BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD t h e e d i t o r A COMPANION TO the A COMPANION TO The Jane DeRose Evans is Professor of Art A COMPANION TO the History at Temple University, where she is also archaeology of archaeology affiliated with the Classics Department. She is the author of The Art of Persuasion: Political the

e h t O T N O I N A P M O C A of the roman Propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus (1992) and The archaeology Contributors to this volume: Joint Expedition to Caesarea Maritima: Excavation republic the roman Reports v.6, The Coins and the Hellenistic, Roman republic and Byzantine Economy of Palestine (2006). Albert J. Ammerman, Michael Anderson, Jeffrey A. Becker, Penelope J.E. Davies, archaeology of E D I T E D B Y Sylvia Diebner, Michael Dobson, Stephen L. Dyson, Ingrid Edlund-Berry, of the Jane derose evans

Jane DeRose Evans, Helena Fracchia, Andrew L. Goldman, Helen Goodchild, s n va e BY D E T I D E Alison B. Griffith, Maurizio Gualtieri, Shelley Hales, A. Trevor Hodge, The role of archaeology has expanded over Michael C. Hoff, Marie D. Jackson, Cynthia K. Kosso, Fanette Laubenheimer, roman Republic the past 30 years, and research now frequently Ray Laurence, Elio Lo Cascio, Margaret M. Miles, J. Andrew Overman, Isabel Rodá, overlaps with the work of ancient historians David Gilman Romano, Roman Roth, Rafael Scopacasa, Susan Kirkpatrick Smith, and classicists. A Companion to the Archaeology Tesse D. Stek, David L. Stone, Marlene Suano, Steven L. Tuck, EDITED BY jane derose evans of the Roman Republic demonstrates how Miguel John Versluys, P. Gregory Warden, R.J.A. Wilson, Fikret K. Yegül, archaeological methods have been used to Mantha Zarmakoupi study the era of the Roman Republic, and the influence of non-Roman cultures on its formation.

ALSO AVAILABLE IN THIS SERIES: A collection of original essays by both emerging and established archaeologists, with a wide range of nationalities and areas of interest, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic reveals how differing approaches and methodologies contribute to an understanding of the Republic across the Mediterranean basin. Of interest both to archaeologists themselves, and to students of ancient history, art history and classics, it offers a diverse approach to a fascinating field.

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty- five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Ancient History A Companion to the Classical Tradition Published Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Edited by Ian Worthington Morstein-Marx A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Greek and Roman A Companion to the Hellenistic World Political Thought Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Ryan K. Balot A Companion to Late Antiquity A Companion to Edited by Philip Rousseau Edited by Peter E. Knox A Companion to Ancient History A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Egbert Bakker A Companion to Archaic Greece A Companion to Hellenistic Literature Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss A Companion to A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition Edited by Miriam Griffin Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam A Companion to Byzantium A Companion to Horace Edited by Liz James Edited by Gregson Davis A Companion to Ancient Egypt A Companion to Families in the Greek and Edited by Alan B. Lloyd Roman Worlds Edited by Beryl Rawson A Companion to Ancient Macedonia Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington A Companion to Greek Mythology Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone A Companion to the Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to the Latin Language Edited by James Clackson A Companion to Augustine Edited by Mark Vessey A Companion to Tacitus Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Edited by Marcel van Ackeren A Companion to Women in the Ancient World Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon A Companion to Ancient Greek Government Edited by Hans Beck A Companion to Sophocles Edited by Kirk Ormand A Companion to the Neronian Age Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East Edited by Daniel Potts Literature and Culture A Companion to Roman Love Elegy Published Edited by Barbara K. Gold A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Greek Art Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography A Companion to and Juvenal Edited by John Marincola Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood A Companion to Catullus A Companion to the Archaeology of the Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner Roman Republic A Companion to Roman Religion Jane DeRose Evans Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Greek Religion Edited by Daniel Ogden A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic

Edited by Jane DeRose Evans

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2013 © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to the archaeology of the Roman Republic / edited by Jane DeRose Evans. pages cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and index. “A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., publication.” ISBN 978-1-4051-9966-7 (hardback : alkaline paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-55712-9 (Wiley Online Libary) – ISBN 978-1-118-55713-6 (Bro) – ISBN 978-1-118-55714-3 (eMobi) – ISBN 978-1-118-55715-0 (ePDF) – ISBN 978-1-118-55716-7 (ePub) 1. –History–Republic, 510–265 B.C. 2. Rome–History– Republic, 265–30 B.C. 3. Rome–Antiquities. 4. Social archaeology–Rome. 5. Material culture– Rome. 6. Landscape archaeology–Rome. 7. Technology–Social aspects–Rome. 8. Group identity–Rome. 9. Imperialism–Social aspects–Rome. I. Evans, Jane DeRose, 1956– DG77.C583 2013 937′.02–dc23 2012042774 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Largo di Torre Argentina. Rome, © Marka / SuperStock Cover design by Workhaus

Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2013 Contents

List of Illustrations ix Notes on Contributors xiv Abbreviations xxi Preface xxii

Introduction 1 Jane DeRose Evans

PART I Material Culture and Its Impact on Social Configuration 13 1 Development of Baths and Public Bathing during the Roman Republic 15 Fikret K. Yegül 2 Public Entertainment Structures 33 Mantha Zarmakoupi 3 Republican Houses 50 Shelley Hales 4 Tombs and Funerary Monuments 67 Sylvia Diebner 5 Before Sigillata: Black-Gloss Pottery and Its Cultural Dimensions 81 Roman Roth 6 Amphoras and Shipwrecks: Wine from the Tyrrhenian Coast at the End of the Republic and Its Distribution in Gaul 97 Fanette Laubenheimer vi Contents

7 Coins and the Archaeology of the Roman Republic 110 Jane DeRose Evans 8 Weapons and the Army 123 Andrew L. Goldman 9 Bodies of Evidence: Skeletal Analysis in Roman Greece and Cyprus 141 Susan Kirkpatrick Smith 10 Population and Demographic Studies 155 Elio Lo Cascio

PART II Archaeology and the Landscape 167

11 Looking at Early Rome with Fresh Eyes: Transforming the Landscape 169 Albert J. Ammerman 12 Survey, Settlement and Land Use in Republican Italy 181 Helena Fracchia 13 Agriculture and the Environment of Republican Italy 198 Helen Goodchild 14 No Holiday Camp: The Roman Republican Army Camp as a Fine-Tuned Instrument of War 214 Michael Dobson 15 Reconstructing Religious Ritual in Italy 235 Alison B. Griffith

PART III Archaeology and Ancient Technology 251

16 The Orientation of Towns and Centuriation 253 David Gilman Romano 17 Scientia in Republican Era Stone and Concrete Masonry 268 Marie D. Jackson and Cynthia K. Kosso 18 Aqueducts and Water Supply 285 A. Trevor Hodge 19 Roads and Bridges 296 Ray Laurence

20 Villas and Agriculture in Republican Italy 309 Jeffrey A. Becker 21 Ports 323 Steven L. Tuck Contents vii

PART IV The Archaeology of Identity 335

22 Material Culture, Italic Identities and the Romanization of Italy 337 Tesse D. Stek 23 The Importance of Being Elite: The Archaeology of Identity in (500–200) 354 P. Gregory Warden 24 Greeks, Lucanians and Romans at Poseidonia/Paestum (South Italy) 369 Maurizio Gualtieri 25 Central Apennine Italy: The Case of 387 Marlene Suano and Rafael Scopacasa 26 Early Rome and the Making of “Roman” Identity through Architecture and City Planning 406 Ingrid Edlund-Berry

PART V The Archaeology of Empire during the Republic 427

27 Material Culture and Identity in the Late Roman Republic (c. 200–c. 20) 429 Miguel John Versluys 28 The Archaeology of Mid-Republican Rome: The Emergence of a Mediterranean Capital 441 Penelope J.E. Davies 29 The Late Republican City of Rome 459 Jane DeRose Evans 30 Cosa 472 Stephen L. Dyson 31 Becoming Roman Overseas? Sicily and Sardinia in the Later Roman Republic 485 R.J.A. Wilson 32 The Archaeology of Africa in the Roman Republic 505 David L. Stone 33 : From the Roman Republic to the Reign of 522 Isabel Rodá 34 The Archaeology of Palestine in the Republican Period 540 J. Andrew Overman viii Contents

35 Greece and the Roman Republic: Athens and Corinth from the Late Third Century to the Augustan Era 559 Michael C. Hoff

PART VI Republican Archaeology and the Twenty-First Century 579

36 Computer Technologies and Republican Archaeology at Pompeii 581 Michael Anderson 37 Archaeology and Acquisition: The Experience of Republican Rome 598 Margaret M. Miles

References 611 Index 711 List of Illustrations

Maps

1 A Map of the extent of the Republican empire at the death of Caesar 2 B Map of the major cultural groups in Republican Italy

Figures

1.1 Reconstruction of a typical apodyterium in use in the Late Republican period 19 1.2 Plan of the Stabian Baths, Pompeii, c. 80 23 1.3 Schematic hypocaust system of a Roman bath 26 1.4 The Republican Baths in Fregellae, restored plan 29 2.1 Plan of the Large Theater at Pompeii 36 2.2 Plan of the Amphitheater at Pompeii 42 2.3 View of the arena and seating of the Amphitheater at Pompeii 43 2.4 Theater at Bononia, reconstructed outer theater façade 44 3.1 Plan of the house blocks on the lower slopes of the Palatine, Rome 52 3.2 Aerial view of the insulae of Regio VI, Pompeii 53 3.3 Plan of the House of Diana at Cosa 55 3.4 Second Style wall in the Corinthian oecus of the House of the Labyrinth, Pompeii 62 x List of Illustrations

4.1 Tomb of the Flavii by the Porta Nocera, Pompeii 75 4.2 Urn of Q. Minucius Saturninus, from 77 4.3 Grave stone of L. Vesprius, from Assisi 79 5.1 Typology of the widespread forme Morel 2783 87 6.1 Typical profiles and sections of Dressel 1 Amphoras 99 6.2 Trade routes of Dressel 1 Amphoras in the Republican era. 100 8.1 Late Republican soldiers, from the so-called Domitius Ahenobarbus Altar in the Louvre Museum 129 8.2 Location of major hoard, type- and find sites for Republican weapons 131 8.3 Spanish sword from Delos 134 9.1 Male and female pelvises showing features used in sex determination 145 9.2 Adult phalanges (finger bones) and juvenile phalanges 146 9.3 Left os coxa (hip bone) showing the pubic symphysis and auricular surface which can be used to age adults 147 9.4 Skull sutures in various stages of fusion 148 9.5 Mandibular incisor with a large carious lesion and mandibular canine tooth with two linear enamel hypoplasias 150 9.6 The upper portion of the eye orbit (socket) of a person who suffered from anemia 152 11.1 Cross-section showing the environmental settings of the , the Velabrum Valley and the 173 11.2 Map of the main sites located in and around the 175 12.1 Comparative survey trends in Italy 184 12.2 Sites with grey glaze pottery in the upper Bradano Valley 194 13.1 Map of Italy, showing sites mentioned in the text 202 14.1 Reconstruction of a Polybian manipular double-consular camp 218 14.2 Detailed reconstruction of the “south-western quarter” of the Polybian manipular double-consular camp 219 14.3 The camps at Renieblas, Spain 220 14.4 The camps and siegeworks around Numantia, Spain 221 14.5 Reconstruction of the cohort-organized, single-consular camp of the late second century 223 14.6 Types of Roman defended camp entrances 232 List of Illustrations xi

16.1 Centuriation of the territorium of Corinth, dating to the time of the Caesarian colony 262 16.2 Centuriation of the urban center of Corinth, dating to the time of the Caesarian colony 263 16.3 Centuriation of the territorium of Corinth, dating to the time of the Flavian colony 265 17.1 Quarries in the vicinity of Rome 269 17.2 Uniaxial compressive strengths of Roman tuffs and travertine 274 19.1 Ponte di Nona, one of the best preserved Republican bridges on the Via Praenestina 297 19.2 Map of the development of the public roads in the Republic 298 19.3 Plan of the expansion of the Roman colony of Minturnae 301 20.1 Plan of the Auditorium site 315 20.2 Typological sampling of Hellenistic farmhouses and villas 318 20.3 Plan of the villa at 319 21.1 Hypothetical reconstruction of the port at Cosa in the late second and first centuries 326 21.2 Reconstruction of the port of Forum Iulii in the late first century 333 22.1 The terrace sanctuary at Munigua, two views 338 22.2 The sanctuary of Primigenia at Praeneste 339 22.3 The sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tibur 340 23.1 Helmet of Negau type from , ritually crushed 358 23.2 Porta Marzia, Perugia 359 23.3 Urn from the Tomb of the Calisna Sepu, Monteriggioni 365 24.1 Plan of Poseidonia-Paestum 374

24.2 Sanctuary and cemetery sites around Paestum, 600–300 bce 377 24.3 Short wall of Tomb 61 of the Andriolo urban cemetery: woman facing a mounted warrior 379 24.4 Detail of the Tomb of the Magistrate (Tomb 1), Spinazzo cemetery: seated magistrate 380 25.1 Map of Samnium, showing sites mentioned in text 388 25.2 Female grave from the necropolis of Opi, at the upper Sangro River Valley, sixth century 393 25.3 Plan of the sanctuary of Pietrabbondante 396 xii List of Illustrations

25.4 “Dea di Rapino,” sixth-century bronze statuette 403 25.5 Pottery of the so-called Daunian type, from Grave 7 at Guglionesi 404 26.1 The hills of Early Rome 408

26.2 Rome around.500 bce 416

28.1 Pons Aemilius, first constructed in the second century bce 449

28.2 , as vaulted in the first half of the second century bce 450 28.3 Terracotta figure of Mars from a pediment, found on the Via San di Gregorio 452 28.4 Marble temple by the Tiber, probably commissioned by L. Mummius 453 29.1 Plan of the Palatine in the first century 462 29.2 Plan of the Forum Romanum in the first century 464 30.1 Plan of Cosa, second phase of colonization 474 30.2 Polygonal masonry of the northwest gate, Cosa 475 30.3 Plan showing the site of Cosa, Le Colonne and Settefinestre 482 31.1 View of the remains of the second-century theater at Soluntum (Soluonto), Sicily 490 31.2 The Italic podium temple (the “Oratory of Phalaris”), Agrigentum, Sicily 491 31.3 Nora, Sardinia, temple thought to be of Asclepius 497 31.4 Statue base from Sulcis (Sant’Antioco), Sardinia, with bilingual inscription 498 31.5 Trilingual inscription in Latin, Greek and neo-Punic from San Nicolò Gerrei, Sardinia 503 32.1 North Africa in the Republican period, with provincial boundaries and sites mentioned in the text 506 32.2 Centuriation in North Africa, with sites mentioned in the text 516 33.1 Map of Republican Hispania, with sites mentioned in text 524 33.2 Tower of El Brull (Turó de Montgròs) 525 33.3 Wall of Tarragona 531 33.4 Funerary monument from Malla 532 33.5 Suggested reconstructions of the Trophy of in the Pyrenees 534 List of Illustrations xiii

34.1 Map of Palestine, with sites mentioned in text 541 34.2 Aerial view of the excavations of the temple at Omrit 544 34.3 Detail of the excavations of the temple at Omrit 545 34.4 Reconstruction of the Early Imperial temple at Omrit 546 34.5 Aerial view of the compound of Hippos 548 35.1 Fragmentary base with inscription mentioning Brutus (I3366) 570 35.2 Athena Gate to the , Athens 572 35.3 Plan of the center of Roman Corinth 576 36.1 Three resistivity sections undertaken in the south-east corner of Pompeii Insula VII 6 590 36.2 Photograph of a wall rectified using Hugin panoramic stitching software and resulting section drawing in Pompeii Insula VII 593 36.3 Cistern recovered in Pompeii, VII 6, 26: photograph and 3D surface mesh 593

Tables

12.1 Chronological breakdown of the Morel typology of black-gloss pottery 188 16.1 The north–south orientation and unit size for parcels around Corinth in the Flavian era 264 26.1 Table contrasting historical events, archaeological terminology and archaeological dates with events in early Rome 410 32.1 Phases of Roman imperialism in Africa 510 Notes on Contributors

Albert J. Ammerman is a Research the Via Consolare Project in Pompeii, Professor at Colgate University. He took his which conducts excavations in Insula VII PhD in European Archaeology at the 6 and the area of the Villa delle Colonne Institute of Archaeology, University of a Mosaico. His research and publications London (under the supervision of Prof. relate to the use of GIS and computer John D. Evans). Between 1985 and 2004, technologies in archaeological research. he carried out fieldwork at more than 15 ­different sites in the heart of ancient Jeffrey A. Becker is a Mediterranean Rome, in close collaboration with both the archaeologist. He earned both an MA Superintendency of Archaeology in Rome and a PhD at the University of North and the City of Rome. He has taught at Carolina at Chapel Hill. Since 2007 he has Stanford University, SUNY Binghamton been one of the principal investigators of and the Universities of Parma and Trento. the archaeological­ fieldwork at Gabii in His publications include the results of his ­central Italy undertaken by the University work on the origins of the Forum, the early of Michigan and the Kelsey Museum of , the Capitoline Hill, the Palatine Archaeology. He is the co-editor of Roman Hill, the Velabrum and the clay beds there, Republican Villas: Architecture, Context, and on the characterization of the earliest and Ideology (2011) and has held teach- roof tiles and architectural terracottas at early ing appointments at the College of sites in Rome, Latium and southern Etruria. William & Mary, Boston University, He has also directed projects in Calabria McMaster University, and the Joukowsky (Neolithic), Venice (origins of the city) and Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient Cyprus (pre-Neolithic sites and the origins World at Brown University. Becker is of seafaring in the eastern Mediterranean). ­presently Acting Director of the Ancient World Mapping Center at the University Michael Anderson is an archaeologist and of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Assistant Professor in Classics at San Francisco State University who has studied Penelope J.E. Davies is Associate ancient Pompeii since 1996. He directs Professor in and architecture Notes on Contributors xv at the University of Texas at Austin. Author 2006). He has also written on the of Death and the Emperor: The Funerary ­archaeology of the city of Rome (The Monuments of the Roman Emperors from Roman Countryside, 2003 and Rome: A Augustus to Marcus Aurelius (2000, Living Portrait of an Ancient City, 2010) 2004), and co-author of Janson’s History and is preparing the final reports for his of Art (2007, 2010), she currently focuses excavation in Capalbiaccio, near Cosa. her research on public art and politics in Dyson has served as director for a National Republican Rome. Endowment for the Humanities Summer Seminar for College and University Teachers Sylvia Diebner, a classical archaeologist, at the American Academy in Rome, is a is the director of the photography archive Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of at the German Archaeological Institute London, and is a Corresponding Member in Rome. Her publications include of the German Archaeological Institute. Aesernia – Venafrum: Untersuchungen zu den römischen Steindenkmälern zweier Ingrid Edlund-Berry is Professor Emerita römischer Landstädte, 2 vols. (1979); in the Department of Classics at the “Frühkaiserzeitliche Urnen aus Picenum” University of Texas at Austin. Her research (1982); Reperti funerari in Umbria a sinis- interests are the history and archaeology tra del Tevere. I sec. A.C –I sec. D.C. (1986); of ancient Italy, with special emphasis “Landstädtische Sepulkraldenkmäler aus on Etruscan archaeology. Her excavation Picenum” (2007); and “Aschenkisten aus ­experience includes Poggio Civitate Amelia: Handwerkstraditionen im südlichen (Murlo) and Poggio Colla (Vicchio), Umbrien” (2008). S. Angelo Vecchio, Metaponto, and Morgantina. Among her publications Michael Dobson studied archaeology at are The Gods and the Place: Location the University of Exeter and worked as an and Function of Sanctuaries in the archaeologist in Exeter before returning Countryside of Etruria and Magna Graecia to the University to teach Archaeological (700–400 B.C.) (1987), The Seated and Computing. He is now Director of Flexible Standing Statue Akroteria from Poggio Combined Honours there. Interest in Civitate (Murlo) (1992), with Lucy Shoe the Roman army and particularly Meritt, Etruscan and Republican Roman Republican and early Imperial military Mouldings (2000), and with G. Greco and installations began with his doctoral thesis. J. Kenfield (eds), Deliciae Fictiles III: This ­continued research has included a Architectural Terracottas in Ancient Italy: number of publications and collaborations New Discoveries and Interpretations (2006). with archaeologists in Spain and Germany, Jane DeRose Evans is a numismatist including The Army of the Roman Republic: and archaeologist; she is a Professor in the The Second Century BC, and the Art History Department, and affiliated Camps at Numantia, Spain (2008). with the Classics Department, of Temple Stephen L. Dyson is the Park Professor University. Evans has worked on Roman of Classics at the University of Buffalo. He sites in Turkey, France and Israel and is has published extensively on the history of currently the numismatist for the Harvard American archaeology in the Mediterr­ Sardis Expeditions. Her publications anean Basin, (e.g. In Pursuit of Ancient include The Art of Persuasion: Political Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in Propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (1992), and The Joint Expedition to xvi Notes on Contributors

Caesarea Maritima: Excavation Reports research and publications focus primarily v.6, The Coins and the Hellenistic, Roman on archaeological evidence for Roman reli- and Byzantine Economy (2006). gion and cults, especially the Roman cult of Mithras. She has also published on Helena Fracchia is Professor of Classics aspects of the topography of in the Department of History and Classics, and the application of cognitive science to University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada. the study of ancient religious practice. She is also the Director of the University of Alberta School in Italy (Cortona) and the Maurizio Gualtieri, PhD, University of Archaeological Field school at Ossaia. Her Pennsylvania and Professor Emeritus recent publications and fieldwork address in the Department of History and various aspects of cultural and social history Classics, University of Alberta, Edmonton in pre-Roman southern Italy, the ceramic (Canada), is presently teaching Classical and survey evidence from the Upper Archaeology at the University of Perugia Bradano Valley and Roccagloriosa as well (Italy). His fieldwork includes the Etruscan as the Etruscan site and successive Roman site of Artimino (Florence), as coordinator villa at Ossaia in the Val di Chiana, . of the University of Pennsylvania University Museum team in Tuscany and then Andrew L. Goldman is an Associate Roccagloriosa (Salerno) as scientific col- Professor in the History Department of laborator of the Department of Antiquities Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington, of Salerno, first, and then as co-director of and contributor to the Classical Civili­ the University of Alberta team. More zations Department. His areas of schol- recently he has conducted excavations arly interest include the Roman military at the Roman site of Oppido Lucano and and the material culture of the Roman ­co-directed the joint University of Perugia ­provinces, in particular those of Anatolia. University of Alberta excavations at the Since 1992, his archaeological fieldwork late Republican villa of Ossaia (Cortona, has concentrated on the investigation of Arezzo). His recent publications include the Roman settlement at Gordion, where La Lucania Romana. Cultura e Società he has identified and excavated the first nella Documentazione Archeologica early Imperial auxiliary fort in Turkey. (Quaderni di Ostraka, vol. 8) (2004) and Helen Goodchild is a landscape archaeo­ a chapter on “Roman villas in southern logist and GIS specialist working in the Italy” for the forthcoming volume edited Department of Archaeology at the University by G. Métraux and A. Marzano on The of York. She has worked as part of a number Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin. of large-scale landscape projects,­ including Shelley Hales is a Senior Lecturer in Art the Wroxeter Hinterland Project (United and Visual Culture in the Department Kingdom), the Tiber Valley Project (Italy) of Classics and Ancient History at the and the Cyrene Archaeological Project University of Bristol. She works on Roman (Libya). Her PhD in 2007 investigated domestic and personal art and its relation Roman agricultural production­ using to identity-making in the ancient world ­computer modeling techniques, from as well as its reception (particularly in which she has published a number of papers. terms of the excavations at Pompeii) in the Alison B. Griffith is a senior lecturer in ­nineteenth century. She is the author Classics at the University of Canterbury of Roman Houses and Social Identity in Christchurch, New Zealand. Her (2003) and has co-edited several volumes Notes on Contributors xvii exploring these issues, including Material ash aggregates and pozzolanic cements, Culture and Social Identities in the Ancient to describe the expertise of Roman World (2010) and Pompeii in the Public ­builders and apply their methods to Imagination (2011). ­modern sustainable concretes. She has numerous publications in journals such A. Trevor Hodge (1930–2012) was a as Archaeometry, American Journal of ­classical archaeologist (BA, MA, PhD, Archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Dipl. Cl. Arch. [Cantab]), who from 1960 Science and Geoarchaeology. to 1997 was a Professor at Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, from which Cynthia K. Kosso is a Professor in the (2010) he held the title of Distinguished Department of History at Northern Research Professor. His publications Arizona University. She received her PhD include The Woodwork of Greek Roofs in History and Classics from the University (1960, repr. 2011), Roman Aqueducts and of Illinois at Chicago, and her Master’s Water Supply (1992), Ancient Greek France degrees in Ancient History and Classical (1998) and, as joint editor, Frontinus’ Archaeology from the University of Legacy (2001). After retirement he often Minnesota. Her professional interests broadcasted on Canadian national radio are interdisciplinary in nature – from the and lectured on cruise ships. ­translation of ancient languages and the study of innovation in ancient societies, to Michael C. Hoff is Professor of Art public and economic history as reflected History at the University of Nebraska. As in material evidence. She has co-edited a field archaeologist in Greece, Hoff has ­several recent collections of essays, includ- participated in excavations at the Athenian ing The Nature of Water, Baths, Bathing, Agora, Corinth, Kavousi and Nemea. and Hygiene from Antiquity through the From 1997 to 2004, Hoff co-directed the Renaissance (2009). architectural survey of the Rough Cilicia Archaeological Research Project, and since Fanette Laubenheimer is the Research 2005 he has been director of excavations Director (emeritus) at the Centre National of the Antiochia ad Cragum Archaeological de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), where Research Project in Turkey. His publications her research projects centered on the eco- include The Romanization of Athens nomic history of the Roman world and (­co-edited with Susan Rotroff, 1997); especially amphoras. For 25 years she and Rough Cilicia. New Historical and directed the excavation of a potters’ complex­ Archaeological Approaches (co-edited with which produced amphoras in southern Rhys Townsend, 2011). France, at Sallèles d’Aude. Part of the work was to ensure that the excavations be pro- Marie D. Jackson is a Researcher in the tected and presented to the public; the Department of Civil and Environmental museum above the site evokes a bird with Engineering at the University of California outstretched wings protecting the archaeo- at Berkeley. She received a Doctorat logical structures. She is the author of ­several d’Université from Université de Nantes, books and a number of articles. France, in Structural Geology, and a PhD from Johns Hopkins University in Earth Ray Laurence is Professor of Roman Sciences. She works on ancient Roman History and Archaeology at the University concretes from monumental buildings of Kent (United Kingdom). He is the and seawater harbors, and their volcanic author of a number of books, including xviii Notes on Contributors

The Roads of : Mobility and Department of Classics at Macalester Cultural Change (1999) and Roman College, St. Paul, MN. He has directed Pompeii: Space and Society (2nd edn, 2007), archaeological excavations in northern co-author of The City in the Roman West Israel, as well as in the Black Sea region. (2011) and co-editor of Rome, Pompeii and He has published widely on the archaeol- Ostia: Movement and Space (2011). ogy of Galilee, the Roman East, and the beginnings of Judaism and Christianity Elio Lo Cascio is Professor of Roman in the eastern Mediterranean. History at Sapienza Università di Roma. He has published extensively on the demogra- Isabel Rodá is the Director of the ICAC phy and economy of the ancient Roman (Catalan Institute of Classical Archaeology) world, including Il princeps e il suo impero: and Professor of Archaeology of the UAB Studi di storia amministrativa e finanziaria (Autonomous University of Barcelona). romana (2000) and Crescita e declino: Studi She has written on the ceramics of Hispania di storia dell’economia romana (2009). His (Ceramicas exoticas y de imitacion en el many articles and edited volumes show his poblado iberico de Sant Julia de Ramis, main areas of interest: the history of the 1974) and authored and co-authored administration of the Roman Empire; the ­several corpora concerning Roman institutional history of the Roman Republic; ­inscriptions on the peninsula. the economic­ and social history of Rome, from the Republic to the late Empire, David Gilman Romano, PhD, is the with ­particular emphasis on monetary Karabots Professor of Greek Archaeology in ­history; and Roman population history and the School of Anthropology at the University the impact of demographic change on the of Arizona. He began the Corinth Computer economy and society of the Roman Empire. Project, (http://corinthcomputerproject. He has also written on late Republican org) in 1987 as a long-term study of the municipal legislation; on the city of Rome urban and rural landscape of the Roman and on Roman cities and their elites, espe- colony of Corinth. Since 2004 he has been cially on Pompeii; and on the dynamics of Co-Director and Field Director of the Mt. Romanization. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project in Arcadia, Greece (http://lykaionexcavation. Margaret M. Miles is the Andrew W. org). His publications include Mapping Mellon Professor of Classical Studies at the Augustan Rome (2002) in collaboration American School of Classical Studies in with Lothar Haselberger, The Catalogue Athens, Greece, and Professor of Art of the Classical Collection of the Glencairn History and Classics at the University of Museum (1999) with Irene Bald Romano California, Irvine. Her previous publica- and Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic tions include a study of the Temple of Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion Nemesis at Rhamnous (1989), a volume (1993), as well as a series of publications on the City Eleusinion in the Athenian on the city and landscape planning of the Agora (1998), and Art as Plunder (2008), Roman colony of Corinth. Romano directs a study of Cicero’s Verrines and their the Archaeological Mapping Lab (http:// impact on ideas about cultural property. archaeologicalmappinglab.org).

J. Andrew Overman is the Harry Roman Roth teaches Classics at the M. Drake Distinguished Professor in the University of Cape Town. His primary Humanities and Fine Arts in the research interests concern the cultural Notes on Contributors xix

­history of ancient Italy, with a particular Marlene Suano (PhD, University of focus on the material and visual culture of London) is a lecturer in Archaeology the Republican period. He is the author of and Ancient History at the University of Styling Romanisation: Pottery and Society São Paulo, Brazil. She is interested in in Central Italy (2007), as well as several using archaeological evidence to answer articles and book chapters, and also directs questions about cultural identity and cul- the current excavations on the site of tural change in ancient Italy, especially that ancient Capena (Provincial di Roma). of the Samnite area. Her book, I vivi fra i loro morti: frequentazione rituale nella Rafael Scopacasa (PhD, University of necropoli di Tornareccio (in press), explores Exeter) is a research fellow at the British cultural change in the Central Apennines. School at Rome. His work focuses on combining written and material evidence Steven L. Tuck is Associate Professor in to understand key historical developments Classics and the History of Art at Miami in Italy from the Iron Age to the Roman University. His scholarship includes a conquest, most recently in his dissertation, ­dissertation on Roman Imperial harbor “Identity as social practice in the funerary monuments and articles on the Tiber and sites of central Apennine Italy (‘Samnium’), its installations and the triumphal monu- 6th–3rd century BC.” ments in ports around the Roman world. Susan Kirkpatrick Smith is a biological He is also the author of a history of Roman anthropologist in the Department of art (forthcoming from Wiley-Blackwell). Geography and Anthropology at Kennesaw Miguel John Versluys is Associate Professor State University in Kennesaw, Georgia. of Classical Archaeology at Leiden University. She has conducted skeletal analysis of His research focuses on cultural interaction human remains from the Bronze Age in the Hellenistic-Roman Mediterranean through the Roman period in Greece. Her and Near East. He is the author of Aegyptiaca areas of interest include warfare and social Romana. Nilotic Scenes and the Roman change and their effects on the body. Views of Egypt (2002) and the co-editor Tesse D. Stek is Golding Junior Research of two volumes of Isis studies: Nile into Fellow at Brasenose College, Oxford Tiber. Egypt in the Roman World (2007) and University. He is the author of Cult Places Isis on the Nile. Egyptian Gods in Hellenistic and Cultural Change in Republican Italy and Roman Egypt (2010). A monograph (2009) and conducts archaeological field- on Nemrud Dağ and late Hellenistic work in the south Italian region of , Commagene is forthcoming. ancient Samnium. This work is funded by P. Gregory Warden, President of Franklin the Netherlands Organization of Scientific College (Lugano), formerly University Research (NWO). Distinguished Professor of Art History and David L. Stone is Assistant Professor of Associate Dean for Research and Academic Classics at Florida State University. He Affairs at Southern Methodist University, is the co-editor of Mortuary Landscapes has authored/co-authored five books as of North Africa (2007) and Leptiminus well as over 70 articles and reviews on (Lamta). Report no. 3, the Field Survey, areas ranging from Greek archaeology to JRA Suppl. 87 (2011). He has also , archaeology and ritual, and ­published several articles on epigraphy and Roman architecture. Warden is the founder, landscape archaeology in North Africa. Principal Investigator, and co-Director of xx Notes on Contributors the Mugello Valley Archaeological Project Santa Barbara. A scholar of Roman and excavations at Poggio Colla, an ­architecture, he has been a member of the Etruscan settlement north-east of Florence, Harvard Sardis Excavations in Turkey a joint mission of SMU, Franklin and and the Ohio State University Isthmia Marshall College, and the University of Excavations in Greece. Specializing in the Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology. baths and bathing culture of antiquity, Warden is also the former editor of Yegül is the author of articles and books Etruscan Studies and a Trustee of the on Roman architecture, notably Baths Etruscan Foundation, and has been elected and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (1992, to the Istituto di Studi Etruschi e Italici. 1995) which received the Alice D. Hitchcock In 2011 he was awarded the Stella della Award from the Society of Architectural Solidarietà Italiana and the title of Cavaliere Historians in 1994. His most recent by the Republic of Italy. book is Bathing in the Roman World (2010). He is working on a book on R.J.A. Wilson is Professor of the Roman architecture and urbanism. Archaeology of the Roman Empire at the University of British Columbia and Mantha Zarmakoupi received her MSt Director of the Centre for the Study and DPhil in Classical Archaeology from of Ancient Sicily there. He has been Oxford University. Prior to this she studied Humboldt Fellow at the University of Architecture at the National Technical Bonn (1987–9), Visiting Professor at University of Athens and gained a Master McMaster University (1998), Balsdon of Design Studies in History and Theory Fellow at the British School at Rome from Harvard University. Her research in (2003) and Guest Scholar in Residence at archaeology is informed by her background the Getty Villa, Malibu (2012). His books in architectural practice, history and theory include Guide to the Roman Remains in of architecture as well as digital visualiza- Britain (1975, 1980, 1988, 2002; 5th edn tions. Her dissertation on the architecture in preparation), Piazza Armerina (1982) of Roman luxury villas around the Bay of and Sicily under the Roman Empire (1990). Naples is in press for Oxford University Press. She has also edited a volume on the Fikret K. Yegül is an architect and a Villa of the Papyri (2010), and is presently Professor of the History of Art and studying the urban growth of Late Architecture at the University of California, Hellenistic Delos, the “Quartier du Stade.” Abbreviations

Abbreviations of the names and works of ancient authors, as well as for collections of inscriptions, are as found in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edn, 1996). Abbreviations of journal titles and modern works abbreviated by initial titles of books (e.g. NTDAR) are as found in the online abbreviations for the American Journal of Archaeology (www.ajaonline.org); if the journals are not listed there, the titles are spelled out in full. All dates are BCE, unless otherwise specified. Preface

Roman Republican archaeology, while overshadowed by its larger sibling the ­archaeology of the Roman Empire, has a growing body of evidence that is changing the way that archaeologists, art historians, historians, classicists and anthropologists think about a culture that is nominally recorded by ancient historians. This book, which came about through the suggestion of Haze Humbert at Wiley-Blackwell, is intended to speak to those archaeologists, art historians, historians, classicists and anthropologists who are interested in the sixth through first centuries on the Italian Peninsula and in the empire of the Republic. The work of the archaeologist has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, due to the introduction of new technologies, the explosion of informa- tion available (from satellite photos to DNA analysis), and the declining interest of organizations in funding “big digs.” Archaeologists have thus expanded the types of questions they ask, the manner in which they can answer old and ask new questions, and the fora in which they publish. One example of how archaeological research has changed is the interpretation of a site through interdisciplinary teams. Thus, the time for such a Companion is now, as scholars in differing disciplines publishing in a range of journals and presses develop the picture of the Republic. I have asked a wide variety of scholars, from anthropologists to ancient historians to field archaeologists, to help illuminate broad swaths of this field, allowing readers to see what particular disciplines are ­contemplating. By giving both a guide to further reading and a detailed bibliography, the reader can move into specialized studies on a particular topic of interest. I have also asked both more established authors and younger authors to contribute, to benefit from their combined wisdom and new thinking. The Roman world, by the end of the Republican period, was an intensely pan-Mediterranean one and in order to bring a fuller discussion of these cultures which comprised the Republic, I have turned to scholars in North America, the United Kingdom, Europe, Africa and New Zealand, and have had contributions from French, German, Italian and Spanish translated for the English- speaking audience of the Companion – though the reference list will quickly alert the reader to the global nature of this study. Figure A Map of the extent of the Republican empire at the time of the death of Caesar. Source: Drawing by J.D. Evans. GALLIA CISALP INA

E T R UMBRIA U R P IA IC E N U Cosa M Aleria Rome CORSICA Praeneste Ostia LA SAMNIUM TI UM A PU CAM LIA PA N CA IA L AB Pompeii R SARDINIA Tarentum IA Paestum LUCANIA

Caralis M

U

I T T

U

R

B N

SICILIA

Syracuse 0 100 km AFRICA

Figure B Map of the major cultural groups in Republican Italy. Source: Drawing by J.D. Evans. Introduction

Jane DeRose Evans

In a traditional sense, the Roman Republic begins in 509 and ends with the death of Caesar in 44, or the Battle of Actium in 31, or the reforms of Octavian in 27. Yet what would be the Republic begins to take shape under the rule of its kings, and indeed, even earlier, with the development of the landscape that was to become Rome. Thus, Ammerman and Jackson and Kosso return us to the formation of the very earth itself, to help us understand what the Romans were undertaking as they built their city beside the Tiber. Edlund-Berry moves us into the proto-historical period, technically before the Republic is inaugurated; we cannot understand the later development of the city without this work. In the prov- inces, Stone (for Africa), Rodá (for Spain), Overman (for Israel) and Hoff (for Greece) explore reforms initiated in the Augustan period, in order to help us see what was begun in the Republican period that would come to full maturity in Imperial Rome. The contributions of the book are organized into six parts. Those grouped under “Material Culture and Its Impact on Social Configuration” are intended to show how archaeologists are rethinking the physical objects that have been, or are being, excavated. Instead of grouping objects into material categories (“architecture,” “frescoes,” or “silver”), these scholars have undertaken the task of showing how objects can illuminate the soci- ety’s formation, laws, behavior and habits. Thus, the most Roman of all habits – the daily bath – is shown by Yegül (Chapter 1) to be a complex mixture of input from Greek customs of education and indigenous interests which may have been connected to ­preventative medicinal procedures (the latter is also explored by Griffith in her essay on religious ritual). The custom develops its own internal stresses which the Romans express in unease over “luxuria” and assaults on female modesty. Yet baths were considered ­necessary parts of Roman colonies, as Dyson notes for Cosa; and by the end of the Republic, as Hales and Dyson show us, private bath suites were a normal part of every

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic, First Edition. Edited by Jane DeRose Evans. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2 Jane DeRose Evans aristocratic house (though our evidence for bathing suites in villas comes in the first century ce at Settefinestre and Francolise; see Carandini, 1985a; Cotton, 1979). Circuses, said to be a vital part of the Roman Imperial world, are explored in their infancy by Zarmakoupi (Chapter 2), along with other structures used for entertainment in the Roman world. The flexibility of the place of entertainment in the Republican world gives way to distinctive buildings, which become one more way for a Roman poli- tician to emblazon his name across Rome and use manubial booty or proceeds from the developing economy. As a result, entertaining Romans became an increasingly important duty of ambitious politicians, whether they lived in Rome, Pompeii or Puteoli. The development of the aristocratic atrium house is explored by Hales (Chapter 3), who shows how the neighborhood in which it was built, the carefully controlled view offered to the visitor, and the decoration of the rooms all contribute to the deeply held identity of the aristocrat and his public image. Indeed, she argues, the house becomes the stage upon which the elite male plays out his life, and by the end of the Republic, aristocrats increasingly depend on more luxurious surroundings to maintain their politi- cal status. We return to the houses of the rich and famous in Becker’s essay on villas, where he focuses on the development of the villa form and the role of the villa in the agricultural landscape. Yet another material manifestation of the making of a Roman’s identity is in the ­building – or marking – of his tomb. Diebner (Chapter 4) takes us on a tour of Republican Italy to explore the various forms of these tombs, highlighting local tastes and trends to show a bewildering variety of form and decoration. But common to all was an inscrip- tion naming the individual dead. Tombs of aristocrats are also noted by Edlund-Berry and Davies as an important part of the landscape of Early and Mid-Republican Rome, respectively. Earlier tombs of the Greeks and Lucanians around Paestum allow Gualtieri to explore the changing society of the elite in the fifth and fourth century, as these cul- tures came in contact with the Romans. And to the north of Rome, Warden uses tombs to discuss the changing nature of elite identity in Etruria, as they, too, come in contact with the Romans. Farther afield, Stone remarks that while the study of tombs is an important component of the study of the indigenous people in North Africa, there is much still to be learned about the chronologies of the tomb types and the people who built them. Black-gloss pottery, often used as the primary indication of chronology within the strata of a site, is shown by Roth (Chapter 5) to have less stability for the archaeologist than once thought. Archaeologists have long used the groundbreaking work of Lamboglia (1952), which was given an important and systematic overhaul by Morel (1981a). But as new excavations have isolated fabrics and production sites, our knowl- edge of what was produced where – and the variations that are possible on basic forms outlined by Lamboglia – means that we can have a fuller understanding of the trade ­patterns, the influences on various local productions, and the “Romanization” of pottery production in the peninsula (for a brief discussion, see also Chapter 22). Roth’s work has had a wide impact as archaeologists begin to reassess the pottery evidence in their surveys­ and excavations, especially when it is used as a chronological determinant, as can be seen in the essay by Fracchia. But his greater point is that the pottery should not only be used as a chronological indicator; it is better studied as a cultural artifact, one that can ­contribute a great deal to our discussion of the character of “Roman Italy.” Introduction 3

This discussion about pottery and what it means in its Roman cultural context is also taken up by Laubenheimer (Chapter 6), for a different class of pottery. Focusing on the wine trade between Italy and Gaul, Laubenheimer notes that these amphoras cannot be thought of as being used in the same way in both places. On the surface, the storage ves- sels look to be straightforward indications of the adoption of Roman culture, in an area that will soon be labeled “Togate Gaul” for its embrace of Roman ways of life. Yet, as Laubenheimer shows, the culture of wine drinking, and even the use and reuse of ampho- ras, looks very different in Gaul than in Italy, sounding a warning to archaeologists not to interpret the material culture by itself as a simple indication of “Romanization” (see also Dietler, 2010, who discusses the same issue in relation to Greek culture and southern Gaul). In Chapter 7, I discuss another chronological indicator in strata, coins. Here, again, a warning is sounded to archaeologists against relying too heavily on coins as a sole indica- tor of chronology. The case for the impact of the Republican monetary system is assessed through Roman Hispania, where arguments still swirl around the date of the introduc- tion of the denarius, and thus the military and economic impact of Rome on the ­peninsula – which is noted as well by Rodá. The weapons of the legionary soldiers – one of the reasons often cited for the success- ful military expansion of Republican Rome – are surveyed by Goldman (Chapter 8). This period is briefly treated in handbooks on Roman weaponry, but the story of Rome’s adaptations of neighboring cultures’ forms and technologies and her own innovations show again the complex interaction between Rome and her competitors-turned-allies. The physical forms of the weapons depict changing political forces as well, as the army becomes a professional fighting force by the end of the first century, a formidable tool in the hands of strong leaders, and a contributing factor in the collapse of the Republic. The work of Dobson on Roman camps can be usefully consulted in conjunction with Goldman’s essay, and the changing shape of weapons as the Lucanians are confronted with Rome is briefly addressed by Gualtieri. For the last two chapters in this section, we turn to the bodies of the Romans ­themselves. Osteological studies are included in only a few final publications of archaeo- logical excavations, but their potential for unlocking many mysteries about lifestyle in the time of the Roman Republic is great. Since so few studies have concentrated on this period, Smith (Chapter 9) needs to range farther than the other authors in the Companion to find interpretive parallels to make sense of the Republican bodies that have been ­studied. In doing so, she can assess physical stress (as shown by diet or trauma) to begin to decide if the coming of the Romans meant any major lifestyle changes to individuals in the east (for a parallel study of Imperial era bodies and malaria, see Gowland and Garnsey, 2010). Smith also appropriately pleads for more attention to the study of bones on the part of archaeologists; Warden notes that preliminary studies of the DNA of Etruscan individuals has already reminded scholars that the arguments concerning the origin of the Etruscans are still open in many minds. The origin of Imperial inhabitants of Rome is currently being studied by strontium isotope analysis (Killgrove, 2010), a method which may be able to be used on populations of an earlier age as well. Lo Cascio’s entry on population and demographic study brings together aspects of several of the chapters on material culture, and points to problems that are addressed in specific regions of Italy (Chapter 10). His analysis of the “high” and “low” estimates of the population in Italy is crucial to understanding the development of cities, towns and 4 Jane DeRose Evans villas, the role that agriculture plays in the economic growth of the peninsula, and the expansion of the number of men who could be called “cives Romani.” These numbers have an impact, as can be seen in the chapters by Fracchia, Gualtieri, Suano and Scopacasa, on the idea of identity, Romanization, and the problem of slave labor on latifundia. But they also have an impact on the growth of the city of Rome (as in Davies) and the needs that prompted colonization (as in Dyson). We move from the social to the landscape in Part II, “Archaeology and the Landscape,” where the authors use the physical features of the Roman world to explore how the Romans were formed by, and thereby formed, the landscape. Ammerman (Chapter 11) explores how the inhabitants of Rome largely reshaped the valleys (especially) and the hills to build their city. This view of earliest Rome can only be dimly seen, due to the deep, deep deposits that now overlie this era, and Ammerman cautions us about hewing too closely to the ancient authors’ description – or our very modern ideas – about the ancient topography of Rome. His work is complemented and illuminated by the chapters by Jackson and Kosso on architectural building materials; Edlund-Berry and Davies on Early and Middle Republican Rome, respectively; Hodge on aqueducts and water supply;­ and Laurence on roads and bridges. The landscape is used in a very different way by archaeologists who work on surveys, as Fracchia (Chapter 12) demonstrates. This form of “excavation,” which has become popular especially since the 1980s, is still plagued by problems of interpreting the data obtained by fieldwalking. As a consequence, as Fracchia notes, survey results are not always taken into consideration when it is time to write the history of the Italian Peninsula. The results of surveys do help the archaeologist and ancient historian discuss the impact of Roman colonization and agricultural practices and legislation. However, to be fully understood the survey results must be used in conjunction with excavation of sites. Gualtieri and Suano and Scopacasa explicitly argue that survey results are evidence for comprehending the cultures of the Italian Peninsula. Chapter 13 on agriculture and the environment by Goodchild is directly connected to the evidence found in surveys. Goodchild casts her net wider than surveys, using ancient authors, annual rainfall, man-made irrigation and drainage systems, botanical data, ­­evidence of processing centers and animal bones to make her argument. By so doing, she can reflect on Late Republican agrarian “crises” and the development of large-scale agri- culture worked primarily by slaves or tenants. These problems are touched on by Becker, in his discussion on the development of villas. Dobson’s Chapter 14 on the development of the legionary camp is an admirable example of how an archaeologist must wrestle with the interpretation of both the physi- cal evidence and the ancient authors to understand the political and societal changes occurring in the Republic. Few Republican camps have been identified and fewer still excavated. The best-known camps, circling the city of Numantia, were built and rebuilt in the same spots during successive military campaigns. But Dobson can show the ­development from the manipular double-consular camp to the cohort-organized single- consular camp, a development that, as noted above, should be read in conjunction with the changes to the weaponry of the army that were outlined by Goldman. The Romans felt strongly that the landscape held the sacred, while they were also bent on reforming the landscape to make it sacred. Griffith (Chapter 15) first explores how we can reconstruct religious ritual and then discusses how this ritual was informed by or