The Pueblo of the American Southwest

Christine Mills April 25, 2008

EDUC 405 Social Studies Methods Culture Kit Gail McEachron

Table of Contents

Historical Narrative………. 3 Lesson #1…………………. 12 Lesson #2…………………. 18 Lesson #3…………………. 24 Lesson #4…………………. 22 Artifact #1………………… 28 Artifact #2………………… 31 Assessments………………. 34 Expenses………………….. 37

Historical Narrative – The Pueblo Indians

Introduction

“Native American” is a term we often use as a catch-all phrase to describe varying stereotypes – a pan-Indian caricature of bits and pieces of “Indian-ness.” In reality, though Native

Americans make up less than one percent of the population of the United States, they embody half of its languages and cultures. This term, one that so often conjures the image of feathers and teepees, hunting and moccasins, represents over 500 groups that vary greatly in their backgrounds, from region to language to traditions to modern achievement. Unfortunately, one setting ideal for the perpetuation of such stereotypes is that of the school system. Elementary students, in particular, are susceptible, as information is often simplified at the lower levels. Students classify Native

Americans as they have seen in books and films. Stereotypes may be positive or negative, either that of a peaceful resourceful people at one with nature, or a violent animal-like group. Even worse, many children believe Native Americans are people of the past, perhaps no longer even in existence. For example “a visitor to a child care center heard a four-year-old saying, “Indians aren't people. They're all dead.” This child had already acquired an inaccurate view of Native Americans, even though her classmates were children of many cultures, including a Native American child.”

(“Teaching Young Children About Native Americans”) Native Americans merit great attention in our study of history as both the first peoples of America (“First Americans), and as equally valid and beautiful American cultures, both ancient and modern. Specific tribes should be studied – a unit on Pueblos or Sioux is appropriate, rather than one generic “Indians” unit – as well as differing time periods, in order to obtain a representative picture, and create an accurate understanding for elementary students. 4

The Pueblo are a group of Native Americans that live in New Mexico and Arizona. They get their name from their dwellings, also called pueblos (Spanish “villages”), made from stone or adobe. There are four different Pueblo languages, but the cultures of the groups are closely related.

The Pueblo are descended from an older culture of the Southwest known as Basket Makers. The

Pueblo and Basket Makers together are known as the Anasazi. The Basket Makers lived in similar dwellings (though not connected, and at times underground or in rock cliffs) and grew similar crops, but placed greater value on hunting. The transition to true Pueblo culture transpired around 700 AD.

They began constructing kivas, underground ceremonial chambers, and cultivated various types of corn, as well as cotton. By this time, they lived across a large region, from central Utah to southern

Colorado, as well as much of northern Mexico. Gradually, their territories grew less wide-spread

(perhaps due to drought or conflict with other peoples), and instead became concentrated into leveled pueblo villages. Many of the villages still inhabited today were established between 1300 and 1700 AD. Today, their economy is still based on agriculture, growing crops such as corn, beans, cotton, melon, squash, and chili peppers, though they often add to it by keeping livestock and selling handicrafts, such as basketry and pottery. In 2000, the U.S. census indicated 60,000 people who identified themselves as Pueblo, with an additional 15,000 who were part Pueblo.

The major Virginia Standards of Learning highlighted in this unit include SOL 2.2 and 2.12, with some examination of 2.6. The students examine the “lives and contributions” of the Pueblo, as well as exploring the U.S. as a diverse community. The standard 2.6 is aligned with a mapping lesson involving Pueblo architecture in which students examine a map of a Pueblo village and create a legend. National Standards highlighted include those covering art, geography, individuals, groups, institutions, people, places, environment, and global connections.

Key Ideas and Events

One of the first significant events in the history of the modern Pueblo was the founding of their villages, which ranged from 1300-1700. There are currently 21 federally recognized pueblos, with 19 in New Mexico, one in Arizona, and one in Texas. Spanish Franciscan missionary Marcos de Niza encountered Pueblo in 1539, marking the first Spanish-Pueblo contact. Coronado led an expedition into America in 1540 that involved the Hopi people, but when he failed to discover gold, he left. His interactions with the Pueblo were much more violent than those of de Niza, however, as he killed hundreds of Pueblos who grew frustrated with the Spanish presence. A more lasting invasion began in 1598 with the Spanish occupation, which was largely represented by the Spanish missions founded in the pueblos. By 1630, there was a mission in nearly all of the Pueblo villages.

In 1680, the Pueblo rallied, and revolted to throw off Spanish power. They united under Popé, a

Tewan chief of San Juan , and maintained independence until 1692. Some other revolutions were attempted, including one in 1837 that lasted for several months, but none were so successful as this.

The Pueblo passed from Spanish to Mexican control, but after the Mexican War ended in 1848, they came under U.S. control. When New Mexico and Arizona achieved statehood in 1912, this solidified the place of the Pueblo as a part of the United States.

The Pueblo culture is rich in tradition and customs. They are a culture that thrives in its storytelling, evident even in so simple an aspect as the clay storyteller figurines that are common emblems of the Pueblo. They are an agricultural community that is successful in an arid desert climate. They are artistic, creating art in varying media, including sandpainting, pottery, and weaving. Another notable element about the Pueblo is that they do not live on reservations. They have maintained their communities for hundreds of years. Preservation of their traditional culture is very important to many Pueblo Indians. Many famous Pueblo individuals are either artists or authors, and numerous museums, monuments, and exhibits are dedicated to this enduring people. 6

Men, Women, Youth and Children

The Spanish were surprised at times at the roles of men and women they discovered when they encountered the Pueblo. The Pueblo gave a much greater status to women than that of the traditional European female role. Women performed most domestic tasks – care for the house, children, gathering and preparation of food. They also participate in some of the farm work, particularly during the time of harvest. However, one remarkable aspect is that it is the Pueblo woman who owns the house. When a daughter marries, her husband joins her home, as opposed to the daughter moving to her husband’s family home. They are a matrilineal family, so genealogy is traced through the mother’s line and children are “spoken of as belonging to the mother” (“Pueblo

Indian Social and Religious Organization”). Women occasionally help with heavier labor such as construction of homes and gathering of fuel, while men perform roles that might stereotypically seem those of a female. These include weaving cloth and blankets and making moccasins for their wives. They were also primarily responsible for hunting and growing crops.

Less is known about the lives of Pueblo children. They are described as being “very obedient and only on very rare occasions are they punished” (“Pueblo Indian Social and Religious

Organization”). For those Indians living on the pueblos, children are likely most connected to outside affairs through school. Children used to leave the pueblos to attend boarding schools established by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. One Zuni Pueblo, Virgil Wyaco, born in the mid-1920s, left for boarding school in the 7 th grade. He describes his experiences, both at school and at home:

“My parents agreed to let me go, accepting my desire to broaden my life…Even when I was attending the Albuquerque Indian School I came home to Zuni summers and worked with the sheep and cut and hauled wood. I was big enough to do a man's work. Cutting wood took all day. We had to take a team and wagon to where we could find both piñon pine and cedar juniper.” (“A Zuni Life: 7

A Pueblo Indian in Two Worlds”) Later he describes how he began plowing the farm in 10 th grade.

Clearly Pueblo children worked hard and were expected to take part in family chores. Another example of the daily lives of Pueblo children can be found in the book “Children of the Clay,” by

Rina Swentzell. She describes a modern Pueblo family, how they live and work, and includes native stories and a description of the pottery-making process.

Some famous Pueblo individuals include Popé, Pablita Velarde, and Leslie Marmon Silko.

N. Scott Momaday, while not a Pueblo, has written largely about the Pueblo people, including his novel “House Made of Dawn,” which describes the Jemez Pueblo, and discusses the traditional

Pueblo runners. Popé was both a religious and political leader, a Tewa medicine man who united the Pueblo in a rebellion against Spanish occupation in 1680. He sought after the full removal of all

Spanish military and religious authority, emphasizing the cessation of Christian and Spanish cultural practices, even to the point of punishing using Spanish words and names. Though his rebellion was unsuccessful in the long term, it allowed for a merging of Pueblo and Spanish cultures that has created a distinctive culture in Southwestern American whose influences remain today.

Pablita Velarde was an artist born on Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico, in 1918. She attended Santa

Fe Indian School, and was a student in Dorothy Dunn’s art class. (Dunn started the fine arts department at the school.) Pueblo women of Velarde’s time were generally uneducated, and almost never artists. Velarde found her ambitions frowned upon, but found her opportunity within FDR’s

New Deal projects. The Bandalier National Monument came out of this period, and Velarde was commissioned to decorate it. This resulted in over 70 paintings depicting “traditional” Pueblo life.

These paintings helped explain the Pueblo lifestyle to the many visitors the Monument would receive, and opened doors for female Native American artists as well as serving as priceless artifacts of cultural preservation. Leslie Marmon Silko is one of the most notable Native American 8 writers. She is of mixed background – Laguna Pueblo, white, and Mexican – and uses her own experiences to comment on the conflict between Native American and white cultures. She often felt like an outsider growing up on the Laguna Pueblo, due to her mixed ancestry, but her grandmother and aunt rooted in her the Laguna traditions and stories, allowing her to take ownership of the culture she considered hers. She later said "I am of mixed-breed ancestry, but what I know is

Laguna". She began writing in elementary school, and went on to write “The Man to Send Rain

Clouds” in college, which marked the beginning of her literary career. She has won several awards for her novels, poetry, and essays. Her works include “Storytellers,” “Laguna Women,” and

“Ceremony,” among others.

Traditionally, the Pueblo people have primarily interacted with those of Spanish and African descent, as well as other Native American tribes such as the Navajo and Apache. The Spanish came in the form of missionaries, explorers, and militant conquerors and occupants. Spanish interaction was highly significant, particularly lasting in terms of religion, as many Catholic influences remain.

The Spanish also brought numerous slaves of African descent. African Americans also migrated west from both the south and the east throughout American history, particularly after the Civil War, as attitudes were often less hostile in the West. Of course, today, the Pueblo interact with as many different ethnicities as there are in the Southwestern U.S.

Closing and Legacy

The Pueblo are an important American people, rich in culture and tradition, with an enduring history and remaining modern relevancy. It is important for our children to gain understanding of how diverse America truly is, and essential that they recognize the achievements and contributions of American’s first peoples. People often forget that Native Americans are, indeed, still here. A children’s book series about Native Americans entitled “We’re Still Here” 9

(including Rina Swentzell’s “Children of Clay”) is indicative of this terrible, if unconscious, misconception. With so much attention given to European settlers, as well as those of African descent and even others who have more recently immigrated, it is clear more must be directed toward America’s original peoples.

Bibliography

Indian Villages of the Southwest. Mays, Buddy. 1985, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, CA

The Pueblo . Press, Petra. 2001, Compass Point Books, Minneapolis, MN. Pueblos . Preszler, June. 2005, Capstone Press, Mankato, MN.

Exploring the West . Viola, Herman. 1987, Smithsonian Institution.

Taos Pueblo, Illustration, 1893 . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Taospueblo001.jpg .

Pueblo Village . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://www.sandiegohistory.org/pancal/expo/pvkiva5.jpg .

Adobe Beehive Ovens . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://www.jamitpublishing.com/images/postcards/206.jpg .

“Guard Turning Tourists Away,” http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/exb_art/BAND653_painting_exb.html “Drying Corn,” http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/exb_art/BAND2005_painting_exb.html .

Bandelier National Monument, Pablita Velarde, http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/artwork.html

The Art of Pablita Velarde, http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/1014143

Pablita Velarde, Aged Artist, Interview, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0425/is_n1_v53/ai_15383245

“Running on the Edge of the Rainbow,” wordsandplace.arizona.edu/silko.html “Laguna Women,” by Leslie Marmon Silko

“Leslie Marmon Silko,” Britannica Online Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article- 9099597/Leslie-Marmon-Silko

“Laguna Woman,” http://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~rnelson/woman.html .

“Pueblo,” http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577338/Pueblo_(people).html

PBS. “The West.” “People – Pope.” http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/i_r/pope.htm

Virgil Wycao. “A Zuni Life: A Pueblo Indian in Two Worlds.” http://southwestcrossroads.org/record.php?num=58 .

Children of the Clay . Guided Web Tour: Native American Art. http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/claybook.html

Catholic Encyclopedia: Pueblo Indians. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12554b.htm

Appendix A

Commonwealth of Virginia Standards of Learning: 2.2 The student will compare the lives and contributions of American Indians (First Americans), with emphasis on the Powhatan of the Eastern Woodlands, the Sioux of the Plains, and the Pueblo people of the Southwest. 2.6 The student will demonstrate map skills by constructing simple maps, using title, map legend , and compass rose. 2.12 The student will understand that the United States is a land of people who have diverse ethnic origins, customs, and traditions , who make contributions to their communities, and who are united as Americans by common principles.

National Geography Standards: Standard 1 – How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools , and technologies to acquire, process, and report information from a spatial perspective .

National Social Studies Standards (Middle Grades): Individuals, Groups, and Institutions d. identify and analyze examples of tensions between expressions of individuality and group or institutional efforts to promote social conformity People, Places, and Environments h. examine, interpret, and analyze physical and cultural patterns and their interactions, such as land use, settlement patterns, cultural transmission of customs and ideas, and ecosystem changes i. describe ways that historical events have been influenced by, and have influenced, physical and human geographic factors in local, regional, national, and global settings Global Connections d. explore the causes, consequences, and possible solutions to persistant, contemporary, and emerging global issues, such as health, security, resource allocation, economic development, and environmental quality

National Standards for Art Education (Visual Arts): (K-8) Content Standard #4 Understanding the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. A: Students know that the visual arts have both a history and specific relationships to various cultures. B: Students identify specific works of art as belonging to particular cultures, times, and places. C: Students demonstrate how history, culture, and the visual arts can influence each other in making and studying works of art. (K-8) Content Standar #5 Reflecting upon and assessing the characteristics and merits of their work and the work of others. A: Students understand there are various purposes for creating works of visual art. B: Students describe how people’s experiences influence the development of specific artworks. C: Students understand there are different responses to specific artworks. 12

Lesson Plan 1: Mapping the Pueblos: Map Legends

Intended Audience : Sherry Jones’ 2 nd grade class, approximately 20 students, some inclusion

Standards : National Geography Standard I.3 – The World In Spatial Terms: How to Analyze the Spatial Organization of People, Places, and Environments on Earth’s Surface

SOL 2.6 The student will demonstrate map skills by constructing simple maps, using title, map legend , and compass rose. SOL 2.2 The student will compare the lives and contributions of American Indians (First Americans), with emphasis on the Powhatan of the Eastern Woodlands, the Sioux of the Plains, and the Pueblo people of the Southwest.

Materials, time, and space : crayons, paper, overhead projector, overheads of Pueblo villages, maps of Pueblo village (one per student, and one overhead), books “Pueblos” and “The Pueblos,” approximately 1 hour, typical classroom space for whole group and individual work

Lesson Description : Anticipatory set : Gather students onto carpet. Ask them what they remember about the book we read yesterday describing the Pueblo lifestyle (“The Pueblo,” by Petra Press). List elements they mention on the board. Read “Pueblos,” by June Preszler, and show overhead pictures of Pueblo villages. Discuss what we see in the book, with emphasis on the pueblo structure itself, as well as the kivas. Mention the fact that most Pueblo lived along the Rio Grande, as water was hard to find in the desert.

Behavioral objectives : 1. Students will demonstrate understanding of a Pueblo village by pointing out its features on a map. 2. Students will demonstrate their understanding of map legends by creating a legend for a given map, complete with 4 symbols.

Input/modeling : Send students back to their tables, and distribute maps. Put up map handout on overhead. Explain that it is a map of a Pueblo village. Ask students how they know what each object on the map is. Tell them that we need a map legend to explain what each object is, because we cannot always tell what pictures on maps are showing. Explain that a map legend has symbols, or simple pictures, on it that match the objects on the map, and next to the symbols, we write what that symbol represents. Tell students that another word for a “map legend” is a “map key.” Show them the box on the bottom of the map, and tell them that this is where we will draw our legend. Put to one of the pueblos on the map, and say, “This is a pueblo. I am going to draw a matching symbol on the legend, and write “pueblo” next to it.” Show students on overhead. Tell students to add this symbol to the legend on their own map.

Guided practice : On the overhead map, point to the river that runs through the village. Ask students how they think we might represent that river with a symbol on our legend. Remind them 13 that our symbols can be very simple. Take a suggestion and draw it on the overhead map’s legend. Make sure students add this symbol to their own legend, too.

Independent practice : Tell students that they may now choose two objects on their own, and draw them on their maps (or they may choose an object already on the map for which we did not already create a symbol). After choosing their objects, they must make symbols for them and draw them on their legends. Remind them to choose objects that, based on their knowledge of the Pueblo Indians, they might actually find in a Pueblo village.

Closure : Gather students onto the carpet again, having them bring their maps. Ask for examples, such as “Who added an oven?” or “Who added some cacti?,” etc, and for each example, have students show how they depicted that object. After a couple examples, ask students what else they thought of to add. Have them show maps, as time allows.

Evaluation : Formative – Participation, attentiveness, student has 4 objects on map and on legend Summative – Multiple choice question: The box on the corner of a map that has symbols representing the objects on the map is called: a) compass rose, b) map title, c) legend.

Check for understanding : Question students about what a map legend is, why they need symbols, specific choices they made on their maps.

Background information : The Pueblo Indians lived (and live) in the Southwestern United States. They lived in houses that were also called pueblos. The word “pueblo” means “village” in Spanish, and it is the name Spanish explorers gave to these villages they saw on their voyages. At first, pueblos were carved into cliffs, but later, when the people had to move to find more water, they were constructed out of sandstone or adobe bricks, which are made from clay, water, and straw. Since the Pueblo Indians lived in the desert, there were not many trees, so it was important for them to be able to build without using much wood. Originally these houses did not have doors – people simply left holes in the roof and used ladders to get in and out. The pueblos could be many levels high. As the family grew, they could add more rooms or levels. The buildings were close together, and centered about a square, where many activities and celebrations took place. Another important architectural structure, the kiva, was often located within this square. The kiva was an underground room used for religious ceremonies. Dome-like clay ovens were also a common sight. The Pueblo people were not nomads like the Sioux, but built stable and long-lasting villages. Instead of relying on the buffalo for their resources, ,ost of the Pueblo people were farmers, growing crops such as corn, beans, squash, chili peppers, and cotton, as well as raising animals. Vocabulary : pueblo, adobe, kiva, legend, key

Resources :

1. Indian Villages of the Southwest. Mays, Buddy. 1985, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, CA 2. The Pueblo . Press, Petra. 2001, Compass Point Books, Minneapolis, MN. 3. Pueblos . Preszler, June. 2005, Capstone Press, Mankato, MN. 4. Exploring the West . Viola, Herman. 1987, Smithsonian Institution. 5. Taos Pueblo, Illustration, 1893 . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Taospueblo001.jpg . 14

6. Pueblo Village . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://www.sandiegohistory.org/pancal/expo/pvkiva5.jpg . 7. Adobe Beehive Ovens . Retrieved on February 24, 2008, from http://www.jamitpublishing.com/images/postcards/206.jpg .

17 18

Lesson Plan #2 – Pablita Velarde: Picturing the Pueblo*

Context : Grade 2, (VA SOL, National Standards – Art); whole group and individual; 1 hour; approximately 20 students Standards: History and Social Science Standards of Learning in Virginia 2.2 – The student will compare the lives and contributions of American Indian (First Americans), with emphasis on the Powhatan of the Eastern Woodlands, the Sioux of the Plains, and the Pueblo people of the Southwest ; 2.12 – The student will understand that the United States is a land of people who have diverse ethnic origins, customs, and traditions, who make contributions to their communities, and who are united as Americans by common principles. National Standards for Art Education (Visual Arts): (K-8) Content Standard: #4 Understanding the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. Students: a. know that visual arts have both a history and specific relationships to various cultures. c. demonstrate how history, culture, and the visual arts can influence each other in making and studying works of art . #5 Reflecting upon and assessing the characteristics and merits of their work and the work of others. Students: a. understand there are various purposes for creating works of visual art. b. describe how people’s experiences influences the development of specific artworks. c. understand there are different responses to specific artworks. Objectives: 1. After taking part in a guided discussion with the teacher, students will be able to describe how Velarde depicted the Pueblo lifestyle in her paintings. 2. Given reproductions of Velarde’s paintings “Drying Corn” and “Guard Turning Tourists Away,” students will create illustrations depicting important elements of their own cultures.

Materials/Time/Space : “Drying Corn” and “Guard Turning Tourists Away” overhead transparencies; paper; crayons/markers/colored pencils; 1 hour; typical classroom space; pictures may be continued on the following day if necessary.

Lesson Description: Introduction Gather students onto carpet. Review the material covered on the previous day describing the lifestyle of Pueblo Indians. Ask students what they think “culture” means, and discuss different elements that make up cultures. Explain that “culture” is hard to define – it can mean a certain set of beliefs and traditions, within a national context, an ethnic one, or even a family one. List holidays as an example. Emphasize, however, that it need not only be a celebration, for those who do not celebrate holidays. It can also simply be something that is important to you that you do often (“It would not be the trip to Yellowstone that you went on last summer, but it could be the trip to Grandma’s you take every year.”) Note the different contexts – there can be elements of American culture (such as the 4 th of July), elements of a culture from which you have descended (ethnic/national traditions – foods, customs, etc.), or your own family culture (what time you eat dinner, things you do with your family, rules or routines). Explain that today we will look at paintings by a Pueblo artist that represent her view of her culture. Tell students that they should look closely at the paintings, and notice what Velarde’s work shows. Content Focus Key Questions : Objective: Who are the people in the paintings? What are their roles or jobs? Can you tell what they are doing? What differences can you see between the people in these paintings? 19

What about in the activities they are doing? Similarities? Interpretive: Why do you think the artist chose to paint this? What does this show about the Pueblo culture? How are the emotions of the people in each painting different, and why? Why do you think the people are standing with their backs turned in the “Guard” painting? What do you think is important about the people in the car? How do you think the artist feels about the situations in the pictures? Reflective: How would you feel in these situations? How can you relate to the people in these paintings? How do you feel your culture is the same? How is it different? If you had to create a picture to show others what you think is important about your culture, what would you include in it? Tell students we will start working on pictures of our own today, and send them back to their tables. Direct them to clear their desks, and gather needed art supplies from cubbies (crayons, colored pencils, etc.) Closing Ask students what they think these paintings tell us about America. Tell them that the paintings were created by a Pueblo woman named Pablita Velarde, who painted native art for the Bandalier National Monument in New Mexico. Explain that her work helped to both provide awareness of the Pueblo culture and tradition, and to preserve it. Ask students how they think their own cultures might change over time, and what things they think will remain the same. Explain that Velarde wanted to help her culture be both remembered and appreciated by her work. Tell students that they will create pictures of their own to illustrate something they think is important about their own culture. Explain that they must choose one particular activity or tradition that they would want to show others to explain an important part of themselves. They will need to be able to explain why it is important. Tell students we will display these pictures to explore the cultures that make up our own class, and to see what else this tells us about the cultures of America. Distribute paper to students and allow them to begin working on their illustrations. Pictures may be completed the next day if necessary. Assessment Formative: Participation, completion of own culture illustration Summative: Two multiple choice questions – Which group did Pablita Velarde’s work help MOST?: a) Native American museum workers, b) tourists, c) female Native American artists; Which people did Pablita Velarde’s art show?: a) Powhatan, b) Sioux, c) Pueblo. Background Information Pablita (Tse Tsan) Velarde was born on Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico, in 1918. She attended Santa Fe Indian School, and was a student in Dorothy Dunn’s art class. (Dunn started the fine arts department at the school.) Pueblo women of Velarde’s time were generally uneducated, and almost never artists. Velarde found her ambitions frowned upon, but found her opportunity within FDR’s New Deal projects. The Bandalier National Monument came out of this period, and Velarde got hired to decorate it. This resulted in over 70 paintings depicting “traditional” Pueblo life. These paintings helped explain the Pueblo lifestyle to the many visitors the Monument would receive, and opened doors for female Native American artists as well as serving as priceless artifacts representing a vanishing way of life.

Resources “Guard Turning Tourists Away,” http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/exb_art/BAND653_painting_exb.html “Drying Corn,” http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/exb_art/BAND2005_painting_exb.html 20

Bandelier National Monument, Pablita Velarde, http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/band/artwork.html The Art of Pablita Velarde, http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/1014143 Pablita Velarde, Aged Artist, Interview, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0425/is_n1_v53/ai_15383245

*format adapted from Heather Judson’s Masters Project w/ her permission for ED405

“Guard Turning Tourists Away,” c. 1940, by Pablita Velarde. 21

“Drying Corn,” c. 1940, by Pablita Velarde.

Lesson Plan #3 – Leslie Marmon Silko

Intended Audience : 3 rd grade, about 20 students, some inclusion, Stonehouse Elementary School

Standards : 3.12 The student will recognize that Americans are a people of diverse ethnic origins, customs, and traditions , who are united by the basic principles of a republican form of government and respect for individual rights and freedoms.

Behavioral Objectives : 1. Students will identify times that they or others might have felt left out of a group in the context of Leslie Marmon Silko’s childhood experiences. 2. Students will respond to qualitative questions about Silko’s background and work with thoughtful and reflective answers.

Materials, Time, and Space : Laguna Women , by Leslie Marmon Silko; video viewer (either overhead or tv connected to computer); 1 hour; typical classroom space for whole group and small group instruction

Lesson Description Introduction : Ask students if they have ever felt left out or as if they did not belong. Ask how they felt about it. Remind them of Eleanor Roosevelt’s statement “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” Discuss the meaning of her statement. Ask students how they think they might apply that to themselves. Explain that we will discuss a Pueblo writer who did not always feel like she belonged and what she did about it. Content Focus : Show video clips from “Running on the Edge of the Rainbow.” Gather students to carpet. Remind students about what we already know about the Pueblo. Tell them about Leslie Marmon Silko in anecdotal form – the story of her youth on the Laguna Pueblo, and how she did not really feel like she belonged to any group. Explain that she decided to embrace the Laguna culture, and expressed her decision about her identity through her writing. Tell students she has now become an important figure for the Pueblo. Read selected poems from her poetry collection “Laguna Women”* (eg “Aunt Susie”), and discuss their biographical content and what they reveal about Silko’s identity. Questions could include: What does this show about her culture? What does it show about her family? How does she relate to people and nature? How do you think she was feeling when she wrote this? Why are these people/subjects significant to her? Can you think of something in your own culture (previously defined) that this reminds you of? Ask students to choose something significant to them – a place or a group that they identify with – to write a poem or story about. Give them some time to brainstorm. Closure : Ask students who are willing to share what they have chosen to write about and why. Explain to students that we will be working on our writing throughout the week, and will share it with the class when everyone has finished.

Evaluation : Formative : Participation, answering questions, application of prior knowledge of Pueblo Indians Summative : Completion of writing work that demonstrates a choice to embrace a certain culture or group; Multiple choice question – What did Leslie’s grandmother teach her that helped her identify with the Pueblo culture? – a) gardening, b) stories, c) making pottery. 23

Background Information : Leslie Marmon Silko is one of the most notable Native American writers. She is of mixed background – Laguna Pueblo, white, and Mexican – and uses her own experiences to comment on the conflict between Native American and white cultures. She often felt like an outsider growing up on the Laguna Pueblo, but her grandmother and aunt rooted in her the Laguna traditions and stories, allowing her to take ownership of the culture she considered hers. She later said "I am of mixed-breed ancestry, but what I know is Laguna". She began writing in elementary school, and went on to write “The Man to Send Rain Clouds” in college, which marked the beginning of her literary career. She has won several awards for her novels, poetry, and essays. Values: self-awareness, personal identity Vocabulary: inferior – worse or lower than other people, consent – permission, allowing, ancestry – family descent or lineage, your grandparents and great-grandparents

Resources: “Running on the Edge of the Rainbow,” wordsandplace.arizona.edu/silko.html ; “Laguna Women,” by Leslie Marmon Silko; “Leslie Marmon Silko,” Britannica Online Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9099597/Leslie-Marmon-Silko; “Laguna Woman,” http://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~rnelson/woman.html;

*If a copy of “Laguna Women” cannot be procured, this poem from the end of “Lullaby” may be used instead.

The earth is your mother, she holds you The sky is your father, he protects you.

Sleep, sleep. Rainbow is your sister, she loves you. The winds are your brothers, they sing to you.

Sleep, sleep. We are together always We are together always There never was a time when this was not so. (Silko in Lauter, 1994:2738-2739).

Lesson Plan #4 – Pueblo Water Rights

Standards: USII.1 The student will demonstrate skills for historical and geographical analysis, including the ability to a) analyze and interpret primary and secondary source documents to increase understanding of events and life in United States history from 1877 to the present; b) make connections between past and present; d) interpret ideas and events from different historical perspectives

Intended Audience: Heterogeneous sixth grade classroom, 20-25 students; previous exposure to research using primary and secondary documents; previous knowledge of a general Pueblo history, but not specific issues that have remained controversial for the Pueblo people.

Behavioral Objectives: 1. Given documents about water rights, the students will identify pertinent issues and arguments, both in oral and written contexts, with 100% participation. 2. Given the opportunity to conduct research about their own specific questions, students will present written evidence of focused research endeavoring to answer their questions, with 100% participation. 3. Given the opportunity to analyze varying perspectives on the issue of water rights, students will demonstrate that history may be interpreted in more than one way, with 100% participation.

Materials, Time, and Space: copies of letters, court documents, descriptions of the region’s demographics and water (different sets placed at stations for student groups to rotate), 2007 article and 1899 letter for teacher use, recording sheet per student, computers with internet access, two 1- hour blocks, students grouped at desks/tables, computer lab

The Lesson Proper

Day 1

Introduction: Read the Walpole’s letter from 1899, and then the “Finding a Balance” article. Begin a discussion with students about the setting in which the Pueblo lived, and their lifestyles (primarily agricultural – crops and animals). Ask students about irrigation and drought. Discuss the relevance of drought to these articles, from how it might affect the lifestyle of the Pueblo to the resentment they might face from others. Ask students who else might be seeking rights to the water use in this region, and who they think should have more right to the water. Ask for explanations, based on what they have studied about the Pueblo and heard in the articles. Ask students what additional knowledge they might need to make an educated decision, and how they might go about finding it.

Content Focus: Group students into groups of 4. Distribute documents to different stations throughout the classroom. Explain that the students should use these documents to help them form an understanding of the controversy surrounding the water rights in the Southwest. Inform them that the documents include letters and court documents from cases over water rights, some information 25 about water in the Southwest, and some reminders about the Pueblo lifestyle. Explain that they can make notes and use this information to fill out the first question on their handout.

Predicted Outcomes: Students will likely see the issue as clearly defined either in favor or against the Pueblo. Answers such as “They were there first, so it’s their right to use as much water as they want,” or “They can’t use all the water, they should adjust their lifestyle to be more practical in a dry region” are probable. Ask for examples of student responses to the first question. After a few contrasting examples are identified, ask the class to align themselves with the side they most agree with, and if there are any non-identifiers, create another group for them. Ask for a discussion in which each group can share their stance. It can resemble an informal debate in order for students to see the consistent division and arguing over such a precious resource. After brief discussion, allow students time to form further questions about the issue.

Day 2 Have students continue their research by taking it online. Direct them to the website of the “Indian Affairs Collection,” but allow them the freedom to explore further on their own (through Google or another search engine), with supervision. Circulate through the room to aid with research, help with questions, and supervise the progress of students. Have students complete the third section of their handout, answering their questions as well as unearthing new information.

Closure: Have students share their research with the class. Ask for specific examples from their sources. Make sure students feel that their opinions are valid, that it is a safe environment in which to share their conclusions. Clarify for students the fact that they may come to numerous differing conclusions that are equally reasonable, as long as they are supported by evidence.

Evaluation

Formative: Student participation and effort, respectful conduct in the context of class discussion, good use of time for research, ability to focus research

Summative: Worksheet, conclusions supported by evidence from documented research

Background Information:

“Finding a Balance: water rights for Native Americans, others uncertain.” Staci Matlock, The New Mexican, January 16 th , 2007. Retrieved on April 16, 2008 from http://www.freenewmexican.com/news/55299.html .

Matlock provides a discussion of the issue of water rights in New Mexico. She examines three specific cases – those of the Aamodt, the Navajo, and the Taos Pueblo.

“Letter from Walpole to G.H. Howard concerning Nambe water rights. March 21, 1899.” Retrieved on April 16, 2008 from http://elibrary.unm.edu/oanm/NmU/mss16bc_images/nmu1%23mss16bc_img0250.png .

Early example of the disputes involving water usage in New Mexico. 26

“Letter to Pueblo and Jicarilla Agency from Nambe, concerning water rights and a counter suit against a mayordomo. April 20, 1899.” Retrieved on April 16, 2008, from http://elibrary.unm.edu/oanm/NmU/image_sets/mss16bc_imgs257-258.html .

Follow-up to the prior source that illustrates the position of the Nambe after taking governmental advice.

“Indian Affairs Collection, 1684-1903 (bulk, 1872-1903).” Retrieved on April 16, 2008 from http://elibrary.unm.edu/oanm/NmU/nmu1%23mss16bc/nmu1%23mss16bc_m7.html .

This is a collection of letters, court cases, and other documentation of the fight for various Indian rights, including land and water issues. The time spanned between these documents and the prior article point to the gravity of the water rights issue – it has continually been a problem for well over one hundred years, and likely much longer. The documents here are grouped according to either tribe or institution (one is a Santa Fe school) to make for simpler access.

“USGS New Mexico Water Science Center.” Retrieved on April 16, 2008 from http://nm.water.usgs.gov/ .

This site provides descriptions of the water resources available in New Mexico. This would work well in contrast with a map indicating the location and sizes of the pueblos in New Mexico.

Skills: The process of inquiry; research; developing perspectives based on evidence and arguing that position; examining Native American water rights history

Values: Respect for use of reason; respect for evidence; respectful speech; questioning; arguing a position that one supports

Concepts: Rights to shared resources

Vocabulary: acequia - a community operated waterway used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation; injunction - an order of a court requiring a person, corporation, or government entity to stop doing something and refrain from doing that thing in the future

Water Rights Inquiry

I. Given the water rights articles you have examined, describe one view of the dispute.

II. What further questions do you have about either side of the argument about water usage?

III. Investigate your questions by conducting further research. Record your findings below.

Question:

Resource consulted:

Information discovered relevant to question:

Additional information discovered:

Additional questions:

Time devoted to today’s research:

Artifact #1 – Sand painting Primary Activity Background : Sand paintings are an art form of the Pueblo and Navajo Indians. The Pueblo were the first to create sand art, but the Navajo are now most famous for it. Though it is a beautiful and complex style of art, sand painting was primarily used for religious healing ceremonies. After a sand painting was completed, the patient would sit in the center of it, as the healer put sand from the painting onto him. When the ceremony was over, the painting was destroyed. Permanent copies of sand paintings were not allowed for many years, because they believed this would make the painting lose its power. The paintings were made from colored sandstone, charcoal, pollen, dried flowers, and other finely ground dried materials. They were typically 6 to 8 feet, but could be up to 20. Sometimes they required the work of many people, as the entire ceremony, from the painting’s creation to its destruction, took twelve hours. There are at least 600 different types of paintings, including symbols such as deities, animals, plants, lightning, and rainbows, among others. Five sacred colors are used typically – blue, black, red, white, and yellow. Whole group activity : The teacher will provide a lesson on the sand paintings of the Southwest Indians, including a description of their creation and structure, and their significance within native culture, then show the specific sand painting on the overhead. Together, teacher and students will create a list on the board of opinions and observations about the painting, including notable symbols, and possible materials. Teacher will essentially model the thought processes needed for the small group activity. Small group activity : Several paintings will be available at stations (each table). Pre-determined groups of 3-5 students will move freely about, comparing paintings and answering these questions together. Teacher should move from group to group and ask guiding questions, as well as listen in to each group’s discussion. 1) What similarities and differences do you notice in these paintings? 2) Do you see any of the common symbols we mentioned? 3) How do you feel about these paintings? Individual activity : Students will create their own sand paintings, using provided double sided tape, construction paper, and colored sand. They may pick a traditional theme discussed in class, or choose a more personal theme. Teacher should make sure they remove the covering from the double-sided tape area by area, rather than all at once, as this will make for easier work. References : “Southwest Indians: Sandpainting,” http://www.mce.k12tn.net/indians/crafts/southwestcrafts.htm ; “Sandpainting”, Online Britannica Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065443/sand-painting ; “How Native American Sand Painting is Used in Ceremonies,” http://www.indians.org/articles/native-american-sand-painting.html ; “Yei” sand painting, http://www.pueblodirect.com/images/120607032.jpg .

Intermediate Activity Background: Sand paintings are an art form of the Pueblo and Navajo Indians. The Pueblo were the first to create sand art, but the Navajo are now most famous for it. Though it is a beautiful and complex style of art, sand painting was primarily used for religious healing ceremonies. After a sand painting was completed, the patient would sit in the center of it, as the healer put sand from the painting onto him. When the ceremony was over, the painting was destroyed. Permanent copies of sand paintings were not allowed for many years, because they believed this would make the painting lose its power. The paintings were made from colored sandstone, charcoal, pollen, dried flowers, and other finely ground dried materials. They were typically 6 to 8 feet, but could be up to 20. Sometimes they required the work of many people, as the entire ceremony, from the painting’s creation to its destruction, took twelve hours. There are at least 600 different types of paintings, including symbols such as deities, animals, plants, lightning, and rainbows, among others. Five sacred colors are used typically – blue, black, red, white, and yellow. Small group activity: Students will work in pre-determined groups of 3-5 students, circulating between stations featuring various sand paintings. They will discuss the following questions amongst themselves: 1) What similarities and differences do you notice in these paintings? 2) Do you see any of the common symbols we mentioned? 3) How do you feel about these paintings? 29

Then they will focus specifically on the primary featured sand painting, which will be up on the overhead, and make notes as a group detailing notable elements and any reactions. They will turn these notes in, as a group. Whole group activity: Using a large plastic shower curtain, glue, and colored sand, the class will work together as a whole to create a sand painting. They should work from the center out, applying glue gradually so it will not dry before the application of the sand. (If it becomes apparent that the group is struggling with the glue, the teacher may have the students make a loose sand painting, without the glue. This will be more realistic, but not allow for display in the classroom.) Individual activity: Students will create their own modern “sand” paintings, using materials of their choice. The teacher may provide materials (natural materials such as leaves and grass, food materials, other craft materials such as buttons or beads), or the students can bring in whatever they choose for the following day, allowing for more personal creativity (though the teacher should have materials on hand for those students that may not have access to as many materials at home). Remind students of the variety of materials other than sand that were actually used in the creation of sand paintings. References: “Sandpainting”, Online Britannica Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065443/sand-painting ; “How Native American Sand Painting is Used in Ceremonies,” http://www.indians.org/articles/native-american-sand-painting.html ; “Yei” sand painting, http://www.pueblodirect.com/images/120607032.jpg

Assessment Questions Primary

1. What are the material that is NOT used in sand paintings? a) paint b) sand c) pollen d) charcoal

2. What did the Pueblo and Navajo use sand paintings for? a) growing food b) art c) healing d) schoolwork Intermediate

1. Why did the Pueblo and Navajo create sand paintings? a) to help them grow food b) to decorate their homes c) to heal the sick d) for homework

2. Which is NOT a reason the Pueblo and Navajo destroyed sand paintings after the ceremonies were complete? a) they thought the painting would lose its power b) they thought other tribes would copy their paintings c) they thought the sand could make them sick now

Artifact #2 – The Three Sisters Primary Activity Background : The “three sisters” are the native staples of corn, beans, and squash. They are the “sustainers of life,” and the center of many ceremonies and traditions. They are particularly important to farming peoples, such as the Pueblo. Corn could be eaten fresh, boiled or roasted, or dried and ground into cornmeal. This was used like flour to make foods such as flat breads and corn mushes. Beans are a source of protein, which is important when meat is scarce. Squash served to provide additional vitamins. The “three sisters” are one good example of companion planting, and various stories about this successful companionship have been passed down within several tribes. They are planted in a circle. The corn is tall and strong so it is in the middle, the beans grow up the corn stalk while adding nutrients (specifically nitrogen) to the soil, and the squash spreads out over the ground around them to conserve moisture. Whole group activity : Teacher will provide lesson on the “Three Sisters.” Read story about the Three Sisters and discuss the roles of each sister. Then act out the story together. Talk about why these particular plants are so important in Native American cultures. Small group activity : Group students into groups of 4-5. Take them outside to plant a Three Sisters garden. If there is no outside space, small planters may be used inside the classroom. Discuss the function of each plant and guide students through the process. Individual activity : Give students samples of Three Sister recipes (succotash, corn tortillas with beans, three-sisters stew). Have the names of each dish on the board and ask that students record each dish, which sister(s) it contains, and if they like it. References : “The Three Sisters,” http://www.theorganicreport.com/pages/519_the_three_sisters_corn_beans_and_squash_activities_for_the_classroom.cfm ; “Creating a Three Sisters Garden,” http://www.kidsgardening.com/growingideas/projects/March02/mar02-pg1.htm ; “The Three Sisters: History for Kids,” http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/northamerica/before1500/economy/threesisters.htm ; “Cooking with Three Sisters,” http://www.manataka.org/page175.html

Intermediate Activity Background : The “three sisters” are the native staples of corn, beans, and squash. They are the “sustainers of life,” and the center of many ceremonies and traditions. They are particularly important to farming peoples, such as the Pueblo. Corn could be eaten fresh, boiled or roasted, or dried and ground into cornmeal. This was used like flour to make foods such as flat breads and corn mushes. Beans are a source of protein, which is important when meat is scarce. Squash served to provide additional vitamins. The “three sisters” are one good example of companion planting, and various stories about this successful companionship have been passed down within several tribes. They are planted in a circle. The corn is tall and strong so it is in the middle, the beans grow up the corn stalk while adding nutrients (specifically nitrogen) to the soil, and the squash spreads out over the ground around them to conserve moisture. Whole group activity : Teacher will provide lesson on the Three Sisters. Read story about the Three Sisters and discuss the roles of each sister. Ask students to consider what each one does in the story, and how they think this reflects what the plants actually do. Talk about why these particular plants are so important in Native American cultures. Individual activity : Take students outside to plant a Three Sisters garden. Allow each student their own small plot, if space allows, or give each individual charge over a particular object in a plot (3 students per plot). If there is no outside space, small planters may be used inside the classroom. Discuss the function of each plant and guide students through the process. Small group activity : Group 3-4 students and have them create their own Three Sister story to share with the class. They may read it or act it out, as they choose. Remind them to incorporate what they have learned about the sisters in their story. 32

References : “The Three Sisters,” http://www.theorganicreport.com/pages/519_the_three_sisters_corn_beans_and_squash_activities_for_the_classroom.cfm ; “Creating a Three Sisters Garden,” http://www.kidsgardening.com/growingideas/projects/March02/mar02-pg1.htm ; “The Three Sisters: History for Kids,” http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/northamerica/before1500/economy/threesisters.htm ; “Cooking With Three Sisters,” http://www.manataka.org/page175.html

Assessment Primary 1. What are the Three Sisters? a) corn, beans, squash b) broccoli, corn, carrots c) beans, potatoes, lettuce

2. How did the Pueblo plant the Three Sisters? a) in rows next to each other b) in different fields c) in a circle together

Intermediate

1. What did the beans do MOST to help the Three Sisters? a) protect them from wild animals b) add nutrients to the soil c) shelter from sun and wind

2. Where else do we see the Three Sisters in Pueblo culture? a) In stories and ceremonies b) In families with lots of girls c) In the architecture

Primary Assessment

1. What is this part of the map called? :

a) compass rose b) legend c) map title

2. Which group did Pablita Velarde’s work help MOST? a) female Native American artists b) rival Navajo potters c) visiting tourists

3. Which people did Pablita Velarde’s work show? a) Powhatan b) Sioux c) Pueblo

4. What material is NOT used in sand paintings? a) pollen b) charcoal c) sand d) paint

5. What was the purpose of sand paintings? a) growing food b) art c) healing d) schoolwork

6. What are the Three Sisters? a) broccoli, beans, carrots 35 b) corn, beans, squash c) beans, potatoes, lettuce

7. How did the Pueblo plant the Three Sisters? a) in a circle together b) in rows next to each other c) in different fields

Intermediate Assessment

3. Why did the Pueblo and Navajo create sand paintings?

a) to help them grow food b) to decorate their homes c) to heal the sick d) for homework

4. Which is NOT a reason the Pueblo and Navajo destroyed sand paintings after the ceremonies were complete?

a) they thought the painting would lose its power b) they thought other tribes would copy their paintings c) they thought the sand could make them sick now

5. What did the beans do MOST to help the Three Sisters?

d) protect them from wild animals e) add nutrients to the soil f) shelter from sun and wind

6. Where else do we see the Three Sisters in Pueblo culture?

a) In stories and ceremonies b) In families with lots of girls c) In the architecture

7. What did Leslie’s grandmother teach her that helped her identify with the Pueblo culture?

a) gardening b) making pottery c) stories

Essay Question

Describe the water controversy involving the Pueblo Indians. Choose a side to argue for and provide three (3) examples of why they deserve the water rights (2 points each). Provide one (1) example of either an alternative perspective or describe a possible compromise scenario (either choice, 2 points).

Students will receive 1 point for a correct (or valid) example and 1 point for a good supportive argument. Total of 8 points possible.

Expenses

Corn seed packets – between $1.75-$3 Bean packets – between $1.50-$2.50 Squash seed packets – between $1.50-$3 (various online sources, would probably be cheaper in stores with gardening supplies)

Colored sand - 1 - 19 lbs : $1.29 lb (need at least red, blue, black, yellow, and white) 20 - 49 lbs : $.99 lb 50 - 99 lbs : $.79 lb 100 + lbs : $.69 lb (http://www.sandartsupplies.com/StoreBox/sand/skyblue.htm )

Double-sided tape - $2-3 per roll (office supply stores)

Washable water color set - $1.90 (includes brush) (http://orientaltrading.com ).