The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico: an Analysis of the Educational System

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 096 030 IC 008 057

AUTHOR Cibrario, Dominic J. TITLE The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico: An Analysis of the Educational System. PUB DATE [74] NOTE 49p.

EnRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$1.85 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS *American Indians; Attitudes; Biculturalism; *Bilingual Education; Comparative Analysis; *Cultural Background; Demography; *Educational Research; History; Native Speakers; Reservations (Indian); *School Systems; Tribes IDENTIFIERS *Pueblos

ABSTRACT Educational systems (both tribal and formal) of the Pueblo Indians, including Taos, San Juan, Tesuque, Zia, Zuni, and the Bernalillo District in New Mexico, were analyzed. The analysis included discerning whether or not (1) the Pueblos' traditional culture and heritage is being taught and to what extent and (2) bilingual and bicultural studies have been implemented in the elementary and/or secondary schools on the reservations and to what degree. Interviews were conducted at day schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the All Tribes Mission School, and schools in the Zuni area. Students, teachers, school personnel, and parents were questioned about tribal and formal education. It was found that so far San Juan has been the only pueblo to introduce bilingual and bicultural studies into the elementary school. The others prefer to keep the tribal and formal educational systems departmentalized with tribal education in the kivas. Even though bilingual and bicultural studies have not been developed at Taos, Tesuque, Zia, and Zuni, Indian aids who speak the language of the pueblo have been hired to reinforce instruction. This paper also discusses the history, language, and educational and population statistics of the Pueblo Indians. (NQ) DominicJ. Cibrario MOO 5701 85th Street I stoogi KenoshaiNisconsin 53104

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The Pueblo Indians Of New Mexico:

An Analysis of the Educational System

1 1. 1,1 O., I. Review of the LiteratureiOlOseROWS*110011001101161

II. Goneral Backroun4 ;. 1' 2 III.Theory:-----.....3'.... IV. HypothesesSe ass esse5 V. Purpose... ssssse6

VI. MethodologYSOOD,1101111801101101101111SOWOOSIDOSOIDO57

VII. Orientation...... 8 A. History amassesessese8 B. Lnnguage...... OOOOO...... 11

C. Educational St©tistics...... lry

D. Map....OOOOOOOO OOOOO l4

Es Population Statistics...... 15

VIII. Taos/ewes OOOOOOOOOOOOOO see OOOOO 10, 16

IX. San Juan ...... OOOOO OOS OOOOOOOOOOOOOOSSOW24 X. All Tribes Indian Mission...... OOOOOO 30

XI. Tesuque 32

XII. Zia 33

XIII. Zuni 36 XIV. Commission of Indian Affairs 42 01MAILABLE Review of the Literature

Pueblo Indians . The amount ofinformatioll'avpilable on the studies have beendone of New Mexicois vast, althoughmorq.cf the ;:: and anthropologists. .A by sociologists,linguists, historiatie, Indians of NorthAmerica valuable anthropologien1study, The Pueblo Indian, and a cul- has been writtenby Edward P.Dozier,. a Pueblo invaluable for gen- tural anthropologist. Dozier's text has been of materialavailable erell reference. In spite of the abundance Indian educationhas been from v^riousdisciplines, research on minimal. for Educational Cill-ert Sax's text,Empirical Foundations a researchdesign Reseqrch hnsbeen an asset in constructing of the interview. especially his ch,pters onthe methodology the North AmericanIndians A survey the publications on ti studies have'beep 3octed in theEducation Indexindicates th:A tribal groupsthroughout the UnitedStates).. conductel cn various . Pueblo Indians ofNew lviexico although currentinformntlen on the

is non existent. Education and SmallSchools The ERIC ClearingHouse on Hurdl Educntlonal Disadvantageof has putlished avalunble study, The Madison C-,omb,which is an the Indian AmericnnStudent by L. imrortAnt rrItinrn1 survey. iublIcltims Serviceat Thr Office orEducPtional Fro7rams, Knnsis, his provided Statistics Hnskell JuniorColler,:e, Lawrence hrs beer rostuseful. Corienrriry IndianEduc-tion, which

- ;.2

pita.01, 01al

In Addition to the texts, the Commissionof Indian Affairs,

SAnte Fe has been cooperative in providingpopulation statistics on the PuebloIndians. Perhaps, the moat valuablespecific research on the Pueblos of NewMexico has been conducted byAnne E. Smith, who has written Indian Education In NewMexico. Her earlier research, New Mexico Indians is n pioneer studydealing with the econo71c, educptiona1, and sooirl problemsof the Indians.

Genernl Pnckround

The Indian AmeAcnns nre an ethnicminority of some 600,000 persons in a nationwhich has a population of over200,000,000, Indians have been among the mostdisedwIntaged .Americans pertain-

ing to Job opportunity,housing, health, and education. The average income forIndian families has been about75x below national norms or at stout 41,500 peryear. The unemployment rate has also been shout 40X, which is tentines below the nationalfigure; the averewe life span ofIndians is about 44 yearswhich is drastically

lower than the genera].population.. Indian students drop out of school at a much greater ratethan the genes,.' population,while their achievement has alsolaped far behind in contrast tostudents 1 from the doiinent culture. Presently Indian childrenattend Federal, public, and private the schools. In 1973 (fisclyear) 187,613 Indian students hctween Abobt res of 5 to18 were enrolled in schools inthe United States.

1 Coombs, L.M., The EducationalDisadvantare of the LIdian ArericPn Student, p. 11 68.5X of all Indian children ofediloolage 5 to18 were enrolled in publie.schools, 25.6X were enrolled in Federalschools, and

5.9A attended private or mission schools. Several states which contain a sizeable Indianpopulation are totally responsible for the educationof their Indian students.

EduccItion of the Indian is largely out of thejurisdiction of the Federil Government in California, Idaho, Michigan,Minnesbta,

Fel-rnskel Oregon, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs was directlyresronsible for eduction of 55,051 students enrolled inFeder:::1 schools endhhoused in Federal dormitories. In 1973 the BIA operated 195schools with an enrollment of 51,180 Indian children, and 19 dormitories for 3,871 children who were attending publicschools. In addition the

BIA was partially responsible forapproximately two thirds of the 2 students enrolled in public schools.

Theory

A survey of the literaturereveals that there exists a well defined body of theory, which his'been formulNted by the social scientists concerning the causesof the educational dilemma in which 3 the American Indian is involved. The main formulators of the theory have been the anthrorologists, sociolofOsts,rind lipguists with re- lstively little input from educators. As a result of this educators re re pfinerslly finding that their-exists anirbalance of input, mad they

2 Hildebrand, A. C., Statistics Concerning Indian Ed., pp.1-3

3 Coombs, L. M., p. 85

4 Ibid ...p.41 attempting to implement atheory,which they havenot designed. Also, k* educators may be reticent in accepting atheoretical frame ofreference presented to them by thespecialists,' who generally do notwork intimately in the classroomsetting. In spite ofthis possible problem,

"both the social scientists andthe educationalpractitioners recognize that American Indians must behelped to find a placein today's world which is satisfying to them,while ensuring, theirright of self-deter- mlnation and the:dignification and preservation ofIndian culture." The Senate Subcommittee discoveredthat for numerous years the public and Federal schoolshave been deficient in theireducation of

Indian children. The dominant policy of thegovernment towards the Indians has been one of coerciveassimilation which has haddisastrous 6 effects on the education ofthe Indian children.

Parmee, an.:anthropologist statesthat " the dominant culture can create serious social andpsychological conflicts withinthe minority

society. These conflicts can actuallyinhibit the very adjustment or change that the dominantculture is trying to promote. Furthermore, they can affect the potentialhuman resources of the minoritysociety in such s deleterious mannerthat the people are left morally weakened, culturally deprived, and economicallydependent." In order to prevent this from occuring alternatives tothe existing system must be considered According to Coleman's Reportthe educational system of the

Indians has been extremelyinadequate, which Is reflected by tests administered to Indian studentsthat do not efficaciously measure attitudes, intelligence nor qualitiesop"' character. What is measured,

5 Ibid...p.41

6 Ibid...p.42

Ibid. ..p. 43 however, are the skills which the dominant culturevalue for the acquisition of jobs in a rapidly chlnging technologicalsociety. Several investigators are convinced that the low scholastic

achievement on the part of numerous Indian students has beenbrought about by the alienation of the Indian students towards the dominant

society and the educational system itself.

Related to the problem of alienation is the self-concept of the

Indian student. The chairman of the Senate Subcommittee has written& "Indian children more than any other minority groupbelieve themselves 10 to be below average in intelligence." The concept which'the Indian student has of himself seems:to be reinforced by the lowachievement

on the "culture bound" tests. In an attempt to remedy the existing situation abicultural theory

of education haw been developer. The bicultural theory for education calls for biculturalism over,acculturation, the use of Indian cultural materials in the instructional program, bilingualinstruction in the* teaching of English rather than-the teachingof English as a second . .1, language, teachers especially--txained, and sensitizedto. Indian culture,

and Indians contrilling the schools wheretheir children attend.

Hypotheses

The survey or review of the literature results inn recognition of the problems involving Indian education and the proposedresolution

of these problems throucrh the implementing of biculturalprograms,

which precipitates the formation of hypotheses aboutthe Pueblo Indian and their existing educational systems.

16 Ibid...p.55 8 Ibia...p.44 11 Ibid...p.85 9 'bid...pi48 -6-

PNPO.i. 0.$1

Since the Pueblo Indians have a strong socialorganization, an analysis of the educationalsystem should include both formal '. and tribal education. If the'social. organization is as influential as it has been in the past,therithrough tribal education theIndian'. children thould learn the language of the specificpueblo, the history, legends, and religion of the community, and thesignificance of the traditional rituals and ceremonies. If bilingual and bicultural studies have been implemented in the school systemIti-en the formal educationnIsWebroilhouldhave teachers who have had special training in bilingualand bicultural instruction, which *nuld lead to instruction in both the ?Minn language and English, separate Indian languageclasses, and an emphasis in the curriculum upon the culture,history, literature, art and music of the Pueblo Indians. If the Pueblo students do not receivebilingual and bicultural education, then the students.experiencecultural conflict as a result of trying to deal with the valuesof two diverse educational systems,' the formal and the tribal.

Purpose The purpose of this field research is to analizethe educational r"Istems of the Pueblo Indians,including Taos, San. Juan, Tesuque, Zing Zuni, and the Bernalillo District inNew Mexico. Both tribal rind formal education are consideredin the study. The analysis of the tribal syster includesdiscerning whether or not the traditional culture qnd heritage of the Pueblosis being taught and the extent 0'41'

loo the formal education to which tribaleducation occurs. The study of involves discerning whether or not bilingualand bicultural studies have been irplementedin the elementary and/orsecondary schools on the reservations, and thedegree-to which theimplementation has occured, Methodology

In this study the research methodis the interview, which "represents a direct attempt*bytheresearcher to obtain reliable and valid measures in the formof verbal responses from one crmore 12 respondents." The information gatheredfrom the interview will either confirm or refutehypotheses. Therefore, the data collection process is a meansto an end and not an endin itself.

According to Sax tl"ere areadvantages and disadvantagesto this aptroach to research, The greatest advantageof the interviewis that it is highly flexibleallowing the researcher tochange his mode of questioning whenthe situation demandsit. If the subject does not understand the.question, it can t.e rephrased, The interview is also an advantage tothe respondents., since theyare allowed the freedom to enlarge upon aquestion, retract a statementp orask.for clprification of an ambiguousquestion. By using this methodology the researcher not onlyobserves what the respondent says,but the way it which heresponds. Sometimes the way the subjectresponds 13 is as important as thecontent of the response. The interviewer mustconstantly keep in mind that theestablish -

12 Sax, G., EmpiricalFoundntions for Educational Research, p. 201

13 Ibid...p.202 4

i1,30,01,

I000 ment of rapport betweenhimself and the respondentin extremely imrortantlsince once therespondent perceives the situation as the validity of the being non threateningand is opei and frank," 14 , interview is enhanced. Although the flexibilityof the interview is anadvantage he chooses, *Mowing the 'respondent the'freedom to respond in any way problems arise when attemptingto summarize,categorize and evaluate because respondents maybe using a differentframe of reference than of the interview isthat the the interviewer. A second disadvantage interviewer may influence personel values, beliefs,and biases of the the., use the outcome of theinvestigation. Another disadvantage is reliable and moresuitable of the interviewtechnique when other techniques are avralable. When this is done,conflicts arise.be- 15 reliableNinformante%or tweer facts andopinions. Lastly, finding influence the respondents during ashort term investigation may reliability of theconclusions.-

Orientation as4...... eft. .1(

The Pueblos are geneticandculturaldescendents.of the Arasazis

and the hogollons,whoseprehistoric desert culture goei back more and than 100,00 years. The ancestors of thePueblos were hunters By 300B.C. gatherers who laterdomesticated corn (2000 -3000B.C.) elaborate the Pueblos lived in villageswhere baskets and eventually elaborate three forms of pottery weremade. The Pueblos developed

14 Ibid...p,202

'15 Ibid...p.203 44'"\i'Amt tooto which included the kives, Ana four storiedapartment-like dwellings, purposes. Simultane- specie' circularbuildings used for ceremonial ously, irrigationtechniques were learned. and civilization was A high degree ofsocial organization when the Puebloculture erluired between700A.D. and 1300A.D., including Mesa Verde, Aztec covered vast portionsof the Southwest, arl the Point of Pines. and Chico Canyon,Canyon de Shelly, Kayentn, communal atrosphere ofthe The cliff dwellings(ruins) reflect the

Fuellos, beginning of the fifteen- Towards the end orthe fourteenth and abandonment of the cliff th century, thereoccured a widespread sentioned above. The dwellings, farms endvillapes within the areas and to nur- entire Puebloculture retreated tothe Rio Grande area resettlement of erou., sites inWestern New Mexico. Shortly after norldic trites,began to settle the Pueblos, theApnches and Navajos, These later tribal groupsadopted many In /4.1v Mexicorind Arizona. Aspects of the Puebloculture. Coronado established In 3540 the Spaniardsled by Francisco at Taos. The Indians wereexpect- hewiluert,,rs emonwthe Tiwa pueblos with provisions, whicheventually ed to provideCororido's troops the massacre rnd led to irimosityProd overthostility, resulting in attempted orpressior of thePueblos by theSpnrish. The Spaniards prnctices by irvadirgthE Rivas prid to enqdic,,tenntive religious pnrqphernalin ns well assuprressing cereror- dPstroyirg cererrorinl +he Puelo religionwith Catholicism. ie nttempsinw to replPrP Missionnries competed w ,tth civil authoritiesfor Indian labor. After severl yearis of oppression, in 1680the Pueblos organized nnri revolted npqintthe Spanish, killingmissionaries and colonists nrri burning the missions andsettlements. However, in 1693

Dor Diego de Vargasreestablished Sphish control in hewMexico. "he

Pueb los finally compromised andadopted the externalsof the new faith; however, they clandestinely continued iopractice there. Ancient rituals end kive ceremonies. Gradually the Pueblos began working morecooperatively with the

Spanish and even assistedSpanish troops in suppressingattacks from the invading Apaches andNavajos. While the Spanish territory wnsbeing lost to theAnglo-Americans, the Pueblos returned topracticing their formerreligion, until once again persecution occuredwith Anglo domination. American mission- aries nrd U.S. Indian Serviceofficials took step: to removethe Ind- ian children from theirfamilies by enrollingthem in boarding schools, thus preventing thechildren from being influencedby the tribal values and religim. The policy for a numberof years was one of instructed to coercive Assimilation, Indien Service officers were considered as being anti- prevent ceremonialpractices, which were

Christian ford indecent. Ever though the folicytowards the Indians has gradubflychanged durirr the twentiethcentury, the Pueblos remainsecretive pertaining to their sacred reliwiouscustoms because of the negativeexperiences 16 of the past in dealing withSpaniards ar.d A:nylo Americans.

16 Dozier, E., The Pueblo Indians ofNew Mexico, pp. 1-5. settlers of Historically theFuebolos were theoriginal Lavajos, and Later theApaches, the Southwestand NewMexico. the various Mexico as well. Also, inthe past Utes settledin New accidents, in populationdue to war, tribes havesuffered losses the sameproblems In modern timessome of end diseases, has been a grad- Indians eventhough there continue toaffect the population of theIndians ofNew Mexico. ual increosein the ?8,660 or of NewMexico lois In 1972 theIndian population of theUnited States. al-out12 A ofthe totalIndian population comprisejabout 6g ofthe totalpopulation. Ir NewMexico Indians the NescaleroApache numbered5.,27e, while Th'Jerioarillo Apache population of51185, The Navajoshad a wereenumerated at1,850. 1? the Pueblos WPS22,333, nrd theresidentroDulation of villages known have livelin compact The puebloIndians, who groupeidaccording to prehistoric timeshave been as pueblossince distinguishes the The followingchart their threemajor languages. chosen forstudy, largunves andthe villages Keresan Zuni Tanoar Chochiti Lunt 91wn "Is um San Felipe Ficuris Santo DominFo Sandia Santa Anna Isleta ..Zia . Laguna qewa Acoma Santa Clara Canoncito (Navejo) San Ildelfonso Alamo l'ajonque Namb Tesuque

Town ...Jemez

Fe of IndianAffairs, SP-Inte 17 The Commission I 0-.5 Indian children 5 to The following chartshows the number of Federal, public, and 1R who were enumeratedand enrolled in the Included in thetabulation private schools ofNew 1..exico in 1973. but not inschool, and Are the studentswho also were enumerated IR unknowns. Scho 1 U"flown. L_Vi Yederal Fublic..irlYste_ AlbunuerluefEnumerste 926 71 1,K90 116 2 N. Pueblo 1,568 533 232 7,209 1;430 4,943 422 6,8r1 176 S. Pueblo 66 2 2,203 59 1,605 471 2,135 Zuni 0,466 258 256 Tots3 10,9R0 2,028 7,47 964 4 P3( 20 756 31 807 Jicariflo 62 P01 61 576 72 709 30 Vescalcro 267 26 293 3 258 6 S. Ute 27 611 92 Ute Mt. 703 99 485 136 2,394 150 87 Tot il ,.-) 33 113 2,075 894 0,392 1,698 427 Eavnjo 22,517 6,362 9,549 ,994 3,252 2,108 769 TotalN.N.36,130 8,573 2,685

of Pueblo, Apache, The chart belowindicates the percentage between the ages of 5to 18 enrolled Ute, nntl NavajoIndian children schools of few Mexictd,inclUding in the Federal,public, and private those students who arenot in schoolAnd the unknowns. IC /1001 Uji 1{.10W: 7ribe Totqa FedernllatLL 8.80 95.31 2.35 2.34 ru 1-10 in19Rn 18.43 68.08

Ar,c'he 3.3 P 78.80 5.2 91 5.7 ,, 2,633 6.95 Ute 7.54 1.94 Pavajo 22,517 28.25 58.34 3.93 90.52

Indian Education p-.6 1', Fi\ ld,-1-rnnd,A., Statistics Concerning -13-

4ss t1/40\0%,t. CO'r{ Si.S1

children of NewMexico In contrast tothe total number ofIndian 5 to 18including those erumPrAted Andin school betweenthe ages of unknowns, thePueblo population students who arenot in school and

is comraredin the chartbelow: Pueblo

10,980 Total 36,130 2,028 Federal Schools 8,573 7,474 Public Schools 22,685 964 Private Schools 1,994 256 Not in School 2,108 256 Unknown 769 orerated by the For the purposeof this studyDay Schools Interviews werealso con- Puret.0 of IndianAffairs werevisited. the Zuni area. The follow- ducted nt theAll TribesFission School;, enrollment andgrade levels Ira chartRives theloc-tion, student 19 of the y3-emsstudied. Grades Area Enrollment h-8 Taos 207 K-6 San Juan 109

Tesuque 17 k -7 Zia 84

Bernalillo 59 k-6 k-12 Zuni 2,135

19 Ibid...T. 17 at Zuni Thn Chris+.1anReform Mission palm 14. IUTEIArrrc 40' 4-11)S N. M. Aztec Horse Lakel

San loan J1CARILLAr eo. AVAJO qp APACHE RES.] 'CHACO CANYON San Juan RES. Santa Clara N. M. r. Pojoaque S.Ildef M. Nambe BANDELTERIN. Tesqque Santa Fe Cochiti Jemez Las \ t ' Vegas \ tftaZiatr.: S. Dom:Ago 10' v.SantaAnaSLIfir stlnFelipe 0 ''- 40 Bernalillo ... ,k. Sandia Grants '4 -.t. r.-"----Canyoncito Rosa "'anSan lose..., r To Santa Acomjal U S 66 EL MORRO iLigilkunka II j? N. M. !...... , 34.1...... I...4 Vaughn

Willard all Lake Puertocito

Magdalena Quemado !4IEWMEXICO Socorro

1, es erne Carrizozo Lincoln , i4ESCAILER9

Ift Mescalero"ApACITIE Tularosa

tos'

INDIANRESERVATIONS JI\I NEW.MEXICO .15 1/28/72 ommSSION ON INDIAN MAW, WAE OPNEW MUICO Room A, linta4n Mmortal Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501 801CA"MMI- "

TR113AI, INPORMATION TOTAL LAND RESIDENT ACREAGE IN POPULATION NEW MEXICO .TRIBE COUNTY. 2,000 245,672 Acowa Pueblo Valencia

.500 26,779 Cochlti Pueblo Sandoval 1,859 210,948 Taleta Pueblo Torrence Berna11110 Valencia

1,298 88,867 Jemez Pnehlo Sandoval 3,278 742,315 .jicarIlln Apache Rio Arriba Sandoval.

3,028 417,454 Laguna Pueblo Valencia Sandoval Bernalillo

1,850 460,384 Mesc.alero Apache Otero 175 19,075 Nambe Pueblo Santa Fe

-.. , 14 947 . 98 Picuris Pueblo Taos 61 1,600 Pojoaque Pueblo Santa Fe 1,400 15,461 Ramah Navajo Band McKinley Valencia 173

201 22,885 Sandia Pueblo .Sandoval 1,360 48,930 San Pelipe Pueblo Sandoval 284 96,192 San !ldefonso Pueblo Santa I'&' 1,025 42,234 San Juan Pueblo# Rio Arriba 400 42,528 Santa Ana Pueblo Sandoval . 724 45,748 Santa Clara Pueblo Santa Fe Rio Arriba

Sandoval 2,045 69,260 Santo DomingoPueblo Taos 1,201 47,341 Taos Pueblo Ak4 Santa Fe 216 16,813 Tt:snque.Pueblo

:;andoval 438 112,511 Zia Areblo Alf tLinley '),500 407, V.un, Pueblo b 1 4;1. nt June('

t°9/tk\jP4"t1 TOM 'Am) NT ACRkA01 IM vo1'ULAT10N NSW l'ILX ICU

Alamo Navajo Band Socorro 926 58,669 - t Canoncito Navajo Band 1,033 7 "84 1crna Lil lo

Navajo R( u,rvationi at N.M. 0(ipioy 24,157 2,383,015 Airloa 30 andoval 2,402 anJuan 22,635

San Juan 20 591,670 . Ute mountain Tribc

27,541 3,683,400

The map (p.14) indicates the locationof the reservations

visited, while general populationstatistics obtainied from the Commission On Affairs are given inthe section which precedes the

map (pp. 15-16)

Taos

The Taos pueblo is located two milesnorth of the village

of Taos. The Indians in this community speak Tiwawhich is a Tenon dialect. The resident population of Taos was1,201 in

1972. The Pueblos at Taos have a total of47, 341 acres. The land is used for farming, open grazingand for commerical timber. 20 Over 30,000 acres are Seaded forgrazing purposes.

20 Smith, A., New Mexico Indians, p.144 .17..

Most of theledians.tans at Taos.rekemployment off the reservation at Sante Fe, Albuquerque, or inn Colorado. Often

the Indians find seasonal or temporary employment for six months

to a yearlbefinwe returning to the pueblo to recuperate before

venturing to seek employment once again. Usually the Indians 2l have exhausted their funds before returning to the reservation.

The nobility of ....everal of the Indian families creates problems when attempting to tabulate statistics, since often the Indian

students ray withdraw from a school and be recorded as dropouts; however; they mayZ reenroll in another school in the vicinity 22 where their parents have found employment. Presently very few families are engaged in agricultural prod-

uction and grazing livestock on the reservation/in spite of the 23 vast acreage which surrounds the pueblo proper.

The old pueblo proper does not possess electricity, but those

homes outside of the train complex of buildings have electricity. the newer homes without electricity are located west of the river which divides the pueblo complex, while five story apartment-like structures, which are reflections of the cliff dwelling period of 24 +he pas.t are located on the east side of the river. These older buildings 'ire unoccupied except for a few of the lower flats $hich

been converted into gift shops for the benefit of the tourists.

A. claimed that the Taos lueblos were exceptionally conserv.ttive, since the Tribal Council refused to allow electricity 25 into theolfl pueblo complex. However, the general impression

J. Corchn, Security Guard, Taos Pueblo Ms.E. Hirley, Xany Farms High School, Navajo eservalion 2-3 C.P. Gurung, Tribuwan Univ., Katmandu, repel J. ConchP ?f A. Smith, Pew Nexico Indians p. 145 " * ' ,, . , .' . ; . ,

:r the pueblo'complex to -t#86ived is thatelectricity is kept out of of the tourists, preserve thepueblo as n museum forthe benefit charged per carplus an additional since en admissionfee of $1.50 is for pictures. fee of $2.00 percamera.' The:Taos Indians who. pose traffic prolific. also expect tobe paid *1.00. The tourist ti4i created by In fact most ofthe activity in thepueblo complex : Indians in sight. the touristswith relatively few While visitingtheTaal Pueblo complex,four students-were Questions were asked.aboUt. interviewed.in.a"Semi-str*tUredseinner education.Before giving answersthe three':t eighth tribal axed formal Av each.other in Tiwa and then graders and oneninthgrader-Spoketo tt:1;\ for the groUp. gavetheiranswer in Englishthrough a spokesman The boys statedthat they did nOtstUdrabout:their history

. cudtomk.,..:Andreligion.at'schOol, but theylearnedtheirjraditions.,,z2 .., .. .L f,.. .-, they were reticent .: ,, at the kl..va, although . frott%theirgrandfathers viand , the very ,.enter to.'' speak-about theInitiation cerempnyAWhich,is.at

.. ;fr-;1 -of their tribaleducation: ..* .- .. Oldgrandson of the Security ':-- .-While"at Taos, the.ten year initiation;'Oeremony.-This Guard, was:undergoing preparationfOr,.his , . . months and a year. aspect of tribal educationwould last-between six tolDe:4iiitisfed.iemained laolated- Traditibnally, taughtaboutthe4significance of the . kiva, while being. . irthe , the ancient Pueblo ceremonies and. rituals,which were linke:with

T. day of the initiatiq religion. After *severalmonths of Trpartion, the u Katchinas-stripped*the ceremonytranspired. At:that time,maeked causing the child child naked, and beganbeating him with whips,

. . . .

1 .

; ttaidaughter of the 26 B. Field, ColoradoSprings, a friend of Security Guard, J..Concha

. .

- :. . t ;tie , *..A3 Ice 1 *4 fil 7141...01 * 4 .61YIN-6' , r.4

beaten by several of to suffer muchpain. After the child was their masks andrevealed the maskedKatchinas, the men removed their identities tothe child. c,y Theinitiated immediately discovered that theisaskedi. Katchinas werehis father, uncles and allowed the opportunityto wear relatives. The child was then of his elders, the the Katchina masks. Emulating the procedure uncles, and relatives in child was expectedto whip his fathery 27 the manner inwhich he had been beaten. t7k. ceremony is conducted The extent towhich the above initiation the Pueblo anthropologist; today remains unknown,since not even Dozier, elaborates on thisaspect of tribaledbcation. The initiation the kiva, are ceremony andother ceremonies, whichcenter around extremely secretive. The Pueblos havemanaged to preservetheir ancient religion, The Indians, although outwardlythey professloyalty to Catholicism. With their ancientrituals, however,have.not fused Catholic teadhing The Catholic cere- but have managed tokeep themdepartmentalized. religion is monies revolvearound the church,while the Pueblo practiced in the kiva. formal education, theinterviewer :71 . While inquiring about .. discovered that several yearsago .a teacherhad attempted toimplement to bicultural and bilingualinstruction, but the parents preferred _ The parents have their childrentaught in the medium ofEnglish.

..!- Consequent) believed that they theirchildren would learnTiwa at home. 7. . . However, the Security Guard , the program wasabandoned at'the school. ;.11. children w.o made theabove statement believedthat although the older

The Heroic Tad p.58 27. P. Horgan, f. t .,, ,) :- r'c- " losing their ability spoke Tiwa at home,the younger children were to communicateefficaciously in the mediumof Tiwa. The fact that most youngerchildren werespeaking more

&41glish than Tiwa at school wnsconfirmed at theBIA School by that during the past four the kindergartenteacher, who observed playing; however years thechildren had alwaysspoken Tiwa while complete reversal. Most during the past year,she noticed nearly a English while children for thefirst were speakingin the medium of 28 the teachers who have playing. This phenomenon maybe a result of in the Head StartProgram been working withthe preschool children speaking and/or the parents ofthe preschool andkindergarten children

more Englishand Less Tiwa athome. in agreement The three-teathers-interviewedat the school were

. with the SecurityGuards statitnetat that theparents. were opposed The second to bilingual andbicultural studies at theschool. connected with grade teacher mentionedthat those students who were now in the the experimental programin bilingual instruction were that, their command of theEnglish upper gradesat the school, and retarded bythelprogram.in.:copptirdson to the language was severely 29 students who had notreceived theinstruction. enrollment of 207 The BIA School atthe Taos Pueblo had an 10 Kindergarten pupils in 1973. Eight teachers wereemployed full time. fours through grade threehad self-containedclassrooms, while:grades teachers through eight weredepartmentalized. Each of the eight as interpreters had:been assigned anIndian aid. The aids served

BIA School, Taos Pueblo 28 A. Rhiner,kindergarten teacher, Scholz)), Taos Pueblo 29. M. Gomez, secondgrade teacher, BIA Education, p. 17 3t Statistics on Indian 00. 0CP,

to reinforce instructiofi. The Taos Indian aids either possessed

an Associatebf-Artseerttfieater(two"yeariof training) or were in the process of obtaining it through summer school sessions.

The teachers had thett.bachelor's degrees, but did not have further

training in bicultural and bilingual education nor did those..el n interviewed feel that such training was necessary, since the community was in opposition to the program. The teachers had all passed the Civil. Service Exam, which was a prerequisite to being hirdd by the

BIA. Also before being stationed at Taos, the teachers. had to appear for an interview before the Tribal Council, who ultimately approved 12 of their teaching on the reservation. In the past linguists attempted to study and record the Tiwa language; however, they have been unsuccessful; since the

language is intimately connected with religious ceremonies and. $ the kiva.v- Consequently, neither a dictionary nor a grammar has

been compiled. The only persbns who is making an attempt to record stories in the Tiwa language without experiencing static from the community is the teacher who is working in the Head Start 33 Program. Apparently, the Head Start Program has been highly influential.

among the various pueblos in New Mexico,and tht teachers have.pre- 3 4 cipitated innovations at the BIA Schools.

31- A. Rhiner

3-2 J. Concha 44.44.114140a-amithread.Start,, Specialist in Early Childhood 33 Ed. and the Humanities

t4 Hay, Commissioner of Indian. Affairs, Sante.Fe Ever though the teachersat the BIA School have not had success with bilingual studies,several of the teachers attempted

to irrlement bicultural studies;however their efforts have resulted in censorship from the community. The art teacher had encouraged

the children to draw designs. While the children were drawing,one of the st4dents inadvertentlydrew s sacred symbol. When the other students niscovered that the symbolhad teen drawn, the violator of

the taboo was censored by hispeers. The student who hnd drawn the

syrbol immediately destroyed it. Another incident of censorship

occurred when the English teacher asked thestudents to describe the

San Geronon.o Festival. The enthusiastic teqcherplaced the finished essays or the bulletin hoard. Th teacher, however, was reprimanded 35 ard asked to rer:ove the essays by the TribalCouncil. Covclusions- Taos

The social organization of theTaos Pueblos is strong, since the parents represented through theTribal Councihl have refused to allow bilingual and bicultural studiesto take place at the BIA

School. In addition the Tribel Councilultimately hires and fires teachers. Also at Taos the students mustundergo tribal education which consists of receiving strainingfor six mtths to a year culminat- ing ir the initiation ceremony. During the training period theinitiate barns the importance and significance ofthe tribal ceremonies.

The extent to which the student learns tribalhistory, myths, legends, iq ur:rrrswn, since the rituals ard activitieswhich take )lace inthe klua are secrets of th0 tribe. Y. Gomez & A. !Miner osito"'"°. The crovernment's attempt to implement bicultural ;tpti atudiesoundoubtedly, Was designed by the expetts'in'an effort to

solve the problems which the Indians must endure. However, the government experts may fail to take into considerationthe unique

history, -and problems of the individual tribes in Attempting to

develop a theory which applies to all Indians. Since the Taos Indians refuse to allow bicultural and bilingual studies at the school, the teachers must focus upon a curriculum which emphasizes the values of the dominant culture. The degree to which the students experience cultural conflict as aresult; of the diversified value systems which are taughtis unknown. since

the Taos Indians have historically departmentalired the teachings ofthe church and kiva, they'fray'be able to successfully departmentalize the values being taught through tribal education with those taught throlurh formal eduootion. Cr the other hand the students may excerienc a great deal of pyschologicml conflict as a result of the diversified values being taught by the different interest groups, San Juan is locatedon the east side of the Rio Grande,

five riles north of Esranola,off of Highway 64. It was the I sight of the caritol of New Mexicoin 1598, before the capitol

was relocated at Sante Fe in 1610. The resident population of 6 'Ss?, Juan WAS 1, 025 it1972.3 The reservat-ion contains a tbtal of 12, 234 acres. San Juan is the largest of the Tewa speaki.g

ruebl os37

The Head Start Center is located in the middleof the

comrunity. It is the regional office, extendingprograms to eight of the nineteen pueblos of New MexiCo. The pueblos, which

have Mend Start programs includes Taos, Sari Juan, Lambe,lesuque,

Fojoaque,.ear. Ildelfonso, San Clara, and Picuris. At the an

Juan pueblo two qualified teachers work intimately withtwo Tewa spearing aids. The aids were studying for their Assoiate Arts

certificate nt the University of New Mexico. TheHead Start 38 teachers were also not available for interviews.

The Sqn Juan Community Cooperative is in the vicinity of the Head Start Center. About 80, of the funds acquired through

thr? cooperative are returned to the pUeblo. The cooperative sttnined

lrcrerent through the selling of crafts made by theSan Juan Indians.

ecfAuse of its outstanding products and organization,the cooperative has achieved international recognition, sinceeach year visitors

from rum-rcis countries arrive to study itsprincirles.39

0.111011111..I.i.11.

* While at Taos the teachers stated thatBilingual and Bicultural studies were implemented at the an Juan Pueblo. As a result of this discovery Isleta was replaced hr SanJuan. 3cs Cornmi.i3sion of Inrlian Affairs, Sante Fe 3? A. Smith, New ?exico Indians p. 13C ?r) Dxs. lino, director of Head Start, San JuanPueblo 39 Ers. Crtez, San Juan Community Cooperative "25.

0.,\\,(ii,

VItS1

While at the cooperative, a relativeoronrof the Indian aids from the BIA school was interviewed. She stated that, the elementary school employed eight Indians, five wereaids and three

were Indian languageinstructors. The San Juan Indiansaffiliated with the school were attending summer sessionsin Albuquerque and

Spnte Fe. The school had six Anglo teachers.and aSpanish principal, Ali or which had master's degrees. During the pest year four interns from MassPchusetts were also involved inthe bilingual qnd bicultural

rroarrir rrom August throughDecerber. In addition the Tewa languve-,e

was in the process of beingrecorded by Dr. Spears, a Presbyterian minister, who had already published anelementary dictionary on

the Tewa language, which was available totourists at the cooperative

for A nominal fee. The language was also the medium of instruction alonp. with English at the school. Each of the six grades was divided

into two Rroi)ps. While the Indian .nstructor taught one half of the students the lesson in Tewa, the other halfof the class received

the same instruction in English. The groups were then exchanged, acid the lesson was repeated so that all of thestudents had the opportun- 40 ity to experience the same lesson in bothlanguares. 41 The modern elementary school had an enrollment of109 students,

nrd was well equiped. When the interviewer arrived at the school., the principal was involved with staff members in a conference. he

left the meeting to be interviewed. The principal sriid th:at bilingual and bicultural studies had been introduced a year ago atthe school,

erd that instruction wouldcommence again on Aurust 4th, in continuat- 42 ion of the Trogram.

Pauline, a clerk at the cooperative hi Statistics on Indian Educr.tion p. 17 Mr. David Torse, M.A., SanJuan Elenentary Jchool (BIA) (principal) Pesides the regulrr bilingualinstruction, the studerts'had

special clssses in the Tewa language. For the first ye .r of the

langunge prortrqm, students from thefourth, fifth and sixth grades

were grouped homoo:eneously accordingto their ability to speak the

Tewa language. The students who spokeno Tewa were placed in a

cis for beginners. Those students who knew some Tewawere placed

in the intermediate class, while thosewho spoke gewa fluentlywere -1ficd in the adv,,nced class. The three Tewa language instructors

were not aids nor did they function as interpreters as theydid

at Taos, tut they had received bilinguallanguage instruction at

Sante Fe, where they were contirUing theirstudies during thesummer. The r.rotlems associated with bilingualinstruction were numerous, since among the an Juan Pueblos there were parents who spoke only English at home,while others spoke Only'Spanish,1

A number of rarents spoke only Tewaat home. Some of the parents

were bilingual andothers trilingual. The following chart indicntes the tossitle languageeombinations. (Orly) krimery & Sec.__Primary & Sec. Trilingual 1. English Eng. & Spanish Eng4.&,Tewa g. Stan. & Tewa

2. Sp-inish Spanish & Eng. jpanish & Tewa Sp. Eng. & gella

3.Tewa gera & Eng. Tewa & Spanish Tewa, Eng. & Sp.

The major problem at San Juan is that threedifferent langur,ges ere snoken in the. community. The parents who speak onlyEnKlish it hone do not see n need for theirchildren to learn Tewa at the school, while the rerents who speak onlySpanish at home may feel

)v Mr. David Torse, Prinicipal 3 The trilingual combinations may be interchanged. -27-

041... PNA1 $BEST

that Spanish should heencorporated into the curriculum. 'hose parents who speak Tewa, however,did not seem to'object toTewa being taught At the school, and thosewho are .bilingual and/or trilingual

grit} Tewa as n primary, secondary,or tertiary language do not appear

0-ject to Tewa being taught..HoWever,'furtherresearch is necessary pertaining to the numberof families who speak the various languages

and the combinations. Also, research should be conducted in order 44 to find out the extent to which the larguayesare sroken at home.

Another interesting aspect of thelanguage problem, is that Teta is divided into two categories, the modernand the classical.

The Tribal Council conducts their meetingsstrictly in classical

Tewa, which is almost unintelligibleto those who speak modern Tewa. The principal stPted that the historyof the Indians of.the

Southwest was included in the social studies curriculum,and that

Yueblo history was specifically taught during theAsst year. Thus far Puetlo literature had not been encorporatedinto the curriculum;

however, there was s concerted attempt tointroduce Pueblo literature in the curriculum which was being developed.

The faculty seems to work much more closely withthe community

than at Taos. A grandfather of one of the studentswas invit,d to

!;rf,:4,, to the students nt school about the myths and thelegends of comrrunit-y. The children enjoyed listening to the stories, And tape-recorded the narrative as well.

During the pas.: year, an open house was held at school. At that time students hnd the opportunity to display the pottery,jewelry

; 4 1r. Torse, Princiral =and crafts, which they made in nnart class throughout the semester. The crafts were for sale, 9nd the profits acquired were distributed

to the class. Throughout the exhibition and open house, some of the tribal elders were invited to chant and play traditional rhythms

on the drum. While listening to the drum beats and touring the building, many of the parents and grandparents were_impressed by

the fine work that had been done and expressed their appreciation to the teachers and the principal for taking such an interest in 45 their culture. In conclusion the tribaeducation at San Juan appears to be conducted in a manner similiar to that of Taos, since the principal men*ioned the closely knit kiva ceremonies which are conducted secretively even though the San Juan Pueblos are generally very open at-out most of their ceremonies, their language and legends. The Snn Juan Pueblos are proud that their community has producrd two Pueblo anthropologists (including Dozier). Also, of the nineteen pueblos in New Mexico, San Juan has thus far been the only pueblo to introduce bilingual and bicultural studies into the elPmentary school. Much of the credit for adaptation of the studies is due to Dr. Spears and Mr. Torse. The degree to which cultural conflict occurs among the students Is unknown; however, since the school.is attempting to fuse tribal educr4f1 onal values with formal educational values, perhaps, the cor"'licts are minimal. A detailed corparative study of the aaos and San Juan pueblos

1-qs,,,d upon historical, economic, polictical, social, and lipuistic

4r Yr. Torse, Principal POJA11.101 851COI'l factors should he done inorder to discern the variables which hRve placed the San JuanPueblo as a center for both theHead Start

Provrnr And Bilingunl AndBicultural Studies, while thePheblos of Taos hnvepreferred to keep thetribal and forual educationalsystems strictly departmentalized. The All TribesIndian Missionis located at Eernalillo, Vpv D..exico. The school hPs astsff, which is composedof twenty members and isinterdenominational. In addition the staffmembers receive PluallyR salnry of 4)60.00 per month regardless of thejob status or the inlilriduf,ls. Fifty nine studentshad completedthe 1973-1974 schoolyear. The librarian, cook, and principalwere interviewed. The librnriar elsowas the physical education teacher. He said th :'tthe basic rurrose of the hoc-rdinp, schoolwas to prepare studentsfor the ministry,since the Indians 46 ere in need of salvation. The cool stated thr,t the basic purros\ofthe schoolwas "to teach children. tc obey nrd become 47 Rood Christians." The principal,however, was more involved in academic skills than in thereligious aspect of the eduction. She said thrt the greatest problemconfrontirg the schcol ovrr the r,st year wns that AIM (AmericanIndian F,ovemert) hnl teen resr.onsit,lefor hnvinr over 50A of the studentswithdral,n fro- the mission school. AIM members hadaccused the staffof "ahusinF the Didion children."The staff adamantly denied the chnrres,aria wer" convinced that they h=id beenunjustly accused byAIM.

tr'?mi.ers of the Rt-irfinterviewed werededierted people4 who yr1,, not cr-cPrnpdn1 out job security, since thr,ircoMmittments prlmorilv from reliFeicusmotivation. All of the te,.chere, ir ndltior to theirreular duties, tauFht reredinl ree.ding pnritutorc;cd in the evening.

At 1-1e. 1-,onrrlirgschool bilireual and biculturnl 111,d rot Yeen 17:71Pmehterlfaltouph an interest. in IndiLn craftstook place

46 haul Diller,lit-r-riar nr0 I.E. teacher, Al] aribes niRsicn 47 :'-rrIndPf+r, Iol.sler,cook, All Tribeslndirri Mission 4P 21i7r.lethDenl, rrircipal, A319ribes Inchon Mission -31- ANF.M1.11 StS1

it the nrt class. Objects made by the students were for sale and on disply in a show case in the main hall. The principal was in the process of studying the Navajo language at the University of Albuquerque, where she went for daily classes. the students, also, would go on to junior and senior high school in Albuquerque after completing six years at the mission school. The public .school system in Albuquerque was very poor according to the principal. Hecently, a Navajo girl, who was a senior in high school, was sert to the hoarding school by her parents because the rirl hadn't ever learned her alphabet thus far in her education. The glrl was rlaced in fifth grade at the mission school, where she attended clesses. Ir the evening she was tutored in English; however, just ns the girl was beginning to shov shins of acndemic 49 rrocrress, the girl's pqrents withdrew her from the school. At times the children would experience loneliness, and on occPsion A child would run away from the school and not return. Soretimes.child would run away and then be brought back to the school 1'y his parents. Indian children have been known to have frozen to depth ns a result of running away from bo;::rding schools and attempting to return to the reservations during the wiater 5 0 ronths. In conclusion the boarding school appeared to be a place where dedicated te-chers taught the values of the dominant culture

1,1th a minimum of emphasis upon bicultural education. The formal iduration rPrPived t'y the Indian children 14,1s probably sul..erior

49 Elizabeth Deal, princi!:al

50 Amy, an Hawaiian, living in Moriarity, New Mexico *o the PAur-tinn which most children receive in public schools, since the staff spends a great deal of time teaching rerredial reading

anal tutoring in the everiLg. Tribal education, however, is limited to the summer months any holidays when the children return to the

reserwition. The degree to which cultural conflict exists among the children is unknown. Perhaps, during the school year the children

expert once a minimum of cultural conflict.due to the fact that only

one ,iorinrInt wlue system is being taught by the teachers. The students ray undergo culturl conflict during the summer months while living back on the reservation, and during their high ,school years in

Albunuerque. The Tesuque Pueblo is located five miles north of Sante Fe. west. of U.S. Hirrhway 285. The resident population wr4s 216 in 1972..51

The area of the reservation encompasses 17, 027 acres. The people 52 of Tesunue speak TewPs as at San Juan. At Tesuque the Heed Start Prograr was rot ir operati-m during,- the summer months. However, the BIA teacher was available for an interview. her home and the school, which had an enrollment of seventeen students during the past school year, were connected.

Th facilities 9t the school were excellent. The library contained numerous books about Indinns. The Mexican Americar teacher, who tins a graduate of Nprquette

Unl'Tersity, rqn r.n open classroom for grades one through four. she, r1 1a,11,0 an Indian aid who reinforced instructior. Twice a month

torcY,,,r corf-rencen were held. Although bilinguql and bicultural studies had not been adaytel

A. Smith, Inds ins of New Mexico, r. 148 4 v Commission of Indian Affnirs, pouulatior statistics -.33-

t4Vsi StS1

there 1.,!s an erphnsison Indinnness at the school. The students durin the past year had theopportunity to travel to Disneyland

and twice a month fieldtrips were organized within thearea, since Feder-41 funds v, ere readilyavailable for such excursions. The teacher interviewedknew little about tribal education

except th-A the Tesuque Puebloswere very secrelive about their Diva ceremonies. J //s. In conclusion the atmosphereat the BIkencouraging. Although

the students did not receivebilingual and bicultural studies,

the freouent field trirs andexcellent fpcilitios kept thestudents in contact with the dominant society, since the BIA schoolwas extremely isolated,

The Keressr-sreaking Ziatueblo is incp+plnr the rnrth sidp

of Jenez Creek, sixteenriles r.'orthwest of Bernalilloor State cl Highway 44. Thereservrtion contains 110,267acres.---' The population: 54 it 197? was 438. Eighty four students attendedthe BIA school :It Zia luring. the fiscalyear of 19735.5

Two Indianswere interviewed .Pt Zia. Both men related th:3t the ETA schoolwls operatingr under the open classroorphilsohy,

which the Pueblos of Zia didnot believe .;as. providingthe Indian

chi ldrer with an ade:Iunte education.'The Catholic schoolin the

a,-ea, however, was doing a much betterjob in educating; theIndians, because of the discipline andhighly structuredprogram.

Uhe BIA school did not havebilini:;ual z.nd hiculturalstudies.

Altv-wh thr- corrunity did notapprove of bicultural studies,they A. Smith, YPw Mexico Indiansp. 150

. Comrisslon of Indian Affairs,poru]ntion statistics

Statistics on Indian Education,p. 17 -34.

P\IP,\OS- CO'R`t

wanted to have the Keresan language taught at the school by

a Keresan Indian aid; however, they did not want an Anglo-

teaclier present in the room, while the language instruction

was being conducted. Even though the Keresan language was gradually being replaced by English as the primary language, the Zia Pueblos

have refused to allow linguists to record thelanguage. Also,

it was questionable whether an elderly memberof the con unity could be found who spoke the Keresan languagethuroughly and

accurately. Tribal educutior was conducted at the kiva as in the other pueblos studied. However, the men interviewed believed that AIM and the Civil hights Movement had gone too far in the area, and that the students did not respect theirelders. They had become far too rebellious and undisciplined. Very few Keresan Indians went on to collegeand the elders of the community did not coerce nor encourage thestudents to receive higher education. The decision to complete high school and/ or attend college was entirely left to the student to 56 decide. During the summer the Indian aids who worked atthe BIA school had decided to continue their education at theuniversity.

Due to a holiday, the BIA teachers were not availablefor interviewing.

Mr. Pino, member of the Tribal Council, Zia kueblo

Theo, bus driver, Zia Pueblo -35- 0.°9

In conclusion the Zia Pueblos wanted language instruction at the school, t-ut not according to the Washington directive on bicultural and bilingual education. The general attitude seemed to be that the Indians in this attitude would rather see. their tribal language perish rather than allow the ancient language to be recorded by linguists. The community, also, was not content with the open classroom type of education, and 'probably had little voice in its implementation. -;. 0to The Zuni reservation is renched by travelling south on Highway

32 from Gallup and then turning west onto state Highway 53. It

is located in Valencia and McKinley Counties, and is the largest 57 pueblo in New Mexico, containing 400,353 acres with a population 58 of 5, 500. Four outlying villages are part of the Zuni territory including Ojo Caliente, lekapo, Pescado, and Nutria. The student population of the entire community was 2,135 in 59 1973. The community has four elementary schools, Toaiyalone,

St. Anthony, Christian Reform, and Zuni Elementary. The Zuni public high school is also ]ocited on the reservation. While in the vicinity of the reservation, a high school graduate from Zuni was interviewed. He stated that the junior high school and high school were combined (grades 7-12) and that about_20X of the students at the school were Zuni Indians. The principal of the school, however, was a Cherokee Indian, who did not believe that bilinpunl and bicultural studies were necessary, although bicultural studies had beer to a slight degree encorporated into the curriculum. Because the Zuni Pueblos only had seven potters left in the community, two of the local potters were invited to teach pottery making at the birth school to preserve the fading craft. The potters nlso taught abstract Indian art at the school. The music department wrs also focusing upon Indian dances as part of the curriculum. A course on the Iliory of the Indians was not a part of the course of study.

The traditional myths, legends and ceremonies were larcrely conducted secret1,7ely in the kiva (as at Taos). Thus, a relatively strong deree of departmentalization exists". beteen the tribal educationa] system and the formal educational system at Zuni. ' A. Smith, New Mexico Indians, p. 5e Commission of Indian Affairs, Sonte Fe

. Statirtics on Indian Education, p. 6 Oisk 0 ThP pnstor of the Christian Reform Church had published

material in the Zuni lanFunge, which he hdd learned .chile working

in area. He, also, held .adult education classes and used

bilingual methodology in his instruction. However, bilingual

instructior was riot offered at the local elementary schools.

The drop out rate at the high school was high and attendance

was also poor with shout 125 students absent each day. Many students

dropped out of school, but foi!ild jobs making jewelry, since an immediaie

rTrl,et was available for Zuni jewelry,and the jewelry business is

a lucrative occupation (The Zuni pueblo is the wealthiest with a

monthly incore of about 42,000,000 from jewelry and crafts). Since jobs are mmilable on the reservation, many students do not go on

to college. However, out of a senior class of eighty-five students, twerty Zuni Indians applied for college in the fall. The high school students were given release time to attend ceremonies. Also, having received permission by the parents, many students received release time for religious instruction held at the 60 Christinn lieform, Catholic,-(L.' Mormon churches. A young woman, who graduated froM the Zuni digh School three years ago, was also interviewed. she stated that there had been three suicides frorr her graduating class, and that during the past year two seniorq had teen killed as a result of drunken driving. Two other r;tudents had drowned. They were drunk when their canoe capsized.

Presently, two seniurs were in critical condition at the hospital as a r,-sult of drurken driving.

The drinking: problem wns severe aironu the young people at Zuni.

(0 Mrrk Gibbons, Zuni High School Grnduate, working ns a ray-4,er At Yonwment Na tional 1-ark Often the students drive from Zuni to Gallup which is a considerable

distance from, the resertntion. While at Gallup t,:e students drink

heavily before returning to Zuni. Most of the accidents And deaths

occur when the students attempt to returnto the reservation along to th'- narrop- 2nd hnzerdous road from Gallup.

The two high school graduates were convinced thrit the students

Ornnk bernuse of boredom, since the reservation did not have parks,

nrIlse7reilt centers, or movie theaters. The only entertFinvent for

rost students wis related to church activities. However, a few yers ago, the Tribal Council approved of a recreational center.

Unfortunately, the center was burned down Presently, funds :sere 6t b -eing raised to reconstruct the center.

An elemntery teacher was interviewed, who was affiliated viith

the Christiar. Reform Mission. She slid that three years ago the Christian Reform school, parsonage, anti church had been burned down.

A ye-r ego the recreetic center had been destroyed by fire, and recently, a main bridge along the road was burndd. Although many

**embers of the community suspected arsenists for. being responsible

for the fires, thus far nobne had been apprehended. Nany of the Indians clnired that the fires were caused by faulty elebtrical wiring, and/or

lightning. The Indians of Zuni were very strong in practicinp their tribal religion. Frequently, religious ceremonies 1-ere conctueted secretly in +he w,house cross the street from the Chrisian fieform Mssion. The Catholic Church at Zuni accepted the Indians as members of their

Surr'n Weight, p-raduate of Zuni High :school, workine. as rarger as7istant at Monument National Park (7 Mark Gibbons & Susan Weight att.,' a AI .4vc:/66,fit, 00%

faith ir spite of the fact they they worshipped theirown deities and conducted secret rituals;however, the Christian Reform Church

would not accept the Indians intotheir church, unless they renounced

their tribal religion. Those who renounced their tribal faith were ostracized from the community andwere often persecuted.

The Christian :reform Missionoperated., an element9ry school contain-

ing grndes one throuvh six. Once elementary school is completed the students pre encouraged to cortinuetheir secondrav eduction at the Christian reform School in Gallup,Rehoboth High school. Interested

f.nd qualified students may attendCalvin College at Grand Rapids,

Fichiryin rafter completing highschool.

At the Christinn Reformelementary school, Zuni aids have

beer hired to serveas interpreters. Thus far, the Indian aids

arP not qw;i2ified to tench the Zuni language. Even though the pastor,

Mr. Cooke, a Mexican, has beeninvolved in bilingual instructionfor adults, no attempt has been madeto implement bilingual and bicultural

studies at the school. Mr. Cooke's linguistic studies havebeen limited to a translation of the Bibleand a hymn book.in the Zuni lone:xage. The Zunis seem to experiencea great deal of cultural conflict.

Chancres in the language and in the lifestyle of the Ind ions has

created a comunicntiongap between the older members of the tribeand the younger. In srite or the chnr,Tes whichare occurirg, the Zunis weie defensive about their traditionalceremonies. Uourists were rot nflowed to photosrraph processionsand ceremonies whichwere held ir, the r1Pza. At times the security guards cofiscfltedthe cemeras 63 of indiIdunls who surreptitiouslyattempted to take photophs.

63 Dawn Wheaton, B.A., Univ. of Wisc., Whitewat.er; Dawn taught or the Apache reservation for four years, before teaching at the Zuni pueblo. -41-

Cet

While interviewing the teecher at the Christian rieform

three Indian teenagers arrived andwere interviewed as well. The students all agreed that English,especially composition ,was not

taught arlequAtely At the high school. One of the girls, who attended

a 1-oarming school it Albuquerque ror sixth grade stated th,,t the Indian,

students were punished for speallinr theirown language instead of Rrglish. lhe same Student attended college for a year and eventually left. Her greatest hendicar was an inadequate command of the English

langua,cre. In spite of punitive measures used in elementary school

involving the use of English, the student did not lrnow the language 64 well enough to compete at college.

During the interviewer's visit at Guns, he discovered that the

Puello Indis do not have a specific namingceremony but they are given an Indian name as well as a Christian name. As part of the triral education, the girls of the pueblo are beaten by masked

Katchinas as well as the Toys. The training period for the girls, however, is not as long es that of the boys. In addition not all of the worshir rituals are held in the lciva, but altars usedfor 65 private aril family worship are found in the homes.

In conclusion. the Zuni Pueblo is not only the largest ofthe ruel-los, but is the wenl.thi.esto In spite of the wealth, recreational facilities ere mirimal,and social problems are numerous. Boredom and/ or cultural conflicts due to diverse value systems may he responsible for some of the social rroblems at Zuni. Bilingual and bicultural

Fly Rose, a Zuni Indian, who completed a year of college before dropTing out.

Information gathered by Chandra ?rasedGurung, student of arthropolory, M.A. candidate, qribuwar Univ. -42-

studies have not been encorporated intothe curriculums at the elementary and high school levels. The strict departmentalization of tribnleducation and diverse formsof formal education may 1-ring about a great deal of culturalconflict among the Zuni Indians.

The Deputy Commissioner of theCommission of Indian Affairs at Sante Fe was interviewed. According to the commissioner,the Pureua of Indian Affairs was abureaucracy at its worst.The BIA was setting itself upin competition with thepublic and privete schools, and was more programoriented that it was oriented towards meeting the reeds of the Indians. The Head Start Program, thusfar, had been the mostsuccessful innovqflon in New Mexico. The high degree of motivationof the Head

Start teachers, and thenature of the program hasinfluenced not only the Indian children,but the attitudes of the BIAteachers who once they receive tenuretend to be reticent aboutirrproving Instruction according to thecommissioner. establishing of Indian aid4at the BIA schools did not occurthrough the BIA, but was brought a)-out because of a directivefrom Washington D.C., which aplarently was not underthe Depar4rent of theInterior. The Pueblo Indians, however,have not taken directives from

Washing4on seriously. They have learned to circumscribethe programs by the Federal Government,when it is to their advantage.

The Fueblos have been eagerto have Indian aids working atthe schools, since unemployment isreduced. The Indian aids receive L:n adequate sRlnry which is beneficialto the individual, fmily,-ind pueblo. In addition many of the Pueblo Indiansdo not believe that the adaptation of bilingual and bicultural studies will affect the

economic status of the pueblo, whilea knowledge of English will be beneficial in acquiring a job.

Thus far, the dominant culture did not understand theloyalty of the Pueblos to their clan and tribe, sincenumerous duties and obligrptionR are linked with the kiva rituals and ceremonies through.-

out the year. If cultural pluralism is accepted by the dominant culture, a change would occur pertaining to the condition of the Indians.

The Senate Sub-Committee has made generalizationsabout the Indian Problem, which in reality isa stereotype, 'sincee the Indians are Yeing classified into a category. Individual tribal conditions,

based upon hIst'orical trends, economic, political,and social factors

.frequently are not considered when such generalizationsare made. In the 19th Century the Federal Governmentparcelled out Indian

reservations to the several missionarygroups, The Sioux territory

become largely under the domain of the EpiscopalianChurch, while the Arnches were under the Christian Reform .Church. Many other protestant

denominItions were also given Indian territory,which were viewedas sources for Christian conversions. The Catholic Church, however,

w-s estqblished it the Southwest during the Spanish occupation. The dividing of the Indian reservation into missionarybelts is but a sinu]e historical factor which must be consideredwhen analizing the co,"tempoPry problems of the Indians._

T' e Nava it culture in contrast to the Pueblos hasbeen much more eclectic in terms of adapting values from the dominant culture. The Pueblos have been involved in synchronization, which is the

external adaptation of the values of the dominant culture, while sirulatnneously and secretively attetptingto presever the traditional values or the Pueblo culture.

In spite of the dualism of the Pueblo culture, the Pueblos have not been able to escape the conflict brought about by the two

diverse vnlue systems. The problem; of drinking, suicides, deviant behnvlor, anti loss of cultural identity has been extreme among the

pueblos. How66 ever, thete,is no sirrplistic solution to the complex

problems.

The assistant of the Deputy Commissioner of Indian Affairs was

also intervieed. He pointed out that the degree of traditionnlisn- varys rror- pueblo to pueblo and that each reservation must be considered as s separate entity. Although Taos had more college graduates than any other pueblo, the pursuit of higher education among the iueblos 67 has not raven place to a great extent. In conclusion, the Deputy Commissioner of Indian Affairs and :-; assistant were aware of the theory of bicultural and bilingual

studies, other directives from the Federal Governrent. Because they were employed by the State Government of New 1exico, and the

state has no jurisdiction over the BIA schools, the BIA was a target

or criticisr, which may be somewhat justified, 'while viewing the BIA historically; however, the BIA teachers interviewed at Taos and Sen.

Juan seemed to be making an effort to understand the Indians in sniff, of aaverse circumsfances.end the negative his-torical reputation of the BIA, which has had a policy of coercive assimilation in the past.

Peter Hay, anthropologist, Deputy Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Spnte Fe. 67 Jerry Cordova,Taos Indian, assistant of commissioner of I.A, 000s, Conclusion covi

According to the DeputyCommissioner on Indian Affairs arcs his assistant, tooofter generalizations have been made

about the Pueblo Indians,since individual differences occured fror pueblo to pueblo. However, in the area of tribal education the Pueblo Indianswere often secretive.

In the formal educationalsystem of the pueblos studied,

individual differencescertainly took place. At Taos the comm-

unity was overtly hostile towardsbilingual stddies. The members of the pueblo did not want theTiwa language taught at the school,

ror dici they want linguists to recordthe language. However, at San Juaribilinpual instructionhad been imrlemented andever special classes were held in the Tewalanguage. At Zia the people wanted the students to learn theKeresan language at school, but they

objected to having an Anglo teachersupervising instruction.As a result the Keresan languagewas not taught at the school. ahe Zunireservation had bilingualclasses for adults only at the

Christian Reform Mission. A Zuni hymnal and Bible hadbeen trans- lated from English. The principal at the All TribesIndian Eission w-s studying Navajo for thesummer, although bilingual studies had not been irrlemented.

The San Juan Elementary schoolalso had a biculturalprogram. Pueblo history, crafts and musicwere taught and steps were being taIxen to insert Puebloliterature into the curriculum. At Zia there was an emphasis on Indianstudies in general, but notspecif- ic9ily on the Pueblo culture. The Indian community didnot. object to the open classroom, while at Tesuque the people were opposed to the open classroom and bicultural studies. The Taos Pueblo focused upon Indian art and music very cautiously, while at Zuni

Indian potters had been hired to teach the fading craft at the public high school. Indian dances were also taught at Zuni, although Pueblo history and literature were not a part of the curriculum. Even though bilingual and bicultural studies had not been developed at Taos, Tesuque, Zia, and Zuni, Indian aids who spoke the language of the pueblo had been hired to reinforce instruction. '17 Billiogrupay

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