The California Collection of I. G. Voznesensky and the Problems of Ancient Cultural Connections Between Asia and America

UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title The California Collection of I. G. Voznesensky and the Problems of Ancient Cultural Connections Between Asia and America

Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/26d8082g

Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 5(2)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Okladnikova, E. A.

Publication Date 1983-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 5, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 224-239 (1983).

The Califomia Collection of I. G. Voznesensky and the Problems of Ancient Cultural Connections Between Asia and America*

E. A. OKLADNIKOVA

translated by M. W. KOSTRUBA edited by TRAVIS HUDSON with notes by CRAIG D. BATES

T is hard to form an idea of the spiritual perhaps the most trustworthy and valuable Iculture of the most ancient Californians facts which can ahow one to reconstruct without going deep into California pre rehgious views and mythology for these early history, and without broad parallels with Californians are those presented in the sci phenomena of similar character for other ences of archaeology and ethnography. peoples of the world. In our view, the genesis For such a reconstruction, priceless help of native California religious thought, particu can be found in the ethnographic cohections larly for the inhabitants of the northern and from California made by the famous Russian central part of the state, developed in the explorer and traveler, I. G. Voznesensky, dur same way as the religious views of other ing his expedition to Russian America in 1840 peoples of the world, e.g., the peoples of and 1841. The feather regalia and cult objects Siberia, North Asia, and also the islands of the acquired by him in the Sacramento River South Seas. From a scientific point of view, Basin and now curated in the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography (Leningrad) E. A. Okladnikova, American Dept., Inst, of Ethnography, (Collection 570) are of special importance.' Univ. Embankment, 3, Leningrad, USSR. Particularly of scientific interest in the *1981, Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography Collec tion 37: Material Culture and Mythology, pp. 54-66. Cahfornia Voznesensky collection are the Leningrad: N. N. Miklucho-Maklay Ethnographical Insti regaha and ritual costumes made from raven tute, Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. Editor B. N. feathers. Anyone who has dealt with the Putilov wrote: "This book examines mythological connec tions of different objects of culture and analyzes their materials collected by this explorer, or with semantics and ritual-mythological functions. The analysis the history of his scientific activity in Russian involves different exponents from cult and art objects in the collection of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology America, agrees with this fact (Ghzen 1916: and Ethnology. Such an analysis allows deeper understand 1-14; Stepanova 1944: 297; Lipshits 1950: ing of the hidden context of mythological systems and rituals, and reveals the mechanism of the complicated 415-420; Lyapunova 1967: 36-39; Alekseyev interactions of the spiritual and material culture of peoples 1977).' at stages of early history. The publication is designed for ethnographers, folklorists, historians of religion, art histor It has been constantly pointed out that ians, and museum curators." I. G. Voznesensky was fortunate to become

[224] I. G. VOZNESENSKY 225 not only one of the last interested witnesses regalia from north-central California is a of California Indian life on the eve of the phenomenon which comes very close to the Gold Rush, but also the last cohector of most ancient level of bird-worshiping per unique objects of their material and artistic formances. The animistic world view of these culture. Almost one-third of the entire cohec Indians (from where Voznesensky brought his tion which he gathered in California is com ethnological collections)—and which also pre prised of cult objects. Among them are dominate during the early stages in develop ritually woven baskets,^ ceremonial head ment of their religious behefs—could be re dresses, bone earrings, striking pearl [sheh?] duced basicahy to animism, either among ornaments, with mother-of-pearl [abalone living or nonliving nature. An animistic world sheh?] bases,'* ritual whistles, large hairpins, view is directly connected with the totemistic, ritual ribbons [belts or bandoliers?] from bird-worshiping viewpoint of these Califor woodpecker feathers,^ and above ah, the nians. Totemism in California has very deep magnificent ceremonial cloaks made from and ancient roots (Merriam 1908: 558-562). raven and condor feathers (Figs. 1 and 2).^ In ancient times, the inhabitants of the These cultural objects, especially the feather places visited by Voznesensky—the vicinity of regaha, serve at the present time as priceless Bodega and San Francisco bays and the factual material which confirms our assump Sacramento River basin—had patrilineal to tions about the extent of the once quite tems. Among the Miwok, there was wide widespread and rich spiritual culture of Cali spread belief that some antedhuvian birds fornia Indians. existed as "human tribes." Such birds which As we study the ritual clothing made from appear in native Cahfornian mythology in the feathers of predatory birds, of special anthropomorphic shape were the owl, eagle, interest are problems of a rehgious and hawk, duck, bluejay, and woodpecker. The cultural order, problems closely connected Maidu considered the goose, heron, swan, with the mythology and religious practices of dove, and woodpecker as totemic birds.'' California Indian secret societies. The feather For each of the above bird personages in

Fig. 1. Ritual cloak from skin of Califomia condor (Cohection 570). 226 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 2. Ceremonial costume made from raven feathers (Collection 570). mythology, there was an oral tradition which Moloko, and Marumda. In many tales, Mar- connected them with very precise legends, the umda appeared in the role of Kuksu's father beings themselves often playing roles in an (Loeb 1932:3). thropomorphic form. Tales about antedi In north-central Califomia, the Indians luvian birds as human tribes belong to a cycle pictured Kuksu with great expressiveness, of legends that concern the creation of the always underlining his omithomorphic image. worid. In this particular cycle, the most In Maidu, Pomo, Wintu, and Miwok mytho important spot in the hierarchy was reserved logical representations, Kuksu has human for just two: the Raven—Kuksu, and the features and carries the name of the "Big Condor-Moloko.* Head" because he appears during the most The functions of creation and good deeds important ceremonies. This personification are clearly separated in Cahfornian mythology includes not only wearing a cloak of raven among two different personified, supernatural feathers but also a very extravagant feather beings. Oral tradition estabhshes the person headdress.^ As the ancient legend relates, in age of one of these as the creator of earth and those faraway days when on the newly people—the Great Raven Kuksu. He appears created, early ravaged, salty ocean waves, the as an omithomorphic. And on the other hand, Great Raven Kuksu rose from the sea depths there is Hipostas, the organizer of world possessed with an overpowering desire for order, doer of good, and teacher of human creation. Rocking on the foaming waves, ity—eagle or condor (Loeb 1926). Kuksu began to speak, and by the power of Because his image was widely used over his magic words created earth. Accompanied the whole of California, the condor had a by Coyote, he stepped on the shore of the multitude of names. Most frequently he ap newly created earth, and so became the first peared as the image of Thunder Man, whose human upon it. Out of the roots of an name sounded by different tribes as Moki, evergreen tree he made the first man accord- I. G. VOZNESENSKY 227 ing to his own image and likeness, not less This connection can be traced first of all thriftily than 17th century Califomia women in mythology. The raven myth was the origin wove their beautiful basketry, decorating of the entire cycle of legends about the them with pearls [shells?], feathers, and creation of the world of Kamchadals, Paleo- mother-of-pearl [abalone?] pendants. asiatics. Northwest Coast Indians, and the In another version of the creation myth as Californians. Analogies can be traced not only told by the Miwok, the Great Raven Kuksu in the phonetic transcriptions of the culture again appears in the role of creator. These hero's name (i.e., Kamchatkas = Kutch; North people relate that during the first days of America = Elch; California = Kuksu), but also creation, Kuksu puhed gum from his wingpits, in the context of legends in which the which he then changed into earth. creation of the earth is described. According To make a tribal member (who would to a version of an ancient Paleoasiatic legend. represent Kuksu during sacred ceremonies Raven decided to fly across the Bering Straits with personifications of divinity) unrecogniz to settle in Alaska. Tired from the long, able to the audience, secret society members unaccustomed flight, he tumbled into the sea were painted. Their faces were painted with and would have perished if there had not been black, and their bodies were painted with by chance a phe of leaves and branches at that stripes of black, red, and white. Such decora particular spot. Using this as a raft. Raven tions symbohzed the duahsm common to dived into the water and got from the sea California Indian beliefs about the world floor stones and sand from which he then (day-night, life-death, etc.).'° The dancer created earth—Alaska (Dzeniskevich 1976: who played the Kuksu role wore a tah 73-84). Upon his newly created earth. Raven headdress made of turkey vulture feathers. encountered people, and he became their His upper face was covered by a fringe of teacher and benefactor. He taught them feathers which acted as a mask. The rest of his trades, art, and other things. He brought them body was wrapped completely in a raven- fire, which he had stolen from the sun, and feather cloak which reached his ankles.' ' also fresh water. Judging by the artistry shown in the Drawings of Raven the Creator have been raven-feather regalia preserved in the collec preserved in the rock art of the northwest tions of the Museum of Anthropology and shores of North America (Cape Mugl, Bar- Ethnography, the existence of the cult of the anov, Wrangeh, and Etoline islands), as well as omithomorphic deity—"Great Raven Kuksu" in the stone carvings of the Lower Amur and the splendid ceremony connected with (Sakach-Alyan) (Okladnikov 1971: Table 42, it—bears witness to the existence in the Drawing 2). Precisely, these drawings show ideology of north-central California of one of him holding in his beak the heavenly fire and the most ancient traditions of Pacific world the drop of water, depicted in the form of a culture—namely, the tradition of the raven circle. cult. The spiritual culture of these Califor According to a legend from north-central nians connects not only with the world of Califomia, Raven, rocking on the newly cre ideas of their neighbors to the north (the ated waves of the world ocean, used the Indians of British Columbia and the north power of his magic words to create the earth. west shores of the North American con The dancer who took the role of Raven tinent), but also with the peoples of Siberia Kuksu, the Creator, was dressed among the and the Far East who lived on the opposite gathered crowd in a raven-feather cloak which side of the Bering Straits. covered him from head to ankles. According 228 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY to ritual, he held in his mouth a piece of they received in the new land an unexpected, mother-of-pearl [abalone?] sheh which was magnificient development, expressed in a wrapped in leaves. The Indians explained the comphcated ritual of the cult of impersona necessity of that type of accessory by the fact tion of deities. Additionahy, it should be that it made the dancer "very much like a underlined that California Indians made cos divine bird" (Loeb 1926: 304). The piece of tumes from the entire skin of the deified bird sheh probably symbohzed the heavenly fire, (condor, for example) or made a long cloak the drop of fresh water, or a piece of earth by attaching handfuls of feathers to a mesh, from the sea bottom (e.g., it was essential and and not a costume with symbohc elements defined the nature of Raven by the moment partiahy indicating the kind of deified animal of the Raven myth).'' or bird.'^ Such symbohc elements were Totemistic and bird-worshiping perform usually different parts of the bird's body: ances, investigated in depth from examples of handfuls of feathers, talons, beaks, which native peoples of Siberia, North America, and were then attached to the base of a deerskin the Far East, are not strange to California or cloth. The classic example is the shaman Indians. Moreover, bird-worshiping perform costume of the Siberian natives. ances were extremely widespread in their The second figure which was highly midst in connection with the specific place set honored and impersonated during California aside in their mythology for predator birds. Indian ceremonies was Moloko, the Thunder As a consequence of the dominance of beliefs Man, who according to local tradition had about certain mythological, antedhuvian omithomorphic features no less clearly de "birdmen," and about omithomorphic an fined than Kuksu's.''* His single, unchange cestors, there appeared in the beliefs of able omithomorphic apotheosis was the eagle California Indians the possibhity of reincar or condor. nation into one animal or another, especiahy In the lower reaches and tributary system a bird, helped ah the more by a ritual costume of the Sacramento River, American scientists made from the feathers of the bird which had were able to observe the clearest display of been deified. As is known, the idea of the cult of Thunder Man, although this omithomorphic spirit ancestors, or spirit- particular cult was more widely spread over protector of shamans, was one of the most ah of present California, and was not strange widespread religious practices of the peoples either to northern or southern neighbors of of Siberia. the Californians. It is enough to recall that there are The Moloko-Condor cult was extremely numerous rock-carved pictures of winged hu ancient in Miwok territory. Thus, in the lower man figures, or omithomorphic figures, in the reaches of the Sacramento River, at the Perm animal style. If the shaman costume of mouth of the San Joaquin River, on Elk Hih the Siberian people preserved only symboli in Kem County, in Yolo County (20 mhes cal, omithomorphic trends, then the ritual from the city of Sacramento), and at other clothing made from feathers by Califomia points all the way to the northwest borders of Indians could be considered the most ancient Miwok territory, many relics of eagle skuhs form of this traditional, disguising costume. It have been found, some with abalone sheh is possible that the bird-worshiping perform inserts in the eyes, as weh as bird skeletons in ances came to the American continent by way unanatomical order. These prove that prepara of one of the multiple waves of migration out tion of regalia for dancers from feathers had of northern Asia. Having reached Califomia, clear precedents in antiquity. There also I. G. VOZNESENSKY 229 existed a special, honorable relationship to pointed out the possibhity of genetic relation ward remains of birds khled so that their skins ship, which must be one of the logical could be used to make ritual costumes. This conclusions based on the system of these also proves the existence of a bird cult. analogies (Ivanov 1973; Menovshchikov Adoration of eagles and condors is attested by 1976). ethnic materials of Indians of the northern The frames of the systems of these analo portion of southern Califomia, particularly gies can be broadened to such an extent that the Miwok, as weh as by their mythology they encompass without difficulty the major (Kroeber 1925). ity of North American Indian tribes which It is true that some American scientists worship Thunder, and whose image is insepar disagree with Kroeber's opinion. They assume ably connected with the eagle. But in our that there were no cults at ah, including bird concrete case, let us hmit ourselves to a cults, in ancient Califomia, beheving instead discussion of only the material which we were that there existed only an unconscious attach able to observe in examples of Califomia ment to animals, similar to what present-day Indian cult objects, as weh as the connections San Francisco inhabitants feel for their be between their spiritual cult and the world of loved cats and dogs when they bury their pets ideas of Siberian peoples as shown in Table 1. in special cemeteries in suburbia (Heizer and Then one may ask: What is actually Hewes 1940: 604). known about the Kuksu cult, or about its When comparing the Thunder Man or place in the rehgious practices of Califomia Eagle-Condor cult of Califomia Indians with Indians? the eagle cult of Siberian peoples, especially Far from systematic, the first explorations Turkic-speaking peoples living in the northem of California Indian religion were carried out part of Asia (Yakuts), a system of coinci by missionaries of the 16th to 19th centuries, dences can be clearly traced. These similarities who studied the habits, languages, and religi are not only by chance or by unique coinci- ous behefs of Indians with the goal of dences, but as coincidences which can be propagandizing Christianity. It was not unth organized into a strict analogical system. 1879, the year when the Bureau of American These similarities cannot be explained simply Ethnology was founded at the Smithsonian by convergence. L. Sternberg (1936), who Institution in Washington, D.C, that ethno examined the Eagle cult of Siberian peoples. logical study of Indians was taken into

Table 1 COMPARISON OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF IDEOLOGY AND COSMOLOGY BETWEEN CALIFORNIA AND SIBERIA

California Indians Turkic-speaking Siberians (Yakuts) 1. Association of eagle with sun 1. Eagle the ruler of the sun 2. Eagle/condor benefactor and 2. Eagle creator of the earth, divine bird, teacher of humanity emissary of the heavenly father, progenitor of shamans 3. Connection with fiery element 3. Possessor of fire 4. Revitalizer of nature (Weda ceremony) 4. The Yakuts dionis, participation of the of the mountainous Maidu tribes; eagle in celebration of Isiaha. rituals of impersonation of Thunder God on arrival of spring. 230 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY competent hands. degradation. Soviet ethnographic literature, During the 1870s, with the growth of too, has paid too httle attention to this interest in Indian culture and languages which problem unth now. was stimulated by major reforms in the Indian The basic cult systems, such as Kuksu, situation directed toward the annihhation of united large multitudes of people, such as their independence, American scientists paid members of large as well as smah cult soci closer attention to Indian rehgious practices. eties, as for example the so-called secret male At the beginning of the 20th century, the "unions." These male "unions" were an insti first serious summary works in the field of tution fuhy formulated at least a thousand ethnography, culture, and religious behefs of years before white men arrived. Califomia Indians appeared. These were by Each of the three California religious Powers (1877), Taylor (1860, 1863), God- systems mentioned above—life renewal, dard (1905), Kroeber (1925), Merriam Kuksu, and Toloache—had deep roots in (1905), Harrington (1934), and others. Amer shamanism. Shamans often headed secret soci ican anthropology came close to the study of eties, because they were actuahy cult special the problems of Cahfornia Indian rehgion. ists who could bring about contact between Basic contributions to the study of Indian supernatural beings and the people. Shamanic beliefs among north-central Californians were activity was based on traditional knowledge. made by Kroeber (1907), Gifford (1917, Shamans played the priest-role in large cult 1926), and Loeb (1926, 1932). Thanks to systems (i.e., cults of Kuksu, "hfe renewal," their many years of systematic explorations in and 'Antap). the topic of rehgious behefs among the Pomo, In groups where kinship and clan struc Miwok, Wintu, and Maidu, as weh as among ture were not too widespread (Atsugewi, tribes in the north and south, a tremendous Achumawi, Tubatulabal) secret societies like collection of field data was acquired. Based male sacred "unions" or sacred "unions" of on analysis of this material, there appeared medicine-man-bear are hard to find. It is a the possibhity of selecting the most important completely different matter with the Miwok, cult systems of central California peoples: the Yokuts, Serrano, Maidu, Tipai, and Cahuiha, renewal of hfe cult, and the cults of Kuksu among whom the expanded system of compli and Tolache (Bean and Vane 1978). cated social conjunctures hke secret societies In the world of ideas of north-central not only served religious purposes, but also Califomia peoples, there remains untouched, supported the socio-economic balance in habi nevertheless, a large stratum of the most tats which, from the viewpoint of ecology, ancient performances. These performances were unfavorable. Such developed religious connect with shamanic tradition, which is the societies also promoted political expansion, beginnings of all primitive rehgions. These spreading the influence of the secret societies were rituals for initiation of women,'' war beyond bordering territories. dances, requiems for the dead, bird cults, etc. The Kuksu religious system was no excep Study of these is definitely interesting, be tion in the above sense. Like the other two cause American explorers tumed their atten major religious systems in Cahfornia, it united tion to these aspects of Califomia Indian different smah, local religious groups. A com religion too late, when former participants in plicated phenomenon, the Kuksu religion the ancient traditions were either converted absorbed into itself many beliefs and rituals to Christianity or were dead, and the tradi conducted by local populations up to the tions themselves had fahen into decay or moment of the cult's diffusion. In addition, I. G. VOZNESENSKY 231 the Kuksu religion is doubtless very ancient, thomorphic being. This is quite possible be counting mhlennia. American scientists have cause of the "culture mixture"-a phenome been able to establish that the Kuksu religion non characteristic of the lives of native was cahed by the name of the deity who was Californians, among whom exchange was most often impersonated during the sacred widely spread not only in economic goods, ceremonies—Kuksu (the name given by the but also in spiritual values and religious eastern Pomo to that mythological personage) opinions. who appeared in the raven image.' ^ Coyote usuahy appears as one of the two Kuksu cult territory covered the vicinity twin persons—more exactly, the eagle- of San Francisco Bay, the lower reaches and younger brother of the creator of the world basin of the Sacramento River, the northern or people, etc. He has intehigence, shrewd part of the San Joaquin Valley, and the ness, and the desire to create. Condor and adjacent mountain regions. It was celebrated Hawk, with other predatory birds, were ac by the fohowing tribes who lived within this cepted power systems which, in the southern region: Pomo, Miwok (coast, vahey, and part of the central vahey and in southern lake), Patwin, the Valley Nisenan, Kato, Califomia, were honored as powerful deities. Maidu, Yokuts, and Huchnom. Bean (1975) wrote that these creatures be Although predominant within specific longed to representatives of the cosmological borders, the Kuksu cult influenced practically pantheon of native California. all neighboring tribes because their representa Marvelous feather costumes and head tives, who were invited to take part in dresses made from the feathers of Kanuk, the celebrations, became participants.' ^ This was eagle, were used during impersonation of the beneficial to the instigators because it pro deities. In the later cult of Bole-Maru and moted peace and trade expansion. The most "Big Head," headdresses were made from long developed variants of the cult were discovered feathers with fluff on the ends. Pomo people in the densely populated territory of the river painted the body of the dancer (who later valleys. The sacred dances of Coyote, Condor, turned into Kuksu) black, whhe Indians of and Hawk were splendidly performed with the central vahey about Sacramento and the the necessary impersonations of the main central part of the San Joaquin, covered the characters. body with feather cloaks. In the western In the repertoire of sacred Kuksu cere region, Indians attributed an anthropo monies, the predominant role was given to the morphic form to Kuksu and associated his divine creator of world and people—the Raven image whh the moon. In the eastern region, Kuksu. The impersonator of Kuksu, a mem Kuksu's image was more omithomorphic. On ber of the Kuksu secret society, appeared the periphery (Sacramento River valley and before the audience gathered in a ceremonial foothihs) the Kuksu cult coexisted with the house, not only dressed in raven feathers, but Hesi and Aki cults.'* also dressed with corresponding attributes Membership in a secret society was con impressively bearing witness to his omitho sidered a privhege which could be inherited or morphic nature. In later variants of the world earned by accomplishment. Members of such creation myth, widespread among the Wappo secret societies as Kuksu, Hesi, Aki, and so and southern Miwok, it is Coyote, and not the on, stood at a much higher social and political raven, which appears as the divine creature. It level than other tribal members. Especiahy in can be guessed from this that Coyote took his north-central California, regional cult societies mythological function from an ancient, omi were a kind of general educational institution. 232 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

They handed down religious postulates and later to become full-fledged Kuksu-ites), and behavioral norms from generation to genera the directors of the ceremony. The latter tion. As a rule, a person who entered such a occupied high positions in the society and secret society was occupied with administra headed the secret "unions." tive and political activities as well as with Only those who had reached priestman- religious functions. These encompassed the ship and had thoroughly leamed ah cere religious, political, and administrative guardi monies prescribed by the rituals were accept anship of neighboring tribes comprising the ed in the secret societies which flourished in same language family. these areas. This helped to preserve their Secret society membership depended on position of leadership in society. social stratum, prosperity level, knowledge of The actual goal of the long, comphcated some form of craftsmanship, and intehect. ceremonies led by these people was contained Religious societies in California were also in the rituals for heahng, initiation, asking for involved in the community's economic hfe, favors from spirits, or increase in fertility of such as the 'Antap cult of the Chumash. animals and plants. During the ceremonies, Secret society members controlled production secret society members appeared before the and distribution in each group, and their community in the "sacred dance house" spheres of influence would sometimes enclose dressed in splendid ritual masks and costumes neighboring tribes as weh. Thus, the Chumash made from feathers of birds personifying 'Antap cult watched over the level of profes divine creatures, ghosts, animals, and bhds, sional mastery of craftsmen, participating in a among them raven, condor, hawk, and so on. "commission" which decided admission to During the rituals, which lasted four days, the cult, and so on. very impressive dramas were staged, in which The social role of such societies was to the Kuksu-ites, as if reconstructing the age of initiate the adolescent generation into full- creation, related the great deeds of the First fledged tribal membership. This was done Ancestor and Creator of People, the Great during solemn cult ceremonies, accompanied Raven Kuksu. by magnificent impersonations of deities and Among many Californians, the Kuksu and spirits. During initiations the principle of the cult of ancestral spirits were united into ehtism was naturahy strictly observed. The one large entity. In other regions of the state, procedure itself was a very impressive, very only specific Kuksu traditions penetrated the dramatic performance, one deeply relived by local cults. For instance, an impersonation of the neophytes and their teachers because it bears during splendid cult ceremonies arose in not only involved knowledge of formal and northwestern California and became widely trade customs, but also "contact" with super disseminated among certain tribes—Pomo, natural powers of the world beyond. These Coast Miwok, Patwin-where secret bear sha contacts were made under the direct leader man societies conducted the initiations each ship of shamans. year.^ ° In places where several secret societies Initiation into Kuksu-ism by northwestern coexisted, each had its own status and rank. and southeastern California tribes was per For example, among the Patwin, functions of formed on boys.' ^ In some cults in the same the secret society of bear shamans and the region, for instance the Hesi cult, girls were ahegoricahy close functions of the "Northern also initiated as Kuksu-ites. During such initia Spirits" secret society, belonged to the third tion ceremonies, those present were divided rank. The analogical picture of existence of into the audience, the neophytes (who were ranks among secret societies was noted by I. G. VOZNESENSKY 233 explorers also among the Northwest Coast nia. This worship was most clearly expressed tribes, such as the Kwakiutl. Membership in in the annual mourning ceremonies. In the the "cannibal" segment of the secret male Sacramento and Patwin^ ^ river basins, there society ranked highest. were associations of so-cahed "running In north-central Califomia there also ex spirits" whose functions had much in com isted parahel with the Kuksu other cults mon with activities of secret societies in which were probably even more ancient. which the spirits of the dead were wor During ritual ceremonies of these secret soci shipped. eties, their members represented not such In the Sacramento River Vahey there was deities as creator of earth and people, but as an ancient secret society cahed Hesi. Anyone the spirits of the dead.^' In the view of who wished could become a member. No ancient Californians, spirits of the dead stayed special esoteric knowledge was required, it on the same spot where they used to live, the being necessary only to pay. Progress along only difference being that their habitat be this society's social ladder, which had ten to came a forest. Spirits of the dead differed twelve ranks, was achieved by payment or from those of the living also in what they did: according to personal activity. everything was opposite; for example, they Dancers who performed specific roles slept during the day and were awake at night, during ceremonies were also paid in money. and so on. Many scientists have noted ana During the ceremony, the dance group leader logic pictures of the images of hfe after death represented the omithomorphic creature (e.g., Frazer 1928), among them investigators cahed Moki by the Patwin. Kuksu was imper of Siberian peoples, although the same Ngana- sonated too, along with other representatives san believed the habitat of the dead was to be of the animal kingdom. Many magnificent found beneath the ground (Grachev 1976: ritual costumes, corresponding in character to 63). the dances performed, were used during the Ancient Califomians believed that the ceremonies. land of the dead, like the land of the living, Hesi secret society rituals were conducted was located on earth and was inhabited by on holidays—harvest, new year, and so on. dangerous, evil spirits. Meeting them bode ill Contemporary knowledge of the character to an Indian, especially to young people. and contents of Hesi ceremonial dances is Particularly for this reason, secret society unfortunately incomplete, because by the members represented visitors from the land of time scientific interest in ancient social life the dead during ceremonies, and most often and religion began in Califomia, the rituals these were spirits of sickness. Their bodies themselves had aged or completely ceased. It were covered with black, red, and white is known that similar functions were perform stripes and they carried long, black poles. ed by members of the Aki societies among the These "ancestral spirits" appeared as middle Mountain Maidu.^ ^ The Vahey and Mountain men between the worlds of the living and the Nisenan, and some Maidu groups, had no dead. They also represented a kind of organ secret societies of "spirit ancestors" at ah, but izing beginning, because during ritual dances they did conduct annual mourning rituals.^" the unmanageable supernatural forces "came The Kuksu cult encompassed the entire in contact" with the partly manageable forces northern portion of central Cahfornia. In of the adolescent male population. studying striking phenomena of religious life Worship of spirits, especially ancestral of these Californians, American scientists spirits, was widespread over much of Califor worked out two different but supplementary 234 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY viewpoints on the problem of its origin. Loeb shamanistic activity, as well as for the activity (1932) expounded one view, correctly point of the esoteric societies in the north-central ing out that Kuksu cult performances were part of the state. always connected with secret male society Thus, any in-depth study of ethnographic activities. The initial rituals (conducted during materials is impossible without broad compar splendid cult ceremonies, with participation ison with the phenomenon of the analogical of the deities impersonated by the members circle. Analysis of the Voznesensky cohec themselves) actually had an ordaining char tion, on the other hand, especially the feather acter. Kuksu-ites accustomed their neophytes regaha, cannot lead to any scientific result to esoteric knowledge and shamanic practice. when separated from similar ethnographic The institution of impersonation of deities data. But with the help of comparative itself was inseparably connected with sorcery analysis it could be estabhshed that the practiced by shamans. Thus, Gifford's (1927) ancient cult of predator birds not only has a assumption came into being: he is the ex very long history, but is also the origin of the ponent of another point of view regarding the Kuksu cult ceremonies, which are basically nature of the Kuksu cult, namely its shamanic shamanistic. basis. He underhned his conclusion by per The Califomia costumes which Voznesen sonal field explorations. "Shamans," he sky brought, and which were sewed from wrote: whole birdskins,^' appear to be the most poisoned the feather regaha by pouring ancient forms of ritual masquerade costumes, pounded roots and grass over them. This was remnants of which have also been preserved done to make the regalia holy and sacred. by native populations of northern Asia and After this was done, the poisoned regalia Siberia. The entire complex of mythological became untouchable for ordinary Indians. Besides, the shaman himseh was the only assumptions about predator birds—in other person who helped the actor of the main words the cult of predator birds, such as the role, Kuksu, and the other participants in eagle, condor, hawk, falcon, and also the the sacred dances, to don their costumes. raven—spread to the North American con Before the dances began, the shaman per tinent from the Old World, the world of the formed actions cahed healing the dancers. Shamans were also responsible for preserva peoples of Siberia, northern Asia, Transbaikal, tion of regalia during the time between and Altai. The spiritual culture of native mysteries. Sometimes the practice of imper Califomians is yet another fact which can sonation of deities itseh coincided with serve as a proof of the probabhity of the "invocation of spirits" [Gifford 1927; from genetic relationship and ancient cultural en the Russian translation]. tity of peoples of the Old and New worlds.^ * Gifford expressed the opinion that the shaman spirit-preserver, and the personified REFERENCES deity (Raven or Condor) were one and the Alekseyev, A. P. same mythological, supernatural being. The 1977 I. G. Voznesensky. Moscow: Academy of final objectives of the shamanic mysteries, as Sciences of the USSR (in Russian). well as dances with impersonation of deities, Bean,L. J. were relief from sickness, increase in ferthity 1975 Power and Its Application in Native Califor of animals, increase in land productivity, and nia. Journal of California Anthropology hiitiation into shamanism. Finally, Gifford 2(1): 25-33. came to a conclusion about the probable Bean, L., and S. Vane existence of a single basis for Califomia 1978 Cults and Their Transformations. In: Hand- I. G. VOZNESENSKY 235

book of North American Indians, Vol. 8: pp. 178-180. Thesis presented to the AU California, Robert Heizer, ed., pp. 662-672. Union Conference, Novosibirsk (in Russian). Washington, D.C; Smithsonian Institution. Kroeber, A. L. Dzeniskevich, G. I. 1907 The Religion of the Indians of Cahfornia. 1976 The Tale of the Raven by the Atapask Tribe University of California Publications in of Alaska. Soviet Ethnography (1): 73-84 (in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4(6): Russian). 320-356. Frazer, J. G. 1925 Handbook of the Indians of Cahfornia. 1928 The Golden Bough, 4th ed. Moscow- Bureau of American Ethnology Buhetin Leningrad (in Russian). No. 78. Gifford, E. W. Lipshits, B. A. 1917 Miwok Myths. University of California Pubh 1950 Ethnological Materials from Northwest cations in American Archaeology and Eth America in the Archives of I. G. Voznesen nology 12(8): 283-338. sky. Izvestua Geograficheskogo Obshehestva SSSR 82: 415420 (in Russian). 1926 Miwok Cults. University of California Publi cations in American Archaeology and Eth Loeb, E. M. nology 18(3): 391-408. 1926 Pomo Folkways. University of California Pubhcations in American Archaeology and 1927 Southern Maidu Religious Ceremonies. Ethnology 19(2): 149405. American Anthropologist 29(3): 214-257. 1932 The Western Kuksu Cult (and) The Eastern Gilzen, K. K. Kuksu Cult. University of California Pubhca 1916 I. G. Voznesensky: On the Centennial of His tions in American Archaeology and Ethnol Day of Birth. St. Petersburg: Collection of ogy 33(1 and 2): 1-232. the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnog raphy 3: 1-14 (in Russian). Lyapunova, R. G. 1967 Voznesensky's Expedition and Its Import Goddard, P. E. ance for Ethnography of Russian America. 1905 Morphology of the Hupa Language. Univer Collection of the Museum of Anthropology sity of California Publications in American and Ethnography 24: 36-39. Leningrad: Archaeology and Ethnology 3: 1-344. Academy of Sciences of the USSR (in Grachev, G. N. Russian). 1976 Man, Death, and the Region of the Dead, by Menovshchikov, G. A. Nganasan. In: The Nature of Man in Rehgi 1976 Fairytales of the Peoples of Kamchatka and ous Beliefs of the Peoples of Siberia and the Chukotka. Moscow-Leningrad: Academy of North. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of Sciences of the USSR (in Russian). the USSR (in Russian). Merriam, C. H. Harrington, J. P. 1905 The Indian Population of Cahfornia. Ameri 1934 Rescuing the Early History of the California can Anthropologist 7(4): 594-606. Indians. Explorations and Fieldwork of the Smithsonian Institution in 1933, pp. 54-56. 1908 Totemism in California. American Anthro Heizer, R., and G. Hewes pologist 10(4): 558-562. 1940 Animal Ceremoniahsm in Central California Okladnikov, A. P. in the Light of Archaeology. American 1971 Stone Carvings of the Lower Amur. Lenin Anthropologist 42(4): 587-603. grad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR (in Russian). Ivanov, V. V. 1973 The Problem of Ancient Ethnical Connec Powers, S. tions Between Kets and American Indians in 1877 Tribes of California. Washington, D.C: U.S. the Light of the Data of Comparative Meth Geographical and Geological Survey of the odology. In: Problems of the Ethnogenesis Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to of the Peoples of Siberia and the Far East, North American Ethnology, Vol. III. 236 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Stepanova, M. V. 2. The raven feather regalia refered to in the 1944 I. G. Voznesensky and the Ethnological collection is the long, enveloping cloak such as is Exploration of the Northwest of America. worn by the Patwin and VaUey Maidu Moki and the News of the All-Union Geographical Society Miwok and Valley Nisenan Kuksuyu. This item, along 76 (in Russian). with a condor skin dance outfit called Mollok are refered to in his diary: Sternberg, L. Y. 1936 Cult of the Eagle by Siberian Peoples. In: When I brought the mollok and kukshui The Ancient Religion in the Light of Eth costumes to the Sacramento River, the nography, pp. 111-126. Leningrad: Acad Indians who saw them were terrified and were astonished that I could keep such a emy of Sciences of the USSR (in Russian). thing in my room as a kukshui, in which Taylor, A. S. Satan himself lived, whereupon they con 1860- Indianology of California. The Cahfornia sidered me a shaman [Lyapunova 1967: 1863 Farmer and Journal of Useful Sciences Vols. 26]. 13-20 (February 22, 1860- October 30, It would be hoped that these native terms 1863). would lead to some identification of the place of coUection. Kukshui is found in a number of central CaUfornian languages: Coast Miwok kuksui (Leob NOTES 1932: 118; Kelly n.d.: 474 in Slaymaker 1977: 60), Nisenan kuksu'i (Beals 1933: 381), Central Sierra CRAIG D. BATES Miwok kuksuyu (Gifford 1955: 267) and Northern Sierra Miwok kuksuyu (Gifford 1917). The Kuksuyu 1. Specific information regarding where Voz dance is said to have been introduced to the Southern nesensky collected individual objects is difficult to Maidu from the Pleasanton people (Bay Miwok or ascertain. While it seems that a large number of items Costanoan) about 1872 (Gifford 1927: 220), which were procured in the Sacramento Valley on the should eliminate the Southern Maidu as a possible Feather and American rivers with the assistance of locale for the Voznesensky cloak. A description of a Captain Sutter (Lyapunova 1967: 12-14), the bulk of Central Miwok kuksuyu cloak (Gifford 1955: the 152 objects in the Voznesensky Cahfornian 267-272) matches closely the Voznesensky cloak, collection lack specific data. His travels took him to although the auxiliary ornamentation is lacking in the Bodega Bay, Fort Ross, the Russian River Vahey, San latter example. A second extant cloak, collected also Pablo, San Francisco, Cape Mendocino, San Rafael, in 1841 but by the Wilkes expedition, is presently in Rancho San Antonio, San Leandro, Pinole, Napa, the Smithsonian Institution (Cat. No. 3326) and is Petaluma, Cape Drake, Sausahto, Angel and Alcatraz nearly identical to the Voznesensky piece. Unfortun islands, as well as the Sutter's Fort-Sacramento Vahey ately, the Wilkes specimen lacks coUection data of area (Alekseyev 1977: 33-47; Lyapunova 1967: any sort. 12-14). Lyapunova (1967: 14) relates While the Coast Miwok term may be the . . . some items are attributed to the Suisun most simUar to that coUected by Voznesensky, a Indian tribe, others to "distant" Indians study of the literature reveals that few groups made living in the rocky (sic) Mountains and a few and used such long feather cloaks for the impersona objects to the Northern Indians, inhabiting tion of the kuksuyu spirit. The Coast Miwok appar the mountains north of Ft. Ross. The major ently lack the aU-enveloping cloak (Kelly n.d.: 101 in ity however, are attributed to tribes located Slaymaker 1977: 73-74; Loeb 1932: 118). The along the banks of the Sacramento. Patwin are reported to have had a kuksu dancer who A study of what are apparently viUage names wore a topknot of crow wing feathers (Kroeber 1932: that Voznesensky cohected indicate that he visited 337), yet the impersonator who wears the all- the Suisun (Patwin), the VaUey Nisenan village of enveloping cloak is the moki, just as among the Chico Sekumne, the Plains Miwok villages of Lelame, Maidu and Salt Pomo. Seuamne, Locolmne and Tihiiechemne along with the The term mollok for condor is closely Khukiyuze (Coast Miwok?) who lived from Bodega approximated by the Coast Miwok word moluk Bay to Mission San Rafael and Petaluma and the (Kelly n.d.: 474 in Slaymaker 1977: 60), although a Tsuellesk (Nisenan?) living around Sutter's Fort condor dance is not recorded for these people. The (Lyapunova 1967: 13; Bennyhoff 1977:164). condor skin cloak closely approximates the descrip- I. G. VOZNESENSKY 237 tion of a Central Sierra Miwok moloku costume kuksuyu appears only in the dance of the same name, (Gifford 1955: 287-288). Apparently a simUar dance and in no others (Gifford 1955: 267-272). The was owned by the Colusa Patwin who caUed it characterisation of the kuksu in Maidu, Pomo, and molok-yapi (Loeh 1933: 213). The Valley Nisenan at Wintu rites is unlike views held by other researchers the village of Pujune (near present day Sacramento (Azbm 1972; Loeb 1932; Dixon 1905; Gifford and not far from the vUlage of Sekumne which 1955). Among the Northwestern Maidu, at least, the Vosnesensky visited) claimed ownership of a condor term "kuksu" refers only to the instructor or teacher dance which they caUed Mo'lo-k. the right to which of the dance society (Henry AzbiU, personal commu they sold to the Nisenan viUage of abac. It, too, used nication 1970). an entire condor skin as a part of the ritual regalia (Kroeber 1929: 269). 10. The statement that the paint on bodies of dancers symbolizing the ". . . dualism common to 3. The baskets collected by Voznesensky are California Indian beliefs" is not supported by ethno the subject of a 1967 publication by P. M. Kojean in graphic accounts which refer to painting for dances Culture and Life of the Natives of America, Academy (Dixon 1905: 293, 298, 299, 301, 302; Gifford 1955; of Sciences U.S.S.R., N.M. Mikloojo-Maklai Institute AzbiU 1972), or by contemporary consultants among of Ethnography, Collection of the Museum of An the Maidu, Miwok, Patwin, Pomo, and Nomlaki. thropology and Ethnography XXIV, Naooka Publish ing House, Leningrad. This piece was recently trans 11. The capes coUected both by Voznesensky lated by WUma FoUette and is avaUable as a reprint in and Wilkes have the headdress section of crow wing MAPOM papers No. 4, Miwok Archaeological Pre feathers, whhe a description of a Miwok cloak has the serve of Marin, San Rafael. Although Kojean obvi headpiece of hawk wing feathers (Gifford 1955: 267). WhUe many such decisions of what feathers are ously made an in-depth search of available literature, to be used in these items is up to personal choice, the work suffers from errors in the sources cited. Okladnikova's remark about turkey vulture feathers is 4. Here reference is probably given to the difficult to pinpoint a source for. Both the 1841 abalone sheU necklaces which Voznesensky coUected. cloaks have unpeeled shoots (wiUow?) thrust through the topknot of crow feathers, to which are lashed 5. It is not clear here if reference is made to the vulture feathers. Perhaps this is what Okladnikova woven feather belts, of which Voznesensky coUected refers to. five (E. A. Okladnikova, personal communication 1981) or flicker quiU headbands, or both. 12. There is no mention of a cape or abalone sheh in this citation of Loeb. 6. These are the molok and kukshui outfits 13. Regalia made from entire bird skins is previously discussed, as weU as at least one cape made primarily of condor feathers on a net foundation. unusual, and, excepting that for the condor dance, there are few references to such regaha: the Hill 7. The reference to Maidu "totems" is perplex Patwin eagle dance used an entire eagle skin (Kroeber ing. Henry AzbUl (c. 1896 - 1973) (personal com 1932: 347) and the Coast Miwok made pelican skin munication 1969) claimed that at least his people, the cloaks (Kelly n.d.: 115, 162 in Slaymaker 1977: 97, Northwestern Maidu, and his Nisenan cousins, were 98). "Attaching handfuls of feathers to a mesh" is a without totem animals. Current overviews of Maidu simplistic description of the construction of a feather culture likewise fail to mention the existence of cape. Usuahy single feathers are cut on the quill butt totem animals (Riddeh 1978; Whson and Towne at an angle, bent over the cordage of the net, and 1978). secured by being thrust back into the quiU or by lashing the bent quUl section to the quiU (Barrett and 8. Whhe there is no dispute that moloko is Gifford 1933: 273-274). Another technique is to condor, the connection of the raven to kuksu is an soften the quid ends by chewing and then bend them interesting claim, unsupported by data at hand (Loeb over the mesh and lash the quUl onto itself (Kroeber 1926: 300). 1932: 330). 9. Okladnikova has confused the "bighead" 14. Loeb (1926: 301) speaks of buzzard wings dancer of the Hesi ceremony with the kuksuyu and as an accoutrement occasionahy donned by Thunder moki characters. The dancer representing kuksu in Man among the Central Coast Pomo. The identifica Pomo rites dressed in a form of "bighead" headpiece tion of the condor as Thunder Man is a view (Loeb 1926: 356). Among the Sierra Miwok, the unsupported by data at hand. 238 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

15. Here the reference is probably for the girls' generaUy come through dancing (Gifford n.d.; Bean puberty ceremony. 1975: 25-30). 16. Other researchers have been unable to find 25. Bird skins were not "sewn" to create the term kuksu used by native people to denote the costumes. As previously described, the bird feathers rehgious systems, but rather have used the term were used singly or the entire skin was used intact. themselves. Conversations with Maidu and Miwok 26. Other researchers have come to very dif people who are fluent speakers of their respective ferent views based upon their work. Okladnikova has languages reveal that they have no term for religion. made several assumptions, among them the associa When asked about the "kuksu religion" they indicate tion of the kuksu deity with the raven. WhUe it is true that the name is something non-Indians have created. that the eagle, condor, and falcon were highly revered Kuksu as a creator-spirit does not exist among many by groups such as the Sierra Miwok, the association of the Cahfornian peoples, including many of the of the raven with kuksu is unsupported by available Miwok and Maidu people. data. 17. This is not clear, as members of the sacred REFERENCES TO NOTES society were the participants in the dances. A hawk dance has not been recorded for Central Cahfornian Alekseyev, A. P. groups. The closest would be the Pota dance among 1977 I. G. Voznesensky. Moscow: Academy of the Central Sierra Miwok in which the prairie falcon Sciences of the USSR (in Russian). takes part, but which is a commemorative dance AzbiU, Henry celebrating the kiUing of murderers (Gifford 1955: 1972 Konyo'ngkawi, We Live in the Open Coun 285-299). try. Davis: Hehaka Sapa College Indian Education Workshop. 18. The Hesi and Aki make use of regalia and ritual that qualify them as dances within the Kuksu Barrett, S. A. cult, and not as separate cult systems. 1917 Pomo Bear Doctors. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and 19. Apparently the reference to Northwestern Ethnology 12(11): 443-465. and Southeastern California is in error. Barrett, S. A., and Gifford, E. W. 20. Apparently not considered here are the bear 1933 Miwok Material Culture. Bulletin of the dances of the Northeastern and Northwestern Maidu Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee (AzbiU 1972; Dixon 1905: 295) and the Sierra 2(4): 117-376. Miwok (Gifford 1955: 275). As weh, the ceremonial Beals, Ralph L. bear dancers among the Pomo were different and 1933 Ethnology of the Nisenan. University of distinct from the bear doctors (Barrett 1917: California Publications in American Archae 443-465; Cody 1940: 132). ology and Ethnology 21(6): 335-414. Bean,L. J. 21. It seems that the introduction of dances in 1975 Power and Its Application in Native CaHfor which the participants appear as spirits of the dead nia. Journal of California Anthropology 2(1): was primarily the result of the 1870 Ghost Dance in 25-33. California (DuBois 1939: 1). Although the Ghost religion of the Pomo was an ancient part of their Bennyhoff, James A. culture (Loeb 1926: 338), it was not shared by other 1977 Ethnogeography of the Plains Miwok. Davis: Californian groups such as the Miwok and Maidu University of California Center for Archaeo logical Research at Davis Publication No. 5. (Gifford 1955; Dixon 1905; Kroeber 1932: 375-390). Cody, Bertha Parker 22. The reference to a "Patwin river basin" is 1940 Pomo Bear Impersonators. The Masterkey confusing, as such a river cannot be located. 14(3): 89-96. 23. The Aki is not recorded for the Mountain Dixon, Roland B. Maidu, but rather only for the Northwestern Maidu 1905 The Northern Maidu. New York: BuUetin of the American Museum of Natural History and the Nisenan, not the Maidu proper (AzbiU 1972: 17(3): 119-346. 6,9, 12; Dixon 1905: 364; RiddeU 1978: 384). DuBois, Cora 24. Shamans who practice sorcery often were 1939 The 1870 Ghost Dance. University of Cali not dancers. Power needed for "sorcery" does not fornia Anthropological Records 3(1): 1-151. I. G. VOZNESENSKY 239

Gifford, E. W. tions in American Archaeology and Ethnol n.d. Central Miwok Shamans. Unpublished manu ogy 33(1 and 2): 1-232. script on fUe at the Bancroft Library, Uni versity of California, Berkeley. Lyapunova, R. G. 1967 Voznesensky's Expedition and Its Import 1917 Northern Miwok Field Notes. Unpublished ance for Ethnography of Russian America. manuscript on file at the Bancroft Library, CoUection of the Museum of Anthropology University of California, Berkeley. and Ethnography 24: 36-39. Leningrad: 1927 Southern Maidu Religious Ceremonies. Academy of Sciences of the USSR (in American Anthropologist 29(3): 214-257. Russian).

1955 Central Miwok Ceremonies. University of RiddeU, Francis A. California Anthropological Records 14(4): 1978 Maidu and Konkow. In: Handbook of North 261-318. American Indians, Vol. 8, California, R. F. Heizer, ed., pp. 370-386. Washington: Kroeber, A. L. Smithsonian Institution Press. 1929 The VaUey Nisenan. University of California PubUcations in American Archaeology and Slaymaker, Charles Ethnology 24(4): 253-290. 1977 The Material Culture of Cotomko'tca, A 1932 The Patwin and their Neighbors. University Coast Miwok Tribelet in Marin County, of California Publications in American Arch California. San Rafael: Miwok Archaeologi aeology and Ethnology 29(4): 253-423. cal Preserve of Marin Paper No. 3. Loeb, E. M. Wilson, Norman L., and Arlean H. Towne 1926 Pomo Folkways. University of California 1978 Nisenan. In: Handbook of North American PubUcations in American Archaeology and Indians, Vol. 8, Cahfornia, R. F. Heizer, ed., Ethnology 19(2): 149405, pp. 387-397. Washington: Smithsonian Insti tution Press. 1932 The Western Kuksu Cult (and) The Eastern Kuksu Cult. University of California Publica