political reviews • polynesia 211 voting in Dr Terepai Maoate as leader with one proposing as few as seven. by a 4–2 vote. My model called for the northern George successfully fought an appli- group islands to be independent from cation for a High Court injunction by the rest of the Cooks (CIN, 4 July the Maoate faction to prevent him 1998). The government has set aside from holding a dap conference. The nz$100,000 for a commission of conference went ahead, with George inquiry into political reform. Fearing confirmed as leader. The conference that the commission might take a appointed a new executive, leaving the decade to complete its work, Director old executive who stayed with the of the Rarotonga campus of the Uni- Maoate faction to claim that they still versity of the South Pacific John constituted the legitimate Democratic Herrmann, the main protagonist of Alliance Party. After several months of political reform, has called for a refer- tit for tat in the newspapers and the endum on the issue before the next courts, Chief Justice Quilliam found general election. in favor of the Maoate faction on 3 wilkie olaf patua rasmussen April. Almost immediately, Norman George launched the New Alliance Party, and the Democratic Alliance References Party proceeded to hold its “proper” CIN, Cook Islands News. Rarotonga. Daily. conference. The opposition remains dogged by CIP, Cook Islands Press. Rarotonga. fragmentation. The Democratic Alli- Weekly. ance Party claims the support of the CIS, Cook Islands Star. Auckland. Fort- majority of successful candidates in nightly. local council and mayoral elections in Parliament of the Cook Islands. 1998. May 1998. However, the government PERCA (Public Expenditure Review Com- hopes that its devolution program, mittee and Audit) Report. Parliamentary which gives local authorities consider- Paper 36. Rarotonga. able autonomy, will sway the outer- island vote during the next general election. In recent years, all politicians regardless of party affiliation have In the year under review, sparring been called on to prove their worth. between the territorial president, The crisis has made voters more criti- Gaston Flosse, and the socialist gov- cal and demanding and more willing to ernment in Paris continued over such get involved. Economic reform has led issues as territorial autonomy, regional to increased talk of sweeping political diplomacy, and relations with Europe. reforms. So far, six different models Economic trends were largely positive, have been proposed by members of the which worked to the advantage of the public (including myself). Most advo- territorial government, yet some poli- cate a reduction in the number of cies, such as those on tax and waste members of Parliament to fourteen, disposal, were not well received by the 212 the contemporary pacific • spring 1999 public. The government retained most, dialogue session following the annual but not all, of its seats in the elector- South Pacific Forum held in Rarotonga ates that were recontested because of in September. Gaston Flosse has had irregularities in the 1996 poll. A considerable latitude to pursue number of important reports were regional diplomacy on behalf of both published on the legacy of nuclear test- the territory and the French republic, ing. While present and future radiation first when Jacques Chirac was prime risks to the territory appear to be mini- minister in the late 1980s, and later mal, the issues of past exposure of when Chirac’s presidency coincided Islanders to the atmospheric tests and with the rule of a conservative govern- their right to compensation remain ment in Paris from 1995 to 1997. unresolved. This review concludes Since its victory in the 1997 national with a tribute to the scholar Bengt elections the new left-wing coalition Danielsson, who died during the year. has made it clear that Flosse’s diplo- New French Secretary of State for matic initiatives in the name of Overseas Territories Jean-Jack are no longer considered appropriate Queyranne paid a visit to Tahiti in or welcome. Flosse was not invited to August 1997. During the visit, Presi- join the French delegation to Raro- dent Flosse held forth on the merits of tonga in 1997 but, undeterred, made an expansion in the territorial govern- his own arrangements. ment’s political autonomy, and played If Flosse could not represent France on an old theme, “We are waiting for in Rarotonga, then he would represent the State . . . to help us pursue the French Polynesia. This he did in the development of our autonomy because capacity of observer at the meeting of it is the sole bulwark against indepen- Small Island States held before the dence” (TP, Sept 1997, 9). Queyranne forum proper. In a pointed nationalis- responded negatively to these sugges- tic gesture, he bestowed a gift of tions, emphasizing instead that the $30,000 to the Small Islands fund in state would exercise tight control over the name of Tahiti Nui (not France), the expenditure of national funds, and the Tahitian flag alone flew at the adding that oversight had been lacking opening ceremony, and Flosse made in recent years. A new convention his speech in Tahitian. In a further signed on 14 July 1997 established attempt to impress, Flosse made six clearly defined processes and a com- luxury cars available to transport mittee to oversee the expenditure of regional heads of government around state funds. Flosse has expressed con- the tiny capital of the Cook Islands. cern that this new enthusiasm for state Flosse could not participate in the control might act as a brake on devel- forum’s deliberations. Nevertheless, he opment or provide a pretext for undue and pro-independence leader Oscar interference in territorial affairs. Temaru were both invited by host Sir Relations between Paris and the Geoffrey Henry to attend the opening Tahitian president cooled considerably ceremony. due to differences over the composi- French Minister for Cooperation tion of the French delegation to the Charles Josselin, who led the French political reviews • polynesia 213 delegation, noted that Gaston Flosse Europeans to freely reside or work could represent the territory in anywhere in the European Union was restricted areas such as regional fish- applied in French Polynesia. In 1995, eries, and transport and communica- EU authorities issued a further warn- tions, but that he had no authority to ing to France that its territories must represent France at the forum. His comply. Queyranne felt it was pre- sentiments were in accordance with sumptuous of Gaston Flosse to ask 1996 amendments to the territory’s that this principle be “frozen” in rela- statute of autonomy, which stipulate tion to Tahiti while the territory sought that the territory can engage in to continue receiving European devel- regional negotiations on broader opment assistance funds. Queyranne issues, but only with the agreement of concluded that until such a time as the the French state. Evidently this line of Treaty of Rome was revised, European logic was not well received in the laws would continue to apply in Tahiti. Tahitian corridors of power, so when Moreover, he felt that the threat of a Josselin passed through Pape‘ete on European “invasion” of the territory his way back to France not a single did not appear very great (TP, Jan member of the territorial govern- 1998, 16). ment was present to greet him (TP, Oct The “immigration” debate took 1997, 7–10). another twist after an in-depth report Concerns about the territory’s vul- on the subject was published by the nerability to unchecked immigration Economic, Social and Cultural Com- by metropolitan French and other mittee (cesc) in February. The most Europeans continued to be expressed controversial recommendation, made in no uncertain terms. The territory unanimously by the forty participants had requested that France seek an in the committee’s inquiry, was that appropriate modification of the Treaty not only should immigration from of Rome and, failing that, is consider- Europe be strictly controlled, but the ing the option of having French same controls should be applied to the Polynesia removed from the list of influx of metropolitan French. Accord- Europe’s overseas territories alto- ing to the 1996 census, citizens from gether, although this would mean los- metropolitan France or from other ing some economic benefits. The French overseas possessions accounted treaty’s dispositions relating to associ- for 26,619 people or 12 percent of the ated territories will be reviewed and population in French Polynesia. Dur- finalized in the year 2000 (TP, Aug ing the past decade the number of 1997, 36). metropolitan French residing in the In response to questions from terri- territory has not increased greatly, but torial Senator Daniel Millaud, Secre- their composition has changed in tary of State for Overseas Territories important ways. Jack Queyranne explained that France In the past a large proportion of had been condemned by the European metropolitan French residents were Court of Justice in 1990 for failing to with the military and made a substan- ensure that the principle allowing tial contribution to the local economy 214 the contemporary pacific • spring 1999 as consumers. Now, the military com- land remains in the hands of the terri- ponent has been replaced by people tory’s permanent residents. competing for work with locals. The Although the committee’s report situation has been exacerbated by the doubtless reflected a legitimate and current government’s adoption of a widespread public concern, it pro- statute for the territorial public service voked heated responses from official that fails to include an affirmative quarters. Gaston Flosse supports the action clause in favor of employing idea of restricting European immigra- Tahitians. As a consequence, more and tion, but he believes that metropolitan more metropolitan French are taking French have every right to make them- over the plum positions in the public selves at home in Tahiti, just as French service. Even less-qualified French Polynesians have the right (in theory) people are making inroads into local to reside and work in mainland employment in the tourism industry, France. New French high commis- largely as personnel in hotels and sioner to the territory, Jean Aribaud, restaurants. condemned the report, pronouncing The Economic, Social and Cultural himself “shocked” by its mercenary Committee was very concerned that and discriminatory tone. Jean-Jack the practice of allowing uncontrolled Queyranne dismissed its principal access to work and residence by metro- recommendation as “nonsense” on the politan French, and to a lesser extent grounds that French Polynesia is part other Europeans, was undermining the of the republic and therefore metropol- culture and social fabric of the terri- itan French cannot be categorized as tory. The authors of the report con- immigrants (TP, March 1998, 15–20). trasted the territory’s population of Queyranne’s hard line on this issue is 220,000 with that of the European evidently not being applied uniformly Union’s 350 million and argued that to the French overseas territories, as “Polynesia is...a micro-society based two months later he authorized New on a very fragile equilibrium that must Caledonia to control French and Euro- be protected against movements pean immigration in order to protect which...could have devastating local employment. effects in the territory” (TP, March Relations with metropolitan France 1998, 15–20). The committee pro- may not have been harmonious, but posed that the constitution of the the flow of funds from Paris neverthe- French republic be amended to grant less continued. Indeed, an injection of the territory control over immigration extraordinary funds facilitated an eco- from both France and the European nomic revival in Tahiti. Financial Union; that bona fide residents of the transfers from the state to the territory territory be given priority access to totaled 150 billion Pacific francs employment; that immigration be (F8.25 billion) in 1996. The increase of largely restricted to investors and 40 billion Pacific francs compared to retirees who will make a contribution the previous year could partly be to the economy; and that the territory attributed to the extraordinary grant acquire judicial means to ensure that (18 billion Pacific francs) made by political reviews • polynesia 215

President Chirac to compensate for the exports (up to 14.462 billion Pacific closure of the nuclear test center and francs) in 1997. The slump in demand partly to projects subsidized under the from Asia (especially ) had also French Pons legislation (15 billion in part been counterbalanced by grow- Pacific francs), which was designed to ing interest from buyers in North assist development in the overseas ter- America and Europe. ritories (TP, Sept 1997, 7). The number of tourists visiting the For the most part the territory’s territory reached a historic peak of leaders and inhabitants appear oblivi- 172,129 in 1995. This figure dropped ous to the various forms of economic to 163,774 in 1996 as a result of nega- turmoil buffeting the rest of the world, tive publicity worldwide associated and the government’s response to the with the nuclear test series concluded east Asian economic crisis was no dif- in January that year, and the destruc- ferent in this respect. Their muted tive riots of September 1995, when reaction stems from the assumption Tahiti’s international airport was that the primary source of income, that torched by mobs. Despite the recent is, financial transfers from Paris, will downturn in the tourism industry’s continue regardless of external devel- fortunes, the government is pressing opments. Nevertheless, the collapse of ahead with plans to increase the financial markets, currency devalua- number of hotel rooms from three tions, and the general economic down- thousand to six thousand by the year turn in Asia does have serious 2003 with the help of metropolitan repercussions for the limited export subsidies for investments in infrastruc- oriented sectors of Tahiti’s economy. In ture (TP, Jan 1998, 25). recent years the tourist industry has The territory is proceeding with relied increasingly on visitors from plans for a national airline to service , , and east Asia, international routes. However, there especially Korea and Japan. Depen- have been revisions to the timing of its dence on markets in South Korea, inaugural flight and other aspects of its , and Hong Kong is also evi- operations. Air Tahiti Nui’s first flight dent in the black pearl industry. on the Los Angeles–Pape‘ete–Japan Finally, the new Air Tahiti Nui com- route has been postponed to Novem- pany had identified the Seoul–Tokyo ber 1998. Moreover, the airline will no route as a key element in its first foray longer be purchasing a new plane to into the international flight scene. launch its operations, as the state has Notwithstanding fears over the declined to subsidize such a purchase. ramifications of the Asian crisis and a Rather it will hire a secondhand Air- decrease in the volume of its exports, bus a340 from Air France. Its main the territory’s black pearl industry routes are to be between Pape‘ete and managed to hold its own. Improve- Pacific rim destinations including the ments in the quality of the product, its United States, Japan, South Korea, rising popularity, and a slight increase Taiwan, and Australia. in price per gram produced a 3 percent Controversy continued to plague increase in the value of black pearl attempts by the territory to resolve the 216 the contemporary pacific • spring 1999 long-standing dilemma over how to to express a general sense of dissatis- dispose of the capital’s rubbish. faction with increasing levels of social Recently the government purchased inequality. land at Taravao for a new waste dump. In an anticipated decision, on 18 However, trucks will have to make a February the French Council of State 140 kilometer round-trip from annulled the outcome of territorial Pape‘ete, and the dump threatens the elections held in the Leeward Islands integrity of a nearby bay classified as a and the Marquesas in May 1996 nature reserve. In February more than because of the use by political candi- a thousand people demonstrated at dates of public goods and services to Taravao against the proposed waste influence voters (see Strokirch 1998). dump. In particular, the council drew atten- After the third version of a territo- tion to the dubious behavior of the rial value added tax (vat) was finally government and others in granting approved by the national senate in public housing to twenty-five families October, the tax entered into force on in Huahine just prior to the territorial 1 January 1998. Despite a 20 million election. As a result, eleven territorial Pacific francs advertising campaign by councillors were obliged to recontest the territorial government to promote their seats in by-elections held on 24 its merits, the new tax received a decid- May. The conservative government edly mixed reception from the public. majority dominated by Tahoeraa won The government asserted that it would 8 seats (6 in the Leewards and 2 in the replace existing taxes, would not lead Marquesas), the pro-independence to an across-the-board increase in party Tavini won 2 seats in the Lee- prices, nor undermine the purchasing wards, and 1 seat went to the indepen- power of poorer families. These claims dent Lucien Kimitete in the were all met with considerable skep- Marquesas. ticism. The Evangelical Church wrote If court appeals fail, there may soon a public letter to the president de- be another territorial by-election to nouncing the value added tax because contest. Alexandre Léontieff, formerly the risk was great that disadvantaged territorial president and national people would be marginalized even deputy and currently a territorial coun- more. cillor, was convicted in two corruption In February, the principal pro- cases he has been fighting for several independence party, Tavini, spear- years. One case concerns the Cardella headed a public demonstration in Clinic in Pape‘ete, which was ordered Pape‘ete that attracted at least twenty- to pay a massive overdue tax bill in five hundred protesters against several 1989. Léontieff, in his capacity as key policies of the Tahoeraa govern- minister of finance, agreed to waive 50 ment. The targets for dissent included percent of this tax. In return the clinic the recently introduced value added paid a “commission” of 20 million tax, the proposed waste dump at Pacific francs, but the money disap- Taravao, and the legalization of peared without a trace (TP, Nov 1997, casinos. The participants also gathered 9). For this case Léontieff was sen- political reviews • polynesia 217 tenced to a three-year prison term of the risks involved, including the long- which he must serve eighteen months. term consequences of exposure to radi- Léontieff and another prominent terri- ation. Although the workers were con- torial politician, Jean Juventin, were stantly reassured by French officials also convicted for taking bribes of that safety regulations prevented radia- $250,000 each from a Japanese devel- tion exposure, at the same time they oper in return for approving construc- were warned not to eat the fish and tion of the Opunohu hotel and golf coconuts, or drink the water, and course complex in Moorea. The advised that clothes they wore in con- Opunohu project was never built taminated areas had to be destroyed. following its outright rejection in a Despite these warnings, many workers local referendum. In this instance admitted that they still ate local fish Léontieff received a three-year prison and became ill as a result (de Vries and sentence, of which two years must be Seur 1997). served, while Juventin was required to In terms of medical procedures, the serve only eighteen months of his study provided more cause for alarm. sentence. Both men are appealing the Only half of the workers received verdicts (TP, June 1998). medical check-ups at the end of their Recent reports on the human and contracts on site. The French authori- environmental impact of the French ties had no long-term research pro- nuclear-testing program in the Pacific gram to monitor the health of site have provided a mixed picture of its workers after they finished with the legacy. Moruroa and Us surveys the test program. Medical records of site impact the test program had on the workers were kept secret until the tests lives and health of Maohi people and ended in 1996, when they were made is based on one thousand interviews available to former site workers or (de Vries and Seur 1997). A number of their families on request. issues for concern emerged. One was Another report, resulting from a that 10 percent of the Maohi test- French Senate inquiry, called for site workers were under the age of greater transparency on the part of the eighteen, which rendered them very military over their management of susceptible to the effects of radiation high-level nuclear waste. In particular, exposure. Many Maohi also worked at the authors considered that the French the test sites over a period of twenty test sites should be subjected to the years, which was hazardous given the same degree of monitoring and regula- increased risks of radiation exposure tion as civilian nuclear facilities in over time. France. Although there was no imme- Maohi workers were usually diate risk of radioactivity leaking from responsible for the more dangerous the sites, the report called for the tasks, such as drilling for samples from precautionary principle to be applied. bomb shafts immediately after a test, The sites should therefore be moni- and cleaning up contaminated areas. tored indefinitely and closed in perpe- Yet, those who signed up to work at tuity to any form of human habitation. the test sites were generally unaware of The report also echoed the call by non- 218 the contemporary pacific • spring 1999 government organizations for a com- cluded that no remedial action was plete epidemiological study into the justified on radiological protection impact of nuclear testing on the health grounds, nor was there any need for of former site workers and people liv- further monitoring at the atolls, ing in the vicinity of the test sites. In although a monitoring program could conclusion, it noted, “The closure and reassure the public (iaea 1998a, dismantling of the Pacific Test Center 1998b). does not exonerate France from its The International Advisory Com- responsibilities. Whatever the evolu- mittee’s findings essentially vindi- tion of our relations with the territory cated France’s repeated assertions that of French Polynesia, we will remain the long-term radiological effects of accountable for the eventual conse- the test program would be relatively quences of the tests” (Bataille 1997). innocuous. Yet the report does not In contrast to the French Senate attempt to make a comprehensive inquiry’s cautious recommendations, assessment of past radiation levels or the International Atomic Energy the degree to which people were Agency (iaea) gave the French test exposed to radiation caused by nuclear sites a relatively clean bill of health. An tests. In this respect, new information International Advisory Committee was has come to light. Declassified archival established by the agency to assess the material from the French nuclear present and expected future radiologi- authority dircen revealed that French cal conditions at the two nuclear test nuclear tests in 1966 had exposed sites in French Polynesia (see Strokirch inhabitants of Reao, Tureia, Pukarua, 1998). The team of international scien- and Mangareva to significant doses of tists undertook in-depth studies of soil, radiation comparable to levels around plant, animal, and water samples taken Chernobyl after the reactor meltdown. from the sites after the final test was The military’s own radiological secu- held in January 1996. They also drew rity service had recommended that the on scientific data provided by French Islander populations at risk be evacu- authorities. ated on the eve of the tests, but this The International Advisory Com- was not done, nor were decontamina- mittee’s report acknowledged that tion measures undertaken (Jauvert limited amounts of radioactive mate- 1998). rials, including tritium, plutonium, and Since the material on the extent of caesium 137, remained in the “acces- test fallout was publicized, dircen has sible” environment of the atolls. They closed further access to the archives. also found that migration of radionu- The French defense minister has admit- clides from underground test cavities ted that, due to unpredictable weather into the lagoon and ocean would con- patterns, the Gambier Islands and tinue. Nevertheless, the resultant levels Tahiti were subject to nuclear fallout of radioactivity were considered by from the early tests. Yet he denied that them to be negligible and therefore such fallout was of a level that would would not pose a threat to human adversely affect the inhabitants. Under health now or in the future. They con- pressure from Tahitian Senator Daniel political reviews • polynesia 219

Millaud to open the archives spanning devoted much of their energies to cam- the period of atmospheric tests from paigning against the tests because of 1966 to 1976, the minister replied that the potential dangers posed to the such access could not be permitted health of the Maohi people and their before the year 2026 (TP, May 1998, environment. The Danielssons were 23–25). also at pains to highlight the profound Continuing secrecy on the part of and negative impact of the French the French military would have come colonial presence on the territory’s as no surprise to seasoned antinuclear society and economy. They were thus campaigner Bengt Danielsson, had he fervent advocates of indigenous self- lived to see it. Bengt died in Sweden, determination in the form of expanded on 9 July 1997, at the age of seventy- autonomy and, ultimately, indepen- six. In his fifty-year love affair with dence. As a result they were often per- Tahiti, he made a lasting contribution secuted by the French authorities and to the territory as a promoter of indig- paid a high personal cost for their enous culture, an environmental activ- political activism. Marie-Thérèse con- ist, and a writer of both scholarly and tinues to work tirelessly for worthy popular works in the disciplines of causes. The Danielssons’ efforts on ethnology, history, and politics. behalf of the Maohi people will not be Bengt first achieved fame when he forgotten. embarked with Thor Heyerdahl on the karin von strokirch Kon Tiki raft expedition, which brought him to Tahiti in 1947. Bengt was awarded his doctorate from References Uppsala University in 1955 for a thesis based on research undertaken in Bataille, Christian. 1997. L’évolution de la Raroia, French Polynesia. In 1965, he récherche sur la gestion des déchets set up the Polynesian Center, which nucléaires à haute activité. Office parle- later became the Museum of Tahiti and mentaire d’évaluation des choix scienti- Its Islands. Bengt published prolifically fiques et technologiques, 541. Assemblée nationale, 179. Senat, December. on a wide range of subjects, with more notable works including Memorial de Vries, Pieter, and Han Seur. 1997. Polynesien, a classic text on Tahitian Moruroa and Us. Lyon, France: Centre de history and culture, Gauguin in the Documentation et de Récherche sur la Paix South Seas, and various editions of et les Conflits. Moruroa Mon Amour, his polemical work on the history of French nuclear iaea, International Atomic Energy Agency. 1998a. The Radiological Situation at the colonialism in the territory (TP, Aug Atolls of Moruroa and Fangataufa: Main 1997, 33). Report, Interim version. Bengt and his wife Marie-Thérèse were passionate opponents of the ———. 1998b. Nuclear Tests in French French nuclear-testing program in the Polynesia: Could Hazards Arise? Public Pacific from its outset in the early information document summarizing the 1960s until its closure in 1996. They findings of the main report. 220 the contemporary pacific • spring 1999

Jauvert, Vincent. 1998. Nouvel Observa- ernments and their anti-Mâori policies. teur, 5 February. Her effectiveness was demonstrated with the return of her own hapû’s Strokirch, Karin von. 1998. French Poly- lands at Raglan after a ten-year battle. nesia in 1996–97. The Contemporary Pacific 10 (1): 198–205. She was a strong supporter of Mâori women and younger Mâori and spent TP, Tahiti Pacifique. Monthly magazine. much time in her later years actively encouraging and mentoring a large number of potential leaders. Eva was also a forthright critic of MÂori Issues those Mâori, and particularly Mâori The second half of 1997 was a time of men, whom she considered had sold great sadness for Maoridom as some out to the government on various of its finest leaders died. Sir Hepi Te issues. She was highly critical of those Heuheu of the central North Island who negotiated the national settlement Tuwharetoa people was one of a of all Mâori fisheries claims with the rapidly dwindling number of tradi- now infamous Sealords Deal. The tional paramount chiefs. Although he negotiators included past Minister of was a conservative within the Pâkehâ Mâori Affairs Matiu Rata, who died political spectrum, he commanded tragically in July as a result of injuries great respect within Maoridom, having sustained in a car accident. He had the mana and ability to draw everyone been responsible for introducing the together. In the last few years of his life legislation that set up the Waitangi he convened several national hui to Tribunal in 1975. Although the tri- discuss government polices that were bunal was slow getting started, since to negatively affect Mâori. At these hui 1982 it has been unsurpassed in its Mâori self-determination and sover- ability to ensure that Mâori receive at eignty were debated at length, and a least some measure of justice for their large number of proposals about how ill-treatment at the hands of successive constitutional change could take place governments since 1840. were considered. Despite his conserva- In his later years, Matiu Rata led tism, Sir Hepi carried Maoridom’s one of the larger claims to the tribunal, uncompromising message to the gov- which resulted in the Sealords Deal. ernment and withstood the prime Although this brought him into bitter minister’s criticism with calm dignity. conflict with his own and several other His funeral ceremonies in August iwi, he never lost hope that the deal brought thousands from all parts of would eventually bring benefits to all Maoridom. Non-Mâori government Mâori. Yet the final settlement and representatives also attended. distribution of the proceeds of the deal At the opposite end of the political has now been tied up in the courts for spectrum was Tuaiwa (Eva) Rickard, more than five years. Mâori have little who died in December. Eva had cam- confidence in the courts being able to paigned fearlessly against the confisca- resolve the multiplicity of issues the tion of lands from Mâori and led many deal has spawned, given that the public protests against different gov- judges are invariably non-Mâori.