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Glancing Angle Deposition of Thin Films Engineering the Nanoscale Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic & Optoelectronic Applications Matthew M. Hawkeye Michael T. Taschuk Michael J. Brett Glancing Angle Deposition of Thin Films Engineering the Nanoscale Glancing Angle Deposition of Thin Films Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications www.wiley.com/go/meoa Series Editors Professor Arthur Willoughby, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Dr Peter Capper, SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd, Southampton, UK Professor Safa Kasap, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada Published Titles Bulk Crystal Growth of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials, Edited by P. Capper Properties of Group-IV, III–V and II–VI Semiconductors, S. Adachi Charge Transport in Disordered Solids with Applications in Electronics, Edited by S. Baranovski Optical Properties of Condensed Matter and Applications, Edited by J. Singh Thin Film Solar Cells: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications, Edited by J. Poortmans and V. Arkhipov Dielectric Films for Advanced Microelectronics, Edited by M. R. Baklanov, M. Green and K. Maex Liquid Phase Epitaxy of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials, Edited by P. Capper and M. Mauk Molecular Electronics: From Principles to Practice, M. Petty CVD Diamond for Electronic Devices and Sensors, Edited by R. S. Sussmann Properties of Semiconductor Alloys: Group-IV, III–V and II–VI Semiconductors, S. Adachi Mercury Cadmium Telluride, Edited by P. Capper and J. Garland Zinc Oxide Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Device Applications, Edited by C. Litton, D. C. Reynolds and T. C. Collins Lead-Free Solders: Materials Reliability for Electronics, Edited by K. N. Subramanian Silicon Photonics: Fundamentals and Devices, M. Jamal Deen and P. K. Basu Nanostructured and Subwavelength Waveguides: Fundamentals and Applications, M. Skorobogatiy Photovoltaic Materials: From Crystalline Silicon to Third-Generation Approaches, Edited by G. Conibeer and A. Willoughby Glancing Angle Deposition of Thin Films Engineering the Nanoscale Matthew M. Hawkeye Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alberta Canada M i c h a e l T. Ta s c h u k Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alberta Canada Michael J. Brett Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alberta Canada NRC National Institute for Nanotechnology Canada This edition first published 2014 © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to applyfor permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance withthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating tothe use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hawkeye, Matthew M. Glancing angle deposition of thin films : engineering the nanoscale / Matthew M. Hawkeye, Michael T. Taschuk, Michael J. Brett, NRC National Institute for Nanotechnology. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-84756-5 (cloth) 1. Nanotechnology. 2. Chemical vapor deposition. 3. Nanoelectromechanical systems–Design and construction. I. Taschuk, Michael T. II. Brett, Michael J. III. Title. T174.7.H39 2014 621.3815′2–dc23 2014013307 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 9781118847565 Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India 1 2014 Contents Series Preface xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction: Glancing Angle Deposition Technology 1 1.1 Nanoscale engineering and glancing angle deposition 1 1.2 GLAD-vantages 4 1.2.1 Nanoscale morphology control 4 1.2.2 Broad material compatibility 6 1.2.3 Novel thin-film material properties 10 1.2.4 Compatibility with standard microfabrication processes 10 1.2.5 Scalable fabrication method 11 1.3 The roots of glancing angle deposition: oblique deposition 12 1.4 The importance of experimental calibration 13 1.5 Computer simulations of glancing angle deposition growth 15 1.6 Major application areas in glancing angle deposition technology 17 1.6.1 Energy and catalysis 17 1.6.2 Sensing applications 19 1.6.3 Optics 20 1.7 Summary and outline of the book 21 References 22 2 Engineering Film Microstructure with Glancing Angle Deposition 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Basics of conventional film growth 32 2.2.1 Physical vapour deposition 32 2.2.2 Nucleation and coalescence 33 2.2.3 Column microstructure 35 2.3 Glancing angle deposition technology: microstructural control via substrate motion 37 2.4 Engineering film morphology with 41 2.4.1 Controlling microstructure and porosity 41 2.4.2 Directional column growth: column tilt 44 2.5 Engineering film morphology: column steering via rotation 47 2.5.1 Controlling column architecture with : helical columns 47 2.5.2 Controlling microstructure with rotation speed: vertical columns 48 2.5.3 Continuous versus discrete substrate rotation 49 vi CONTENTS 2.6 Growth characteristics of glancing angle deposition technology films 53 2.6.1 Evolutionary column growth 53 2.6.2 Column broadening 56 2.6.3 Column bifurcation 57 2.6.4 Anisotropic shadowing and column fanning 59 2.7 Advanced column steering algorithms 60 2.7.1 variations in zigzag microstructures 61 2.7.2 Spin–pause/two-phase substrate rotation: decoupling and film density 63 2.7.3 Phisweep motion: competition-resilient structure growth 67 2.8 Additional control over film growth and structure 72 2.8.1 High-temperature glancing angle deposition growth 72 2.8.2 Multimaterial structures: co-deposition processes 75 References 77 3 Creating High-Uniformity Nanostructure Arrays 81 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Seed layer design 82 3.2.1 Seed spacing and seed height 84 3.2.2 Seed lattice geometry 86 3.2.3 Seed size 87 3.2.4 Planar fill fraction 89 3.2.5 Seed shape 90 3.2.6 Two-dimensional shadow coverage 91 3.2.7 Seed material 94 3.2.8 Design parameter summary 95 3.3 Seed fabrication 95 3.3.1 Conventional techniques 96 3.3.2 Unconventional techniques 97 3.4 Advanced control of local shadowing environment 99 3.4.1 Preventing bifurcation: slow-corner motion 99 3.4.2 Preventing broadening: phisweep and substrate swing 102 References 108 4 Properties and Characterization Methods 113 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Structural analysis with electron microscopy 113 4.2.1 Practical aspects 114 4.2.2 Scanning electron microscope image analysis 117 4.2.3 Three-dimensional column imaging: tomographic sectioning 122 4.2.4 Characterizing internal column structure with transmission electron microscope imaging 124 4.3 Structural properties of glancing angle deposition films 126 4.3.1 Film surface roughness and evolution 126 4.3.2 Column broadening 128 4.3.3 Intercolumn spacing and column density 133 CONTENTS vii 4.4 Film density 134
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