phonograms of movies and dubbing in recording studios. MAGIX's Samplitude program for recording, editing, mixing, mastering, and audio output is a High Definition Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) designed for recording, editing, mixing, object-oriented editing. Objects are created when importing files or when recording. The system is based on an audio editor that is particularly high- performance, which optimizes the functionality of the system when using virtual instruments and other plug-ins, making

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Samplitude software independent of external audio hardware. Samplitude offers a large number of modern technologies, which otherwise would have been necessary to additionally purchase in the form of external plug-ins. Thus, Samplitude represents an integrated workstation. Even the basic version of the program offers everything you need to work: up to 128 tracks, 64 tracks with a sampling frequency of up to 384 kHz. The capabilities of the Pro version expand the basic parameters, allowing to work with 999 tracks, as well as with many additional tools. The Nuendo program – part of the Steinberg professional software and hardware DAW system – is able to work with audio files of various formats, as well as MIDI data through a sequencer. It is focused on professional sounding in films, TV programs, advertising, radio broadcasts, includes a large number of high- quality effect processors that work in real time, including equalizers, dynamic processing, modulation, filters and special effects. Digidesign (an Avid division since 1995) creates innovative sound recording tools. Pro Tools - a system for recording and editing stereo recordings, which is a family of software and hardware systems for recording studios for Mac and Windows. When working with this software, they use specialized expansion cards HD Core and HD Accel, which process the digitized audio signal in almost real time. Pro Tools software and hardware systems are successfully used in the vast majority of professional recording studios around the world. Due to their high performance, a wide range of supported processing plug-ins and the possibility of direct integration with Avid video editing systems, Pro Tools systems are a standard in the audio production industry. The most important feature of Pro Tools systems is session compatibility, instant editing and mixing in a professional studio.

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Discussion Educational process and translation practice In the current environment, taking into account the employers’ and obligatory for translators requirement to know specialized software, the methodology of teaching of translation practice requires significant updating and amendments. In accordance with the transition to FSES 3 ++ the Russian State University for the Humanities (RGGU) has developed a new educational paradigm, which integrated specialized disciplines to develop and improve professional information technology competencies of undergraduates in the educational programs of higher educational institutions. The main tasks of these disciplines are: 1. Definition of educational technologies necessary to master the course (module), reflection from using interactive technologies and innovative methods; 2. Determination of the optimal system of ongoing monitoring and intermediate certification of students using appropriate assessment tools. Teaching a foreign language, as well as special courses aimed to develop and improve future professional translation competencies in the time of digitalization of almost all areas of economy, politics, science, culture and art, requires significant modernization and revision of the format and content of didactic materials, development of new methods and technologies of educational process. Linguodidactics in the era of the widespread dissemination of information and communication technologies implies the active use of multimedia in the classroom environment, as well as giving interactive exercises for independent work to the students. ICTs provide a wide range of opportunities to the students for development of written language, improvement of literary and special translation skills, and the regular use of electronic resources in the educational process of the university allows not only to develop auditory and phonetic skills, but also to develop a

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354 communication scheme with native speakers – representatives of the modern culture of the country of the language being studied. Conclusion Wrapping up we formulate the following conclusions: 1. The linguistic aspects of AVT and films adaptation are clustered around the film dialogue concept, distinguished into a special type of the text with its own structure, purpose, peculiarities, that also directly affects the strategy and adequacy of the translation. At the same time, «the accuracy of the translation does not exclude adaptation to create the form, atmosphere and deeper meaning of the work inherent in another language or another country» (Translator’s Charter, 1994: 1). 2. In the film dialogue translation practice according to the developed algorithm of work using ICT and specialized software, the main step is to conduct linguistic and literary analysis of the audio track of the movie. This type of translation work assumes first of all, the work of students according to the proposed plan, which before the translation includes the following: description of the biographical events of the director and screenwriter influenced the work and creativity peculiarities reflected in the film (stylistics); formulation of the social significance and artistic value of the film as a work. 3. The main tasks of AVT translation are: 1. Catch of the features of the spoken language in direct dependence on the technique used and the type of adaptation; 2. Achievement of the desired communicative-pragmatic effect; 3. The necessary consideration of spatio-temporal factors due to the specificity of the film as a material carrier of AVT. In this regard, translating a movie dialogue, the following strategies should be considered appropriate: 1. Strategies for reflecting the cultural-born speech actions; 2. The strategy of maintaining the overall «tonality», reflected in making the translated film dialogue AVT sound natural and accessible.

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3. The optimal translation strategy is to save the features of the spoken text when transmitting semantic content, revealing the coloring of the foreign language culture. In the course of work on the final project and preparation for intermediate certification, undergraduates improve the professional competencies necessary for effective and correct film translation activities taking into account the need to use ICT in the current environment.

References Translator’s Charter. Approved by the World Congress of the International Federation of Translators (FIT) in Dubrovnik in 1963 and amended in Oslo on 9 July 1994. Explanatory Translation Dictionary. URL: https://perevodovedcheskiy.academic.ru [Accessed February 18, 2020]. Gorshkova, V.E., 2006. Translation in the movies. IGLU, Irkutsk, 267 pp. Zhdanov, E.A., 2012. Lexicographic fixation of neologisms in dictionaries of different types. Bulletin of the Nizhny Novgorod University 3 (1): 388-392. Kuzmichev, S.A., 2012. Translation of films as a separate type of translation. Bulletin of MSLU. Series: "Humanities" 9 (642): 140- 149. Thesaurus of modern Russian language: language changes of the end of the XX century. 2006. Russian Academy of Science. Institution of linguistic researches. Astrel: AST, Moscow, 894 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-357-366

ASSESSMENT OF EMPATHIC SKILLS IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

Oksana B. Poletaeva1, Natalya V. Vojtik2, Ramsia A. Absaljamova3, Ekaterina A. Lobanova4

1٫2٫3٫4University of Tyumen Tyumen, Russia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-4925-1420 2e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-3428-1843 3e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-2703-3921 4e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-7316-6464

Abstract. In this study, we focus on empathy as a multifaceted concept, underscoring the professionally significant qualities graduates obtain in order to successfully solve new issues and professional problems. This research assesses the application of a set of empathy-focused communicative exercises, simulation games, and videos that possess both a general and professional focus as a way of enhancing the effectiveness of the language- learning environment. Thus, in this paper, we consider empathy as a socio-psychological trait that includes the ability to recognize another person’s emotional state and mentally merge into that person’s thoughts, feelings, and actions, as well as the ability to apply it into interaction. The components of empathy reveal the skills and techniques for its development: an ability to adequately analyze and interpret the state of a person, the ability to listen empathically in a dialogue, and the ability to show empathy in verbal and non-verbal forms of communication.

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The methodological grounds for this research involve an interactive approach in teaching foreign languages with the possibility of integration with traditional methods, the dialogue- based content of teaching foreign languages, and the theory of intercultural communication using learning support technologies. “Emotional Response Scale” developed by A. Mehrabian, N. Epstein, as well as “Technique for diagnosing the level of the ability development to interpret non-verbal behaviour in interpersonal communication” by V.A. Labynskaya are implemented in this study. These methods are a modern and powerful tool for empathy parameter estimation. Based on the research objectives, we diagnosed empathic skills coming to the conclusion that the process for developing empathy is more pronounced in average- and high-empathy subjects than in low-empathy subjects. The results obtained reinforce the view that simulation games and the use of video courses contribute to the increase in empathic skills, of communicative activity, demonstrating a more proactive attitude in the classroom, an initiative in training, tolerance, and amiability; an increased interest in the acquisition of knowledge and applying professional empathic skills in practical activities. Keywords: empathy, professional empathic skills, empathy- focused communicative exercises, language-learning environment

Introduction Young people with a university degree entering the labor market face a range of social and psychological challenges. It is, therefore, necessary for graduate students to obtain personal and professional skills in order to be both competitive and successful in the workplace. Many researchers coping with the changes of educational reforms have thoroughly analyzed the array of professionally important qualities and emphasized the essential role of activities, strong communication skills, and personal freedom demanded today. Personal qualities for any job should also include tolerance, adaptability, and honesty. Along with

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358 tolerance, honesty, and self-esteem, empathy creates a psychological balance for effective intercultural interaction (Schneider S.C., Barsoux J.L., 2003) and often seen as crucial for future career adaptability. Therefore, the academic implications of empathy as well as the practical skills of language interaction must be prioritized for they are both key indicators of personal and professional skills adaptation. Objectives of the study This research assesses the application of a set of empathy-focused communicative exercises, simulation games, and videos that possess both a general and professional focus as a way of enhancing the effectiveness of the language-learning environment. In this study, we focus on empathy as a multifaceted concept, underscoring the professionally significant qualities graduates obtain in order to successfully solve new issues and professional problems. Thus, in this paper, we consider empathy as a socio-psychological trait that includes the ability to recognize another person’s emotional state and mentally merge into that person’s thoughts, feelings, and actions, as well as the ability to apply it into interaction. The components of empathy reveal the skills and techniques for its development: an ability to adequately analyze and interpret the state of a person, the ability to listen empathically in a dialogue, and the ability to show empathy in verbal and non- verbal forms of communication. Methodology The methodological grounds for this research involve an interactive approach in teaching foreign languages. Our paper analyzes the possibility of integration with traditional methods, the dialogue-based content of teaching foreign languages, and the theory of intercultural communication using learning support technologies. “The Emotional Response Scale” developed by A. Mehrabian, & N. Epstein (Mehrabian A., & Epstein N., 1972), as well as “The technique for diagnosing the level of the ability development to interpret non-verbal behaviour in interpersonal

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359 communication” by V.A. Labynskaya (Labynskaya V.A., 2008) are implemented in this study. These methods are a modern and powerful tool for empathy parameter estimation. Results Empathy plays an important role in obtaining, processing, and validating information, while innovative behaviour refers to the introduction and application of new ideas, products, processes, and procedures to a person's work role, work unit, or organization based on sympathy. In many studies, empathy is considered among the issues of communication and education as emotional and behavioural components that refer to interest and responsiveness, as well as emotional attitude and enthusiastic reaction to people. The cognitive component of the concept requires knowledge and understanding of empathy, its nature, and role in communication and activity. As part of the methods and approaches adopted in teaching a foreign language, we have selected a range of learning activities that effectively stimulate the development and manifestation of empathy. The interactive activities are based largely on dialogue communication and contributing to emotional experience, reflection, and collaboration, involving the empathic skills development. In the absence of an immersive language environment, an imitation game in the classroom is a great field for interaction as it is a business-oriented role-play involving decision making. The imitation game can be advantageously used during the first three semesters, which are especially difficult for foreign language learners. Freshmen are often not fully prepared for the cognitive challenges of university and are instead more accustomed to activities experienced in secondary school; therefore, their educational and professional motives are poorly expressed, or even absent (Roth M., Schönefeld V., Altmann T., 2016). Furthermore, interactive activities in the language classroom at university motivate students to learn and acquire the empathic skills necessary to be successful in their careers. For example,

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Carousel, develops the skill of rapid response and etiquette; Zigzag helps to develop empathic listening; Group changing activity reveals qualities crucial for effective interpersonal communication; and Mask develops a trusting relationship and overcoming psychological barriers (Fengler Jörg, 2009). We consider each activity in detail: these interactive classroom activities develop several important communication skills of emotionally empathic interaction, including the ability to interact and establish interpersonal contacts in a foreign language, as well as the participants' impact on each other in order to adapt to each other's speech and their positive emotions. Additionally, skills like rapid response and etiquette, feedback, sympathy and interest, active interpersonal communication, and empathic listening and non- verbal communication can all be derived through well-designed classroom activities. The aforementioned tasks stimulate basic communication skills, compelling subjects to listen, comprehend, and share information with one another. Over the course of the activities, students identify and describe qualities, skills, interests, and penchants of partners helping everyone remember them easily. Empathetic skills are developed by expressing interest and positive emotional attitude to the object of empathy. The wide range of activities, which ensure the effective teamwork of students, includes work with audiovisual materials. An interactive approach to audio-visual aids in the learning environment ensures the variability of situations, enriches the emotional experience of students and, therefore, their ability to analyze and adequately explain the emotional state of another person. Video courses have the potential for empathetic development because they offer a variety of real-life situations that show interlocutors’ verbal and non-verbal behaviour, thereby maintaining the link between linguistic and emotional aspects of behaviour in the language environment. The focus on day-to-day communication in video courses makes the learning process attractive for intensive development of empathic skills.

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Empathy as a process of emotional response to the experiences of another person contributes to personal and professional adaptation; therefore, at the start of experiment, it is supposed to increase the level of students' empathy by means of special training, i.e. engagement of students in interactive communication through simulation games, while watching video films. The experiments enabled us to record and document the manifestation of empathic skills at the beginning and at the end of the training (1st and 3rd semesters respectively). The experiment conducted from October 2016 to October 2017, involved 319 students of the University of Tyumen at the beginning and 303 students at the end. To assess the cognitive and emotional components of empathy, we used “The technique for diagnosing the level of the ability development to interpret non-verbal behaviour in interpersonal communication” developed by V.А. Labynskaya (Labynskaya V.A., 2008). The technique reveals the test subject’s ability to recognize basic emotions through facial expressions, posture, and gestures. It also allows for the determination of the Cognitive Component and the Behavioural Component of empathy. Our study evaluated, using Labynskaya’s technique for diagnosing levels of empathy, the perception of expressive indicators and the understanding of emotional content through non-verbal signs. We added a task to verbalize the emotions presented in the photographs, which enabled us to determine students’ cognitive level of empathic skills using expressive vocabulary for identifying emotions, thereby actualizing the emotional experience of the trainees and their individual empathic skills. The number of correct answers was registered. Those who scored fifty percent or less indicated a very low ability to identify emotions (Table 1).

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Table 1. The development of students’ empathy during the experiment Level Selection of participants in the experiment of At the beginning At the end Decrease (-) empathy of the experiment (%) of the experiment (%) Increase (+) Low 51,0 0 - 51 % Average 45,1 69 + 23,9 % High 3,9 31 + 27,1 % We used “Emotional Response Scale” method developed by Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N., 1972) to diagnose the emotional and behavioural components, which allow us to analyze general empathic tendencies. This scale also allowed us the ability to emotionally respond to the experiences of another person and the degree of conformity/inconsistency of the sign of experiences of the object and the subject of empathy. The questionnaire consisted of 25 questions inquiring to what degree subjects agree/disagree. The behavioral component was also registered while engaging in communicative activities, allowing the researchers to determine the ability for empathic listening and using the information for further forecasting. To provide a unified assessment standard for empathy levels based on various diagnostic methods and an analysis of certain parameters of each component of empathy, we introduced a four- tier scale with four coefficients: low (k1), average (k2), above average (k3), and high (k4) which corresponded to the results processing principles of the aforementioned diagnostic methods. These coefficients are used to assess empathic skills contributing to adaptation in various situations, especially where professional adaptation is required. Coefficient k1 (very low level) signifies poorly developed, inefficient empathic skills in which adaptation is difficult, causing predicaments. Coefficient k2 (low level) refers to a satisfactory level of empathic skills, even if there are frequent failures to adapt

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363 to random situations. Coefficient k3 (average level) indicates well- developed empathic skills that make it possible to establish and maintain the required communication; good adaptability to the majority of social and professional situations. Coefficient k4 (high level) indicates advanced empathic skills allowing the establishment and maintenance of communication in an original, creative way in a wide range of situations of social and professional interaction. Data analysis demonstrates the changes in empathy components after performing interactive exercises that develop empathic skills. The level of the Cognitive component increased by 51%. These results suggest that students acquired practical skills that helped them correctly perceive and evaluate the emotional states of other people. The level of change in the Emotional component demonstrates the most efficient development with an increase of 77.3% as a whole. The Behavioural component of empathy increased by 67.4%. This testifies that emotional capability, the primary indicator of empathic intelligence, requires a large set of verbal means and additional time for training. Further study should be aimed at finding effective training methods for verbal means of communication. Discussion The results obtained reinforce the view that simulation games and the use of video courses contribute to the development of empathic skills while learning a foreign language. The changes that occurred in the process of utilizing these two techniques allow us to consider them as an appropriate method for the development of empathy. This suggests that simulation games and situations presented in the video course more effectively develop this component in comparison with others. Empathic listening, responding to prompts, predicting actions, and demonstrating the action can be formed by means of prolonged exercises. Based on the research objectives, we diagnosed empathic skills coming to the conclusion that the process for developing empathy

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364 is more pronounced in average- and high-empathy subjects than in low-empathy subjects. This study suggests that the development of empathy is successfully achieved through simulation games and completing the tasks in video courses. Thus, the ability to listen to others was established by expressed interest, change in voice tone, and facial expression. Interactive skills were manifested by students’ abilities to exchange information and show benevolent attitudes, as well as to exchange views. Consequently, the use of simulation games and videos contributes to the increase in empathic skills, of communicative activity, demonstrating a more proactive attitude in the classroom, an initiative in training, tolerance, and amiability; an increased interest in the acquisition of knowledge and applying professional empathic skills in practical activities. The results of this study motivated the creation of a course “Empathic Communication,” aiming to provide instructors with the tools necessary to develop students’ empathic skills for personal and professional development. Further research may include enriching the methodology with additional content, methods, and tools for empathic skills-development forming professionally significant personal qualities and skills.

References Jörg, Fengler. 2009. Feedback geben. Strategien und Übungen. Beltz Verlag 4. überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Weinheim, Basel, 166 pp. Labunskaya, V.A. 2008. The theoretical and empirical foundations for creating the methodology of ‘the diagnosis of the level of development of the ability to adequately interpret non-verbal behavior’. Russian psychological journal 5(4): 35-47. Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. 1972. A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality 40 (4):525-543. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467- 6494.1972.tb00078.x 48. Roth, M., Schönefeld V., Altmann T. 2016. Trainings - und Interventionsprogramme zur Förderung von Empathie: Ein

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365 praxisorientiertes Kompendium Springer, Berlin, 227 pp. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-48199-8_1 Schneider, S.C., Barsoux, J.L. 2003. Managing across Cultures, second edition, FT Prentice Hall, Harlow, 330 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-367-375

TEACHING UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS THE LANGUAGE OF DIPLOMACY AS PART OF THE ESP COURSE

Ekaterina D. Prodayvoda

Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University) Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-4682-9653

Abstract. This article is an overview of strategies and techniques used in teaching the advanced ESP course for students of International relations in the English Department № 1 of the Moscow State University of International Relations. It focuses on purposes, specific needs and functions MGIMO graduates are expected to perform in pursuit of their career as diplomats. Teaching this course is currently a challenge as there are too few guidebooks that are comprehensive enough to encompass the specifics and subtleties of the diplomatic discourse. The findings are based on the practical experience of the author as a co-ordinator of ESP undergraduate programmes and focuses on the description of the linguo-didactic dominants at the core of the Language of Diplomacy course which the author has taught for more than two decades. The aim of the course is to help students develop linguistic skills which are essential for effective presentation, persuasion and negotiation. It deals with the issues that are central to diplomatic endeavour: diplomatic language as a form of action, how can we best built relationships and secure agreements by minimizing imposition and maximizing feel-good, what is the role of ambiguity and how can we manipulate the meaningful silences and understand the unsaid, among other things. It is no less important

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367 to teach students recognize the relevance of framing devices, such as metaphors and assertions, to politics and use them to shape new ways of seeing the world, determine the discussion and influence the decisions. Teaching how to use logical fallacies as framing devices is equally important as they are a very powerful emotional tool of persuasion used both in spin and debating techniques. There is no ignoring the fact that combining force and grace is a key factor in diplomatic negotiations which considerably enhances credibility and authority, helps stay collected under attack and gracious while standing firm. These “tricks of the trade” are indeed numerous and require further deliberation and study, but the awareness of their existence per se, attention to and interest in how to use them and how to decode linguistic signals the other side is sending undoubtedly proves helpful. Keywords: Language as action, understanding the unsaid, framing devices, logical fallacies, face-saving

Introduction Teaching an ESP course is in many ways different from teaching ESL. The most important difference lies in the needs of students and professional qualifications required of them. ESP students are mostly adults who are already quite fluent in English and are now learning the language in order to develop a set of professional skills and to perform particular job-related functions (Hutchinson T. & Waters A., 1987). An ESP course should therefore focus both on teaching students hard skills and developing their soft skills with a view to advancing their career opportunities. In case of students of international relations, teaching them ESP means teaching the language of diplomacy. Teaching an ESP course of the language of diplomacy is currently a challenge as there are too few guidebooks that are comprehensive enough to encompass the specifics and subtleties of the diplomatic discourse. The current report is based on the practical experience of the author as a co-ordinator of ESP undergraduate programmes in the English language Department № 1 of the Moscow State

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University of International Relations and focuses on the description of the linguo-didactic dominants at the core of the Language of Diplomacy course which the author has taught for more than two decades. Objectives The purpose of this article is set up a framework for tailoring a course of the language of diplomacy as part of the advanced ESP course based on the needs analysis of diplomats’ training. Methodology The author uses needs analysis, a method of gathering information about students’ needs and professional qualifications required of diplomats (Graves K., 2000) as the key strategy in designing an ESP course for students of international relations. Discussion Diplomatic discourse is tailored in such a way as to achieve persuasive and expressive purposes first and foremost. Numerous sources on linguistic studies show that language is often associated with action. According to the founder of the speech act theory J. L. Austin, ‘saying something means performing actions’ (Austin J.L., 1962: 6-8) and the speaker’s intention when saying something is referred to as ‘illocution’. In diplomatic discourse the illocutionary power of language is critical: effective diplomatic communication is not so much about exchanging information between parties. Rather, negotiators are focused on goal achievement, agenda- setting, establishing rapport between nations, tasks inconceivable without a good command of the diplomatic language. When diplomats prepare for negotiations, they first consider what they want to get, what concessions they are ready to make and what their bottom line is, how much power or leverage they wield and what their best arguments are. However, while this approach is appropriate, it is, in fact, insufficient: diplomats who fail to take the other party and its perspective and negotiating methods into account often find themselves in a losing position. Developing an understanding of the other party, being able to assess the negotiation context makes it easier for a diplomat to secure

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369 success. With our students we go through this multi-stage preparation process when they get ready for round table discussions and debates. Since diplomatic discourse involves participation of international actors, so teaching it first and foremost implies raising students’ cross-cultural awareness. Oftentimes, it is different cultural logic, what is referred to as ‘different patterns of thought or logic which range from everyday thoughts and common sense to behavioral patterns,’ (Donahue & Prosser, 1997: 79) that gives rise to misinterpretation and misunderstanding in diplomacy. That is why the course of the language of diplomacy embraces among other things such topics as national stereotyping and nationality-based idioms which might be particularly sensitive to potential counterparts. As the purpose of diplomatic efforts often lies in resolving disputes and securing agreement, diplomats should keep in mind the warning linguistic signs of disagreement. Among them the most common are attacks ad hominem, misquoting or quote-mining, rhetorical and loaded questions (‘do you really believe that..’), gross generalisations (‘you always..’), recontextualization and even name-calling, all of which signal hostility and should be avoided at all costs. Today when both diplomacy and politics are largely motivated by concerns of national image and credibility, the importance of face saving cannot be underestimated in teaching the norms of diplomatic courtesy. It is particularly important to analyse both face-saving and face-threatening practices as key factors in negotiations as today concerns of reputation and prestige often outweigh those of truth and credibility. It is equally important to consider the context which determines sensitivity to face or rather thresholds of acceptable face- threatening moves: while in media interviews and parliamentary debates challenging questions and confrontational objections are part of the culture, diplomatic context, such as mediation, some negotiations, exchanges over sensitive issues is highly conditional

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370 on face-preserving moves. The analysis of the interviews given by politicians serves this purpose best. Naturally, particular attention here is paid to the use of language which in many ways is the key to building and maintaining diplomatic relationships. Thus, acknowledging the other party at a linguistic level can be achieved through the use of the so-called ‘linguistic hedges’ such as tag questions or phatic expressions (as in ‘as you have said’ or ‘as we both know’) which are meant to establish contact and acknowledge commonality. To build relationships and secure agreements it is crucially important for a diplomatic discourse to maximise feel-good while minimising imposition. This can be achieved by using an array of linguistic softeners such as modality (‘maybe we could’, ‘would you consider’), diminutive and tentative expressions (‘take a glance at the details’, ‘could we take a moment’), impersonal passives (‘the decision has been made’) and even prosody – the melody of the sentence. In English the length of a question can soften the request: short questions lack contextualization and may thus appear rudely abrupt, while longer sentences sound more respectful. When negotiators use more words in their speech, it sounds as if they are being more careful in what they say and thus more diplomatic. It suggests to others that they are being cautious about the feelings of their counterparts and doing their best to find best solutions without putting a blame on anyone. It is no less important to teach students recognize the relevance of framing devices, among which metaphors and assertions prove to be the most powerful. Since many of the central concepts in diplomacy are abstract and intangible (‘power’, ‘influence’, ‘relations’, ‘interests’), metaphors in the language of diplomacy give life to this abstraction. But they not only add colour to what diplomats say, they add substance and are instrumental in creating reality. That is why teaching how to use metaphors when and where necessary is critically important for students of international relations.

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The key role that metaphors play in the language of diplomacy is that of an effective tool of persuasion (Scott B., 2010). By suggesting connections between seemingly unconnected issues or elements, metaphors influence our perception. For example, metaphors of movement can be used to preserve or create momentum of negotiations (such expressions as “the negotiations are back on track or “step-by-step” diplomacy can work on an emotional as well as perceptual level). If the aim is to highlight the danger of failure of negotiations expressions such as “derailed efforts” or walking down “a slippery slope” can be helpful in invoking the desired emotional response and consequently the desired action. Since diplomacy is in many ways a game diplomats and politicians play, sports metaphors in diplomatic language are common examples, specifically those that take root in chess jargon: stalemate, endgame, ‘a pawn in a political game’, checkmate (‘If rebel forces succeeded in cutting off the road, they will have achieved checkmate’), zugzwang – a situation wherein one player is put at a disadvantage because they must make a move when they would prefer to pass (‘British politics is currently caught in zugzwang’) are all part of diplomatic vocabulary. Keeping in mind that diplomacy is strictly regimented (as enshrined, for example, in 1961 and 1963 Vienna Conventions), its protocol, etiquette, ceremonies and negotiations are fixed and strictly observed, any exception or violation of the accepted diplomatic rules is not only noticed but is sure to have a fallout for the relationships of the involved parties. The same applies to the language of diplomacy: the key qualities of an ideal diplomat are ‘truth, accuracy, calm, patience, good temper, modesty and loyalty. They are also the qualities of an ideal diplomacy’ (Nicolson H., 1939: 67). Here ‘accuracy’ along with ‘truth’ top the list suggesting that these qualities are indispensable for diplomatic communication to be effective. This makes the language of diplomacy equally subject to strict conventions. Non-public diplomatic discourse is sometimes even compared to the scientific

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372 communication (Bubnova I. A., Terentyi L. M., 2011), as they both are, among other things, limited by strict norms of language use, particularly in written diplomatic documents: notes, aides- memoires, statements and memorandums. This might in some way be true (for official diplomatic correspondence, high-level negotiations and ceremonial events at least), but in daily diplomatic communication, language is not at all direct and straight. In many instances, it is rather ‘Aesopian language’ – communication that conveys an innocent meaning to outsiders but hold a concealed meaning to the informed members helping them ‘hide’ unwelcome information and/or emotions, ensure adequate public response, safe face and avoid conflict - that experienced diplomats use to pursue their goals. Without doubt, the use of implicit language gives the speaker an edge over the listener. According to Dr B. Scott, ‘it keeps options open for longer, ... it allows for plausible deniability, … it helps the other party not to lose face, … and through persuasion allows the speaker to win the other party over … and it is central to collective identity and solidarity’ (Scott B., 2012). Undoubtedly, diplomats need to keep their eyes open for signals the other party is sending in course of face-to-face discussions. While ‘body language’ is overt and can easily be decoded by most, instances of the unsaid need to be detected and interpreted. The difficulty here is that understanding the unsaid is only a matter of practice as every case is highly individual. But the awareness of its existence per se, attention to and interest in what and how the other party is signaling in course of diplomatic contact may undoubtedly prove helpful. And for learning purposes, analysing the mode of behaviour and the language of Ted Talk participants, for example, helps teach students to decode implicit messages and hidden signals. With all the doors that ambiguity and the unsaid leave open for interpretation and thus for maneuver, there are quite a few perils that they pose to diplomatic communication. “If the primary aim of language consists in transmitting information, in conveying a

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373 piece of knowledge, then ambiguities, like other categories of the unsaid, seem to run contrary to that aim as they leave a message recipient with a less transparent and less usable kind of data” (Pehar D., 2005). Thus, in instances of the unsaid the primary function of a language to transmit information gives way to the function of projecting power: it may blur meaning and put the listener in a losing position of undecidedness giving the speaker a certain strategic advantage. In such circumstances the prospect of finding common ground and ultimately striking a deal is highly unlikely. Conclusion Today’s ever-changing international environment and what scholars refer to as a ‘fluid’ world put additional strain on diplomatic service professionals. The moderate tempo of traditional diplomatic communication, which allowed for careful deliberations of strategy and interpretation, is irrevocably lost (Malley W., 2008) With tensions increasing in different parts of the world and diplomats having to respond fast to the emerging challenges, with TV 24/7 real-time coverage and CCTV cameras monitoring every inch of public space there seems to be no place left for deliberation, hesitation and equivocality. Nevertheless, ‘constructive ambiguity’ remains a force for good in diplomatic discourse and is as relevant today as ever before. Just as there is no diplomacy without communication, there is no diplomatic discourse without ambiguity and the unsaid. Hopefully, the time-tested techniques of diplomatic face-to-face negotiations will not completely give way to digital diplomacy and will leave room for the finesse, uniqueness and the intrigue of the diplomatic language we teach our students, otherwise, the only way to signal the implicit meaning will be to use the omission marks in text messages of WhatsApp diplomacy.

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References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford at the Clarendon Press, Oxford, 174 pp. Bubnova, I. A., Terentyi, L. M., 2011. Psycholinguistic aspects of diplomatic discourse analysis, “Vestnik. Novosibirsk State University”, Vol. 10, N. 1. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ diplomaticheskiy-diskurs-v-psiholingvisticheskom- aspekte/viewer, [Accessed February 20, 2020] Donahue &Prosser. 1997. Diplomatic discourse: International conflict at the United Nations. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, Connecticut, 385 pp. Graves, K. 2000. Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers, Heinle & Heinle, Boston, 308 pp. Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. 1987. English for Specific Purposes. CUP, Cambridge 183 pp. Malley, W. 2008. Global Governance and Diplomacy: Worlds Apart? Palgrave Macmilla London, UK, 330 pp. Nicolson, H. 1939. Diplomacy, Oxford University Press, London, 151 pp. Pehar, D. 2005. Diplomatic ambiguity: from the power-centric practice to a reasoned theory. Polemos 8 (15-16): 153-182. Scott, B. 2010. Metaphor and analogy. Language and Diplomacy, Lecture 7. Malta: DiploFoundation. URL: https://www.diplomacy.edu/language [Accessed February 20, 2020]. Scott, B. 2012 .What is left unsaid is often more powerful and poetic, The Guardian. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/may/12/what- left-unsaid-powerful-poetic [Accessed February 20, 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-376-386

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ INDEPENDENT WORK IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN AN ERA OF DIGITAL SOCIETY

Marina E. Ryabova1, Lyudmila A. Egorova2, Irina V. Vashunina3

1, 2, 3Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-8728-3629 2e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-5159-1512 3e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-3482-8215

Abstract. The priority role of modern information technologies in the field of teaching foreign languages with elements of distance learning based on the principles of individualized learning is considered. The relevance of the study is due to the acute demand for new approaches to the sources of self-development, characterized by a set of properties that allow continuous updating of knowledge. Students are becoming more aware of themselves as the subject of educational process. The concept of independent learning embraces various forms of material presentation, making e-learning not only mobile, but also adapted to the pace of everyday life. The student’s involvement in the digital environment makes scientific research focus on the ability to work independently with a large amount of information, and, therefore, the subject of this study is independent work based on the principles of distance digital learning. The main objective is to summarize the methodology developed and tested by the authors in several Russian universities concerning the organization of students’ independent work, which increases the regulation of self-

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376 education in the field of foreign languages. The methodological basis of the study was the works by A. McAuley, B. Stewart, G. Siemens, D. Cormier and others, devoted to the development of technological components of self-study training, which is provided by open interfaces, modularity, cloud storage of training materials. It is revealed that with the absolutization of information technology, there is a risk of succumbing to the illusion of smart intelligence as a decisive one. The assumption that if a person has access to technologies, he actively uses them, is not valid. The study has shown that a fairly large number of students of different ages are consciously not using distance technologies, being fully aware of their functions. The results of the study also show constantly changing multidimensional vision, the dominance of visualization. The conclusion is made about the emerging digital culture as a continuously moving space of visual flows, in which electronic courses significantly expand the teacher's opportunities, giving free rein to students in the creative implementation of self- learning methods. Keywords: independent work, self-education, creativity, self- study strategies

Introduction Improving the quality of education in the context of digital society requires a competency-based model of education based on the educational strategy “from teaching to learning”. Russian higher education witnesses a shift in emphasis from the concept “to teach” to the term “to learn independently” using innovative technologies. Changes in the content and methods of the educational process led to mainstreaming independent work as the most demanded (Koryakovtseva N. F., 2018). The whole system of educational activity becomes focused on the individuality of the student, when the student independently consolidates the material covered, studies the source base of the programme, including foreign literature, as well as exercises self-control. The author's point of view on the Students' Independent Work

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(SIW) as the leading type of activity in teaching foreign languages does not mean that the SIW replaces other teaching aids, but on the contrary, the SIW is considered in close connection with many other teaching resources and methods. The theoretical basis of the study was the traditional method of teaching foreign languages (Mirolyubov A.A., 2002), context approach (Scrivener J., 2005; Willis D., 2003), total physical response (Asher J.J., 1982), communicative language teaching (Deng C., Carless D., 2009; Richards J. C., Rodgers T.S., 2001; Brown H. D., 2014) and many others. A general analysis of each of the methods suggests that the effectiveness of teaching foreign languages is closely related to the learner’s personality, with their level of independence. Purpose of the study The research aims at a generalized analysis of the methodology for organizing students' independent work, developed and tested by the authors at university. Methodology On the one hand, the methodological basis of the study was the works by A. McAuley, B. Stewart, G. Siemens, D. Cormier and others, dedicated to the development of technological components of Smart Education, which is provided by open interfaces, modularity, cloud storage of educational materials, etc. (McAuley A., et al., 2010; Brückner C., 2011). On the other, the methodological basis also includes the concepts of distance learning and students’ independent work (Holmberg B., 1989). Key aspects of these theories touch upon the management of independent work, combining it with the interactive cooperation of the student and the teacher (Littlewood W., 2002; Dickinson L., 1987). The problem of organizing SIW remains insufficiently developed and requires further study in the context of electronic (related to the Internet) education. A key method of this study is interpretation analysis.

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Results The Concept of Independent Work In the scientific literature, the concept of “independent work” (IW) is one of the most complex and interpreted in different ways. IW may be defined generally and properly. IW in the broad sense of the word is an activity parallel to the classroom activity, deepening or supplementing it. This includes the entire system of educational activities, with the student participating as an active subject of the educational process: classroom work, extracurricular work, laboratory work, students' research work. In the narrow sense, IW is the entire system of extracurricular students’ training, including distance learning, aimed at various types of educational activities: classroom studies, laboratory practical classes, tests, exams, etc. Russian methodologists tend to consider the SIW in the narrow sense (Zimnyaya I. A., 2012) as an activity supplementing the classroom work. However, IW can be autonomous. The concept of students' autonomy in educational and cognitive activities in foreign languages acquisition was formed as part of a personality-oriented approach to education and was originally developed for teaching foreign languages for specific purposes (Benson P., 2000). Then this concept developed in a wider educational context, being applied at universities and comprehensive schools, and became the subject of research in terms of continuing education in the programmes of the European Council. H. Holec is believed to be the first to propose a definition of student autonomy in the field of foreign languages (Holec H., 2008). The goal of this training is providing each student with the conditions to maximize the development of their abilities, aptitudes, and satisfaction of their cognitive interests and needs. The starting point in the organization of the SIW is the principle of multimodality. Multimodality is considered a social skill, which involves a multitude of technical multimedia channels, tools and language resources on the Internet linked into a single whole

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(Ryabova M. E., 2008). According to the goals, the SIW can be distinguished into: 1) educational; 2) training; 3) reinforcing; 4) repetitive; 5) developing; 6) creative; 7) controlling. Let's consider briefly each of them. The point of educational independent work is the students' independent performance of tasks during the explanation of the new material. The purpose of such work is to develop interest in the material being studied. Here, it is possible to immediately reveal the incomprehensible, complicated parts, knowledge gaps that make it difficult to digest the material. The SIW related to the formation of knowledge is carried out at the stage of introducing new material, the initial consolidation of knowledge, i.e. when knowledge is not yet solid. Independent educational work can include giving examples to the rules studied. Training independent work includes tasks for recognizing various properties. Training assignments often require reproducing or directly applying the rules already learned. They consist of similar assignments, containing the essential features and properties of the rule or phenomenon, e.g. multilevel tasks on flash cards, in accordance with the “The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment” developed by the Council of Europe (A1, A2, B1, etc.). Reinforcing independent work includes assignments, which contribute to the development of logical thinking and require the combined application of various rules. They show how well the material is learned. Based on the results of the assignments, the teacher decides whether it is still necessary to proceed with this topic (Richards J. C., Rodgers T.S., 2001). Repetitive SIW assignments can bear either review or thematic character. Before introducing a new theme, the teacher should know if the students have the necessary background knowledge and identify the problems which can imply difficulties in learning the new material. Developing SIW is actually homework connected with making reports on certain topics, preparing for academic competitions,

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380 scientific conferences, etc. Creative SIW suggests a high level of independence. Students learn to apply the acquired knowledge in new unexpected situations, e.g. projects, their implementation and presentation. Controlling SIW is a prerequisite for achieving the planned learning outcome. The development of tests should be one of the main aids to control achieving learning objectives. Currently, controlling SIW is done primarily in test form. Various types of tests are to meet the following basic requirements: test components content aimed at testing basic learning skills should be of equal value, provide reliable verification of the level of knowledge, encourage students to demonstrate progress in their overall training. Students’ Independent Work at University As far as the SIW in a cycle of classroom and extracurricular activities at university is concerned, its classification based on the degree of delay and the form of control seems the most successful. According to this criterion, the following forms of IW at university are distinguished: SIW1 - doing current assignments (both of a training nature and related to mastering new language material) of a teacher in a classroom. Their character is predetermined by the textbook, the tasks are the same for all students and are obligatory for them. The results are discussed together with the teacher during the lesson or checked out independently by students using the keys - the delay in monitoring is minimal. SIW2 - preparation for classes at home, in the media centre, Moodle, library. It is obligatory for all students – the control is delayed until the next lesson. SIW3 - individual work aimed at filling in individual gaps in the students’ language proficiency. Special obligatory tasks are given only to those students (groups of students) who have missed classes or do not clearly understand the material. In this case, students work with additional materials in relation to the basic textbook. The reporting form is individual during special out-of-

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381 hours consultations - the control is delayed until the next consultation. SIW4 – obligatory individual practice in a particular type of speech activity. The students receive only instructions from the teacher about the amount of material they should work on (read, listen to, etc.) within a given period of time (two weeks, a month). As for reading/listening material and execution time, the students are given the right to choose from the proposed list of literature / recordings; they are also allowed to make an independent choice of material not included in the specified list. To implement this form of IW students are provided with educational information system of training, or sound record rooms, specially equipped laboratories, media centres where they can find a large variety of material – the Internet sources, electronic texts, books and magazines – the control is quite delayed, may be formative and summative at the end of the semester. SIW5 - work on their own initiative (Master's level), not directly related to the educational material of a particular stage of study and not obligatory for students. The students are not required to report about it, although they can use the advice of a teacher in its implementation. We noted the growing tendency of students to improve their language level on their own initiative through various programmes (intensive courses of different levels, preparatory courses for exams at various levels, professionally oriented special courses, etc.). This also includes the Au-Pair programme, which is most popular among students, thanks to which language skills are integrated into the student’s personality structure in the performance of their professional duties (e.g. governesses) together with the development, fulfillment of their cultural, value, leisure and other orientations. The point is that these programmes are not directly offered by universities, but are chosen by students independently at will, in accordance with the goals of self-education. These educational programmes open, undoubtedly, a broader range of opportunities in comparison with self-study based on the textbook.

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In the practice of teaching foreign languages at a university, the SIW is rather understood as SIW2 and SIW3 aimed at preparing for and supplementing classroom training sessions. SIW1 should in turn prepare for SIW2 and SIW3. The latter can become more productive if students are taught the methodology for their implementation not only indirectly through methodological instructions, memos, recommendations and a certain system of exercises (including exercises that form special intellectual skills), but also directly, taking the classroom time for this under the teacher’s control. At the initial stage of study at university, SIW3, SIW4 and SIW5 are of particular importance. As for SIW4 and SIW5, they are especially relevant for those students who have received excellent grades and are eager to develop foreign language skills further. The SIW is a multidimensional phenomenon, the basis of which is teaching aids, which are the source of activity, the subject basis of IW. This encourages the use of tasks aimed at working with various means. It is essential to search for the appropriate IW considering the specifics of the subject as well as the formation of students' ability to independently acquire knowledge from different sources. Thus, the various goals of teaching and learning a foreign language correspond to different types of SIW. The Moodle and Students’ Independent Work In view of the foregoing, a methodology for structured organization of the SIW based on electronic courses was developed and tested at the Russian New University (Moscow) for three years (2016-2019). The platform for placing the electronic course was the virtual educational environment Moodle (Modular Object- Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) - a web application that allows developing electronic courses for online learning with feedback. The choice of the Moodle platform is due to its popularity: it has been translated into dozens of languages, including Russian, and is used in more than 200 countries around the world. Moodle is based on the principles of social constructivism, focused on cooperation in learning. The specifics

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383 of e-course on the Moodle platform are its modular structure, hypertext links to external sources, flexibility and wide control capabilities. The training course, designed for students studying German as a second foreign language, is divided into key module topics that present material in the format of presentations, lecture notes, assignments, tests, and links. The main resources used in the topics are Glossary, Assignment, Explanation, Forum, Chat, Lecture, Hyperlink and Test. The tool Glossary contains keywords, vocabulary, where the student can enter words himself. The tools “Task” and “Explanation” are used to formulate the purpose and conditions for completing tasks. The resources “Forum” and “Chat” are necessary for discussing problem situations in study groups, which provides feedback dynamics. The resource "Lecture" is a summary of the material demonstrating the basiсs to students. The tool "Hyperlink" is used as additional material for reading and discussions. The “Test” provides the opportunity to compile various types of tests, the advantage of which is the speed of processing, since most tests are evaluated automatically, and students can immediately see their results. The variety of Moodle resources is not limited to the above- mentioned ones, we have noted just those most frequently used in the development of the electronic German language course. The modular system of the learning environment is flexible, which allows the teacher to customize the number of attempts of taking the final tests, post comments on individual components of the course. Discussion Testing the virtual course for three years helped to identify the positive and negative aspects of the technology for developing training courses on the Moodle platform. On the one hand, the creation of individualized foreign language courses can

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384 significantly increase the effectiveness of training based on the controlled independent work of students. On the other hand, the effectiveness of virtual courses largely depends on the level of technical competence of all participants in the educational process and timely technical support. The main difficulty in the SIW based on Moodle is the virtual resource itself. The fact that students are not confident enough users greatly interferes with learning. The virtual learning management system should be developed to the integration of traditional and distance learning methods with the use of Smart Education. Firstly, electronic courses significantly increase opportunities for the teacher enhancing creativity. Secondly, the competent organization of the SIW on an interactive basis contributes to the quality of education. The prospect of using the Moodle platform is the development of individually oriented information, which will make the use of virtual courses more effective and targeted.

References Asher, J. 1982. Learning Another Language through Actions: The Complete Teacher’s Guidebook. Sky Oaks Production, Los Gatos, California, USA, 117 pp. Benson, P. 2000. Autonomy as a learners' and teachers' right. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath & T. Lamb (Eds.), Learner Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: Future Directions. Longman, London, UK, pp. 111-117. Brown, H. D. 2014. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 6th edition. Pearson Education, New York, USA, 394 pp. Brückner, C. 2011. Internetbasiertes Lernen und Arbeiten im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Herausforderungen und Chancen. ForumSprache 5: 132-138. Deng, C., Carless, D. 2009. The communicativeness of activities in a task-based innovation in Guangdong, China. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 19: 113-134. Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in language learning.

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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 208 pр. Holec, H. 2008. A brief historical perspective on learner and teacher autonomy. In T.E. Lamb, H. Reinders (Eds.) Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities and responses. Volume 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 3-5. Holmberg, B. 1989. Theory and Practice of Distance Learning. Routledge, London, UK, 246 pp. Koryakovtseva, N. F. 2018. Productive language education as an implementation of a developing educational paradigm. Inostrannyye yazyki v shkole 2: 2-10. Littlewood, W. 2002. Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 108 pp. McAuley, A., Stewart, B., Siemens, G., Cormier, D. 2010. The MOOC Model for digital practice. http://www.davecormier.com/edblog/wp- content/uploads/MOOC_Final.pdf [Accessed February 12, 2020] Mirolyubov, A.A. 2002. The history of Russian methods of teaching foreign languages. STUPENI, INFRA-M, Moscow, Russia, 448 pp. Richards, J. C., Rodgers, T.S. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 270 pp. Ryabova, M. E. 2008. Multimedia technologies in the students’ independent work when teaching foreign languages. Integratsiya obrazovaniya 2: 24–30. Scrivener, J. 2005. Learning Teaching. A Guidebook for English Language teachers. 2-nd. ed. Macmillan Education, 2Oxford, UK. 431 pp. Willis, D. 2003. Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 238 p. Zimnyaya, I. A. 2012. Competence and competency in the context of the competency-based approach in education. Inostrannyye yazyki v shkole 6: 2-10.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-387-394

TEACHING CHINESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT UNIVERSITIES IN RUSSIA AND CHINA

Yi Anran1, Diouani Refka2

1Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia 2Higher Institute of Languages of Tunis University of Carthage Tunis, Tunisia 1e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-8990-4898 2e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The processes of globalization and integration taking place in the world, the growing interaction between countries with different cultures, increasingly require the training of personnel with the skills and knowledge necessary to solve the problems of globalization and integration in foreign languages. To a greater extent, in the modern world, there is no need for interpreters to act as intermediaries between specialists and professionals from various fields with the necessary language skills. In recent decades, in Russia, due to the active development of contacts, interest in studying Oriental languages, especially Chinese, has been steadily growing. The Institute of Foreign Languages (IFL) of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) offers the opportunity to study Chinese as a foreign language. The authors of the article give a comparative analysis of the teaching of foreign language methods in Russian and Chinese universities to create a communicative-active approach to teaching Chinese as a foreign language. They pointed out the following teaching principles: gradual and consistent mastering of material, repetition, testing theory by practice, the principle of organizing interactive classes and self-study. Methodical recommendations

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387 are offered for educators who teach Chinese as a foreign language in the form of complex exercises and language games. The article aims to choose the best educational trajectory for students from Intralinguodidactics. Based on personal experience in IFL RUDN University and a comparative analysis of the methods of teaching Chinese in Russia and China, the authors share their methodical tips in FLT. Special attention is paid to lexical and hieroglyphic games. The game manages to achieve a shift in an angle: a language is no longer an object of study, but a specific tool, a tool that it should be in the natural environment. Students understand that language can be used. Features of teaching Chinese as a second foreign language determine the originality of the techniques and methods used by the teacher. A relatively small number of class hours, the lack of multidimensionality, and limited opportunities for language practice require careful and methodically correct organization of classroom lessons, specific instructions for independent work of students and strict control over it. Keywords: Intralinguodidactics, Chinese as a foreign language, teaching methods, methodical recommendations

Introduction In China, teaching Chinese as a foreign language has already become one of the essential components in the teaching of philological subjects. For example, Peking University of Languages was the first university in China to teach Chinese as a foreign language. Teaching international students requires individual skills and is fundamentally different from teaching Chinese. When the students learn Chinese as a foreign language, teachers should not learn the language from ground zero, but try to pick up equivalents, analogies that correspond to the reality of their native language. Therefore, teachers should not teach students a new language, but only a new way of expressing thoughts linguistically and develop a new habit of speaking.

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In Russian universities, Chinese is an additional specialty or a foreign language. Teachers use Russian to explain grammar, vocabulary, syntax, and other aspects of the Chinese language to students. Therefore, the methodology and goals of teaching Chinese as a foreign language in Russia and China are different (Li Yun Xin, 2010: 8). The Purpose of the study: Based on a comparative analysis of the methods of teaching Chinese in Russia and China, choose the best educational trajectory for students from Intralinguodidactics. Methodology The modern development and improvement of methods for working with students in higher education are inextricably linked with improving the quality of functioning of the system of supplementary vocational education. It is clear that learning Chinese as a foreign language is not so simple. In this regard, one of the most critical methodological problems is the definition of a real, genuine goal in the study of Chinese as a foreign language. The insufficient development of general teaching methods does not contribute to clarifying the issue of learning the Chinese language (Kochergin I.V., 2006: 194). However, there has been a growing understanding in society that such a situation is unacceptable. It is a question requiring more attention. Traditionally, experts in teaching Chinese as a foreign language distinguish the following objectives: 1) training a foreign language as a subject of professional activity (maybe conditionally called academic or philological); 2) FLT to decide (non-linguistic) problems; 3) practical teaching a foreign language as a means of unprofessional communication (Kochergin I.V., 2006: 192). Results 50 students study in a practical Chinese language course at the Institute of Foreign Languages of RUDN University. Depending on the goals and level, students are trained in the following short-term programs: Foreign language. Beginner;

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Foreign language. Elementary; Foreign language. Pre-Intermediate I; Foreign language. Pre-Intermediate II; Foreign language. Intermediate I; Foreign language. Intermediate II; Foreign language. Upper-Intermediate I; Foreign language. Upper-Intermediate II; Foreign language. Basics of business correspondence; Foreign language. Referencing and annotation; Foreign language. Business communication in the field of marketing; Foreign language. Business communication in the field of foreign economic activity; Translating and abstracting. Introductory course. Upon completion of the training course for the selected programs, students are issued a certificate of the established form in case of successful completion of the final certification. Modular biennial programs will help students master the Chinese language at a level sufficient to use its cultural, educational, social, and industrial activities in the implementation of intercultural interaction. After distribution testing, the student is enrolled in one of two programs, corresponding to his/her starting level: Foreign language. Initial practical translation course; Foreign language. Translating and abstracting. Upon completion of two years of study and the successful passing of the final certification, the student receives a diploma of extended education. We emphasize that the primary goal of teaching Chinese as a foreign language in conditions of a small number of hours is not so much in mastering a certain amount of language material as in the formation of language skills sufficient for communication and further learning the language. It is possible with the most effectively organized and conducted classroom lesson and correctly, and therefore effectively built independent work.

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Another crucial methodological feature in teaching Chinese as a foreign language is teaching students methods and techniques of independent work both at the initial stage and at all subsequent ones. Of course, in any process of mastering knowledge, the role of independent work is essential, but in a limited number of classroom activities and because of the prospect of further improving the language, these skills acquire special significance (Lebedeva N.A., 2009: 96). The Chinese language is involved. When it is studied, the rule works "from simple to complex" as well, so the principle of gradual and consistent development of the material should be put at the forefront. When getting acquainted with hieroglyphs, this principle is expressed in the fact that, first of all, the teacher acquaints with the basic set of simple strokes (horizontal, vertical, pothook, left- falling stroke, right-falling stroke, point). Students can compose graphemes (keys) from them, and then the hieroglyphs. Having mastered the keys, students can quickly learn to remember hieroglyphs. The process of memorization will be more straightforward if they do not rely solely on mechanical memory, but also use the associative relations between the image and the meaning of the character. In independent studies of phonetics, it is essential to reproduce after the sound recording of the main sounds, four tones, the general intonation of the sentence. Students should be encouraged to listen to Chinese as much as possible in different ways. Here, success depends on the amount of training; the student's ear for music also matters. When studying grammar, the material is placed in the textbook from simple sentences to more complex ones; the use of simple constructions precedes complicated ones. The principle, important for independent studies, can be formulated as follows: "I am teaching new, I repeat the old." Students should learn that learning any language is a very time- consuming process, learning a language with hieroglyphic writing - in particular. Therefore, in parallel with the assimilation of new knowledge, it is necessary to constantly repeat the material already

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391 passed, revealing insufficiently mastered or forgotten. Such self- control will allow you to assess the level of experience and adjust it. The third principle in independent studies involves testing the theory with practice. The student needs to determine for himself/herself whether hieroglyphs and words are learned, whether grammatical material is understood, whether the lexical stock is mastered. To do it, a student can use hieroglyphic cards, additional verification materials. Conversations with native speakers are useful for training conversational skills. Thus, correctly structured work with the textbook, teaching the correct pronunciation, writing hieroglyphs following the rules of the order of features, mastering the techniques of memorizing hieroglyphs, self-control in learning vocabulary, completing listening tasks, translating sentences from one language to another - all these types of tasks require the formation and further improvement of relevant skills. The teacher in the classroom should pay considerable attention to it. Another vital principle of the organization of classes in the study of Chinese is the most active use of interactive teaching resources, the use of various technical means both during the classroom, and when students work independently. The use of specialized training sites, programs, electronic dictionaries, participation in mock exams HSK, and other features will make learning the language more diverse and exciting. On the lesson in the Institute of foreign languages RUDN University, the teacher gives vocabulary and dialogs to expand students' knowledge about different genres of the Heavenly Empire with the supplement of video material, which offers an additional positive effect. Working with external texts and exercises increases the desire for further mastery of the language increases the level of psychological comfort and confidence in the success of the training. Do not underestimate the emotional and psychological side. Another important feature when studying the Chinese language in the absence of a language environment can be considered the students' focus on the maximum possible creation of such an

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392 environment, in search of contacts with native Chinese speakers. Participation in extracurricular activities, events organized by the Institute of Foreign Languages of RUDN University, communication with Chinese students, short trips to China as part of tourist groups or summer courses help to consolidate the knowledge gained in the audience in practice and provide an incentive for further learning the Chinese language. The next effective method is the game. The essential function of games is also to form a positive attitude towards the language; students get the impression that learning Chinese is fun. It is interesting; it is informative; it is uplifting. The vital aim of games is to diversify the forms of learning and reproducing language material, to get the best of the same content in different styles. For example, according to psychologists, to memorize a word or construct stably, a student needs to repeat them about 60 times on average. But mechanical repetition does not always give the desired results, so the same word or communication situation should arise in different forms. We highlight lexical and hieroglyphic games. 1) "Snowball": a game to remember and test the knowledge of certain groups of words. For example, "Traditions", "Holidays", "Career", "Travel". As a rule, we play at the moment when the students need to discharge, or at the beginning of the lesson in the process of warming up. The game keeps the attention of all participants since their answer depends on the response of others. 2) Finger game: A traditional Chinese game that helps to remember the names of numbers. It is mentioned in the classic novel Jin Ping Mei. Two people quickly show several fingers while naming a figure within ten. That player who guessed the number of fingers shown is a winner. They play in two, first qualifying rounds are arranged, then the final, in which the winner is determined. 3) Hieroglyphic lotto: a game to study, memorize, and repeat the main graphemes. We use the Japanese version of the game.

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The game can be either a team or an individual. Before starting, we look through all the graphemes, call their reading and value. For the very first round, the 20 most common graphemes are enough: 口日田人大小火月力刀女子手木目水山川白土. Then the number increases and gradually bump up to 100. Participants are given cards with graphemes and given time to layout and familiarize themselves with them. The teacher in his hands has got pictures of relevant objects or concepts. The teacher draws a picture and shows it to everyone. A team or player who finds a card with the corresponding grapheme puts it aside. The one who has no more cards wins. Often the teacher plays this game with students at the end of the lesson. 4) Hieroglyphic puzzles: a game for memorizing hieroglyphs. Players are given three hieroglyphs, cut into nine parts. The winner is the one who first collects all the hieroglyphs correctly. It is a brilliant visual memory training. Discussion The specifics of teaching Chinese as a second foreign language determine the originality of the methods and techniques used by the teacher. A relatively small number of lessons, limited opportunities for language practice, require the proper organization of pedagogical activity, and innovative teaching methods. Teaching Chinese as a foreign language in the context of a communicative-activity approach is the next step in updating the content of education to maintain the relevance of education to the needs of the modern economy and civilization. And gradually, we need to pay attention to the innovations in teaching Chinese as a foreign language.

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References Kochergin, I.V. 2006. Essays on the linguodidactics of the Chinese language, 2nd ed. ACT East-West, Moscow, Russia, 192 pp. Lebedeva, N.A. 2009. Teaching methodology. FENIX, Rostov-on- Don, Russia, 414 pp. Li, Y. X. 2010. Differences in Teaching Chinese as foreign in Russian and Chinese universities. In proceedings: Relevant issues if the Chinese language methods. Far East University publishing, Vladivistok, Russia, pp. 8-11.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-395-406

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT RUSSIAN NON-LINGUISTIC UNIVERSITIES

Bella Ivanova

Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0003-1495-5708

Abstract. The article highlights the main ideas of interdisciplinary approach’s development and implementation at Russian non- linguistic universities and shares her experience in the application of them in the teaching process. Interdisciplinary approach implies the training process as a unified whole like a system comprising different elements. The first research projects were initialized by English teachers who focused on issues of foreign language acquisition and awareness. The integration used to be realized as complex development of all language aspects on all language levels. Later it was extended by ESP (English for Special Purposes) and then by integrating different subjects on interdisciplinary links. Interdisciplinary approach has systemized and generalized the experience gained for decades in investigations in various countries. These are not only teaching foreign language as ESP, but also ideas of competence approach, modular construction of teaching process, and concepts of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). When contemplating CLIL development at Russian non-linguistic universities, one should emphasize that this methodology has fostered two interconnected concepts based on the interdisciplinary approach. These are implementing “English- speaking” lectures in the process of teaching special subjects on

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396 the one hand and fleshing out foreign language education with subject-oriented content on the other. On the crossing of the above technologies, a new science was formed, namely, professional linguo-didactics or professional language education. Its basic principle is integration and coherence of all approaches in teaching professional foreign language into one whole through building modular inter- and multidisciplinary links elaborated by the teams of various departments’ staff. They are built in different educational activities on the interaction and collaboration of teachers, including those of foreign language and profile disciplines as well as creative students. The basic principles of professional linguistic didactics are actualized at Russian non-linguistic universities in the collaboration of various departments through implementing both linguistic and professional innovations and using active and interactive teaching methods. This interdepartmental interactive collaboration can be arranged in different forms, e.g. binary seminars, inter- or multidisciplinary business games and micro-modular English speaking lecturing. The author presents some of them in the extended abstract. Keywords: interdisciplinary approach, professional linguistic didactics, interdepartmental collaboration, binary seminars and business games, micro-modular ‘English speaking’ lecturing

Introduction Interdisciplinary approach was introduced in teaching foreign languages at Russian non-linguistic universities at the end of the XX century. Since that time, its ideas have been intensively implemented and developed. More and more researchers have studied problems of professional communication in “other” languages, what is reasoned mainly by discrepancy of linguistic theoretical character in language education and real content of professional activities (Krasilnlkova E.V., 2010). The process of professional foreign language education has been considered as content oriented based on aggregate programs,

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397 methods, models and facilities providing effective problem solving in a particular content and language integrated activity (Kashirsky S.N., 2006). Objectives of the study The study is aimed at considering different forms of interdisciplinary approach based on departmental modular interaction and collaboration. It includes not only theoretical description of the problem but also some experience gained by the author. Methodology The methodological basis of this study is the theory of a rather new science in linguistics, namely, professional linguistic didactics (professional linguo-didactics). Basic principles of linguistic professional training are integrality, interdisciplinarity and interactivity. They are to a degree quite well known. The new methodology however comprises them all into one organic whole and on a new level. Interdisciplinarity does not mean just integration of the content in teaching foreign languages and the subject matter of the profile discipline. It also implies interaction reflecting the cooperation of motivated students and competent teachers of foreign languages and profile disciplines (Kroupchenko A.K., Kousnetsov A.N., 2015). Interactivity in the process of linguistic professional training signifies close and interactive cooperation of foreign languages and subject teachers as well as students. The basic principles above have been actualized at Russian non- linguistic universities in implementation of linguistic professional innovations and active and interactive teaching methods. The first empirical research projects to follow the principles of integrality in teaching English were initially driven by English teachers who focused on issues of foreign language acquisition and awareness and realized the integrality as the complex training of all language aspects and levels. With the development of interdisciplinary approach’s ideas it was discerned that linguistic

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398 and professional competencies should be acquired as one whole so that the speakers could communicate English not only in everyday activities but also in special fields. To achieve that the authors of English study books integrated the content of other subjects into the language studies. In that way the interdisciplinary approach in teaching foreign language was manifested and then developed as English for Special Purposes (ESP). After signing the Bologna Declaration (2003) and the entailing paradigm shift towards a competence approach profound changes were brought about in the both tertiary education at large and in teaching foreign languages in particular. Along with the competence approach being in progress, the integrality has been developed up to a complex generation of linguistic and professional competencies, which are formed and improved as one whole on building interdisciplinary links (Popova N.V., 2012). When contemplating content and language integrated training development at Russian non-linguistic Universities, one should emphasize that this methodology has fostered two interconnected concepts based on the interdisciplinary approach. These are implementing “English-speaking” lectures in the process of teaching special subjects on the one hand and fleshing out foreign language education with subject-oriented content on the other. In the first case, the subject teacher uses English as the language of instruction and, in the second, English teacher uses cross-curricular content (Zinkevich N.A., Ivanova B.L., 2015). All the methodological teaching ideas above were summarized and manifested in a new science named professional linguistic didactics or professional language education (Kroupchenko A.K., 2007; Kroupchenko A.K., Kouznetsov A.N., 2015). Its basic principle is integration and integrality of all modern approaches in teaching professional foreign language into one whole through building inter- and multidisciplinary links in different educational activities based on teachers’ interaction and cooperation of both foreign languages and profile disciplines.

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Findings The basic principles of professional linguistic didactics have been actualized at Russian non-linguistic universities in the collaboration of various departments through implementing both linguistic and professional innovations and active and interactive teaching methods, such as lecturing on different subjects in foreign languages; student scientific conferences in foreign languages; and other interdisciplinary English speaking activities designed and implemented by foreign languages and profile subjects teachers (Yarotskaya L.V., 2013, Ivanova B.L., 2017, Zinkevich N., Ivanova B., 2015) Yet this collaboration has been mainly accidental, based just on personal contacts. It is possible however to build the system of integrated module interdisciplinary cooperation of foreign language and subject teachers so as we did at the beginning of the new century at ENGECON University. Teachers’ and students’ team work was based on the term/semester interdepartmental module plan comprising themes and forms of the interdepartmental collaboration in the in- and out-class activities. We present here a part of the plan elaborated for the first year students by English and Economic Theory lecturers. The module “Economic Theory in English” planned and designed for the first term/semester included 13 micro-modules (due to the main themes of the disciplines). The main study book for students at English lessons was Macmillan Guide to Economics supplemented by several others. The micro-module on Economic Theory included the following themes: 1. The Nature and Methods of Economic Theory 2. Basic Economic Problems 4. Micro– and Macroeconomics 3. Economic systems At English lessons the corresponding themes on the study book units were simultaneously studied:

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Unit 1 What does economics study? What are microeconomics and macroeconomics? The History of economic thought. Unit 3 The traditional economy. The market economy. Unit 4 The planned economy. The mixed economy. The parallel immersion into the special subject and ESP was followed by tasks and questions, e.g.:  What is the difference between Macro- and Microeconomics?  What are Adam Smith and John Keynes famous for? Students were also given some cases on economic problems to discuss and present their decisions in English. The tasks at English lessons contributed to the development and acquisition of professional linguistic skills through various tasks starting from completing crosswords to making and giving reports and presentations. Micro-modular study tasks included also gaining active vocabulary of English terminology on economics and reading English sources according to the list of references in English for lessons on both disciplines. The lectures on Economic Theory, though given in Russian, were completed with the introduction of special English terms, making glossaries and summarizing the main content of the lecture and discussing some of the home tasks also in English (Zvereva I.G., 2007). The parallel immersion into the special subject and ESP was accompanied with binary seminars on Economic Theory in English, which were held after every two or three micro-modules by both profile subject’s and English teachers who simultaneously controlled and assessed the results achieved in both disciplines. At the seminars there was a lively exchange of opinions and questions from both teachers and students. The term/semester was completed with the interdisciplinary interdepartmental business game “Economic System” held in English. At the pre-game stage, the student teams got the task to elaborate a project on the theme “How do you see the social and economic system of Russia in 50 years?” and make a presentation on it. At the game stage, the students were offered a new task to do

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401 in the study room through brainstorming their decisions in the teams. (As for other and more detailed descriptions of business gaming we can refer you to some of our articles published before (Ivanova B.L., 2017). In the course of the business game and binary seminars, the students were excited about the subject matter so much that they just forgot about the fact that they were speaking not native language while trying to express and prove the opinions. So English changed from a discipline to study into the instrument of the professional communication in foreign language. Hence the module “Economic Theory in English” was a completed didactic unit of the linguistic professional training, which comprised its content-related, methodical, organizational and technological components. Alongside with the forms of interdisciplinary approach mentioned above another model of integrated education based on both content and language simultaneous teaching has been developed in Russia. It is based on the well-known in Europa CLIL methodology, i.e. lecturing in English on profile subjects. English speaking lecturing has been actually implemented in Russia since great many years ago. At first however it concerned only special schools. In higher education, this methodology was established on a large scale in the late 1980s and early 1990s. At first, such lectures were delivered mainly by foreign professors invited from abroad. In the early 2000s the need for English- speaking lecturing extended so much that more and more universities began to entrust their own staff with that. It brought to existence the challenge for interdepartmental cooperation. Subject teachers needed urgent assistance in retracing and improving their command of the non-mother tongue. It led to arrangement of special courses given for them by foreign language teachers. Not all students however appeared to be ready to comprehend CLIL lectures. As for practice at schools with extended foreign languages mentioned above, all pupils possess rather similar

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402 linguistic skills. Yet this is different with non-linguistic university students who got secondary education at various schools and in various places. As a rule, far from every one of them have a good command of English. Besides, they learnt different foreign languages. Along with English, which nowadays dominates at most of schools, some students learnt German or French whereas CLIL lecturing was arranged mainly in English and, as it is often the case, being compulsory for all students due to their curriculums. Furthermore, great many English-speaking students felt disappointed and unhappy as they quite often could not penetrate into the essence of the subject or be clear about some special terms. Sometimes they were also dissatisfied with the fluency and language level of English speaking lecturers. For these reasons, a new approach in content and language integrated lecturing was tried out at ENGECON. The content and language integrated lectures were ruled out of the compulsory core curriculum into elective modular courses on the subject at student’s choice. At this rate, they went to be advanced and delivered just for those who were really motivated and interested in that. Moreover, these courses might be planned as a system of micro modules not on the essentials of the subject but on the most challenging research themes of the disciplines. (Zinkevich, Ivanova, 2015) Such system is shown in scheme 1 presented beneath.

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Depart Depart Depart ment 1 ment 2 ment n  … … … … …

M M M M M M M M ‘M’ means here ‘micro-module’ reflects stable links (modular CLIL lectures are stable and available for every student without reference for his/her faculty or specialty) reflects variable links (students take their individual decisions on how many and which particular CLIL micro-modules lectures to attend due to their study or research interests)

Student 1 Student 2 Student n

M 1.1 + M 1.2 М 1.2 + М 2.1 + М 1.2 + М

+ M 2.3 М n.1 + М n.3 2.2 + М n.3

Figure 1. Micro-modular CLIL-lecturing

The meanings of the signs are as follow:

‘M’ means here ‘micro-module’ reflects stable links (modular CLIL lectures are stable and available for every student without reference for his/her faculty or specialty) reflects variable links (students take their individual decisions on how many and which particular CLIL micro-modules lectures to attend due to their study or research interests)

The figure shows micro-modular sets of profile subject lectures elaborated by different departments, and choices made by various students due to their research interests whatever their faculties or specialties. It also highlights stable and variable links of the system and illustrates the idea that every student can choose a set/sets of

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“English speaking” lectures/modules they attend in addition to those compulsory in Russian being on essentials. Discussion To sum up all above one can say that interdisciplinary approach as an innovation at non-linguistic universities has been successfully implemented and developed in Russia in different forms of professional linguistic education.

References Cochrane Stuart, Raitskaya Lilia. 2007. Macmillan Guide to Economics. Student’s Book. / L. Raitskaya, S. Cochrane. Macmillan Publishers Ltd., Oxford, 135 pp. Ivanova, B.L. 2017. Business Games in foreign languages. Elaboration and implementation. In: The Magic of Innovation: new dimensions in linguistics and lingvodidactics Vol. 2. MGIMO University, Moscow, pp. 58 – 63. Yarotskaya, L.V. 2013. Linguo-didactic grounds of internationalizing professional training of specialists. Theses for Doctor in Pedagogics, Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, 454 pp. Kashirsky, S.N. 2006. Problem-modular content design in content and language integrated training of radio technical engineers. Thesis for Cand. of Science, Voronezh State Technical University, Voronezh, 204 pp. Krasilnlkova, E.V. Formation of linguistic and professional integrated competence of future guide interpreters. Thesis for Cand. of Science. Yaroslavl: Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University. 2011. – 185 pp. Kroupchenko, A.K. Formation of Professional Linguodidactics as a Theoretic and Methodological Problem in Professional Education. Theses for Ed.D. M.: Academy for Further Training and Professional Re-Training of Education and Science Employees, 2007. – 458 pp. Kroupchenko, A.K., Kousnetsov, A.N. The Grounds of Professional Linguistic Didactics. Monograph. Moscow. 2015.

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Popova, N.V. Interdisciplinary paradigm as the ground to form integrated competencies of students at comprehensive universities (exemplified by the discipline “Foreign Language”. Thesis for Ed.D. SPb.: St. Petersburg State Politechnical University, 2010. – 585 pp. Zinkevich, Nina, Ivanova, Bella. Introducing CLIL at Russian Universities through Interdisciplinary Approaches//The Magic of Innovation: New Techniques and Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages. Edited by Dmitry A. Kryachkov, Elena B. Yastrebova and Olga A. Kravtsova. – GB: Newcastle upon Tyne. 2015. - 350 pp. P. 238 – 260. Zvereva, I.G. 2007. Economic Theory. Macroeconomics Workbook. Hands-on. ENGECON University, St. Petersburg, 120 pp.

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LINGUISTIC DIPLOMACY

DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-407-415

HUMAN SPEECH REPRESENTATION IN NEWS JOURNALISM OF THE XVIII CENTURY AS THE HISTORICAL STYLISTIC PROBLEM

Alexander A. Malyshev

Saint-Petersburg State University Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-8936-3056

Abstract. The research is aimed at the problem of human speech representation in news texts of the XVIII century in close connection with the general evolution of the Russian literary language of this time. Contemporary media texts genetically come from the journalistic texts of the previous time, their stylistic comparison demonstrates the general communicative inheritance, and as a result, it is necessary to deeply understand the stylistic characteristics of the journalistic texts in the initial stage of the Russian press birth on the whole and the Russian news journalism in particular. The change of stylistic paradigm with stylistic difference and structural inhomogenuity of the language resources led to the increase of the role of the language stylistic resources, called to both supporting the transformation of typical communicative forms between the government and the society and creating new type of communication: journalistic one, which did not exist in Russia until the early XVIII century. It is journalism which gradually became not only the broadcaster of news

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407 information, but the pathfinder of the new approach to person: on the one hand, as the bearer of type-formed collective consciousness, on the other hand, as the manifestation of individuality. One of the merits of the news press in the XVIII century is the refinement of the Russian stylistic potential, because the necessity of ideologically “correct” informational flow for the Russian reader demanded to widen the Russian stylistic resources – both language and textual ones. The analysis of the contemporary state of scientific works, devoted to the research of the journalistic language, allows concluding that stylistically news press of the XVIII century is still left unstudied (differing from political and fiction journalism) – especially in the aspect of speech representation of a person. It is necessary to create the complex description of stylistic peculiarities of anthropocentrism in journalism within the key for the Russian society development cultural and historical period. The speech representation of human in news texts of the XVIII century sets a scientific problem in that case, the decision of which being both necessary and challenging, because it is impossible to exclude the human beginning from any human activity, including journalism. Keywords: speech representation, anthropocentrism, Russian journalism in the XVIII century, historical stylistics, news article

Introduction The XVIII century is traditionally considered a special time in the history of the Russian language. It is in that period that significant political transformations of the inner and outer character happened which led to the language mixture inside the Russian language (phonetical, lexical and morphological (Oriental and Western European, Near Eastern) during war events and diplomatic contacts. The general cultural development of the society, happening in way of life, fashion and literature, also brought the changes in collective language consciousness (Vinogradov V.V., 1982: 68–71). This period forms the Russian literary language on the national foundation, which became possible only due to the

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408 strong formation of the Russian national consciousness: political, cultural and language ones. The first half of the XVIII century became the time of active understanding of the above-mentioned changes by the Russian intellectual elite. As Yu.S. Sorokin noticed, “changes in the language and speech stylistic are connected with changes in the language collective, with the changes in its social nature <…> with the struggle of different mentalities” (Sorokin Yu.S., 1965: 21). The pre-history of axiological settings for the Russian journalism in the aspect of its constant anthropocentrism (journalism is created by human about humans and for humans), which is insistently reminded by journalism scholars (S.G. Korkonosenko, V.A. Sidorov, L.G. Svitich, E.L. Vartanova, Ya.N. Zasurskiy, E.P. Prokhorov, M.V. Shkondin etc.), started an age before the appearance of the Russian journalism. In the XVIII century the democratic literature, in D.S. Likhachev’s opinion, faces “the discovery of the value of human personality”, i.e. the authors’ attention is often attracted by a “common” person who, with its feelings and ideas, could be equal to the outstanding personalities and fiction characters of previous time; common life ways of its destiny became equal significant as the actions of the outstanding personalities, and its emotions with the seeming commonness and simplicity deserved the same attention as the feelings of the outstanding people (Likhachev D.S., 1970: 136–146). Such a similarity in broadcasting the information about representatives of various social classes is also seen in journalism: thus, the science fiction magazine “Notes to the Saint-Petersburg Vedomosti” (1728–1742) along with biographies of European nobles and clergy contains a short story about the life of the Russian war and government leader Ivan Dmitriev-Mamonov, and the news in Peter’s “Vedomosti” demonstrate, among other, the description of war bravery (and not only bravery) by both warlords and simple soldiers. Stylistically the language of journalism in the XVIII century also inherits the previous century which greatly shattered the norms of the high bookish language under the influence of the

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409 secular business speech, common city language and folk vernacular (Vinogradov V.V., 1970: 42–54). Objectives/Purpose of the study The change of stylistic paradigm with stylistic difference and structural inhomogenuity of the language resources led to the increase of the role of the language stylistic resources, called to both supporting the transformation of typical communicative forms between the government and the society (and inside the society as well) and creating new type of communication: journalistic one, which did not exist in Russia until the early XVIII century: royal “News-Gazette” (“Vesti-Kuranty”) was for the narrow audience. In G.V. Zhirkov’s opinion, Peter the Great reformed not only various spheres of public activity, but the informational space in the name of the intensive development of public consciousness: changes were greatly developed after the printed press erection. The North War with Sweden (1700–1721) became the first one in the Russian history informational war; as G.V. Zhirkov considers, we may speak about the appearance of the genre of the so-called “military papers” devoted to war successes on the basis of reports (Zhirkov G.V., 2003: 15–18, 41–48, 69–86). It is journalism which gradually became not only the broadcaster of news information, but the pathfinder of the new approach to person: on the one hand, as the bearer of type-formed collective consciousness, on the other hand, as the manifestation of individuality. One of the merits of the news press in the XVIII century is the refinement of the Russian stylistic potential, because the necessity of ideologically “correct” informational flow for the Russian reader demanded to widen the Russian stylistic resources – both language (primarily lexical) and textual ones (rhetoricalness, compositional patterns, fluctuations of textual tonality, ability to structure the article, to establish and support the contact with the reader etc). Thus, Jacob Shtaehlin remembered that while educating the young heir of Peter Fyodorovich he often used newspapers instead of fiction literature because newspaper

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410 language at any level is closer to the living spoken speech than the edited book (Shtaehlin J., 2003: 15, 17 etc). Results/Findings The analysis of the contemporary state of scientific works, devoted to the research of the journalistic language, allows concluding that stylistically news press of the XVIII century is still left unstudied (differing from political and fiction journalism) – especially in the aspect of speech representation of a person. The general information about the news press, with intellectual elite of that time being the audience, accompanied with more or less detailed comments of the general stylistic character, are to be found in the classical works of the Soviet period on the Russian journalism history (“History of the Russian journalism in the XVIII century” by P.N. Berkov, 1952; “History of the Russian journalism in the XVIII-XIX century” ed. by A.V. Zapadov, 1963; “The Russian journalism in the XVIII century” by A.V. Zapadov, 1964; volume IV of “General catalogue of the Russian book of civil press in the XVIII century”, 1966; etc). The contemporary researches on the journalism history (“History of the Russian journalism” by B.I. Esin, 2001, 2004, 2006; “History of the Russian journalism” ed. by G.V. Zhirkov, 2003; “History of the Russian journalism” ed. by L.P. Gromova, 2013) also provide not much space for the observations on the stylistic of news texts. The scientific literature, devoted to the problems of the Russian language development in the XVIII century, has examples of printed press in monographies by L.L. Kutina on the formation of the Russian scientific language (1964, 1966), in the collective monography by E.E. Birzhakova, L.A. Voinova and L.L. Kutina “Reviews on the historical lexicology of the Russian language in the XVIII century” (1972), in the monography by V.V. Veselitsky “Indirect vocabulary in the Russian literary language in the XVIII – early XIX centuries” (1972), in the collective monography by I.M. Maltseva, A.I. Molotkov and Z.M. Petrova “Lexical new formations in the Russian language in the XVIII century” (1975), in reviews “History of the Russian literary vocabulary in the late

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XVIII – early XIX centuries” ed. by F.P. Filin (1981) as well as in the articles by former and some present employees of the Group of the Russian historical lexicology in the XVIII century (the Institute of linguistic researches RAS in Saint-Petersburg) and, rarely, by other researchers. Besides the “Peter’s the Great”, Saint- Petersburg and Moscow “Vedomosti” were used as a source of “The Dictionary of Russian language of the XVIII century” during many years. In the key article “About “The Dictionary of Russian language of the XVIII century” Yu.S. Sorokin accentuates the importance of printed editions in the XVIII century as the source of spreading new knowledge and new vocabulary (Sorokin Yu.S., 1965), but the journalistic materials are still presented in “The Dictionary of Russian language of the XVIII century” in the slightly way. Thus, without criticizing the distinguished work of lexicologists and lexicographers, we may notice that in all the mentioned cases we see only selected illustrative examples of mostly lexical character, but not the planned linguistic and stylistic study of the press as it is. A special place in linguistic researches of news journalism is occupied with the observations by I.S. Khaustova about the lexical structure of Peter’s “Vedomosti” (Khaustova I.S., 1958), conducted more than half a century ago, and thus being only previous scientific investigations. At present planned researches, significantly discovering the speech characteristics of the news press in the XVIII century and/or devoted to the research of its single linguistic peculiarities from the aspect of anthropocentrism, are absent, as we know. Thus, in the Institute of linguistic research RAS there is the project “Evolution of the Russian literary norm in Peter the Great’s epoch (on the example of the newspaper “Vedomosti” 1703-1719”) headed by V.M. Kruglov conducts the historical and lexical research of Peter’s “Vedomosti” within, but theoretically it touches upon only a part of general stylistic problems of news texts and is far from the analysis of the speech representation of personality (Kruglov V.M., 2017). The researches by I.Yu. Kuksa about the ways of modality expression

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412 in the XVIII century interestingly analyze the news texts of Peter’s “Vedomosti”, the most significant one is (Kuksa I.Y., 2019), but the attention is paid to a different textual category. The field of the speech representation of a personality in the journalism of the first half of the XVIII century is partially covered with stylistic consideration of Pythagoras biography (Malyshev A.A., 2017) and description of the Samoyeds, but the texts under analysis refer, firstly, to the genre of an article but not a note (a completely different text volume); secondly, to the popular science, but not news journalism (different genre and stylistic characteristics). Almost unique place in the direction of analytical consideration of person portrait representation is occupied by L.A. Trakhtenberg’s article “Portrait poetry and paradigmatic composition in N.I. Novikov’s magazine “Male bee” (Truten’)” (Trakhtenberg L.A., 2017), which correlates to Yu.V. Stennik’s study of the XVIII century satire, though the research material includes completely different type of the source. We are obviously interested in the methodological foundation of the works by Yu.M. Konyaeva, who productive studies the speech representation of personality in contemporary media texts (including news) (Konyaeva Yu.M., 2016a, 2016b, 2018a, 2018b), but they need the historical and stylistic ground. Discussion Contemporary media texts genetically come from the journalistic texts of the previous time, their stylistic comparison demonstrates the general communicative inheritance, and as a result, it is necessary to deeply understand the stylistic characteristics of the journalistic texts in the initial stage of the Russian press birth on the whole and the Russian news journalism in particular. The speech representation of man in news texts of the XVIII century sets a scientific problem in that case, the decision of which being both necessary and challenging, because it is impossible to exclude the human beginning from any human activity, including journalism.

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Acknowledgements The article is supported by MK-1328.2020.6 grant “Human in news journalism of the XVIII century: historical stylistic aspect”. Статья подготовлена при поддержке гранта МК-1328.2020.6 «Человек в новостной журналистике XVIII века: историко- стилистический аспект».

References Khaustova, I.S. 1958. Vocabulary of the “Vedomosti” 1702–1703 (From the history of the national literary language and its styles formation): PhD thesis, Leningrad State University, Leningrad, 22 p. Konyaeva, Yu.M. 2016a. Speech genre “creative portrait” in the aspect of the personality category. Media linguistics 4 (14): 47–56. Konyaeva, Yu. M. 2016b. Information portrait as а type of mass media news texts. In Media linguistics. Proceedings of the I International scientific and practical conference, ICC Varna, Bulgaria, 6–9 September 2016, pp. 207–209. Konyaeva, Yu.M. 2018a. Compositional and stylistic features of human remembrance: biographical aspect. Vek informacii 1: 205– 215. Konyaeva, Yu.M. 2018b. Informational portrait in the aspect of personality category. Vek informacii 2(2): 40–41. Kruglov, V.M. 2017. “Vedomosti” in Peter the Great’s time as the source for the Russian literary language history. Russian Foundation for Basic Research Journal. Humanities and Science 2 (87): 118–128. Kuksa, I.Yu. 2019. Communicative specifics of the first Russian printed newspaper “Vedomosti of Peter the Great”. Nauchniy dialog 8: 135–148. Likhachev, D.S. 1970. Human Dimension of the Old Russian Literature. Nauka, Moscow, 178 pp. Malyshev, A.A. 2017. The article about Pythagoras (1739) as an example of the prototypical implementation of the communicative scenario “description of the famous person” in the journalistic text.

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Belgorod State University Scientific bulletin. Humanities 14 (263): 116–122. Shtaehlin, J. 2003. Notes on Peter III. In Ekaterina. Way to power. Sergey Dubov publ., Moscow, pp. 9–51. Sorokin, Yu.S. 1965. About “The Dictionary of Russian language of the XVIII century”. In Proceedings and studies on the Russian vocabulary of the XVIII century, Nauka, Moscow, Leningrad, pp. 5–42. Trakhtenberg, L.A. 2017. Portrait poetry and paradigmatic composition in N.I. Novikov’s magazine “Male bee”. In Language logical analysis. Human in interior. Personal and social life of human in the language. Yazyki slavyanskikh kultur publ., Moscow, pp. 68–82. Vinogradov, V.V. 1982. Studies on the Russian literary language history in the XVII–XIX centuries. Vysshaya shkola publ., Moscow, 529 p. Zhirkov, G.V. 2003. Epoch of Peter the Great: the appearance of Russian journalism. Roza mira publ., St.Petersburg, 202 p.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-416-424

ABOUT IDEOLOGIZATION OF PHRASE «GILETS JAUNES»

Maria V. Arsentieva

Saint-Petersburg State University Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: С-8875-2016

Abstract. In connection with the aggravation of the political and economic situation in France, there is a sharp change in its political vocabulary. The report sets the task of studying the semantic structure of the meaning of the phrase “gilets jaunes” taking into account its ideologization and determining the degree of its stability and mastery of the national language. For this purpose, we use component analysis with elements of stereotypic analysis and contextual analysis with elements of sociolinguistic analysis. As a result of the metonymic transfer of synecdoche, according to a productive model such as les cols blancs, les talons rouges, les chemises noires, the free phrase es gilets jaunes becomes stable, in whose semantic structure color designation plays a symbolic role. The symbolism of the coloronim “jaune” is ambivalent: since ancient times, yellow has been associated with sunlight, gold, honey and had a positive connotation, however, in the Middle Ages negative connotations are manifested in the association of yellow with the color of bile, pus, urine, and, consequently, with the color of the disease, suffering, betrayal, etc. In modern French, the “yellow” enantiosemy is illustrated by two examples: the positively connotated phrase le maillot jaune (the yellow T-shirt is the winner of the Tour de France bicycle race) and the negatively connotated phrase la carte jaune (the yellow card is a warning sign of a violation of the rules). In a society divided ideologically, there

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416 cannot be any consensus on “ideological” words. Therefore, the phrase gilets jaunes has two ideological types: positive and negative. In the semantic structure of both types of “gilet jaune”, 3 common attributes can be distinguished: 1) the name of the clothes - S1 “face”; 2) “yellow” - S2 “protester”. 3) S3 - “belonging to the middle class”. In the positively connotated type of meaning, the ideological attribute S1 is highlighted - “requiring social justice”. In the negative type of value, the following semes are distinguished: Si2 “anti-ecological”, because the outrage was caused by the so-called “environmental tax” on gasoline; Si3 “anarchical”, because les k-way noirs, les black-bloc - anarchists joined the movement; Si4 – “racial” because les chemises brunes joined the movement of the yellow vests. The inclusion in the semantic structure of the meaning of ideological components, i.e. components that cause a different ideological assessment, we call ideologization. Sustainability and a high degree of mastery of the national language of this phrase is indicated by the frequency of its use, the presence of singular and plural forms, the presence of masculine and feminine gender (un gilet jaune-une gilet jaune), and the capacity for word formation (giletjauniser, giletjaunisation, giletjaunien). Keywords: semantics, ideologization, coloronim, les gilets jaunes

Intoduction The political vocabulary of any language is undergoing rapid development and is actively enriched during periods when society is in a crisis. “Social development, the increasing role of the ideological factor in the spiritual life of society pose with particular acuteness the problem of ideological differentiation of the language, the influence of ideology on the semantics of linguistic signs and the possibilities of using this influence to implement the impact function” (Chekalina E.M., 1991: 87-88) K.N. Derzhavin (1927), E.A. Voytsekhovskaya, T.B. Kryuchkova (1984), M.V. Arsentieva (1994), and others studied ideological vocabulary, i.e.

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417 such a layer that contains ideological information. The person’s name chosen for study - gilets jaunes - is an ideologized word, since by this term we mean such a word, which contains an ideological component, which in our case is the “protesting” sign and is composed of concept words, differently evaluated and interpreted by ideologists of different social groups. The appearance of yellow vests in the political arena noticeably changed the palette of the political landscape of France, in which, along with the usual color designation symbolizing already known political forces, appeared a coloronym yellow. Objectives/Purpose of the study Despite the large number of publications devoted to the phrase “gilets jaunes” (Borodulina N.Yu., Makeeva M.N., Glivenkova O.A., 2019; Perestoronina I.L., Eremina M.V., 2019; Putilina N.V., 2019; etc.), the report focuses on issues not previously considered by linguists, namely: an attempt is made to identify semantic changes in the color designation of jaune, the semantic structure of the meaning of the phrase “gilets jaunes” taking into account the process of ideologization and to check how the old phrase has determined in the language with a new, ideological meaning. The subject of the research is the semantic structure of the phrase “gilets jaunes”, and the object is the semantics of ideologized words. Methodology For this purpose, component analysis with elements of stereotypic analysis and contextual analysis with elements of sociolinguistic analysis will be used. The stereotypical analysis proposed by S. Kripke (Kripke, 1980) takes into account the peculiarities of ideas about an object or phenomenon caused by a culture, of which a person’s worldview is an integral part, and represents the structure of meaning as an open series of statements that is, their number can be arbitrarily large, they can be both false and contradictory. It most fully meets the requirements for compiling a semantic structure of the meaning of ideologized words. To represent the semantic structure of meaning, we use the division of the semantic component into its component parts, proposed by I.A. Sternin

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(1986: 77-84) - a semantic attribute and a componential specifier. The semantic attribute is part of the seme, common to it with other seme. A seminal specifier is a part of a seme that distinguishes this from another seme with the same semantic attribute. Results/Findings The yellow color of the vest - an attribute of every automobilist - is a sign of trouble, what happened to the car on the road, and a call for help. The yellow vest acquires a metaphorical meaning: a distress signal sent to society. Initially, the free phrase “gilet jaune” before our eyes turns into a stable phrase that takes on a new meaning “someone who calls for help”, which is then interpreted as “civilian protester". A new meaning appears as a result of a synecdoche - a transfer, in our case, from the name of the garment to the name of the person dressed in it. This stylistic device is productive in all languages. An illustration of this in Russian and French are phrases such as “голубые мундиры» about gendarmes, белые халаты about doctors, малиновые пиджаки about new Russians or “les talons rouges” about aristocrats, “les gants jaunes” about fashionistas, “les chemises brunes” about fascists. The color designation “jaune” was ambivalent depending on the historical and cultural context: it reflected the color of honey, gold, wheat and symbolized sacred light, power, immortality. Since the XIVth century, yellow has been increasingly associated with the color of bile, urine, pus, which are associated with illness, madness, betrayal. Negative symbolism is reflected in such phraseological units as la presse jaune, le carton jaune, positive- in le maillot jaune. Analysis of the use of the adjective jaune in the French press reveals the degree of its rethinking and new semantic capacity: lettre jaune - the leaflet of yellow vests, question jaune - the question raised by yellow vests, nuit jaune - the night shaken by the manifestations of yellow vests. Moreover, there are some cases of the ellipsis of the noun gilet and substantivization the adjective jaune (donner la parole à des

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419 jaunes). And vice versa, the ellipse of jaune is possible: des gendarmes qui bloquent le cortège de gilets sur un pont (Gilets jaunes ..., 2019: 146) The peculiarity of this name is that it has, according to the classification of A.A. Ufimtseva (1986: 122), a denotative- significative type of meaning in which the semantic features of the denotation, such as indications of age, nationality, race, language, are not relevant, and the attribute ascribed to the person by the cognizing subject is his/her significatum. In the semantic structure of the meaning of such phrases there are 2 general differential attributes: S¹ - the first attribute, expressed by the name of the clothes, - means “person”, and S² - the second attribute, expressed by the adjective of color, - means a feature that can indicate a profession, occupation, political orientation, etc. In the semantic structure of the meaning of the new stable phrase “gilet jaune” we see the same thing: the name of the clothes is S1 “person” wearing it; the color designation is “yellow”, meaning S2 “protester”. Another common characteristic for all yellow vests, one common component of meaning is S3 “belonging to the middle class” (représentants de la classe moyenne -simples employés, autoentrepreneurs, chômeurs) (Gilets jaunes, 2019: 50, 94). Political observers, using the subtitle “Les trois gilets”, distinguish three types of protesting “yellow vests” - “1) éélectoraliste appelle à la constitution de liste aux prochaines élections, 2) négociatrice appelle à des discussions avec le gouvernement, 3) insurrectionnaliste demande la démission de Macron”. Consequently, in the semantic structure of meaning, we can find three seminal specifiers of the sign “advocating social justice”: Si4 - speaking for participation in the elections, Si5 - speaking for negotiations with the authorities, Si6 - requiring the resignation of President Macron. To these signs it is necessary to add a few others that will represent the point of view of political opponents. The answer to the question of what the participants in manifestations protest against can clarify the semantic structure of the meaning of jaune: the speech of motorists is caused by the

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420 introduction of an “environmental tax” on gasoline (TPP-taxes pour les produits pétroliers), from which we can draw the first conclusion that that the speech allegedly has an anti-environmental motive, an anti-green political direction - anti-vert. There is a conflict of "yellow" with "green". According to French historian Michelle Pasturo (Pastoureau M.), in the Middle Ages, the combination of yellow and green illustrated a symbolic field of disorder (cit.: «Gilets jaunes…», 2019: 19). We can talk about the ideologization of the phrase with assigning it a negative rating through the sign “Si1 (-)” (ideological seme 1 with a minus sign) - “anti-environmental”. However, the demonstrators themselves and their sympathizers do not think so: (…) de nombreux politiciens nous ont décrits comme des gros balourds antiécologiques qui voulaient préserver le droit à polluer tranquille (…)c’est un chantage qui fait peser sur nos épaules la responsabilité du carnage écologique (…) on assiste à l’inflation d’un métadiscours qui voudrait opposer le gilet jaune périphérique à l’écologiste urbain (Opp. cit., 2019: 23). Therefore, on the other hand, in the semantic structure of meaning, we can also see the positive ideological component S1 (+) - “requiring social justice”. As political events that have been going on for more than a year develop, the image of the participant of the protest movement acquires new characteristics and is perceived ambiguously by society. Since activists who were more radical began to join the actions of yellow vests, the movement ceased to have a peaceful attitude and began to acquire an extremist character. Radically-minded demonstrators, wearing black windcheaters and called les k-ways noirs, les black bloсs, profess an anarchist ideology. Their behavior casts a shadow on the image of the “yellow-vester” and adds to this semantic structure one more seme Si2 (-) - sign meaning "anarchist". Yellow vests join brown les bruns and the sign Si3 (-) - “racist” - penetrates into the semantic structure of the meaning “gilet

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421 jaune”: les gilets jaunes c’est un truc de facho manipulé par le Front National (Gilets jaunes, 2019: 24). Just a few headings are enough to prove it: Gilets jaunes et “peste brune” (L”Express, 26.02.2018). Before our eyes, the appeared stable phrase “gilets jaunes” is in the center of public attention and due to external circumstances (“environmental tax”, adjoining the movement of anarchist and racist, fascist elements) acquires a negative ideological connotation, including in its semantic structure the meanings of seme, which we call ideological, since such components of the content structure have at least 2 different assessments, due to the speaker’s worldview - “anti-ecologist”, “anarchist”, “raсist", "fascist". Following words become synonymous for “gilets jaunes”: casseurs, émeutiers, fachos. In other words, the meaning of the phrase “yellow vests” has 2 ideological types: 1) positive with seme “fair protest” and 2) negative with semes “anarchist”, “fascist”, “racist”, “anti-ecologist”. About mastering the language of this phrase says the fact that it can be used both in the plural and in the singular (un gilet jaune - des gilets jaunes), and it can be used with a numeral (2 gilets jaunes), as well as in both genera (un gilet jaune –une gilet jaune). In the last year, active word production has been observed - the emergence of such new derivative word formations as the adjective giletjaunien, the verb giletjauniser and the noun giletjaunisation. It is interesting to consider ways of forming new words. The adjective giletjaunien is formed by adding the suffix “-ien” to the base of the giletjaune. The new verb is created according to the type of verbs of the 1st conjugation giletjauniser. From the new verb a noun is created, meaning a process, - giletsjaunisation. If at the time the movement appeared, its name was enclosed in quotation marks, then over time the quotation marks disappeared. The absence of quotes, the appearance of the abbreviation "les Gjs" - all this indicates the mastering of the language of the new phrase.

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The displacement of the adjective rouge from stable symbolic phrases and its replacement with the adjective jaune in ironic newspaper headlines (France: bleu blanc jaune) can be considered as a symptom of the beginning of desacralization (Suzdaltseva V.N., 2014: 93) of red color, which, despite its different interpretation, in many cultures is perceived as a sign of revolution: the revolutionary "yellow" has replaced the revolutionary "red" Discussion Our observations led to the conclusion that the palette of the political landscape of France (blue, white, red, green, black, brown) was replenished with another color - yellow. The phrase gilets jaunes, which recently appeared in the French political dictionary, gave an impetus to the development and semantic filling of the coloronym jaune, which to some extent supplanted the color designation of rouge and, perhaps, became a symptom of the desacralization of revolutionary red symbolism (as evidenced by the numerous ironic headlines of newspaper articles). In addition, as a result of the ellipse of the noun gilet, the coloronym jaune is used as an independent unit, calling the protest’s political orientation. The phrase gilets jaunes has become a stable political term with a very clear semantic structure of meaning, in which two types are manifested as a result of ideologization - positive and negative. The phrase gilets jaunes has strengthened in the language: it has a singular and plural, masculine and feminine, is used without quotes, has an abbreviation and is capable of word production (giletjaunien, giletjauniser, giletjaunisation).

References Arsentieva, M.V. 1994. About the influence of ideology on the semantics of linguistic units (the name of a person in relation to religious faith in the French language of the 18th century). Bulletin of St. Petersburg University 1(2): 127-131. Borodulina, N.Yu., Makeeva, M.N., Glivenkova, O.A. 2019. Color holds a meaning vs color does not hold a meaning (symbolism of yellow color in the representation of social movements in Europe).

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Philological sciences. Questions of theory and practice 12 (4): 228-232. Derzhavin, K.N. 1927.The struggle of classes and parties in the language of the Great French Revolution. Language and Literature 2(1): 1-62. Kryuchkova, T. B. 1984. To the question of the relationship between language and ideology. In Modern ideological struggle and language problems. Science, Moscow, pp. 61-93. Perestoronina, I.L., Eremina, M.V. 2019. Functions of headings containing the phrase “gilets jaunes” Problems of Romano- Germanic Philology. Pedagogy, and Methods of Teaching Foreign Languages 15: 54-58. Putilina, N.V. 2019. The functioning of semantic fields in the socio-political and sociocultural media context of the “yellow vests” movement in France (based on articles from the Le Monde newspaper. In Stages of the development of Romance languages: from the "language of live communication to the" national language". Interuniversity collected volume of scientific papers. Responsible editor I.V. Skuratov, Moscow, pp.160-167. Sternin, I.A. 1985. Associative experiment and analysis of the structure of lexical meaning. In Text and culture: general and particular problems. Institute of Linguistics, Moscow, pp. 77-84. Suzdaltseva, V.N. 2014. Symbolism of color and the functioning of color designations in mass media political discourse. Bulletin of Moscow University, Series 10(1): pp. 80-95. Chekalina, E.M. 1991. The language of modern French press. Publishing House of the Leningrad University, Leningrad, 167 pp. Gilets jaunes: un assaut contre la société. Lundimatinpapier #4, 2019. l’Imprimerie Corlet, Condé-en-Normandie, 223 pp. Kripke, S. 1980. Naming and necessity. Harward University Pres, Cambridge, 184 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-425-434

FROM STYLISTIC STUDY TOWARDS FEMINIST CRITICISM: “BLISS” (K. MANSFIELD) AND “MAGNOLIA BLOSSOM” (A. CHRISTIE)

Victoria V. Afanaseva

Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University) Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The article is focused on two short stories by outstanding writers – Agatha Christie and Katherine Mansfield. “Magnolia Blossom” (1926) and “Bliss” (1918), belonging to the same epoch, represent certain advanced ideas of that time, connected with woman’s self-awareness. The plot of the stories being different, the ideas expressed differ as well. Still, much in common is observed in the message sent. While the topic of a woman’s sensuality, quite provocative a century ago, is touched upon by the New Zealand writer, a manifest of an independent person on her way to freedom is put in the spotlight by the queen of the detective story. Focusing on the inner world of married women “in full bloom”, and surprisingly little on their husbands’ infidelity, the two stories undoubtedly head from patriarchy to feminism. The way the distinguished women writers present to us the topic of marital relationship, of love and the emotional state that it gives to a bright deeply feeling woman, and last but not least, the question of choice in a woman’s life make the stories special. Their brevity only sharpens the effect produced. Thus, bordering on literary criticism, the research is carried out in the field of stylistics, regarded as applied linguistics, and is based on the works of modern linguists – Peter Stockwell, Katie Wales, Marcello Giovanelly and Jessica Mason.

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The stylistic analysis of the body of the literary text is suggested, pointing out the main stylistic features at different levels of the language. Lexical and syntactical dominants are revealed in close connection with the commentary on the message of these pieces of prose fiction. The images of heroines are in the focus of our attention, as they are depicted as truly remarkable women, radiant, passionate and committed. Being similar in the culminating point of the story – the loss of faith in their husbands – the stories are completely different in tone and emotional colouring. The certain elements of symbolism used by the two female authors, very much alike, are dwelled upon in detail by us. Sustained metaphors as the key images of the story are discussed. Keywords: stylistic analysis, literary criticism, feminist criticism, metaphor, Agatha Christie, Katherine Mansfield

Introduction The article deals with the study of two short stories written by outstanding women writers – Agatha Christie and Katherine Mansfield. “Magnolia Blossom” and “Bliss”, written in 1926 and 1918 respectively, represent the images of beautiful married women, whose happiness or hope for it is ruined in a day. Though the topic is far from original, these pieces of fiction prose, written a century ago, symbolize the awakening of the women’s voice in their search of happiness. Presumably inspired by feminist ideas of the time, these brilliant masterpieces, whose brevity only sharpens the effect, are in the focus of our attention. With the direct allusion to Tchekof in “Bliss” and the heroine of “Magnolia Blossom” braving conventions like Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina, these two short stories are truly special for Russian readers. Purpose of the study The article aims at analyzing the stories, which are united by the similar culminating point, and have much in common in their message. We regard the close study of the literary text at different levels of the language as accompaniment of their literary impact.

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It might seem a little too strong to connect our analysis with feminist criticism, but working under the impression of “Critical Theory Today” by Lois Tyson, who calls herself a “recovering patriarchal woman”, we carry out our work on the following assumptions. Firstly, when we interpret a literary text, we are doing literary criticism (Tyson L., 2006: 8). Secondly, feminism is regarded as opposition to patriarchy, when the latter “exerts forces that undermine women’s self-confidence and assertiveness” (Tyson L., 2006: 90). Speaking at length on the subject, Tyson turns to Victorian culture in England, where women were “the angel in the house” and were cast as “emotional, weak, nurturing and submissive” (Tyson L., 2006: 91), in fact, “just like objects, used without consideration of their own perspectives, feelings, or opinions”. The stories under analyses belong to the period of the First World War, demonstrating progressive ideas of the time alongside eternal problems of human relations. Methodology Speaking of methodology and the choice of our approach within the field of linguistics, we stick to the stylistic analysis of prose fiction. Being “very much in its heyday” (Stockwell P., 2006: 757), stylistics offers the best “toolkit” (Wales K., 2011: 32-3) for our purposes, so as to ground literary interpretation in textual evidence. As it was observed by M. Lambrou and P. Stockwell, the procedure is neither objective nor purely subjective, since the models for analysis are conventionally shared and validated (Lambrou M., Stockwell P., 2008: 3). As stylistics “sits between language and literature, seeing them as closely related and mutually dependent” (Giovanelly M., Mason J., 2018: 3) we dwell on the literary impact of the stories under analysis. Findings Approaching the texts under analysis, it should be first of all stated how the characters are presented. The reader perceives Teo – the heroine of “Magnolia Blossom” – through the thoughts of her beloved, for whom she is magical and elusive. And so she remains an exceptionally beautiful mysterious creature up to the final

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427 conversation with her husband, in which she reveals her personality fully and boldly. In contrast, “Bliss” abundances in inner monologues of Berta Young (definitely, a telling name). K. Mansfield is an omniscient author in this story and vividly depicts her personage’s inner state. At the syntactical level the dominant of simple sentences is observed in “Magnolia Blossom”. The syntactical structure is as laconic as possible – unextended simple sentences are most common. In the dry and brisk manner they serve to stress characters’ being afraid of their happiness at the beginning of the story, in tune with the idea “He had not dared to let himself believe”, which says it all. And after it – to mark the unspoken sorrow for the lost chance for love. One member sentences are also present, showing a high degree of tension as in the one to comment on the last meeting of Teo and her beloved: “A strange, formal little interview” (Christie A., 2013: 17). Inversion of different kind can be found, accompanied by other stylistic devices, such as repetition and detachment, for instance, in the scene of their parting: “And from that he could not move her. Strange that a creature so soft, so pliant, could be so unyielding […]. That, too, she took in silence, without protest, her face, dumb and pitiful, giving the lie to his words” (Christie A., 2013: 10). The sets of inner monologue of Teo’s beloved are abundant in questions and exclamations. The way she goes away from him and later on from her husband looks very similar: “The door opened – and shut again” / “He heard the door shut”. Other syntactical stylistic devices in the short story include repetition of different patterns and detachments. The simplicity of syntactical arrangement seems to foreground the message of the story and without distracting attention of the listener from the judgements pronounced. On the contrary, “Bliss” with its open ending, has quite a specific syntactical arrangement. It is as emotional syntactically as an English text can be. The story is based on complex and compound sentences, marked with parallel constructions, repetition, emphatic questions. The usage of dashes and dots for the purpose of

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428 emphasis can be considered a syntactic dominant of this text. Inner speech of the heroine, rich in exclamatory sentences, sometimes comes close to stream-of-consciousness technique. Everything, including syntax, is used to show how special Berta really is, as in the following part, where absolute parallelism and different patterns of repetition, as well as detachment are observed: “She hardly dared to breathe for fear of fanning it higher, and yet breathed deeply, deeply. She hardly dared to look into the cold mirror – but she did look, and it gave her back a woman, radiant, with smiling trembling lips, with big dark eyes and an air of listening, waiting for something … divine to happen…that she knew must happen … infallibly” (Mansfield K., 2018: 73). The crisis of love and faith that the two heroines face comes with a sharper effect as they are described as out-of-the-ordinary, remarkable women. Two sustained metaphors support the creation of images in each case. Firstly, Berta and Teo are sparkling. Teo’s beloved “had compared her to a diamond when he first saw her – a thing of flashing fire, reflecting light from a hundred facets” (Christie A., 2013: 6). Love changes her from a diamond to a pearl: “But at that first touch […] she had changed miraculously to the clouded softness of a pearl – a pearl like a magnolia blossom, creamy-pink”. In the description of Berta a more deliberate image is created to show the radiant quality she possesses: “as though you’d suddenly swallowed a bright piece of that late afternoon sun and it burned in your bosom, sending out a little shower of sparks into every particle, into every finger and toe” (Mansfield K., 2018: 72). Secondly, more profound and symbolically dominant metaphors are created in their comparison with flowers. In the story by A. Christie this dominant is supported by the title and sustained through the story up to the very last words. Again the reader comes across it as the perception of Teo’s beloved: “Like a magnolia flower – that was how he thought of her […] Magnolia blossom – exotic, fragrant, mysterious”. This central image is related to a tree, growing next to Teo’s house. Unlike a beautiful tree in “Bliss”, this

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429 one is described with a usage of synonyms with derogatory meanings and with stylistic inversion: “Up the front of the house grew a magnolia tree, smutty, dirty, begrimed, but still a magnolia” (Christie A., 2013: 18). The way the heroine smiles sadly at seeing it shows her awareness of the connection between them. To be a magnolia in full bloom the very night her hopes for happiness are ruined is Teo’s part: exquisitely dressed at her husband’s request she is “truly now a magnolia flower”. The central symbolic image of “Bliss” is a lovely pear tree “in fullest, richest bloom” in spring. The heroine sees it as “the symbol of her own life”. The way she is dressed that night is an accompaniment of that connection: “A white dress, a string of jade beads, green shoes and stockings” (Mansfield K., 2018: 77). Mansfield describes her heroine “rustling her petals softly”. Just as the tree seemed “like the flame of a candle, to stretch up, to point, to quiver in the bright air” Berta is “too happy” that night. That results in abundance of positively colored epithets and metaphors: divine, delightful, miraculous, exquisite, dears, nest of baby phoenixes, etc. The words “love” and “bliss” are repeated so many times that they become lexical dominant of the text. Mansfield’s art of character-drawing is at its best here. The story just grabs readers and pours that sunshine and bliss on them. The title of the story is considered to be correlated with the saying “ignorance is bliss”. Yet, there are certain signs of the coming disaster. But Berta rejoices up to the very last lines, when her world is ruined by the passion she sees in her husband’s face – the passion towards her female friend. And in that moment of crisis she hurries to the tree with the question that remains unanswered. What is then the last line of the story: “But the pear tree was as lovely as ever and as full of flower and as still”? Is it, perhaps, the victory of spring and the undeniable power of nature and beauty? Or can we suggest some hope for the betrayed heroine, who loved and admired and trusted her husband and her female friend? Or is it possible that Kathrine Mansfield wants us to belief in the triumph of womanhood? It is with the pear tree that the remarkable moment of time lapse is

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430 connected: “How long did they stand there? […] For ever – for a moment?” (Mansfield K., 2018: 81). It is the mystical part, the empathy or the insight, that Berta shares with her beloved friend, and which is accompanied by a sustained metaphor: “… creatures of another world, wondering what they were to do in this one with this blissful treasure that burnt in their bosoms and dropped, in silver flowers, from their hair and hands?” (Mansfield K., 2018: 81). That out-of-the-ordinary personality of Berta’s is stressed through all her feelings towards the life she lives, the people and things that fill her life and make her so overjoyed. The same time-lapse moment is found in “Magnolia Blossom” in the last line of the story: “Ages passed, or was it a few minutes?” (Christie A., 2013: 25). This moment of showing the depth of emotions, veiling the prosaic reality, serves to bridge the decisive step of the heroine with the tree she bears parallel with. And here comes the core difference from “Bliss”: “Something fluttered down outside the window – the last of the magnolia petals, soft, fragrant” (Christie A., 2013: 25). Is it a sort of requiem for femininity and softness and fragility that are part of woman’s nature? When the utter disillusionment comes, the heroine chooses freedom as an antidote for any bond that beckons with ghostly happiness. Undoubtedly, she goes against foundations of society, and that is what makes the story sound like a manifest against false values. The gritty dialogue that is the culminating point of the story reveals the positions of the protagonists. The handsome husband, liked by everyone, even looks “rather noble” as he says “I can forgive”; and Teo’s unexpected unyielding natural resistance “I can not”: “It is an ugly thing, Richard – a thing no woman should forgive. You sold me, your own wife, to purchase safety” (Christie A., 2013: 23). That statement makes her husband stammer unbelievingly. This call for standing up for women’s dignity is profound and penetrating. “You wanted to save your skin – save it at any cost – even at the cost of my honour” – Teo condemns her husband. Her refusal to forgive “had the effect of a bomb in a quiet room”. Possibly, with the public opinion it could have the same

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431 shocking effect, as the society ruled by men was not ready to face such an attitude. As it has been mentioned above, the tone of the stories is quite different, and in “Magnolia Blossom” Teo goes through a lot of suffering, which is vividly shown in metaphors and epithets used: “Theodora stood, a black shadow with a white face”. Negatively colored emotives, such as “worry”, “suspense”, “frightened”, “afraid”, “panic-stricken” describe the hesitations Teo’s beloved was going through while thinking of her leaving husband for his sake. He, too, was cruel to her, at least in his attempt to stop her: “Rage mastered him in the end; he hurled at her every cruel word he could think of, seeking only to bruise and batter her to her knees”. The man she was taking the irrevocable step with was far from understanding her – several times the word “creature” is used as he thinks of her, unable to understand her in the least, it’s just that “At last she was his”. The same idea is pronounced by her husband, who, evidently, never cared to know her: “Whatever else happens, I've got you, haven't I?". Conclusion “Magnolia Blossom” with a symbolic title is quiet an unusual piece of prose, non-characteristic of a renowned master of the detective story. For those well-acquainted with her works, it is clear that her novels and short stories with only few exceptions are full of promise, even of romantic hopes. This ray of hope together with her idea that murder is a perfect matchmaker is an inseparable part of the message that she sends us. “Magnolia Blossom” stands aside, being a truly remarkable outspoken protest of a married woman against moral abuse. Owing loyalty to her husband and love to almost a complete stranger, who changed her whole world and turned her to a “dumb creature” with his touch, Teo takes suffering from both of them, trying to stay committed. Putting duty above love and being betrayed in the unforgivable way by her husband, it’s difficult to say whether she could be happy with her beloved, or he would just as well turn out to be the one who did not deserve her. What is even more important, Teo is hard on herself as well, prepared to pay: “She looked back over her

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432 shoulder at him. “We all have to pay in this life, Richard. For my sin I must pay in loneliness. For yours – well, you gambled with the thing you love, and you have lost it!”. “Magnolia Blossom” seems to be a story of an extraordinary, brilliant woman of high society, a deeply feeling person of dignity and honesty. “Bliss”, in its turn, is considered an attempt to speak of female sensuality. With “desiring her husband ardently, ardently” and the question “was this what the feeling of bliss had been leading up to?” Berta goes through a sort of awakening stage. Having everything – her child and husband, her home and friends, this woman listens to her own self most of the time, both body and soul. With the question “Why be given a body if you have to keep it shut like a rare, rare fiddle?” Katherine Mansfield made this story quite provocative for her time. Tension and physical attraction is present in “Magnolia Blossom” as well, in the way the heroine reacts to her beloved: “Her answer was in the clinging of her body, the abandon of her lips” (Christie A., 2013: 12). This feels like a challenge to patriarchy that considers it “unnatural for a woman to have sexual desire” (Tyson L., 2006: 91) as well as have any needs of her own, “for she is completely satisfied by serving her family”.

References Giovanelly, M., Mason, J. 2018. The Language of Literature. An Introduction to Stylistics. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 134 pp. Christie, A. 2013. Magnolia Blossom. Harper Collins, United Kingdom, 35 pp. Lambrou, M., Stockwell, P. 2008. Introduction: The State of Contemporary Stylistics. In Contemporary Stylistics (Contemporary Studies in Linguistics), Lambrou, M., Stockwell, P. Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd, London, 302 pp. Mansfield, K. 2018. The Garden Party and Selected Short Stories. Alma Classics, United Kingdom, 408 pp.

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Stockwell, P. 2006. Language and literature: Stylistics. In The Handbook of English Linguistics, Aarts, B., McMahoneditors, A. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, pp. 742-758. Wales, K. 2011. A Dictionary of Stylistics. Routledge, USA, 496 pp. Tyson, L. 2006. Critical Theory Today. User Friendly Guide. Routledge, USA, 482 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-435-444

LINGUISTIC COLONIZATION: ANGLICIZATION

Irina Kazakova1, Michael Yashchenko2, Evgeniy Mamchenkov3

1, 2, 3Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia ¹e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0001-7838-994X 2e-mail: [email protected] 3e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. English is the most widespread language in the world and is more widely spoken and written than any other language. It is used by more than 500 million people in almost every country in the world and this number of English-speakers is constantly growing. However, it was not always like that. During the era of colonization the British did a great job making their national language as the major one for the sphere of international trade, diplomacy, education, arts and an official language in more than a dozen countries. And all of this was achieved through active implementation of the language among the local people of the colonized territories, with pidgin and creole languages evolving into standalone dialects and variations of English that are spoken nowadays in former British colonies and dominions. The language was actively spread in the developing British Empire countries on the American continent, in Africa, Australia, India and New Zealand. Special attention should be paid to the last three regions, since these three states had the greatest influence in the formation of dialectal English, and also have the richest history of the British colonization of the language, and its interaction with the local tribes, their traditions and their own languages. In addition, based on the historical information, it was concluded that the British colonization was of great importance for the development of the

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435 regions which suffered from Anglicization, and integration of the English language was the result, on the other hand, it had a great importance as a means of communication between the colonizers and the local population. This study is aimed at analytical structuring of the existed historical data connected with the British colonization and conducting social surveys of RUDN university students to reveal the respondents' attitude to and knowledge of the issues such as Anglicization, colonization, relationship between the colonizers and the natives, the knowledge of English and creole languages, as well as vocabulary specific to them. Research and survey on the topic showed high potential for the development of further work in this area, as awareness of students, despite being at a high level, still remains vague and not explored deeply enough. Keywords: Historical development, colonization, dialects, hybrid languages

Introduction Colonization of different countries influenced greatly on all the possible spheres, especially linguistic one.  European exploration of Australia started in the XVII century and the first British Colonial settlement, New South Wales, was established in 1788 by a party comprised of convicts, military and civilian personnel from all over the British Isles led by Capitan Arthur Philipp (Taylor D., 2011: 36). The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed, on 1 January 1901. The Australian-born children, exposed to a variety of dialects of English, started creating a new one from the speech they heard around them and expressed peer solidarity with it (Cunningham P., 2015: 139). With the emergence of European colonizers, the Aboriginal Australians’ way of life was drastically changed. The British were generally reluctant to learn any of the Aboriginal languages, which there were approximately 250 of, so the natives were forced to use English to contact the invaders. At first this was a simplified kind of language, used only between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people in

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436 situations of limited contact. This kind of English is referred to by linguists as “pidgin English”, but within a few generations this pidgin began to expand linguistically and socially in order to serve a communicative function for different Aboriginal groups, who did not have a shared language, also in some areas Aboriginal English developed not from pidgin, but from the Aboriginalization of English as speakers learnt the language. which created the Australian Aboriginal English. dialects as well as two creole languages (Kriol and Torres Strait Creole).  The British Settlement in New Zealand started in the XIX century. The European population grew very slowly between 1805 and 1835 with most migrants being runaway sailors, escaped convicts, sealers, whalers and missionaries with their families. In 1839 Edward Gibbon Wakefield established the New Zealand Company, whose goal was to attract settlers from England to set up homes and farms in New Zealand, they were offered paid passage and opportunity to buy land at an affordable cost (Philips, J., 2013: 17). In 1840 The Treaty of Waitangi was signed, which gave the British Crown New Zealand’s sovereignty and gave Māori the rights of British subjects. Settlers continued immigrating throughout the 1850s, most of them understood little of local Māori culture and customs (Sheehan M., 1989: 54). The gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865) caused a worldwide gold rush that more than doubled New Zealand’s population. The intermingling of immigrants from all over Europe, Australia, South Africa, Asia with the native Māori population created a unique regional English lexicon and the “New Zealand accent”. The New Zealand variant of English has been officially recognized since at least 1912.  The British colonization in India began with the British East India Company trading in the Indian ocean, monopolizing trade with India and establishing governmental power over India with its own army and judiciary in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey (Boggart D., et al., 2017: 31). The Company was a private company owned by stockholders and reporting to a board of directors in London,

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437 regulated by the British Parliament. Its rule was abolished after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and it was succeeded by the British Raj (from rāj, literally, "rule" in Sanskrit and Hindustani) or Direct Rule in India with the Government of India Act 1858 (Glanville L., 2013: 120). The British Raj lasted until 1947, when it was decided to end the British rule and partition India along religious lines (Bose S., Jalal A., 2004: 47). The Dominion of India and The Dominion of Pakistan formed after the partition later turned into republics. English language in India became prominent in 1600 after the trade ports in coastal cities were established and the relations with the East Indian Company began (Boggart D., et al., 2017: 30). Public instruction of the English language started in the 1830s and in 1835 it replaced Persian as the official language of the Company. India was and still is one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the world and English served as a lingua franca during the British Raj. There were attempts to make Hindi the first official language in the country after it gained independence, however the non-Hindi-speaking states like Tamil Nadu protested against it. Based on the historical estimates above, we can conclude that English conquest and colonization of South-East Asia and Oceania was an intermediary language of communication, which was initially imposed onto the local population. Later, it was successfully adopted into use by the natives and used as the main language to communicate with the colonialists, changing the language and creating dialects (Lalmalsawma D., 2013: 15). India speaks 780 languages, 220 lost in last 50 years. One of the crucial reasons for the adoption of the English language was the linguistic heterogeneity of the composition of the captured territories. The territory of New Zealand, which had over 250 different languages and dialects, India with a vast territory, Hindi-speaking and non- Hindi speaking population (Annamalai E., 2006: 610). All of these facts made it impossible for the British to use local languages to contact the local residents, and the colonizer-lacked desire to adapt to local customs. Despite this, the linguistic colonization of these countries did not begin immediately: the most common

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Anglicization passed under pressure from other factors: gold rush, migration English-speaking population in new unexplored areas, industrial and trading interaction of colonizers. A unique feature of Indian English is that it uses the Indian numbering system. There are also hybrid languages in India, such as Hinglish (Hindi and English), Manglish (Malayalam and English), Kanglish (Kannada and English), Tenglish (Telugu and English) and Tanglish or Tamglish (Tamil and English) (Lambert J., 2018: 39). Table 1. Most common bilingual English hybrids Most common Hybrids Two languages-ancestors Hinglish Hindi and English Manglish Malayalam and English Kanglish Kannada and English Tenglish Telugu and English Tanglish Tamil and English Objectives/Purpose of the study The purpose of this research is to analyze the historical facts of linguistic colonization caused anglicizing of many countries, revealing its impact consequences, as well as to make the on-line questionnaire, using RUDN University platform, to define the understanding and relation of the bachelors and magistrates towards the worldwide societies' Anglicization. The survey is to be conducted within the scope of a few countries that represent striking examples of language changes. Methodology This study is based on the linguistics surveys of such famous authors as:  Chandrika Kaul – An expert in Modern Indian History, Reader at British School of History (Chandrika K., 2011: 35)  Mark Sheehan - Research Fellow at the Oxford University, Ph.D, Research Fellow in the Institute for Science and Ethics.  S.A. Belanovskiy - the Author of the “Deep Interview guidebook», Sociologist (methods from this book were taken to

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439 conduct the on-line questionnaire) Also one the most effective tool was an online survey of 80 RUDN university students and detailed analysis of the respondents' answers. Results Such a complex intricate place of English in its conquest of the world prompted the idea about a survey of RUDN students regarding their knowledge about linguistic colonization and influence of English in the conquest of the peoples of Oceania, India, and Australia. An experimental group of 80 people- bachelors and magistracy of the Foreign Languages Institute of RUDN in the age from 18 to 23 was formed and invited to participate in a survey on the subject of knowledge of the history of Anglicization and dialects basing on English and the languages of the local population. Survey This online research allowed us to determine the level of knowledge and its depth of the Anglicization issues. The questions asked to students were both general and in- depth specific, for instance, such as:  Do you know anything about Anglicization?  Do you know the history of British expansions and colonizations?  Do you know any information about Maori Tribes Colonization?  Do you think that the Europeans civilized the natives?  Do you think that the natives could resisted colonization if they all united?  Have you ever heard about Tanglish, Hinglish or Tenglish?  What dialectical English words do you know? Write down some of them. Otherwise, leave the answer field blank. The responses were detailed and extensive, making it possible to present the results in the form of a diagram.

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Survey conclusions Basing on the conducted research, it can be concluded that most of the participants in the experimental group are quite knowledgeable about the history of the colonization campaigns of the English language in different countries, and the respondents agreed that the English language brought civilization to the tribal system of the Maori, Hindus and Australians. Most of the respondents showed low awareness in dialect words of the English language and left the fields blank. Among those who completed the task, the words from the New Zealand dialect were most often written: "kiwi" (flightless New Zealand's bird) and "mako" (a shark). Table 2. Description of the diagram Description Examples Description 0 points 8 participants Had low desire to answer on survey 1-2 points 32 participants Had answered on some questions 3-4 points 27 participants Demonstrated great level of awareness. Most answers from this section contained answer on the 7th question 5-6 points 8 participants All answer sheet was filled with “yes”. The 7th question contained multiple answer

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Poll

8 13

32 27

5-6 points 3-4 points 1-2 points 0 points

Discussion Due to the process of globalization, it is possible to conclude that the English language begins to mix with its dialect forms, leading to the expansion of its variations and, as a result, the integration of new elements. Although "Americanisms" remain the main and dominant elements, the languages of the peoples of India, New Zealand and Australia have also brought much to the language, falling under the linguistic colonization of the British. However, in all those cases, the language has been nurtured and spread among the population much later than the beginning of the cooperation between the two sides. It allows us to say that the adoption of a new language was only the secondary level of pressure, giving way to direct territorial capture, the establishment similar to the British court system, administration and government. As historical information shows us, the first colonialists who arrived on new lands were mainly involved in manual labor: prospectors, farmers, or soldiers. Initiating them into such a difficult matter as the languages of local tribes would be a very difficult and ineffective occupation, but at the same time, communication with the local population provided significant advantages in the development of new lands. Also, the data provided by our survey show that although English dominated the occupied territories, most

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442 respondents believe that the British brought civilization to the natives: that is, education, infrastructure and jobs. Language followed all these factors, as a means to simplify communication between the invaders and the conquered. These judgments lead to the hypothesis that the English in their colonization and conquest was a secondary factor and was integrated into the customs and life of new peoples only after a while, as a social factor, and most importantly, as a necessary and the only tool of communication with the British and other Europeans.

References Annamalai, E. 2006. India: Language Situation. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics. Court language is English, says Supreme Court. Brown, K. (ed.), Elsevier, The Economic Times, London, pp. 610–613. Boggart, D., Lamoreaux, N. 2017. East Indian Monopoly and Limited Access in England. In Organizations, Civil Society, and the Roots of Development, Wallis, J. J. (eds.), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 30-49. Bose, S., Jalal, A. 2004. Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political economy, 2nd ed., Routledge, USA, 47 pp. Cunningham, P. 2015. Two Years in New South Wales. In Comprising Sketches of the Actual State of Society in That Colony; of Its Peculiar Advantages to Emigrants; of Its Topography, Natural History, &c. &c. Red Lion Court, London, 2: 139-155. Chandrika, K. 2011. From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947. History Press, BBC, London, 35 pp. Glanville, L. 2013. Sovereignty and the Responsibility to Protect: A New History. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 120 pp. Lalmalsawma, D. 2013. India speaks 780 languages, 220 lost in last 50 years – survey. Reuters, Delhi, 15 pp. Lambert, J. 2018. A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity. English World-wide. National Institute of Education (NIE), Singapore, 32 pp.

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Sheehan, M. 1989. Maori and Pakeha: Race relations, 1912-1980. Macmillan New Zealand, Auckland, 54 pp. Taylor, D. 2011. A Nation sub-divided. Australian Heritage. Heritage Australia Publishing, Auckland, 36 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-445-454

FRAMING WITHIN H. CLINTON’S AND D. TRUMP’S POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Diana I. Kasimova

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID id: 0000-0002-8976-3930

Abstract. The objective of the present study is to analyze the framing models within the political discourse on the basis of speech transcripts of D. Trump’s and H. Clinton’s speeches of both election and post-election periods. For analyzing the material, the following methodologies and methods are used: the descriptive method, cognitive discourse analysis and comparative analysis. By analyzing the framing models, we consider the tools the politicians use to achieve one main goal; that is to get the people to vote for the speaker. The success of handling political discourse encourages voters to make their choices either siding for one or refusing the other candidate. Research on the framing models on the basis of the US election 2016 is valuable from the linguistic point of view, as the candidates represent quite contrasting communicative styles and apply differing linguistic tools. Basing on G. Lakoff’s cognitive theory, we may conclude that H. Clinton refreshes the Nurturant Parent Model during her speeches while D. Trump adheres to Strict Father Model. Keeping the particular model of framing, the speaker intends to gain the support and sympathy of the specific group of people. The Strict father Model represents the traditional world view metaphorically placing the ‘father’ as an authority. Clinton, on the other hand, frequently resorts to the frames of ‘family’, ‘home’, ‘religion’ and ‘work’.

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We also managed to identify the themes H. Clinton and D. Trump resorted to with the help of the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) software that catеgorizes words into meaning categories. Accordingly, Trump’s main focus is on the contrasts, such as “wrong-right”, “lose-win”, “poor-rich”. Opposing to Trump, H. Clinton refreshes more the notions of home, religion and family issues. The study reaches a conclusion that exercising power and maintaining solidarity with the listeners is correlated to some extent with the cognitive models that the politicians adhere to while conveying the messages. The practicаl significаnce is that the results of the thesis may be successfully used in the university courses of American Socio-Cultural Linguistics, as well as in the special courses on political studies. Keywords: political discourse, frames, cognitive theory

Introduction There is no doubt election race has become an integral and most vivid part of the political discourse nowadays. American candidates’ speeches are studied in the present work as we consider the American election race as the most influential one in the English-speaking countries. We are analyzing, contrasting and comparing H. Clinton’s and D. Trump’s most common frames as both politicians represent the polar power spheres – business and politics and hence adhere to the polar cognitive frames. The paper is concerned with the analysis of framing within the political discourse. The objective of this research is to analyze the implementation of most common frames on the basis of speech transcripts of Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. For analyzing the material, the following methodologies and methods are used: a descriptive method, cognitive discourse analysis and comparative analysis. According to G. Lakoff’s cognitive theory (Lakoff G., 2002: 50), we interpret frames as the way we mentally structure background knowledge not only to make sense of a discourse, but also to

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446 produce it. Frames can also be described as systems and structures that represent stereotypical situations. When we encounter a situation, we mentally select a frame that helps us understand and interact with it. Moreover, Lakoff explains that we cannot either see or hear frames, as they are a part of our “cognitive unconsciousness’, which are “structures in our brains that we cannot consciously access, but know by their consequences: the way we reason and what counts as common sense” (Lakoff G., 2004: 15). The basic principle of framing in politics is never to use the same language as the other party, as language evokes certain frames, and in political discourse, language is always arranged to evoke particular frames, which are considered to be a part of the party’s ideology: “don’t use their language”. Their language picks out a frame – and it won’t be the frame you want” (Lakoff G., 2004: 3). Framing becomes a way of shaping the world as well as viewing it, and it becomes a powerful political tool. George Lakoff explains the concept of reframing (in politics), “reframing is changing the way the public sees the world. Because language activates frames, new language is required for new frames. Thinking differently requires speaking differently” (Lakoff G., 2004: 15). Thus framing and reframing are tools we must understand and consider when looking at the political discourse. Findings Following Lakoff’s cognitive theory, we distinguish two basic frames that Clinton and Trump resorted to during the both pre-and postelection periods. Thus, we are analyzing Trump’s Strict Father model and Clinton’s Nurturant Parent model as well. The Strict Father Model in Trump’s speech Metaphorically speaking, “The Strict Father model takes as background the view that life is difficult and the world is fundamentally dangerous” (Lakoff G., 2002: 26). Furthermore, to briefly sum up the essence of the Strict Father model, it relies on the frame of a traditional family with a father who functions as the main authority. In this frame, the mother also plаys an essential

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447 role in raising children, however, it is important to note that part of her responsibility lies in the fact that she must aid in upholding the authority of the father (Lakoff G., 2002: 55-56). According to Lakoff, the basic idea is that authority is justified by morality (the Strict father model), and that, in a well-ordered world, there should be (and traditionally has been) a moral hierarchy in which those who have traditionally dominated should dominate. The hierarchy is: God above Man, Man above Nature, The Disciplined (Strong) above the Undisciplined (Weak), The Rich above the Poor, Employers above Employees, Adults аbove Children, Western culture above other cultures, Our Country above other countries (Lakoff G., 2002: 69). The hierarchy extends to: Men above Women, Whites above Nonwhites, Christians above non-Christiаns. There are many conservatives in America who share Strict Father morality and its moral hierarchy. Americans with Strict Father morality are white men who see themselves as superior to immigrants, nonwhites, women, non-Christians, - and people who rely on public assistance. Strict father model, designed by Lacoff, is represented in the following Trump’s quotation that was delivered in Phoenix after meeting with Mexican President Enrique Pena Nieto in Mexico City: “For instance, we have to listen to the concerns that working people, our forgotten working people, have over the record pace of immigration and it's impact on their jobs, wages, housing, schools, tax bills and general living conditions. These are valid concerns expressed by decent and patriotic citizens from all backgrounds, all over.” (The New York Times, 2016) Trump opposes “forgotten working people”, “patriotic citizens” and “immigrants” labeling the latter ones as people destroying America and making it weak. Framing is an inherent segment in appellative function as it enhances the influence over the message addressee.

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The linguistic means such as epithets ‘forgotten’, ‘valid’, and ‘patriotic’ are used by the speaker in order to intensify the message and enhance the appellative function as well. As it was previously noted, Trump represents himself as Christian that is within Strict Father model. His most explicitly religious mention came in the middle of inaugural speech when he made a Bible reference to Psalm 133 on 20, January, 2017: “The Bible tells us how good and pleasant it is when God’s people live together in unity,” Trump said. “We must speak our minds openly, debate our disagreements honestly, but always pursue solidarity.” (PJ Media, 2017) The Nurturant parent model in Clinton’s speech Clinton, on the contrary, opposes to Trump’s framing model of a Strict father and acts within the Nurturant Parent model. The Nurturant Parent model sees morality from a more social perspective compared to the view of the Strict father model. The Nurturant Parent model emphasizes the ability to put oneself in someone else’s shoes and also the social ability to occasionally put other people’s need of nurture above your own. Ultimately, the goal of the Nurturant Parent model is to create individuals marked by fulfillment, happiness, responsibility, self- discipline and self-reliance as well as people who value mutual respect, communication and caring for others (Lakoff G., 2002: 108-110). Clinton uses a range of different frames, where some of the strongest are the family frame, the patriotic frame, the personal frame, the battle frame, the Republican frame and the prosperity frame as well. The family frame is one of the frames she uses the most. She uses it when she talks about her own family, but also when she talks about many American families, and the United States as one big family. By evoking the family frame, she becomes closer to her listeners, as she is implicitly saying, “I am one of you. You are my family”, but she is also making sure that when she talks about family, everyone knows exactly what kind of values she is

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449 referring to. The frame is evoked when she uses words such as ‘family’, ‘mother’ and ‘children’, and is deeply intertwined with the notion of George Lakoff’s family models. In her second official debate, Clinton focuses on initiatives minded on the strengthening of America’s families, which makes it relevant to look at the family models presented in the theory. Clinton begins her presentation on family issues by stating that American families are forced to deal with new challenges in contemporary society. Briefly summed up, Clinton advocates the right to earn paid sick days, to look forward to retirement rather than feeling anxious about it, to rely on one’s health care to be substantial, and, also, she promotes paid family leave both in regards to newborns as well as illness of close relatives. All of these cases fall under Clinton’s financial policy, but at the same time, they also represent examples of the Nurturant Parent model (Chilton, 2004: 96). When Clinton brings up such aspects as health care, family leave and paid sick days, she expresses her socialistic ideological vision of society. In other words, society is represented as metaphorical Nurturant Parent, caring for its citizens – metaphorically viewed as its children. In contrast, a supporter of the Strict Father model would never stand by utterances as the ones Clinton generates above, but would rather present wishes of less public interference with society’s individuals, which would be the Republican version of the family mоdel. Next is the issue of gender inequality, where Clinton makes the case that gender inequality in regards to unequal pay is a problem well over-due. Interestingly enough, in contrast to previous and historic movements against gender inequality, the presidential candidate argues that this is in fact not an issue specific to the female gender, she says: “This isn’t a women’s issue. It’s a family issue. Just like raising the minimиm wage is a family issue. Expending childcare is a family issue. Declining marriage rates is a family issue. The unequal rate of incarceration is a family issue. Helping mоre

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450 people with an addiction or a mental health problem get help is a family issue.” (Official campaign launch speech on New York City’s Roosevelt Island, 2017) In the above expression, Clinton frequently uses repetitions that refer to the stylistic devices. The phrase ‘family issue’ is repeated 5 times in the single paragraph. Clinton uses the repetition in order to stress and highlight the message delivered to the audience. When Clinton states that unequal pay between men and women is a family issue, the specific meaning can be interpreted in different ways. On one level, the value of the utterance is quite simple that it is an issue, which affects all the families across America (Jones J., et al., 2011: 140). However, when Clinton further places the issue in alignment with other issues, such as, unequal incarceration rates, addictions and mental health problems, she creates a link with other social taboos that are not at all gender specific. This is highly interesting, as it is now arguable that the illocutionary value is that problems relating to minority groups ought to be problems for the entire society and not specific to the individual minority alone. This is further supported by the manner, in which Clinton closes the topic of families, namely by saying: “These diversity, openness, and devotion to humаn rights and freedom are also qualities that prеpare us well for the demands of a world that is more interconnectеd than ever before.” (Official campaign launch speech on New York City’s Roosevelt Island, 2017) Finally, it is typical Nurturant Parent model when a problem for an individual becomes a problem for the entire country. As presented above, caring, nurture and common responsibility are vastly at play when talking about the Nurturant Parent model and ultimately also in Clinton’s campaign launch discourse. Lastly, Clinton discusses the aspects of ethnic discrimination in relation to American family issues. She says: “We should offer hard-working, law-abiding immigrant families a path to citizenship. Not second-class status.” (Hillary for America, 2017)

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It is interesting to note the ambiguity this quote holds in regards to the two family models. More specifically, from one perspective, the statement once again supports Clinton’s progressive political person and the Nurturant Parent model in the sense of hеr wanting society to be more inclusive of ethnic minorities and individuals who, at the time of the discourse, according to Clinton, are of second-class status. However, it is very important to notice here that Clinton uses the modifying adjectives (hard-working, law-abiding) in order to define which immigrant families in particular she is referring to. In more detail, the scenario the presidential candidate creates in her discourse does not involve all immigrant families who are offered ‘second-class status’, but only the ‘hard-working’ and ‘law- abiding’ ones. A pure Nurturant Parent model discourse would arguably be even more inclusive concerning immigrant families in general than what Clinton exhibits here. In fact, setting up criteria in the manner that she does is rather a reflection leaning towards the Strict Father discourse. While analyzing the both candidates’ frames, we used LIWC (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count) text analysis software that categorizes lexis into meaningful units. In this work, we analyze the second official matchup that was held on October 9, 2016. Taking into consideration the ideas of a speech-language pathologist Jean K. Gordon, we may state that the framing is also expressed in the following (HuffPost, 2017). - Clinton’s most common unique nouns: economy, fact, police, justice, state, plan, debt, problem, family, information, gun, home, income; - Clinton’s most common unique verbs: build, support, try, call, face, propose, use, hope; - Clinton’s most common unique adjectives: important, nuclear, wealthy. According to the findings of Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count programme, Clinton focuses more on home, family, religion, and work (HuffPost, 2017).

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We also identified Trump’s lexical peculiarities on the basis of speech delivered on October 9, 2016. - Trump’s most common unique nouns: dollars, war, law, politician, money, company, city, audit, trade; - Trump’s most common unique verbs: leave, like, defend, happen, tell, agree, release, stop, lose, win; - Trump’s most common unique adjectives: great, right, better, bad, tremendous, wrong. We may conclude that Trump focuses more on numbers, money and contrasts like “wrong-right”, “lose-win”. Conclusion As for the cognitive implementation of the appellative function, H. Clinton opposes D. Trump in frames that are applied by the both speakers. Basing on G. Lakoff’s cognitive theory, we may conclude that H. Clinton refreshes the Nurturant Parent model during her speeches while D. Trump adheres to the Strict Father model. Keeping the particular model of framing, the speaker intends to gain the support and sympathy of the specific group of people. The Strict Father model represents the traditional world view metaphorically placing the ‘father’ as an authority. According to LIWC program, Clinton uses the frames of ‘home’, ‘family’, ‘religion’, and ‘work’. As for Trump, he focuses more on ‘numbers’, frames of ‘money’, ‘business’ and contrasts like ‘wrong-right’, ‘lose-win’.

References Chilton, P.A. 2004. Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice. Psychology Press, California. 240 pp. Hillary for America. 2017. Official campaign launch speech on New York City’s Roosevelt Island. URL: www.hillaryclinton.com/post/official-campaign-launch-speech- new-york-citys-roosevelt-island [Accessed February 5, 2020]. HuffPost. 2017. Words Matter: A Linguistic Analysis of the Presidential Debates. URL: https://www0.huffpost.com/entry/

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453 words-matter-a-linguistic_b_12523800 [Accessed February 28, 2020]. Jones, J. and Wareing, S. 2011. Language and Politics (eds.) Language, Society and Power. Routledge, London and New York, 288 pp. Lakoff, G. 2002. Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservative think. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 471 pp. Lakoff, G. 2004. Don’t Think of an Elephant! Know your values and frame the debate. Chelsea Green Publishing Company, Vermont, 144 pp. PJ Media. 2017. Trump Adds to Scripture in Inaugural Speech. URL: https://pjmedia.com/faith/2017/01/20/trump-adds-to- scripture-in-inaugural-speech/ [Accessed February 12, 2020]. The New York Times. 2016. Transcript of Donald Trump’s Immigration Speech. URL: www.nytimes.com/2016/09/02/us/ politics/transcript-trump-immigration-speech [Accessed February 25, 2020].

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DOI: 10.22363/09835-2020-455-463

THE NECESSITY OF FORMING THE TRANSLATION COMPETENCE FOR PROTOCOL OFFICERS

Maria D. Churganova

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0000-0003-0931-1908

Abstract. It cannot be denied that translation attaches more and more attention as it presents in many professions. The article confines its attention strictly to protocol officers, where we, after analysing their activities, can make sure that in some cases, translation can play a key role. In order to reveal the necessity of translation competence, the author drives deep into the problem by analysing a huge number of research papers written by foreign and Russian scientists. Suddenly, there are not so many resources that can provide us with all needful information about the issue, however, the author finds the way to prove that translation competence does really presents in rather unknown to many, but a rather essential profession without which many government agencies and commercial companies cannot do without. What is more, the author concentrates the attention to specific translation knowledge and skills, as they differ the ones that professional translators or interpreters have. All this confirms that there must be a specific methodology developed just for the protocol officers that will contribute successful communication. The present article aims at pointing out that translation plays a vital part in foreign language competence of any specialist. To prove this circumstance, the author considers the intercultural communication competence of the protocol officer and identifies

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455 the translation component in its composition, compares the required competence with the professional competence of the translator in order to identify differences, analyses the specific features of the protocol officers’ translation competence from an interdisciplinary perspective. According to the author, a discursive approach will serve as an appropriate way to find out more about the translation component of intercultural communicative competence in the protocol sphere. Moreover, such an approach will help us to identify genres, that protocol specialists use within their work. Therefore, learning more about protocol officers’ activities and genres they work with will assist us to understand the problem of the creation of special methods and techniques to have the translation competency without which these specialists might not cope with. The article would be useful for students and teachers who are interested in translation issues, diplomacy and international relations. Keywords: translation competence, intercultural communication, protocol officers

Introduction There is no doubt that the modern world makes changes in many professions. Such circumstance improves workers’ skills and as a result, changes the status of the government agency or of a private company. Moreover, new tasks which are brought by globalization modify employees’ professional competence. Protocol officers today are also under the globalization process. They know how to organize business, state and diplomatic events taking into account cultural characteristics. Their professional activity includes:  preparation of events (such as forums, conferences, negotiations bilateral, multilateral meetings.);  working with foreign delegations;

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 getting necessary data for the particular event;  creating the programme;  ensuring effective communication with host and participants’ services;  implementing unpredictable tasks;  reporting basic information in written and oral form etc (Borunkov A.F., 2015: 150). As we can see this profession is rather essential in the diplomatic sphere and that is why it is necessary for these certain specialists to have such skills as an ability to understand and interpret the message, an ability to compose reports, research papers in written or oral form. Both in Russian and English. All of these facts above proves that translation competence must present in their work. However, Russian well-known researches (Khomyakova N.P., 2011: 3; Gavrilenko N.N., 2018: 27; Melikhov I.A., 2012: 122; Voevoda E.V., 2011: 5) convince us that it is worth to mention, that they are not professional translator or interpreters. Translation here presents only as a part in international communication competence. Here we need to consider that protocol officers have some multi- component professional activities. Nevertheless, a number of studies try to model the process. Researches are sure that having the ability of translation is an inevitable component for international specialists. Once again, we should put the border between real translator/interpreter and protocol officer who has translation competency only as a part, an essential part of international communication competence (Gavrilenko N.N., 2011: 19). We must not close our eyes on the existing Federal state educational standards. These standards entail a growing need for comparability of the results of the control of activity of educational institutions and the assessment of its work. The main outcome of education is considered on the basis of the activity approach as the achievement of learners with new levels of development based on

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457 the development of them as a universal way of action and the ways in specific disciplines (Kizima A.A., 2019: 5). Analysing Federal state educational standards of higher education in the fields of “Regional studies”, “International relations” of well-known Russian universities as Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO), Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU), The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (RANEPA), Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN), Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation emphasized that they only provide students with general terms of the component composition of intercultural competence as an educational result. Translation knowledge and skills are not available in these programmes. This is evidenced by each of the University's programmes. It should be added in this connection that currently, there is no specialized study guide for protocol officers that would prepare them for acquiring translation competence. This circumstance brings them considerable difficulties in their work. However, if such a study guide is developed, which will take into account the requirements of the documents under the Bologna agreements, then it will be much easier for protocol officers to acquire the translation skill. Such study guide will have to contain tasks for listening, speaking, reading and writing. Despite the fact that there is a small number of literature that declares about the topicality of the issue, we may note that it is necessary to prove the following:  translation competence is a vital part of intercultural communication competence in protocol officers’ service for the successful development of relations between countries. It has its own specifics, which is largely due to the peculiarities of diplomatic discourse;  in the context of globalization and expanding partnerships, the value and diversity of diplomatic discourse is extremely growing;

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 there is no highly specialized methodology developed for the formation of translation competence as part of the intercultural communicative competence of a diplomatic specialist (in this case protocol officer). Such are the preliminary conclusions concerning that there is a controversial issue between the relative study of the issue of training specialists in the field of Protocol and the lack of a specially developed methodology for the formation of their translation competence, which, as the researchers note, is an important component of the intercultural foreign language competence of any expert. Objectives/Purpose of the study The present article aims at pointing out that translation plays vital part of foreign language competence of any specialist. Russian researches (Gavrilenko N.N., 2015: 70; Alikina E.V., 2017: 58; Khomyakova N.P., 2011: 5) believe that specialists in international communication should be prepared to cooperate in professional international cooperation and take into account the translation competence. Such objective leads us to certain tasks:  consider the intercultural communication competence of the protocol officer and identify the translation component in its composition;  compare the required competence with the professional competence of the translator in order to identify differences;  analyse the specific features of the protocol officers’ translation competence from an interdisciplinary perspective. One reasonable hypothesis to account for translation competence stays as an important component of intercultural communication competence of protocol officer and has its own specificity, therefore it requires a specially developed training methodology that will be successful if:

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 the status of translation competence as an important component of the intercultural communicative competence of protocol officer is defined;  the characteristics of the particular competence are identified and described from an integrative point of view;  the distinctive features of the translation competence of protocol officer are identified and compared with the skills of a professional translators or interpreters;  the genres of diplomatic discourse that require translation skills and knowledge are defined when working with protocol officer;  the goal is highlighted, approaches, didactic and methodological principles are defined, and the content of the currently developed methodology for the formation of translation competence is proposed;  the developed methodology for acquiring translation competence has been tested as an experience;  the study guide is developed specially for protocol officers. Methodology There are different approaches to the solution of the problem. The first method proposed in this article is a survey/questionnaire and the other common method is the detailed analysis of a number of research papers and articles. These two methods allow us to assert that the intercultural communicative competence of the specific specialist (protocol officer) contains specific translation knowledge and skills that can be considered within the framework of the translation competence. The required competence has a number of specific features and differs from the professional competence (Gavrilenko N.N., 2018: 27). Complete analysis of various research papers proves that when forming the translation component of the intercultural communicative competence of protocol officer, it is proposed to use a discursive approach. This approach will reveal the analysis of oral and written diplomatic texts from discursive positions and will help us to determine the genres of diplomatic discourse.

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Therefore, the suggesting methods are the only ways for the initial stage of studying the problem.

Results/Findings Overall, we shall conclude this article with a few observations:  translation knowledge and skills are an important component of cross-cultural communication competence in the activities of Protocol specialists and can be considered within the framework of translation competence;  the competence as a component of the intercultural communication competence of protocol officer has its own specifics;  when forming the required competence, it seems appropriate to use a discursive approach that allows to identify genres of diplomatic discourse. The detailed analysis of the available facts shows that here are contradictions between the relative study of the issue of training specialists in the field of protocol and the lack of a specially developed methodology of forming their translation competence, which is by many researchers, is a vital component of the intercultural foreign language competence of any specialist. Despite the achievements made in the field of the research of the translation component as a vital part of intercultural communicative competence for protocol officer, it should be noted that there are only a few number of researches and articles on this topic (Borunkov A.F., 2015: 71). Summing up the results of the article it is necessary to underline the rapid speed of globalization that covers plenty of professions include protocol sphere. Making a deep analysis of protocol officers’ activity we can become certain about transition’s role. Such hard knowledge much be practiced among these specialists with the use of particular and right methodology (Petrova I.N., 2012: 16). As it has another level of professionalism of this competence, it is essential to pay attention to specific features.

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Discursive approach is one of the best ways to achieve the goal here.

Discussion In the modern world such profession as protocol officer come across with globalization. It set other tasks in the protocol sphere and brought significant changes in the competences. Protocol officers is one of the significant specialties of a diplomatic sphere. Such specialists have certain skills where the translation one plays not the last role as they have to deal with oral of written documents, they also write rewires, letters, congratulations on native and foreign languages. The way of transforming of the initial text into the other language is a manifestation of translation competence. Nevertheless, we should not forget that in this case, we are not talking about professional translation, but we talk about translation as an important component of intercultural communicative competence.

References Alikina, E.V. 2017. The Concept of teaching oral translation in the system of linguistic education based on an integrative approach, Dissertation. Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Nizhny Novgorod, 432 pp. Borunkov, A.F. 2015. Diplomatic Protocol in Russia. International relations, Moscow, 264 pp. Gavrilenko, N.N. 2015. An attempt to systematize the translation competences. Bulletin of Perm National Research Polytechnic University. Problems of Linguistics and Pedagogy 2(12): 70-77. Gavrilenko, N.N. 2018. Translation didactics: traditions and innovations. FLINTA, Moscow, 224 pp. Khomyakova, N.P. 2011. The contextual model of formation of foreign language сcommunicative competence for students in non- linguistic university (French language): Dissertation. Sholokhov Moscow State University for the Humanities, Moscow, 482 pp.

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Kizima, A. A. 2019. Organizational and pedagogical conditions of professional language propaedeutics of international economists in higher education: Dissertation. Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, 199 pp. Melikhov, I.A. 2012. Personality features and professional competencies of a diplomatic official. Diplomatic Service 2(23): 119-124. Petrova, I. N. 2012. Formation of professional and foreign language communicative culture of the future specialist in international affairs: Dissertation. Russia State Social University, Moscow, 211 pp. Voevoda, E.V. 2011. Theory and practice of professional language training of international specialists: Dissertation. Russian State Social University, Moscow, 353 pp.

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АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ СОВРЕМЕННОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ И ГУМАНИТАРНЫХ НАУК

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