Unit I GRAMMAR CHAPTER 1 Parts of Speech

Words are the building materials of a language. When arranged in proper order, words form into sentences and convey ideas. For example : Birds live in trees. Smt. Pratibha Patel is the President of India. Sometimes a single word or a phrase may also convey an idea. For example : Thief ! Order, order! Snake! Out, out, brief candle! Nonsense! Objection overruled! Normally, different words in a sentence called parts of speech, perform different functions. We can classify these words according to their functions, as follows : 1.1 Nouns : They are names of persons, places, things, ideas, and feelings, such as, Gandhi, Hyderabad, Everest, Salarjung Museum, Buddhism, Theory of Relativity, and kindness. 1.2 Pronouns : They are words used in place of nouns to avoid their repetition, such as, I, we, you, he, she, it, they, and one.

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1.3 Adjectives : They are words used to describe nouns and pronouns, such as, good, great, kind, and lazy. 1.4 Prepositions : They are words used to relate nouns and pronouns with the other words of a sentence, such as, write with a pen, sit on the mat, see through the window, interested in games, love for music, and travel by bus. 1.5 Interjections : They are words used to express sudden feelings, such as, Alas! The poor man has lost his house in the fire! Oh, my God! What a pity! 1.6 Conjunctions : They are words used to join other words, phrases and clauses, such as, life and death, young but wise, He wrote well, so he passed, Although he is ill, he has gone to the office. 1.7 Auxiliary Verbs : They are helping verbs used in forming tenses and voices, such as, am, is, are, do, did, have, has, will, shall, must, can and could 1.8 Verbs : They are words used to express actions, such as, come, go, eat, weep, cry, and jump. 1.9 Adverbs : They are words used to describe adjectives, verbs and other adverbs, such as, very kind, come quickly, and very well.

EXERCISE 1.1 Identify the parts of speech of the italicized words or phrases in the following sentences: 1. The boy ran across the road in great excitement. across : great : Unit I - GRAMMAR 5

2. The kite flew high into the sky. kite : high: 3. Sitting on the branch of a tree, the nightingale sang sweetly. on : sweetly : 4. He only is the true friend who helps us in need. he : true : 5. They have played with me too long. have played : too long : 6. The boy fell down from the tree fell : down : from : 7. He hit the ball very accurately very : accurately : 8. The teacher is deep in debts in : 9. Lo! What a fall! lo : 10. Away, away! You, scoundrel! away :

1.1 NOUN 1.1.1 KINDS OF NOUN The different kinds of noun are as follows : 1. PROPER NOUN : A proper noun is the name given to a particular person, place or thing, so that the object can be identified. 6 A Handbook of English for Professionals

For example : Gandhi, Alexander, Kabir, Sachin, Lata ...... Persons Hyderabad, India, Kashmir, London ...... Places Ganges, Geetanjali, Ramzan, Sunday ...... Things 2. COMMON NOUN : A common noun is the general name given to a person, place or thing. For example : child, boy, girl, man, woman, teacher ...... Persons city, town, village, stadium, beach ...... Places language, pen, star, river, cloud ...... Things 3. COLLECTIVE NOUN : A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of persons, animals or things. For example : group, mob, team, crowd ...... Persons flock, herd, pack, litter, brood ...... Animals heap, pile, cluster, bunch ...... Things 4. MATERIAL NOUN : A material noun is the name given to a material substance. For example : iron, gold, silver, steel, wood, stone, glass 5. ABSTRACT NOUN : An abstract noun is the name given to a feeling, action, quality, state, art or subject. For example : happiness, sorrow, shock, pity, fear ...... Feelings action, prayer, treatment, punishment ...... Actions love, kindness, justice, mercy, cruelty ...... Qualities poverty, misery, hunger, thirst, danger ...... States poetry, music, painting, architecture ...... Arts politics, history, science, engineering ...... Subjects Unit I - GRAMMAR 7

EXERCISE 1.2 Mention the kind of noun of the italicized words in each of the following sentences : 1. The lion is the king of the forest.

2. Solomon was known for his wisdom and justice.

3. The elephant is the heaviest animal.

4. The Moon is a bright satellite.

5. Her voice has sweetness in it.

6. Ashok has much love for his sister.

7. Honesty is the best virtue in a man.

8. Health is wealth.

9. The bunch of keys is missing.

10. Women wear flowers of sweet smell.

11. Gold and silver are precious metals.

12. The Red Fort in Delhi was built with red stones.

13. Cleopatra's beauty was the talk of the world.

14. Cyclops was a one-eyed giant. 8 A Handbook of English for Professionals

15. What is life without music and literature?

1.1.2 SINGULAR AND PLURAL NUMBERS The nouns of English have two numbers, namely Singular Number, indicating only one person or thing, and Plural Number, indicating two or more persons or things. The plurals in English can be formed by adding 's' in a number of ways, as follows : 1. adding, s : trees, flowers, fruits, birds, clouds, boys, girls. 2. adding, es to singular nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x and -z : glass : glasses mass : masses kiss : kisses bush : bushes dish : dishes batch : batches match : matches catch : catches box : boxes tax : taxes blitz : blitzes 3. changing the final -y into -ies when the -y is preceded by a consonant : city : cities story : stories beauty : beauties body : bodies university : universities 4. adding -s to the final -y if it is preceded by a vowel: boy : boys joy : joys key : keys Unit I - GRAMMAR 9

journey : journeys toy : toys monkey : monkeys 5. adding -es to the final -o if it is preceded by a consonant: mango : mangoes tomato : tomatoes potato : potatoes hero : heroes negro : negroes flemingo : flemingoes 6. adding -s to singular nouns ending in -o. dynamo : dynamos studio : studios radio : radios photo : photos Note : Certain nouns end in -oe. Only -s should be added to them to make them plurals. For example : foe : foes toe : toes woe : woes shoe : shoes 7. Changing the end -f or -fe into -ves. wolf : wolves half : halves self : selves shelf : shelves wife : wives leaf : leaves thief : thieves knife : knives 10 A Handbook of English for Professionals

Note : Certain nouns ending in -f take only -s for the plural. For example : belief : beliefs grief : griefs kerchief : kerchiefs mischief : mischiefs Certain nouns ending in -fe take only -s for the plural. For example : safe : safes strife : strifes Certain nouns ending in -ff, and -rf, take only -s for the plural. For example : roof : roofs proof : proofs staff : staffs (sticks) dwarf : dwarfs Certain nouns ending in -f take on both -fs and -ves for the plural. For example : scarf : scarfs and scarves wharf : wharfs and wharves 8. Changing the vowels of certain singular nouns. For example : man : men woman : women foot : feet tooth : teeth 9. adding -ren to certain singular nouns. For example : child : children brother : brothren Unit I - GRAMMAR 11

10. adding -s to the principal word in certain compound words. For example : brother-in-law : brothers-in-law governor-general : governors-general engineer-in-chief : engineers-in-chief lady doctor : lady doctors Note : Certain compound words take double plural. For example : man-servant : men-servants woman-student : women-students FOREIGN PLURALS The following foreign singular and plural nouns are used in English : 1. Singular nouns ending in -a have the plural form -ae. For example : formula : formulae (formulas) nebula : nebulae (nebulas) vertebra : vertebrae (vertebras) 2. Singular nouns ending in -us have the plural form -i. For example : alumnus : alumni focus : foci (focuses) fungus : fungi (funguses) nucleus : nuclei radius : radii stimulus : stimuli 3. Singular nouns ending in -um have the plural form -a. For example : addendum : addenda bacterium : bacteria curriculum : curricula (curriculums) datum : data maximum : maxima (maximums) 12 A Handbook of English for Professionals

medium : media memorandum : memoranda millemmium : millennia 4. Singular nouns ending in -ex, -ix, -s have the plural form -es. For example : index : indexes (indices) appendix : appendixes (appendices) axis : axes analysis : analyses basis : bases crisis : crises hypothesis : hypotheses oasis : oases synopsis : synopses thesis : theses 5. Singular nouns ending in -on have the plural form -a. For example : criterion : criteria phenomenon : phenomena Note : Certain singular and plural nouns have the same form. For example : innings mathematics physics series species politics economics statistics civics annals thanks measles wages Unit I - GRAMMAR 13

Certain plural nouns are always in the singular form. For example : furniture information advice machinery scenery stationery These words are always in the singular verb form. For example : 1. The furniture in the office is new. 2. The information you have given is very useful. 3. Your advice has helped me much. 4. The machinery acquired by you is costly. 5. This scenery is simply exciting. 6. There is no stationery in the office. 1.1.3 GENDER There are four Genders in English : 1. MASCULINE GENDER 2. FEMININE GENDER 3. COMMON GENDER 4. NEUTER GENDER 1. MASCULINE GENDER All the names of male persons and animals belong to Masculine Gender. For example : boy, man, father, brother, uncle, son, nephew, grandson, grandfather, brother-in-law, king, son-in-law, father-in- law, hero, villain, actor, dog, fox, bull, tiger, lion, horse. 2. FEMININE GENDER All the names of female persons and animals belong to Feminine Gender. For example : girl, woman, mother, sister, aunt, daughter, niece, grand- daughter, grandmother, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, mother- in-law, queen, heroine, vampire, actress, cow, tigress, lioness, seamstress, mare, governess. 14 A Handbook of English for Professionals

3. COMMON GENDER All the names that can be used for both male and female belong to Common Gender. For example : baby, child, humans, student, pupil, friend, teacher, speaker, painter, cook, servant, officer, magistrate, neighbour, animal, bird, doctor, engineer, accountant, judge, lawyer, chairperson. 4. NEUTER GENDER All the names of inanimate things, that is, names of things other than those of human beings and animals, belong to Neuter Gender. For example : playground, book, sun, moon, classroom, tree, fruit, flower, river, ocean, desert, park, forest, town, village. Note : All abstract and collective nouns belong to Neuter Gender. For example : kindness, generosity, beauty, mob, group, herd, team, pack, flock, crowd. FORMING THE FEMININE GENDER : The Feminine Gender can be formed by the following methods. 1. Using independent antonyms : father : mother brother : sister king : queen dog : bitch sir : madam cock : hen husband : wife 2. Adding - ess to the masculine word : host : hostess heir : heiress actor : actress master : mistress Unit I - GRAMMAR 15

3. Adding the word that indicates the sex before or after the keyword: milkman : milkmaid land-lord : land-lady man-servant : maid-servant he-goat : she-goat peacock : peahen Note : There are a number of other forms of words indicating their gender. These forms are as follows : bridegroom : bride widower : widow hero : heroine fox : vixen man : woman 1.1.4 CASE There are five Cases in English : 1. NOMINATIVE CASE 2. OBJECTIVE CASE 3. POSSESSIVE CASE 4. DATIVE CASE 5. VOCATIVE CASE 1. NOMINATIVE CASE : A noun which is the subject of a verb is in the Nominative Case. For example : Sachin scored a century. Children play games. Lata sang a song. The wolf killed a lamb. If the verb gives an answer to the question 'who?' the answer is said to be in the Nominative Case. 2. OBJECTIVE CASE : This is also called Accusative Case. If the verb gives an answer to the question 'what' or 'whom', the answer is said to be in the Objective or Accusative Case. The answer is known as 16 A Handbook of English for Professionals

the Direct Object. Prepositional Object also is in the Objective case. For example : They bought a house. He painted a picture. She concealed the letter under the pillow. The scientist tested his theory in the laboratory. He met the officer concerned. 3. POSSESSIVE CASE : This is also known as Genetive Case. The nouns that indicate possession are said to be in Possessive or Genetive Case. There are many ways of forming the Possessive Case. 1. by adding -'s to singular nouns, as follows : Vajpayee's poetry Lion's roar Nightingale's song Bird's eye view 2. by adding -'s to plural nouns that do not end in -s, as follows : Working Women's Hostel Men's Fashion Show Children's Story Books 3. by adding only the apostrophe (') to singular nouns that have two or more hissing sounds, as follows : For justice' sake Jesus' crucifixion For righteousness' sake 4. by adding only the apostrophe (') to plural nouns ending in -s, as follows : Teachers' Day Workers' Unions Mothers' Day Unit I - GRAMMAR 17

5. by adding -'s to singular nouns that end in s, as follows: Keats's Odes King James's version of the Bible Horse's dignity 6. by adding -'s only to the last noun of a group of nouns coming together, as follows : The Queen of England's (long tenure) The Government of India's (Foreign Policy) The Commander-in-Chief's (orders) 7. by adding -'s to the second of two nouns used in apposition, as follows : Dr. Kalam, the President's concern for the nation. Shakespeare, the dramatist's genius. God, the Almighty's grace be on us. 8. by using an inanimate object in Possessive Case when that object is personified, as follows : Earth's surface India's population Nature's fury Sun's eclipse Note : (i) Unless personified, inanimate objects are in the Possessive Case. The following examples are not correct. The law and orders's situation. (incorrect) The situation of law and order. (correct) The law and order situation. (correct) Science and technology's development. (incorrect) The development of science and technology. (correct) (ii) The following phrases, however, are acceptable : Life's ambitions, in a week's time, to heart's content, a day's journey, at wit's end, stone's throw, arm's length, out of harm's way. 18 A Handbook of English for Professionals

4. DATIVE CASE : If the verb gives an answer to the question, 'to whom' or 'for whom', the answer is called the indirect object. This indirect object is said to be in the Dative Case. For example : I gave him a warning. She lent me her notebook. He sent her New Year Greetings. The grandmother told the child a story. 5. VOCATIVE CASE : This case is also called Nominative of Address. A direct address to a person or thing is said to be in the Vocative Case as follows : Oh Dad, can't I see you once again? Children, please come here. Bapuji, you should be living now. Oh Mighty Tower, what a fall you had!

EXERCISE 1.3 Identify the case of each noun (italic) in the following passage : I have great pleasure in welcoming you, the shareholders of the company, to this annual general body meeting. During this year your company's performance was satisfactory, though it failed to rise to your expectations. A number of adverse factors in combination worked to the detriment of the company. The labourers created trouble. They stopped work. Fortune's wheel turned the full circle. This company is everybody's and so all must work for it.

EXERCISE 1.4 Correct the following sentences with reference to the cases of the noun : 1. The Vice-Chancellor chambers are simply grand. 2. My father sent to me money. 3. Alexander, the great, visit to India was recorded in history. 4. The University office is at a stones throw. Unit I - GRAMMAR 19

5. You are Japanese an industrious race. 6. She bought a frock the baby. 7. Vikas sister is our classmate. 8. She mangoes sells. 9. Friends, Romans and countrymen lend me your ears. 10. Poverty's extent has increased in India. 1.1.5 COLLECTIVE EXPRESSIONS There is no dearth of collective expression in English to indicate groups of people, animals, birds and inanimate objects as shown below : A herd of deer A shoal of fish A flock of geese A stack of wood A stack of arms A pair of shoes A herd of swine A flock of sheep A flight of steps A bunch of keys A bunch of grapes A swarm of flies A tribe of Arabs A flight of birds A shower of rain A suit of clothes A sheaf of wheat A pack of wolves A pack of hounds A series of events A litter of puppies A regiment of soldiers A bundle of hay 20 A Handbook of English for Professionals

A sheaf of grain A bundle of sticks A group of islands A gang of labourers A bunch of bananas A covey of partridges A chain of mountains A nest or swarm of ants A heap or mass of rums A hive or swarms of bees A heap of stones or sand A fall of snow or rain A clump or grove of trees A cluster or galaxy of stars A sheaf or quiver of arrows A flight or swarm of locusts A brood or flock of chickens A gang of thieves or robbers A bunch or bouquet of flowers A range of hills or mountains A group of figures in a painting A collection of relics or curiosities A herd of cattle, A drove of cattle A troop or squadron of horses A crowd, or throng, or concourse, or multitude of people.

1.2 PRONOUN 1.2.1 KINDS OF PRONOUN A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid its repetition. There are seven kinds of pronoun as follows : 1. PERSONAL PRONOUN 2. DEMOSTRATIVE PRONOUN 3. INDEFINITE PRONOUN 4. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN Unit I - GRAMMAR 21

5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 6. RELATIVE PRONOUN 7. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 1. PERSONAL PRONOUN : A personal pronoun is used for any of the three persons, namely first person, second person and third person, in singular as well as plural number as shown below : 1. First Person Singular Number Plural Number Subject form I we Object form me us Possessive form mine ours 2. Second Person Singular Number Plural Number Subject form you you Object form you you Possessive form yours yours 3. Third Person Singular Number Plural Number Subject form he, she, it they Object form him, her, it them Possessive form his, hers, its theirs 2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN : A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a noun going before it and is used instead of it. The main demonstrative pronouns are : this, that, these, those, and such, as used in the following examples : 1. That apartment is costlier than this. 2. This boy is cleverer than that. 3. I hate smoking and drinking. These are harmful to health. 4. The lions of Africa are fiercer than those of India. 5. He is a fatherly figure, so we must respect him as such. 3. INDEFINITE PRONOUN : An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a person or thing in a general and indefinite way, but not in a specific or particular way. The main indefinite pronouns are: one, none, they, all, some, someone, somebody, nobody, so on and others. 22 A Handbook of English for Professionals

For example : One must respect one's parents. None of the soldiers is wounded. They say that war may come any time. All is well that ends well. Some are born great but some achieve greatness. Someone threw a stone at the window. Somebody knocked on the door. Nobody has seen hell or heaven. If we respect others, they too will respect us. 4. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN : A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to nouns, one at a time. Each, either, and neither are the main distributive pronouns. For example : Each of them is an artist in his own right. The villagers are given a gun each. The greeting cards cost me Rs. 100 each. Either of the sisters is a good singer. Either of the officers is kind enough to the staff. Either of the sisters is a competent tennis player. Neither of them is a mechanic. Neither of the two buses goes to the railway station. 5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN : An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. Some of the interrogative pronouns are what, who, which, whose and whom. For example : What is your plan now? What is the matter with you? Who comes there? Who threw the stone? Which is your favourite game? Which is the best course of action now? Whose is this book? Unit I - GRAMMAR 23

Whose is that house? Whom do you want to see? Whom are you marrying? 6. RELATIVE PRONOUN : A relative pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a noun going before it and also joins two sentences or clauses. Some of the relative pronouns are: who, what, which, whom, whose, that, but, and as. For example : She is the girl who complained against me. I told you what I know. This is the book which I wanted to read. That was the girl whom he wished to marry. How is the patient whose legs were amputated? How is the computer that I have bought ? There is no man but wishes to be wealthy. Such men as are truthful are rare these days. Note : 1. The relative pronoun is sometimes omitted. For example : One must suffer for the sins (that) one commits. This is the dictionary (which) I bought last month. 2. The relative pronoun has the same number and person as the noun or pronoun for which it stands. For Example : It is I who am your well-wisher. It is they that are dishonest. It is she who is a great dancer. 3. The relative pronoun must be placed as near the noun or pronoun as possible. For example : He lives in an apartment in Hyderabad which is air-conditioned. (Incorrect) 24 A Handbook of English for Professionals

In Hyderabad he lives in an apartment which is air- conditioned. (Correct) He lives in Hyderabad in an apartment which is air-conditioned. (Correct) The man is my brother's friend who took away my scooter. (Incorrect) The man who took away my scooter is my brother's friend. (Correct) The man who is my brother's friend took away my scooter. (Correct) 4. Some compound relative pronouns are also used in English. They are whoever, whatever, and whichever. For example : Whoever defeats this warrior, will be given half of my kingdom. Whatever the elders say, is full of wisdom. Whosoever violates the rules, will be punished. 7. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN : A reflexive pronoun is used in two ways. 1. To reflect the subject of an action, and 2. To make a pronoun more emphatic, or intensive. The reflexive pronoun is formed by adding 'self' to personal pronouns. For example : Reflexive Use : He wounded himself. They boast of themselves. The blind man dresses himself. One must respect oneself. I must help myself before I think of helping others. Unit I - GRAMMAR 25

Emphatic Use : He himself cleaned the room. She herself stitched her clothes. They themselves built their house. I myself iron my clothes. She herself cooks the food.

EXERCISE 1.5 Identify the kinds of the pronouns italicized in the following sentences: 1. I have a friend; he is a gentleman. I : he : 2. He told me a story. It is an interesting story. He : me : It : 3. Is that your College? This is ours. that : This : ours : 4. What a monument this is! this : 5. These are my friends; perhaps those are yours. These : those : yours : 6. They are her parents. They love her very much. They : They : her : 26 A Handbook of English for Professionals

7. She asked them for some money. They gave her some. She : them : her : some : 8. This watch is mine. I love this. mine : I : this : 9. How can one forget one's friends? one : 10. The police arrested none in this case. none : 11. Respect all. Hate none. all : none : 12. The watchman saw someone moving outside the gate someone : 13. It seems nobody knows the mystery of creation. nobody : 14. The Buddha is a great sage, and should be worshipped as such. such : 15. This book is either his or hers, but not yours. his : hers : yours : 16. Others are always others. They have no sympathy for us. others : others : us : Unit I - GRAMMAR 27

EXERCISE 1.6

Identify the type of the italicized pronoun in the following sentences:

1. Each of us is the author of our own destiny.

Each :

2. Neither of the two friends believes the other.

Neither :

3. Who are you?

Who :

4. What is your name?

What :

5. Which game do you like most to watch?

Which :

6. Shakespeare is the playwright whom I like most.

whom :

7. The police recovered the idols that were stolen.

that :

8. It is the politicians who created the mess.

who :

9. The lunatic killed himself.

himself :

10. Empty people boast of themselves.

themselves :

11. The hero himself sang the song.

himself :

12. The chief minister himself operated the computer.

himself : 28 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.7 Name the type of each italicized pronoun in the following sentences: 1. One who praises every body, in fact, praises nobody. one : who : nobody : 2. This signature that has created so much confusion, is after all mine. that : mine : 3. Some fruits are sweet, while some are bitter. some : 4. This property is ours, not yours. ours : yours : 5. The number of sounds that an ape makes are more than those that a human being makes. that : those : 6. The examinees must bring at least one pen each. each : 7. Whose bag is this, Tom? this : 8. Whatever parents do is only for the good of their children Whatever : 9. Take care of yourself. yourself : 10. In olden days kings themselves took part in battles. themselves : Unit I - GRAMMAR 29

EXERCISE 1.8 Rewrite as directed. 1. Join the following sentences by means of a relative pronoun : The flowers are fresh. They are in the garden.

2. Fill in the blank in the following sentence with an interrogative pronoun : He always succeeds in he does. 3. Fill in the blank in the following sentences with appropriate reflexive pronouns : (i) The award was presented by the President . (ii) The Government is responsible for unemployment. 4. Correct the pronouns in the following sentences : (i) Who did you see?

(ii) The handbag is her's.

(iii) I can play chess as well as him.

(iv) My eyesight is better than you.

5. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate indefinite pronouns : (i) were present but of them had no textbooks. (ii) must keep the promises makes. 6. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with one of the personal pronouns given in the brackets. (i) She is as tall as . (he, him) (ii) Let go. (she, her) (iii) You and are true friends. (me, I) 30 A Handbook of English for Professionals

7. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate demonstrative pronouns : (i) This is my seat and is yours. (ii) The people of America are more materialistic than of India. (iii) The climate of Hyderabad is nearly as good as of Bangalore.

1.3 ADJECTIVE Adjectives are words that describe a noun or pronoun. Many adjectives can be identified by typical endings, such -y, -ish, -al, -ous, -ious, -ent, -ient, -ible, -able, -ar, -ary, -ed, -en, -ful, -er, -est, and -ant. For example : heavy, stylish, parental, sensuous, conscious, innocent, efficient, edible, capable, particular, necessary, fixed, fallen, skillful, nearer, dearest, reluctant. Normally, adjectives appear near the nouns and pronouns they modify, as shown below : 1. Adjectives appear before the nouns and the pronoun 'one' as in, Little children are playing on the green grass. I can eat a mango if I get a ripe one. 2. Adjectives appear as subject complements after linking verbs, as in, The song is sweet. The judgement sounds partial. 3. Adjectives appear as object complements after objects, as in, Children must make their parents happy. We consider him mad. 4. Adjectives appear after indefinite pronouns, as in, We welcome anything fresh and new. There is none greater than the meek. Unit I - GRAMMAR 31

The adjective has three degrees of comparison, namely. Positive (Wise) Comparative (Wiser) Superlative (Wisest) Normally, adjectives of one syllable take on -er, and -est to form comparative and superlative degrees, respectively, as in, deep, deeper, deepest fine, finer, finest strong, stronger, strongest hard, harder, hardest few, fewer, fewest Adjectives having two or more syllables take on 'more' and 'most', as in, intelligent, more intelligent, most intelligent practical, more practical, most practical industrious, more industrious, most industrious However, two-syllable words ending in -y, -ly, -le, -er, and - ow take on -er and -est, as in, heavy, heavier, heaviest early, earlier, earliest little, littler, littlest clever, cleverer, cleverest shallow, shallower, shallowest happy, happier, happiest

1.3.1 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES There are many kinds of adjectives, as follows : 1. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE 2. PROPER ADJECTIVE 3. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE 4. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE 5. RELATIVE ADJECTIVE 6. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE 32 A Handbook of English for Professionals

7. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE 8. NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE 1. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE : It gives the quality or state of the noun or pronoun, as in, America is a strong nation. Tagore is a great poet. Hitler was a merciless dictator. Tigers are wild animals. 2. PROPER ADJECTIVE : It is made by adding suffixes to proper nouns, as in, Arabian scents are very famous. Indian history is full of internal battles. Shakespearean tragic heroes have a flaw in them. 3. DEMOSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE : It is formed by using this, that, these, and those, as in, This monument is Charminar. That man is our Dean. These watches are Citizen watches. Those buildings are our College buildings. 4. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE : It is formed by using another, each, both, many, any, some, and no, as in, Another tiger died in the zoo. Each politician has his ambitions. Both men you see are engineers. Many times I told you to mind your tongue. The computer can be operated by any person nowadays. Please lend me some money. No man would stoop so low. Unit I - GRAMMAR 33

5. RELATIVE ADJECTIVE : This is formed by using whatever, which, whichever, whose, and whosever, as in, She lost whatever money she carried. I do not remember which dress he wore that day. I will take whichever action is possible. One never knows which way she thinks. We do not know whose plan this is. 6. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE : This is formed by using my, our, your, his, her, its, their, and one's, as in, This is my chair. Our ideas are the same as yours. Is this your purse? His knowledge is immense. A snake kills its own younglings. We must honour the soldiers for their sacrifices. One must love one's parents. 7. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE : It is formed by using what, which and whose in a question, as in, What medicines has the doctor prescribed for him? Which party has won the election? Whose singing do you enjoy most? 8. NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE : It is formed by using cardinal and ordinal numbers, as in, Three men boarded the bus. Two prisoners escaped from the jail. The President is the first citizen. The last man to leave is the owner of the hall. The final warning was given to him. 34 A Handbook of English for Professionals

1.3.2 ARTICLES Articles are determiners that limit the scope of the noun they qualify. There are two types of articles, namely, 1. Indefinite Article : a or an 2. Definite Article : the The indefinite article, a or an, primarily means one, any, or some, while the definite article, the, indicates, something or someone specifically or particularly. Whereas 'a' comes before countable nouns starting with a consonant sound, 'an' comes before countable nouns starting with a vowel sound. For example : a rose, a star, a man, a house, a horse, an honest man, an MP, an egg, an ant. USES OF INDEFINITE ARTICLE, a / an 1. It is used with the meaning of one, any or some, as in, A bird is singing from somewhere. Every student must carry a pen. A tiger is a ferocious animal. This is an interesting novel. Abdul Kalam is an eminent scientist. 2. It is used in the phrase, many a / many an, as in, Many a man followed the example of the saint. Many an orphan was adopted by foreigners. 3. It is used in the phrases, a little, and a few, to indicate considerable quantity or numbers, as in, Even at the end of the month, he has a little money in his pocket. Though defeated in the elections, he still has a few followers. USES OF DEFINITE ARTICLE 'the' 1. It particularises or specifies a person or thing, as in, The apple I ate was not sweet. The bird that is singing is a cuckoo. Can you recognise the man waiting outside? Unit I - GRAMMAR 35

2. It is used before unique things, such as, the earth, the moon, the sun, the Taj Mahal. 3. It is used before a noun which has already been referred to : Once upon a time there was a king, and the king had no sons. 4. It is used before a noun to indicate the whole class : The dog is a faithful animal. (all dogs) The cow is a sacred animal. (all cows) 5. It is used before superlative adjectives : the greatest, the best, the most beautiful 6. It is used before an adjective to indicate the people : the rich, the poor, the innocent, the illiterate 7. It is used before the names of seas, oceans, bays, gulfs, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, names of holy books, newspapers, ships and trains, as follows : the Arabian Sea the Indian Ocean the Bay of Bengal the Persian Gulf the Indus the Himalayas the Andamans the Bible the Times of India the Vikrant the East Coast Express the Howrah Mail the Rajdhani Express 8. It is used before ordinal numbers : the first, the last, the next, the tenth, the initial, the final, the ultimate. 9. It is used before musical instruments. the violin, the guitar, the flute. 36 A Handbook of English for Professionals

10. It is used before the names of bodily limbs. the head, the hand, the eye, the neck. 11. It is used before geographical directions: the east, the west, the north, the south 12. It is used before the names of certain languages to indicate the people speaking those languages. the Chinese, the Assamese, the Japanese, the French, the English, the Spanish. 13. It is used in comparative expressions, such as, The more you play games, the more active you become. The more I think of her, the sadder I become. The richer you become, the greedier you grow. 14. It is used before nouns like school, office, hospital, market, post office, railway station, and bank to indicate the purpose other than the primary purpose, as in, Sphoorthy has gone to the school. (to meet a friend) Aruna has gone to the hospital. (to see an exhibition) Sherief has gone to the bank. (to distribute his wedding invitation) Sobha has gone to the office. (to invite a friend to dinner) Note : If the primary purpose is indicated, 'the' should not be used, as in, He has gone to bank. (to draw some money) She has gone to market. (to buy some vegetables) He has gone to post office. (to buy some envelopes) 15. It is not used before material nouns. However when comparison or particularisation is indicated, the definite article is used before material nouns, as in The steel produced in the Vizag Steel Plant is cheaper than the steel produced in the Bokaro Steel Plant. The gold produced in South Africa is costlier than the gold produced in Kolar. Unit I - GRAMMAR 37

16. It is used before abbreviations : the UNO, the UNESCO, the USA, the UK. 17. It is used before proper nouns for comparison, as in, Tagore is the Shakespeare of India. Patel was the Bismarc of India. 18. It is used in place of a superlative adjective to indicate the highest rank, as in, She is the dancer. Mango is the fruit. Amitabh Bachan is the hero of the millennium. Kapil Dev is the Indian Cricketer of the century. (In these sentences 'the' is used with the meaning of best or greatest ) 19. It is used in the phrases : the former the latter the following the preceding in the morning in the evening in the forenoon in the afternoon in the sky in the world in the universe in the forest in the air in the forefront in the absence of in the presence of 38 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.9 Rewrite the following sentences by using appropriate articles : 1. One can learn any language in an year.

2. For every subject there should be an university.

3. The President is a honourable man.

4. I saw an one-handed beggar.

5. The visitor has come for you.

6. Mauritius is in an Arabian Sea.

7. Observer is a newspaper.

8. Ignorant do not know anything.

9. Lion is the king of the forest.

10. A dictionary that I bought is very costly.

11. First man to enter the hall is the chief guest.

12. Flute is a cheap musical instrument.

13. The teacher hit the boy on head.

14. Indus is a great river. Unit I - GRAMMAR 39

15. The Everest is tallest mountain.

16. UNO is an international body.

17. He is an officer in SBI (State Bank of India)

18. North and South never meet.

19. English and Irish were not on good terms.

20. The gold is more precious than silver.

EXERCISE 1.10 Mention the names of the italicized adjectives in the following sentences : 1. Cold winds blow in December.

2. May is hot.

3. Some books are to be chewed and digested.

4. Tibetan monks often visit India.

5. The Himalayan mountain ranges are the largest in the world.

6. The invisible bird singing in the tree is a Nightingale.

7. Sometimes he forgets his own name.

8. Do you make your parents happy? 40 A Handbook of English for Professionals

9. Which pen do you use?

10. This is my last and final warning to you.

11. Indian music is the best music.

12. Silence is golden.

13. Did you see any boy go this way?

14. This gentleman extended to me timely help.

15. The flowers in the garden are fragrant.

16. A wooden chair is much better than a steel one.

17. He does little work, but eats much food.

18. All study and no play makes one a dull boy.

1.3.3 DEGREES OF COMPARISON Adjectives are used to compare nouns and pronouns in respect of their characteristics. The comparison can be made in three different ways, as follows : 1. POSITIVE DEGREE 2. COMPARATIVE DEGREE 3. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE 1. POSITIVE DEGREE : The Positive Degree is used to express the quality of a noun/ pronoun in a simple way. For example : Siddhartha was a sensitive man. Jesus was loving. Gandhi was conscientious. Unit I - GRAMMAR 41

The Positive Degree is also used to compare the quality or inequality of two persons or things. For example : Simla is as cold as Srinagar. Richards is not so illustrious as Sobers. 2. COMPARATIVE DEGREE : The Comparative Degree is used to compare two persons or things in order to show the superiority of one to the other. For example : Milton is greater than Keats. The rose is more charming than the lily. Note : The Latin adjectives, junior, senior, superior, inferior, interior, anterior, and exterior, are followed by 'to' and not the usual 'than' as in the case of the other adjectives. For example : Hari is junior to Ravi. I am senior to him. The superintendent is superior to the clerk. The Indian athletes are not inferior to those of Europe. When one person or thing is to be highlighted the definite article 'the' comes before the adjective, and the preposition 'of' comes after it, 'Than' is not used in this type of comparative. For example : Tom is the more active of the two brothers. Lata is the sweeter of the two singers. 3. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE The Superlative Degree is used to show the superiority of one person or thing to an entire group. For example : The rose is the most beautiful of all the flowers. Ashoka is the greatest king. Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist in English. 42 A Handbook of English for Professionals

Note : The definite article 'the' and the possessive adjective do not go together. For example : Sachin is our greatest batsman. (not, our the greatest) This is his finest poem. (not, his the finest poem) The Taj Mahal is India's best monument. (not, India's the best) Sometimes the Superlative Degree is used without the Definite Article 'the' when only a high level of quality is meant. For example : It is most unwise of him to resign. This incident is most unfortunate. It is most painful to lose the election. The situation is most confusing. In the above sentences no comparision is intended. Double comparatives and double superlatives are incorrect. For example : Kalidas is more greater than Tagore. The sun is more brighter than the moon. He is the most richest man in India. Mango is the most sweetest fruit. One form of Superlative Degree shows that a certain number of persons or things are superior to the others. In this form 'one of the' is used instead of 'the'. For example : Hyderabad is one of the best cities in India. Viswanathan Anand is one of the finest chess players. Kashmir is one of the most beautiful places.

EXERCISE 1.11 1. Name the other Degrees of Comparision for the following words : (i) bad (ii) much (iii) ugly Unit I - GRAMMAR 43

(iv) easy (v) careful (vi) polite (vii) precious (viii) holy (ix) excellent (x) industrious 2. Correct the following sentences : (i) Who is more sincere of the two brothers?

(ii) This a saddest news.

(iii) My game is inferior than his.

(iv) The jackal is more cleverer than the fox.

(v) I have read less books than you.

(vi) You have come earlier than me.

(vii) Tom is more junior than Sam.

(viii) She is the eldest of the two sisters.

(ix) Gold is very costly than silver.

(x) Japanese and Chinese are more busy than Indians.

1.3.4 COMPARISONS WITH ADJECTIVES English is rich in comparative expressions which may be effectively and sparingly used for metaphorical purpose. These expressions are listed below : 1. as black as the Ace of Spades. 2. as black as soot. 44 A Handbook of English for Professionals

3. as black as coal. These three are used of something dirty, for example, a child's face, hands and clothes after play 4. as black as pitch. 5. as black as midnight. 6. as black as ink. These three are used of something dark, for example, a room, a cellar, a road or street without light. 7. as black as jet. Used purely descriptively of hair or an object. 8. as blind as a bat. Used jokingly about someone whose eye-sight is bad. 9. as blind as beetle. 10. as blind as a mole. These two do not occur often 11. as bold as a lion. 12. as bold as brass. 13. as bright as silver. Used to describe shiny objects. 14. as bright as noonday. 15. as bright as day. These two have the sense of 'light', 'not dark' for example, a room, the weather. 16. as brittle as glass. 17. as brown as a berry. Used of people who have a tanned skin after sunbathing. 18. as changeable as the weather. 19. as changeable as the moon. These two are used of a person who changes his mood or opinion about something often. 20. as cheerful as a lark. 21. as clear as a bell. Used of a tone or someone's voice. Unit I - GRAMMAR 45

22. as clear as the nose on your face. This means 'obvious', easy to recognise or see through, for example, a situation, someone's intention etc. 23. as cold as a frog. 24. as cold as a stone. These two are used of a person who shows no emotions or little feeling. 25. as cold as ice. Used of things, substances, people's hands or fingers the temperature of a room and so on. 26. as cool as a cucumber. Used of a person who remains calm in difficulty or danger. 30. as cunning as a fox. 31. as dark as pitch. Used of a dark room or, a dark night 31. as dead as a doornail. 32. as dead as mutton. These two are slang expressions used of a person. 33. as deaf as a post. 34. as different as chalk from cheese. These two are used of two persons who are very different in appearance or character. 35. as dry as a bone. 36. as dry as dust. 37. as dry as a stick. These are used of a substance, like soil and sand. The second is used to describe a boring book or speech The third is used of a thirsty person. 38. as dumb as a fish. Used of a stupid person. 39. as dumb as a statue. Used of a person who says nothing. 40. as easy as ABC. 41. as easy as pie. 42. as easy as anything. These three are used of a task or problem which is easy to accomplish or solve. 46 A Handbook of English for Professionals

43. as fair as a rose. Used for a beautiful woman, in poetic style 44. as fat as butter. 45. as fat as a pig. These two are used of a fat person. The first is more complimentary than the second. 46. as fierce as a tiger. 47. as firm as a rock. These two are used of a person or a thing. With persons, it means 'resolute' 48. as fit as a fiddle. Used of a person who enjoys excellent physical health. 49. as flat as a board. 50. as flat as a pancake. These two may be used of very flat countryside, or any flat surface. They are also used (informal, uncomplimentary) of a woman's flat figure. 51. as fleet as (a) deer. Used of a person or an animal, with fleet meaning 'swift' 52. as free as (the) air. 53. as free as a bird. These two are used of a person or an animal, with free meaning 'not restricted'. 54. as fresh as a daisy. Used to describe how someone looks or feels 55. as gay as a lark. 56. as gaudy as a peacock. 57. as gaudy as a butterfly. These three are used of the extremely colourful way in which someone dresses. 58. as gentle as a lamb. 59. as good as gold. These two are used of a well-behaved child, or an orderly person. 60. as good as a play. Used of something unintentionally amusing. Unit I - GRAMMAR 47

61. as graceful as a swan. Used of someone's movements, often a ballet dancer. 62. as grasping as a miser. Used of someone who is always trying to get more money and who keeps it for himself. 63. as grave as a judge. Used of a person, with grave meaning 'solemn'. 64. as greedy as a wolf. as greedy as a pig. as greedy as a dog. These three are used of a person who eats more than he needs. 65. as green as grass. 66. as gruff as a bear. Used of an ill-tempered person. 67. as happy as a lark. 68. as happy as the day is long. 69. as hard as a stone. 70. as hard as nails. These two are used of hard substances, or of an unsympathetic person. 71. as harmful as a dove. 72. as harmless as a kitten. These two are used of persons. 73. as heavy as lead. 74. as hoarse as a crow. 75. as hot as fire. These three are used of the heat or temperature of something or of someone's face, cheeks and so on. 76. as hot as pepper. Used of food which is seasoned with sharp spices. 77. as hungry as a hunter. 78. as innocent as a dove. 79. as keen as mustard. These three are used of a person who is very critical and exact in his expectations or demands on others. It also means eager to do something. 48 A Handbook of English for Professionals

80. as large as life. Used of a person, meaning 'as he really is, without doubt'. (We had just been talking about Jim's disappearance, when quite suddenly, there he stood in front of us, as large as life!) 81. as light as a feather. Used of a thing which has very little weight. It referes to persons and means 'mentally deficient, stupid'. 82. as light as cork. Used of a thing which has very little weight. It can also refer to persons that is women of fragile build. 83. as light as a butterfly. Light-hearted, not solemn. 84. as light as air. 85. as light as thistledown. These two are used of things which have little weight. 86. as like as two peas in a pod. 87. as like as two beans. These two are used of two persons or things which are very much alike in appearance or character. 88. as loud as thunder. Used of noises or someone's voice. 89. as merry as a cricket. Used of a person's mood or personality. 90. as mute as a fish. 91. as obstinate as a mule. These two are used of a person or animal. 92. as old as the hills. Used to describe a story or tale which everybody already knows; also used of a person or a thing. 93. as pale as a ghost. 94. as pale as death. These two are used of the colour of a person's face. usually because of shock or illness. 95. as patient as Job (the name of an uncomplaining man in the Bible). 96. as patient as an ox. 97. as plain as a pikestaff. Unit I - GRAMMAR 49

98. as plain as the nose on your face. These four are used of obvious situations and people with intentions which are easy to recognise or see through. 99. as playful as a kitten. 100. as plentiful as blackberries. 107. as plump as a patridge. 108. as poor as a church-mouse. 109. as poor as Lazarus (the name of a beggar in the Bible). 110. as pretty as a picture. 111. as proud as a peacock. These four are used of the way a person dresses, acts, and speaks. 112. as proud as Lucifer (a name of the Devil in the Bible). 113. as quick as lightning. Used of a person. It can refer to a physical action, like running, or to a mental process, like seeing through a problem or situation. 114. as quiet as a lamb. 115. as quiet as a mouse. These two are used of a person, often of a baby or a small child who is quiet when necessary. 116. as red as a beetroot. 117. as red as fire. These two are used of a person who blushes or becomes flushed with anger or embarrassment. 118. as red as blood. 119. as red as cherry. 120. as red as a rose. These three are used to describe the special colour of things. 121. as regular as clockwork. Used of actions and things which happen regularly, or to persons who do things regularly. 122. as rich as Croesus (Croesus was a very rich king). 123. as ripe as cherry. 124. as round as a barrel. informal, used of a fat person. 125. as round as a ball. 50 A Handbook of English for Professionals

126. as round as a globe. 127. as round as an apple. Used of the shape of things. 128. as salty as a herring. 129. as sharp as a razor. 130. as sharp as a needle. These two are used of a thing or of something hurtful, or cruel that a person says. 131. as silent as the grave. 132. as silent as the dead. These two are used of a person, or a thing or a place. 133. as silent as the stars. Used of a thing or a place. 134. as silly as a sheep. 135. as silly as a goose. These two are used of a person. 136. as slender as gossamer. Used of a thing or a person. 137. as slippery as an eel. Used of a thing or of a sly person. 138. as smooth as velvet. Used of a thing which is soft to the touch. 139. as smooth as butter. 140. as smooth as oil. These two are used to describe soft, creamy substances. 141. as sober as a judge. Here, sober means 'solemn' informally. It also means that a man is not drunk. 142. as soft as butter. 143. as soft as down. 144. as soft as wax. These three are used of a thing. Whichever is used depends on the likeness of the substance to butter, down or wax. 145. as sound as a bell. Here sound means 'healthy' or 'in good condition' Used of a person or a thing (or a machine) Unit I - GRAMMAR 51

146. as sour as vinegar. Used of the taste of something. 147. as steady as a rock. Used of a person or a thing. 148. as timid as a rabbit. 149. as tough as leather. Used of a thing, often food, like a piece of hard meat which is difficult to cut or chew; also used of a physically strong person. 150. as tough as nails. Used of a person with a strong will. 151. as tricky as a monkey. Here 'tricky' means 'clever' 'crafty' Used of a person or an animal. 152. as true as steel. Here true means 'loyal' 'reliable'. Used of a person. 153. as ugly as a scarecrow. Used of a person. 154. as vain as a peacock; as warm as toast. Used of the way someone is clothed warmly in winter, or of a pleasantly warm room. 155. as watchful as a hawk. 156. as weak as a kitten. 157. as weak as a baby. These three are used of a person. 158. as wet as a drowned rat. Used of person whose clothes have got very wet. 159. as white as a sheet. Used of the colour of the face of a person who has turned pale after a shock or fright. 160. as wise as an owl. 161. as wise as Solomon (King Solomon in the Bible). 162. as yielding as wax. These three are used of materials, substances and persons.

*** 52 A Handbook of English for Professionals

1.4 PREPOSITIONS A Preposition is a word that expresses the relationship between a Noun, Pronoun or Noun Phrase and another element of the sentence as illustrated below : 1. Abide by : All must abide by the court order. 2. Abide with : One must abide with one's parents in all situations. 3. Abound in : The sea abounds in fish. 4. Abscond from : He never absconds from classes unless he is ill. 5. Absent from : The clerk is absent from his section. 6. Absorb in : Lata is absorbed in singing. 7. Abstain from : He abstained from examinations. 8. Abundance of : There is abundance of oil and gas in West Asia. 9. Abundant in : Rice is abundant in coastal Andhra Pradesh. 10. According to : According to Darwin man has evolved out of the ape. 11. Account for : The cashier in the bank must account for any shortage of money. 12. Accrue from : Interest accrues from savings. 13. Accuse of : The man was accused of smuggling. 14. Accustomed to : He is accustomed to reading till midnight. 15. Acquit of : The officer was acquitted of all charges of corruption. 16. Acquaint with : The people living in cities are not acquainted with rural problems. 17. Adapt oneself to : I cannot adapt myself to cold climate. 18. Adhere to : Teachers must adhere to a code of conduct. 19. Adjacent to : The office is adjacent to the Principal's room. 20. Adjust to : We must adjust ourselves to changing circumstances. 21. Adjust with : Sensitive people cannot adjust with others. 22. Afraid of : Children are afraid of strangers. 23. Agitate for : Employees often agitate for revision of pay-scales. 24. Agree to : The government agreed to the demands of the employees. Unit I - GRAMMAR 53

25. Agree with : I agree with Darwin that man has evolved out of the ape. 26. Agree on : all the members of the association agreed on the need to observe punctuality. 27. Aim at : The policeman aimed the gun at the escaping criminal. 28. Akin to : Man is akin to other animals in all respects. 29. Eliminate from : Terrorism must be eliminated from the land. 30. Allot to : The Government allotted house sites to its employees. 31. Amount to : Disrespect to the National Flag amounts to a great crime. 32. Angry at : The Principal is angry at the rude behaviour of the student. 33. Angry with : The Speaker was angry with the shouting members. 34. Apologize to / for : The member apologized to the speaker for using unparliamentary words. 35. Appetite for : A man suffering from fever has no appetite for food. 36. Aptitude for : The child has no aptitude for Mathematics. 37. Appeal to / for : The employees appealed to the Government for sanction of Dearness Allowance. 38. Apply to / for : The clerk applied to the superintendent for leave. 39. Ashamed of : Ashamed of her failure in the examination, a girl left her home. 40. Assent to : The President gave his assent to a Constitution Amendment Bill. 41. Ask about : A candidate asked the clerk about the date of the interview. 42. Ask after : I asked after his health. 43. Ask for : He asked me for a piece of paper. 44. Associate with : Nehru was associated with Gandhi for long years. 45. Attend to : I have urgent work to attend to. 46. Attend on : Doctors and nurses attend on patients. 47. Attentive to : Animals are attentive to music. 48. Authority on : Abdul Kalam is an authority on nuclear science. 54 A Handbook of English for Professionals

49. Authority over : The Government has no authority over the Judiciary. 50. Avail of : All employees avail themselves of public holidays. 51. Aware of : As responsible citizens we are aware of our duties. 52. Bear with : No nation can bear with terrorism for a long time. 53. Believe in : We believe in superstitions. 54. Bestow on : God bestows his love and mercy on us. 55. Binding on : The decisions taken by the Cabinet are binding on the whole nation. 56. Blessed with : He was blessed with a son. 57. Blind to : Parents are generally blind to the faults of their children. 58. Boast of : One should not boast of one's own virtues. 59. Born of : Michael Faraday was born of poor parents. 60. Break into : A thief broke into the house and escaped with gold and cash. 61. Brim with : On the eve of the examinations, the students are brimming with confidence. 62. Bristle with : My path is bristled with difficulties. 63. Brood over : There is no use brooding over past events. 64. Busy at : He is busy at the post office. 65. Busy in : He is busy in writing his notes. 66. Busy with : The Collector is busy with flood relief work. 67. Capable of : Donkeys are capable of carrying much weight. 68. Care for : Generally, I do not care for breakfast. 69. Cause for : Although the economy is in a bad shape, there is no cause for panic. 70. Caution against : Parents should caution their children against bad friends. 71. Charge against : The opposition leaders levelled charges of corruption against a minister. 72. Clash with : The police clashed with terrorists. 73. Cling to : We must cling to truth at all times. 74. Close to : Tom and Jim are close to each other. 75. Collide with : A lorry collided with a bus. Unit I - GRAMMAR 55

76. Collude with : We should not collude with antisocial elements to harm the nation. 77. Commensurate with : Wages must be commensurate with the volume and nature of work. 78. Commit to : The Chief Minister is committed to the welfare of the people. 79. Compensate for : The Management must comp-ensate in cash for the loss of life or limb suffered by the workers. 80. Compete with : We have to compete with one another for jobs. 81. Complain about : The students complained to the Principal about the lack of laboratory facilities in the College. 82. Complain against : The students complained to the Principal against a dishonest clerk. 83. Comply with : We must comply with the Government orders. 84. Complementary to : All the creatures in nature are complementary to one another. 85. Concentrate on : Students must concentrate on their studies. 86. Condemn to / for : A man was condemned to life imprisonment for killing his wife. 87. Condole with : The association condoled with the death of a member. 88. Conducive to : Cool climate is conducive to health. 89. Confer on : Bharat Ratna Award was conferred on Lata. 90. Confident of : She is confident of winning the best singer award. 91. Confess to : The arrested man confessed to his guilt. 92. Congratulate on : Every one congratulated Sachin on scoring ten thousand runs. 93. Conscious of : Though weak, the patient is conscious of what is happening around. 94. Consequent on : Consequent on attaining independence, India became a Republic. 95. Consist of : This class consists of thirty students. 96. Consistent with : Our deeds must be consistent with our words. 56 A Handbook of English for Professionals

97. Contact with : We must keep our contact with friends through letters. 98. Contiguous to : Our house is contiguous to the market. 99. Contribute to : The people generously contributed to the flood relief fund. 100. Conversant with : Accountants must be conversant with Mathematics. 101. Convict of : He was convicted of murder. 102. Convert into : Christ converted water into wine. 103. Convince of : The judge was convinced of the man's innocence and acquitted him. 104. Cooperate with : The people must cooperate with one another to bring about peace and prosperity. 105. Cure of : The doctor cured him of typhoid. 106. Dawn on : At last wisdom dawned on him. 107. Deal in : Southern Agencies deal in Godrej steel furniture. 108. Deal with : The Government must sternly deal with terrorists. 109. Dear to : Fragrant flowers are dear to my heart. 110. Debar from : For indulging in copying he was debarred from writing the examination. 111. Decorate with : On the Independence Day the statues of Mahatma Gandhi are decorated with garlands and flowers. 112. Dedicate to : Authors dedicate their books to their patrons. 113. Deduct from : Income tax is deducted from the salaries of employees. 114. Deposit in : Students deposit the examination fee in the Bank 115. Deprive of : Owing to an injury, he was deprived of a chance to play cricket test matches. 116. Derive from : Knowledge is derived from experience. 117. Deviate from : One should not deviate from one's principles. 118. Differ with : I differ with you on this issue. 119. Different from : The Indian languages are different from one another. 120. Difference between: If there are differences between father and mother, children will suffer. Unit I - GRAMMAR 57

121. Differences with : The President has no differences with the Prime Minister. 122. Diffident of : He is diffident of passing the examination. 123. Dispense with : We must dispense with smoking and drinking. 124. Disappoint at : We are disappointed at the poor performance of our cricket team. 125. Disappoint with : The workers are disappointed with the union leaders. 126. Dispose of : Courts take time to dispose of cases. 127. Dissuade from : It is difficult to dissuade youngsters from going to movies. 128. Distinguish from : We cannot distinguish the Chinese from the Japanese. 129. Distinguish between: We cannot distinguish between the Chinese and the Japanese. 130. Divert from/to : The TV is diverting the attention of students from studies to entertainment. 131. Dissociate from : He dissociated himself from his party's stand on the issue of smaller states. 132. Distant from : America is very distant from India. 133. Distaste for : She has a distaste for cosmetics 134. Divide into : The country has been divided into many states 135. Divide between : The money was divided between the two brothers. 136. Divide among : The property was divided among the four children. 137. Divide from : Pakistan was divided from India. 138. Doubt about/of : I have no doubt about your honesty. 139. Drive against : The Government launched a drive against illiteracy. 140. Drown in : He was drowned in the well. 141. Due to : The failure is due to lack of practice. 142. Dwell on / upon : The Chief Minister dwelt at length on the duties of the employees. 143. Emerge from : After a few minute of suspense, the thief emerged from the house. 144. Empty of : The man is empty of all virtues. 145. Endow with : God endows his children with gifts. 146. Engross in : Philosophers are engrossed in thinking. 58 A Handbook of English for Professionals

147. Eager for : The students are eagerly looking for results. 148. Effect on : Smoking has a bad effect on health. 149. Eligible for : Government employees are eligible for pension. 150. Engage in : She is engaged in research work. 151. Engage to : She is engaged to marry him. 152. Envious of : Women are generally envious of their neighbours. 153. Entitled to : A temporary employee is not entitled to pension. 154. Equip with : The Army is equipped with the latest weapons. 155. Equivalent to : A.M.I.E. is equivalent to B.Tech. Degree. 156. Eradicate from : Small pox has been eradicated from the world. 157. Erase from : Memories of unpleasant experiences must be erased from the mind. 158. Escape from : The convict escaped from the prison. 159. Exception to : There are no exceptions to the rule. 160. Exchange for : I have exchanged my transistor for his radio. 161. Exchange with : India exchanged some border posts with Bangladesh. 162. Exempt from : The freedom fighters are exempted from buying train or bus tickets. 163. Expel from : A senior student was expelled from the College for ragging a fresher. 164. Exclude from : Srinath was excluded from the cricket team. 165. Expert in/at : Kasparov is an expert in chess. 166. Expose to : Mountaineers are exposed to great dangers. 167. Expunge from : The Speaker expunged the unparliamentary words from the records. 168. Fail in : The boy failed in English. 169. Fair to : Businessmen must be fair to customers. 170. Fair in : The Speaker must be fair in his attitude towards all political parties. 171. Faith in : Some countries have no faith in democracy. 172. Fall to : The smuggler fell to a bullet. 173. Favourable to : The weather is not favourable to air travel. Unit I - GRAMMAR 59

174. Familiar to : This city is familiar to me. 175. Familiar with : I am familiar with this city. 176. Famous for : China is famous for silk. 177. Feed on : Children feed on milk. 178. Feed with : The sick are fed with bread and milk. 179. Fight against/with : He fought the election battle against a senior politician. 180. Fight for : Sometimes the people fight for their democratic rights. 181. Fire at : The hunter fired a shot at the tiger. 182. Fire into : The police fired a warning shot into the air. 183. Fire upon : The drunken man fired indiscri-minately upon the mob. 184. Filter into : Water is filtered into the tank. 185. Filter through : Tea is filtered through a net. 186. Fish in : Super powers try to fish in troubled waters. 187. Flair for : Lata has a flair for music. 188. Fond of : Children are fond of sweets. 189. Food for : The words of the teacher provided food for thought. 190. Furore over : There was a lot of furore in the Assembly over corruption in hospitals. 191. Fuss of / over : Women make fuss of minor things. 192. Fit for : This house is fit for a king. 193. Flock to : The poor flocked to him for help. 194. Flourish in : He is flourishing in his business. 195. Flow from : Wisdom flows from experience. 196. Foil to : Communism is a foil to capitalism. 197. Forgetful of : Old people become forgetful of everything. 198. Fraught with : Mountaineering is fraught with dangers. 199. Freeze to : In winter many cattle are frozen to death. 200. Fumble after/for : The blind man is fumbling for his stick. 201. Fumble at/with : The boy is fumbling at writing. 202. Get over : The speaker got over his initial nervousness and made an impressive speech. 203. Give to : The young man is given to bad habits. 204. Glad of : The students are glad of the examination results. 60 A Handbook of English for Professionals

205. Glance at : She glanced at him and remembered his name. 206. Glide into : The snake glided into a hole. 207. Gloat on/upon/over : The cricketer is gloating over his achievements. 208. Grapple with : The Government is grappling with the problem of terrorism. 209. Groom for : They are grooming their son for the medical profession. 210. Grope after/for : The world is groping in the dark for a solution to the Palestinian problem. 211. Grow into : Small plants grow into mighty trees. 212. Grudge against : She holds a grudge against her neighbour. 213. Guarantee : The Railways offer no guarantee against/ from damage to goods. 214. Guard against/from: We must guard ourselves against terrorists. 215. Guilty of : The man is guilty of injuring his wife. 216. Good at : She is good at painting. 217. Good of : It is good of you to remember me. 218. Good for : The old pen is good for nothing. 219. Grateful to and for : I am grateful to you for helping me. 220. Hail from : Gandhi hailed from Gujarat. 221. Hanker after : Some people hanker after money. 222. Harp on : Our teacher always harps on the importance of social service. 223. Head for : The world seems to be heading for a nuclear war. 224. Heap with : The lorry was heaped with grain bags. 225. Hit upon : The police hit upon a plan to arrest him. 226. Hunger for/after : They are hungering for money. 227. Hunt for/after : The police are hunting for a criminal. 228. Ignorant of : The boy is ignorant of the alphabet. 229. Immerse in : He is immersed in studies. 230. Immune against/from: Snake charmers are immune from poison. 231. Immunize against : Children must be immunized against infections. 232. Impact on : Christ's concept of love had an impact on Gandhi. 233. Impatient for : The baby is impatient for milk. Unit I - GRAMMAR 61

234. Impatient of : The man was impatient of his wife's silence. 235. Implicate in : The police implicated him in a murder case. 236. Impose on : Some teachers impose strict discipline on students. 237. Impress on : The lecture made a deep impression on the audience. 238. Impress with : He impressed her with his manners. 239. Impute to : We should not impute motives to judges. 240. Incapable of : The child is incapable of understanding grammar. 241. Incite to : Politicians incite the people to strikes. 242. Indebeted to and for: The girl is indebted to the woman for adopting her. 243. Independent of : Some women can manage their household affairs independent of their husbands. 244. Indict on : The police indicted him on charges of murder. 245. Indifferent to : Some class of philosophers are indifferent to pain and pleasure. 246. Indispensable to/for: His leadership is indispensable for the country. 247. Indulge in : Students should not indulge in politics. 248. Infect with : The old man is infected with tuberculosis. 249. Infer from : We infer from his speech that he is going to start a new party. 250. Inferior to : Silver is inferior to gold. 251. Inflict on : The army inflicted a heavy defeat on the enemy. 252. Inject into : Parents should not inject fear into their children. 253. Innocent of : She is innocent of the crime. 254. Insensible to : He is insensible to criticism. 255. Insist on : The College insists on discipline and neatness. 256. Instigate to : Politicians instigate students to strikes. 257. Integral to : Kitchen is integral to a house. 258. Intelligible to : Philosophy is unintelligible to the illiterate. 259. Intent on : Tom is intent on marrying Lucy. 62 A Handbook of English for Professionals

260. Interest in : She has no interest in fine arts. 261. Interfere in : We should not interfere in the affairs of others. 262. Interfere with : We should not interfere with others. 263. Intolerant of : The Principal is intolerant of indiscipline. 264. Involve in : She is not involved in ragging. 265. Irrelevant to : His speech is irrelevant to the occasion. 266. Infest with : Slums are infested with mosquitoes and fleas. 267. Issue from : Unnecessary violence issues from strikes. 268. Issue in : Wars issue in death and destruction. 269. Issue of : The assembly discussed the issue of terrorism. 270. Itch for : The terrorists are itching for a show down with the Gover-nment. 271. Invest in : Many people invest money in shares. 272. Invest with : Lata was invested with the nation's highest award. 273. Joke at : It is bad manners to joke at others' poverty. 274. Judge by : We are judged by our acts. 275. Jump at : The boy jumped at the happy news. 276. Jump for : She jumped for joy when she learned of her success. 277. Jump from : The monkey jumped down from the tree. 278. Jump into : She jumped into the well. 279. Jump off : The soldier jumped off the horse. 280. Jump upon : The police jumped upon the theif. 281. Jump over : The tiger jumped over the fence and disappeared into bushes. 282. Junior to : I am junior to him in service. 283. Keen on : She is keen on becoming an artist. 284. Keep to : We must keep to the left. 285. Key to : Education is the key to knowledge. 286. Knock at : Somebody is knocking at the door. 287. Know by : A man is known by his habits. 288. Known for : Gandhi is known for his concept of satyagraha. 289. Lack in : The girl lacks in courage to travel alone. 290. Lack of : Lack of money forced him to discontinue his studies. Unit I - GRAMMAR 63

291. Lag behind : The boy lagged behind others in the running race. 292. Lap up : The cat lapped up the milk. 293. Lapse of : Lapse of time makes us forget friends. 294. Lash at : The opposition leader lashed at the Government. 295. Laugh at : He laughed at my ignorance. 296. Lay on : Parents lay hopes on their children. 297. Lay to : The mortal remains of the man were laid to rest. 298. Lay under : The field lay under flood water for many days. 299. Lay with : The entire floor was laid with carpets. 300. Lead to : All faiths lead to God. 301. Lean against : Waiting for a bus he leaned against the trunk of a tree. 302. Lean on : The patient walked a few steps leaning on an attendant. 303. Leap at : He leapt at the invitation for a dinner. 304. Leap into : The house leapt into flames. 305. Learn from : We learn many things from experience. 306. Learn of : He learned of her marriage only yesterday. 307. Leave for : The cricket team left for England. 308. Leave to : The decision was left to the Prime Minister. 309. Level against/at: She levelled wild charges against him. 310. Liberate from : The country was liberated from the British. 311. Lie to : Some children lie to their parents. 312. Liking for : Children have a liking for toys. 313. Liable to : A murderer is liable to death penalty. 314. Link with : Terrorists have links with antisocial elements. 315. Live by : Poor people live by the sweat of their brow. 316. Live on : Cranes live on small fish. 317. Long for : We long for those who are away. 318. Loss of : The accident resulted in loss of life. 319. Loyal to : We must be loyal to our friends. 320. Loyalty to : We must show loyalty to the country. 321. Mad of : She is mad of Hindi film music. 322. Make of : Soap is made of many ingredients. 323. Make with : The table is made with wood. 64 A Handbook of English for Professionals

324. Marry to : He was married to his cousin. 325. Meet with : I met with my friend in the train. 326. Merge with : All the employee unions must merge with one another and become a great force. 327. Mingle with : All communities must mingle with one another and become united. 328. Mix with : Honey can be mixed with water. 329. Move at : I was moved at the sight of a man killed in an accident. 330. Move by : We were moved by the appeals of a blind beggar. 331. Move to : She is moved to tears whenever she goes by the orphanage. 332. Move with : The old woman was moved with pity for an orphan boy. 333. Obedient to : Children must be obedient to parents. 334. Occupy by : The house is occupied by me. 335. Occupy in : Every Sunday she is occupied in rearranging the furniture. 336. Occupied with : The case is occupied with interesting issues. 337. Offend at : The Principal is offended at the boy's behaviour. 338. Offend with : The principal is offended with the boy. 339. Opposed to : India and Pakistan are opposed to each other. 340. Partial to : The father should not be partial to any one child. 341. Parallel to : Railway lines are parallel to each other. 342. Part from : It is painful to part from friends. 343. Partake in : Students must partake in games and sports. 344. Participate in : We must participate in social service activities. 345. Particular about : The teacher is very particular about punctuality. 346. Please with : We are pleased with our friends. 347. Please at : I am pleased at his manners. Unit I - GRAMMAR 65

348. Prey on : Wild animals prey on mild animals. 349. Preside over : The Principal presided over the Annual Day celebrations. 350. Proficient in : The Chinese are proficient in athletics. 351. Punctual to : She is always punctual to the class 352. Ready for : We are ready for the test. 353. Remind of : She reminded her husband of his promise to take her to a movie. 354. Repent of : We must repent of our sins. 355. Restore to : The missing child was restored to its parents. 356. Result in : Floods result in loss of life and property. 357. Rich in : The Godavari basin is rich in oil and gas. 358. Short of : India is short of gold reserves. 359. Side with : We must always side with our friend. 360. Succeed in : He succeeded in climbing Everest. 361. Suffer from : He is suffering from fever. 362. Superior to : The soldiers are superior to the rebels in fire power. 363. Surrender to : Some terrorists surrendered to the police. 364. Take to : The thief took to his heels when he saw the police 365. Tamper with : The postal staff tampered with some parcels. 366. Victory over : The Indian cricket team at last registered a victory over the English team. 367. Vote for : We must vote for the best candidate. 368. Zeal for : He has a lot of zeal for social work.

1.4.1 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Prepositional Phrases begin and end with prepositions. The following are some of the examples. 1. at home in : be an expert in She is at home in classical dance. 2. at sea in : be weak in. He is at sea in English grammar. 66 A Handbook of English for Professionals

3. at the top of : at the highest degree of. At the sight of a dog she yelled at the top of her voice. 4. on top of : at the highest point of. It was a great moment when Hillary and Tenzing stood on top of Everest. 5. at the risk of : facing the danger. He jumped into the flames to save an old woman at the risk of his own life. 6. by dint of : on the basis of He progressed in life by dint of sincerity, honesty and industry. 7. by means of : with the help of He crossed the river by means of a boat. 8. by virtue of : on the basis of By virtue of his position, he has been given a car. 9. by reason of : because of No one likes him by reason of his ill manners. 10. by way of : in the manner of Our teacher explains everything by way of jokes. 11. in case of : in the event of In case of any need, please contact me. 12. in favour of : siding with The government is in favour of privatizing everything. 13. in the guise of : disguised as A robber entered the compound in the guise of a postman 14. in the hope of : hoping that He entered the contest in the hope of winning the gold medal. 15. in front of : before There is much garbage in front of the house. 16. On behalf of : for Spokesmen brief newsmen on behalf of the Government 17. in addition to : besides Railway employees are given bonus in addition to salary. Unit I - GRAMMAR 67

18. in order to : to One must go through newspapers in order to know what is happening around. 19. In honour of : as a mark of October 2 is declared a holiday in honour of Gandhi's birthday. 20. in spite of : notwithstanding. In spite of her old age, she is busy in serving her children. 21. in search of : searching for He left his home and family in search of peace. 22. in regard to : in respect of We do not know anything in regard to heaven and hell. 23. for the sake of : for Jesus died for the sake of sinners. 24. for want of : due to lack of His business collapsed for want of funds. 25. in accordance with : according to The notorious criminal was hanged to death in accordance with the orders of the court. 26. in the course of : during In the course of our educational tour, we visited a number of industrial establishments. 27. on account of : because of On account of his talents, he is liked by all people 28. On the point of : just near, on the verge of The victim of the accident is on the point of death. 29. in lieu of : in place of Government employes are paid salary in lieu of earned leave. 30. with an eye to : aiming at He is trying to get very close to the officers with an eye to getting a promotion. 31. with a view to : with the aim of I am attending a course in spoken English with a view to becoming a fluent speaker. 68 A Handbook of English for Professionals

1.5 INTERJECTIONS Interjections are words that express sudden emotions, such as, happiness, surprise, shock, pity, fear and wonder. Some of the examples are as follows:

Hi! How are you?

Hurrah! We have won the match!

Ugh! How it stinks!

Alas! He failed again!

Hush! Be quiet!

Good God! What a crowd!

Great God! What a fall!

My goodness! Who broke this?

My foot! who did it?

Oh, My God!

Fie! Be gone! The interjections are not a part of the sentence. Therefore they are also called Isolates. Usually on exclamation mark comes after an interjection. Sometimes a comma may also be used.

1.6 CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are words that connect different words, phrases and clauses. For example : Mango and apple are sweet fruits. You can write the examinations in black or blue ink. She is young but very talented. He could not go as the train had already left. When I greeted him, he looked at me angrily. In the above sentences, the words and, or, but, as and when are conjunctions. Unit I - GRAMMAR 69

In English there are two types of conjuctions, namely, Coordinating Conjuctions and Subordinating Conjunctions. The common coordinating conjunctions are : and, and so, and therefore, so, or, or else, otherwise, but, yet, still, either....or, neither....nor, not only....but also, both.....and, The examples are as follows : She got into the city bus and left. He copied in the test, and so, he was sent out. She is an artist, and therefore, she has become popular. He is ill, so he has applied for leave. Come by bus, or buy a car Behave properly, or else, you will be punished. Please hurry up, otherwise you will miss the chance His parents love him much, but he is cheating them. The Principal warned him many times, yet he continued to smoke. He was repeatedly arrested for stealing, still he did not change his habit. Either you must be here, or , I must be here. I can neither play cricket, nor paint pictures. She cannot sing, nor can she dance. Not only he liked her, but she also liked him. They both bought lands and sold them. In all the above sentences there are two clauses. They can stand alone. But they are joined by conjunctions that are known as coordinating conjunctions. These two clauses are called coordinate clauses. The common subordinating conjunctions are as follows : that, what, who, when, which, where, if, unless, until, till, before, after, since, as, because, how, why, though, although, even though, lest, as soon as, the moment, the day. For example : She knows that he is not honest. He told the police what he knew. He is the boy who broke the window. I do not know when the train leaves. 70 A Handbook of English for Professionals

Tell me which colour you prefer. He saw where she went. If we help others, they too will help us. Unless you run, you cannot catch the train. He won't leave you until you help him. He will not come till it is midnight. She got married even before she completed her degree course. We have not seen each other after we left College. He did not come today since he is not well. We missed the bus as we were late. He failed because he did not write well. I don't know how the accident occurred. He knows why she hates him. Though they are rich, they are miserly. Although they offered him a post, he did not accept it. Even though we meet, we never speak to each other. Keep the money safe lest you should lose it. In all the above sentences there are two clauses joined by conjunctions that are known as subordinating conjunctions. The clauses that come after these conjunctions are called subordinate clauses because they depend on the other clauses which are independent clauses. While subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own, independent or main clauses as they are also called, can stand on their own.

EXERCISE 1.12 1. Combine the following with appropriate coordinating conjunctions. (i) It is very late. Please go to bed.

(ii) He worked tirelessly. He got his due.

(iii) She is beautiful. She is arrogant.

(iv) He bats well. He bowls well. Unit I - GRAMMAR 71

(v) They have no manners. They have no sense of respect.

2. Combine the following with appropriate subordinating conjunctions. (i) I came out. It was raining.

(ii) He has a coat. He does not use it.

(iii) The minister visited the village. He was born there.

(iv) The programme started. The audience became silent.

(v) He could not swim. He jumped into the well.

1.7 AUXILIARY VERBS Auxiliary Verbs are helping verbs. They help the main verbs in forming tenses and voices. The following are the auxiliary verbs in English : be, do, have, will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need, dare and used to. Be, do and have are called primary auxiliaries while the other auxiliaries are called modal auxiliaries. The primary auxiliaries have the following forms. be : be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been do : do, does, did, doing, done have : have, has, had, having The auxiliaries are usually contracted in conversation : I'm going home. I'll meet you tomorrow. I'd go to Delhi soon. I've seen him. He's coming. He's gone to Delhi I'd like to see him once. He'd painted the picture beautifully. 72 A Handbook of English for Professionals

In the interrogative, the auxiliary comes first : Is he coming today? Have they gone home? Must we go now? Shall we go home? Should we stay here? Question tags are formed with auxiliaries : We are learning grammar. Aren't we? He is a good boy. Isn't he? She is not dull. Is she? I can play games. Can't I? Let's go. Shall we? I am your well-wisher. Aren't I? We must work hard. Mustn't we? Note : When the subject is anyone, everyone, everybody, somebody, someone, no one, nobody, anybody, none, neither, the question tag takes on 'they' as the subject instead of he/she : Somebody knocked on the door. Didn't they? None came to help her. Did they? Everybody praised him. Didn't they? Only the auxiliary is used in the answers to yes/no type of questions. The main verb is not used: Can you play cricket? Yes, I can. Does she go to movies? Yes, she does. Will you come tomorrow? No, I won't. Should we go and meet them? Yes, we should. Auxiliaries are used to provide additions to statements : You can speak Hindi, but I can't. I helped him, but he didn't. He has come, but his wife hasn't. I will agree, but he won't. Unit I - GRAMMAR 73

EXERCISE 1.13 Rewrite as directed : 1. Use 'be' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.

2. Use 'having' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.

3. Identify the auxiliary in the following sentence : He's passed the test. 4. Convert the following statement into an interrogative sentence: We should exercise maximum restraint.

5. Add question tag to the following statement : The sky is always blue.

6. Add a question tag to the following statement : None can stop me from going.

7. Provide a suitable question tag to the following : Something smells foul.

8. Complete the following statement : I know where she is, but her father......

9. Provide a statement for the following question tag : Aren't I?

10. Use 'been' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.

1.7.1 FUNCTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS 1. 'Be' (i) It helps in forming tenses : She is cooking food. I was reading a book We are trying to convince them. He has been practising cricket. 74 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(ii) It conveys instructions : No one is to come into my room. I am to see the Principal this evening. You are to attend the interview tomorrow. (iii) It conveys a plan : We are to be here at 9 every morning The Chief Minister is to inaugurate the Exhibition today. The Prime Minister is to address the nation from the Red Fort. (iv) It conveys an action planned for the future : We are about to board the bus. He is going to visit the site tomorrow : 2. 'Have' (i) It helps in forming tenses: I have finished the homework She had married before she completed her course. You will have left the College by AD 2008 (ii) It conveys obligation : She has to educate her sister I have to receive him at the Air Port (iii) It is used to convey an action that is managed to be done : I had a shirt stitched. We had our house white washed We must have our kitchen repaired. (iv) It can be used as an auxiliary verb as well as a finite verb together in a sentence : We have had our lunch. She has had her tea. I had had my meal much before you came. 3.'DO' (i) It is used to form negative sentences : I don't believe your words. They don't know my address She doesn't care for anybody. I didn't see anything strange. Unit I - GRAMMAR 75

(ii) It is used to form interrogatives : Do you have a Dictionary? Does she dance well? Did the police arrest him? (iii) It is used to form question tags : You played cricket at school. Didn't you? He speaks eloquently. Doesn't he? She belongs to this state. Doesn't she? (iv) It is used to give emphasis to a statement : I did see the theif run away. We do believe in God and Heaven. He does speak Hindi fluently. (v) It is used to convey short agreements, disagreements and additions : He passed the test. Yes, he did. The police caught him. Yes, they did. The train didn't come. No, it didn't. Rain fell heavily. No, it didn't. He plays tennis, and so do I. You smoke, but I don't. They always help others, and so do we. We always help others, but they don't. 4. 'Will' (i) It conveys future tense when the subject is other than I/We: You will get a letter next week. He will surely pass. She will accept our invitation. They will reach this place tomorrow. (ii) It conveys determination or willingness when the subject is I or we : I will see how he can pass the test. We will learn to play on the guitar. 76 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(iii) It is used to convey invitations : Will you have a cup of tea with me? Will you have some more tea? (iv) It is used to make a request : Will you lend me your pen? Will you give me a piece of paper? Will you post this letter? (v) It is used to form question tags: She will come presently. Won't she? He will not accept the proposal. Will he? They will come by bus. Won't they? 5. 'Would' (i) It is used to convey invitations : Would you like to come with me for a movie? Would you like to have a cup of tea? (ii) It is used to make requests: Would you please explain this? Would you mind my sitting here? (iii) It is used after the verb 'wish' : I wish you would help me in this matter. We wish they would solve our problems. (iv) It is used to show preference : I would rather resign than serve people like you. She would rather commit suicide than marry him. We would rather discontinue than do this type of work. 6. 'Shall' (i) It is used with the second and the third persons to indicate an order/obligation/promise. You shall keep this matter confidential. Drivers shall keep to the left. You shall have a copy of my book tomorrow. Note : In place of 'shall' 'have to' and 'must' may also be used to indicate obligation : Examinations have to be written in ink. Accountants must use calculators. Unit I - GRAMMAR 77

(ii) It indicates offers or suggestions : What shall we have, tea or coffee? Shall I show you my digital camera? Shall we go for a walk? 7. 'Should' (i) It expresses duty We should look after our old parents. We should love our neighbours as we love ourselves. One should serve one's country. Students should not indulge in ragging. (ii) It is used to indicate an action which was the right thing to do, but was not done : You should have reported the matter to the Principal. You should have informed me before coming here. We should have come by bus, not in a car (iii) It is used with 'lest' to show fear or worry. He closed the window lest dust should come in. I told him my name again lest he should forget me. He apologised to her lest she should scold him. (iv) 'That.....should' construction is used with the verbs like agree, decide, suggest, propose, advise, recommend and arrange : It was agreed that they should work on all Saturdays. My father suggested that I should study abroad. The Committee recommended that the increased dearness allowance should be paid to all employees. The workers demanded that they should be paid bonus. My mother advised that I should be married soon. (v) It is used to express a condition :Should you see him, please ask him to meet me (If you happen to see him...... ) 8.'May' (i) It is used to indicate permission. 'May' is more formal than 'Can'. May I come in? May we write the examination? You may go now. You may submit your application tomorrow. 78 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(ii) It is used to express possibility. War may come. The UGC Committee may visit the College any time. He may be our next Mayor. (These examples show half possibility and half doubt) (iii) It indicates speculation about the possibility of a past action. He may have undergone the operation. She may have passed. The missing parcel may have been found. (iv) It is used to express a hope or a wish : May you have peace! May God bless you! May he succeed in his endeavours! 9. 'Might' (i) It is used to express a possibility, but the element of doubt is stronger than what 'may' expresses : He might come back one day. Even with a second class Degree, he might get a job. If he tried, he might get a job. (ii) It indicates speculation about a past action : The train might have reached Mumbai. He might have passed in a first class She might have married him. He might have gone abroad. 10. 'Can' (i) It is used to express ability. Kapil Dev can play golf. He can drive a car. She can sing classical songs. (ii) It is used to express permission : You can go now. He can use my vehicle, if necessary. ('May' is formal) Unit I - GRAMMAR 79

(iii) It is used to express possibility : I can finish this work in an hour. He can walk thirty miles. Watching TV for long hours can damage the eyes. (iv) It is used to make a request. Can you lend me your book? Can you come with me to the market? Can you spare your pen for a minute? ('Could' is more polite) 11. 'Could' (i) It is used for taking permission : Could I use your phone? Could we sit here for some time? Could I have a glass of water? (ii) It is used to make a request : Could you spare your notes for an hour? Could you give me a cup of tea? Could you tell me your telephone number ? (iii) It is used to express possibility: She could be in the kitchen. He could be in the library. The boy could have gone to school. (iv) It is used to show that an action did not occur : I could have gone yesterday (But I did not go though there was the possibility to go). You could have passed if you had written the examination. (You had the ability to pass, but you did not write the examination). She could have bagged the first prize if only she had danced. (She had the ability to bag the first prize, but she did not dance). (v) It is used to express a doubtful action : My pen is not writing well. The baby could have spoiled it. He is not at home. He could have gone to the office. Her chain is missing. Her husband could have taken it away. 80 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(vi) It is used to express an impossibility : He couldn't have gone to the library. She couldn't have gone to the market. The boy couldn't be in the class now. (May or might shows a doubt) 12. 'Must' (i) It is used to show obligation : We must obey the orders. You must complete your days' work and go. I must see him atonce. You must attend the classes regularly. (ii) It is used in interrogatives or obligations. Must I wait here so long? Must we go to the station to receive them? Must she sing before strangers? (iii) It expresses strong advice : You must not speak to her. You must be punctual. You must take medicine regularly. (iv) It is used to make deductions : He has a cellphone. He must be a busy man. The child is still asleep. He must be very tired. She is crying. She must be in troubles. 13. 'Need' : (This has no other forms) (i) It is normally used in the negative sense : You need not go to the station to receive them. You need not speak to them about my request. You won't need to tell me all these things. (ii) It expresses obligation : You need not have taken this trouble for my sake. Need I see you tomorrow? Unit I - GRAMMAR 81

14. 'Ought to' (i) It is used to show obligation : We ought to respect elders. You ought to marry her. You ought not to disrespect your teachers. You ought not to call her names. (ii) It is used to indicate an action that should take place but did not take place : I ought to have attended the meeting. You ought to have undergone operation. We ought to have invited them.

15. 'Dare' (i) It is used to express courage : I dare not go before the Principal. Dare you call me names? He dared not come to my house. (ii) It is used to express anger: How dare she complained against me? How dare you take my book without my permission? How dare he beat my brother? (iii) It is used to express possibility : I dare say he is not at fault. Dare you say he is dishonest? We dare say they are not our well-wishers.

16. 'Used to' (i) It is used in Past Tense to express past habits : When I was a student I used to play games every evening I used to smoke regularly till last year. I used to go for a walk every morning last year. 82 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.14 Rewrite as directed : 1. Fill up the blanks in the following with suitable 'be' forms to realize different tenses : (i) All of you playing tricks on me (ii) They come tomorrow. (iii) I after all a simple teacher. (iv) He may your brother. (v) They here last year. (vi) a gentleman as I would like you to . (vii) He to play for India in the olympics. (viii) You to participate in the group discussion. (ix) Yesterday he about to go but he didn't. (x) We to attend classes regularly. 2. Fill up the blanks in the following with suitable forms of 'have'. (i) He done the given work in time. (ii) She eaten before I came. (iii) The train will gone by now. (iv) He to feed a large family. (v) She would written her examinations. (vi) The boy has just his food. (vii) We had our dinner. (viii) She had her snacks much before tea was brought. (ix) a biscuit. (x) I to attend to this work. 3. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable forms of 'do'. (i) you have the textbook with you now? (ii) she dance well? Unit I - GRAMMAR 83

(iii) he know the truth? (iv) he get a job at last? (v) The customs officials detained him. they? (vi) He used to act well. he? (vii) The father scolds, but the mother . (viii) Boys play cricket, but the girls . (ix) She loves music, and so I. (x) An accident occurred. Yes it . 4. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable forms of will/would. (i) We rather leave the Committee than be silent spectators. (ii) you please give me a piece of advice? (iii) They will certainly arrive today. they? (iv) you listen to my words? (v) I take a look into this matter. (vi) He not mind going with you (vii) She will do the job neatly. she? (viii) you like to see the album? (ix) I wish the Principal understand my problem. (x) you kindly suggest an alternative to this? 5. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with shall, should, may or might. (i) Watchmen stay awake at nights. (ii) One be loyal to one's friends. (iii) You have a party from me. (iv) we practise phonetics? (v) What we do now, stay here or go away? (vi) Teachers be a model to their students. (vii) Rain fall any moment. (viii) The plane have flown over our territory. (ix) The doctor clarified that I use the medicines regularly. (x) The train have left the station. 84 A Handbook of English for Professionals

6. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with dare/ought to/used to : (i) I smoke a lot at College (ii) We respect our elders. (iii) He is very clever. He get a first class (iv) he drink in my presence? (v) The early men make fire by striking two stones. (vi) He not oppose me. (vii) you have told me all your problems. (viii) you go into that old house alone? (ix) How she held his collar in public? (x) I see a number of movies before marriage. 7. Choose the correct auxiliary from those given in brackets. (i) (Shall/will) he help you? (ii) Hereafter we (must/should/ought to) be punctual to the office. (iii) One (must/should/ought to) not be harsh to one's friends. (iv) (Could/Might) I use your pen please? (v) (Could/Might) you help me please? (vi) If you are really clever, you (ought to/must) succeed. (vii) (Should/shall/would) You have another cup of tea? (viii) I (am/have) to be in the office by 10 in the morning. (ix) He (may/will) have reached his native place by now. (x) He walked slowly, so he (could/would) not catch the train.

1.8 VERB There are two kinds of verbs, namely, INTRANSITIVE VERB TRANSITIVE VERB A verb that does not have an object is called an Intransitive Verb. For example : The baby is sleeping. Dogs are barking. The train has left. Unit I - GRAMMAR 85

If the verb gives answers to the questions, What? and Whom? these answers are called objects. For example : The cat drank milk. The teacher has beaten the boy. She received a letter. In these sentences the verbs, drank, has beaten, and received, are Transitive Verbs because they have objects. Sometimes a transitive verb has only a direct object, but it may also have an indirect object. The answer to 'what' or 'whom' is the direct object, while the answer to 'to whom' or 'for whom' is the indirect object. The direct object or the indirect object may come first in a sentence if it is shorter than the other. For example : The Government gave him an award. (indirect object comes first) The father sent her a new dress. (indirect object comes first) The teacher distributed sweets to all the children (direct object comes first) The chief guest gave away certificates to all the winners (direct object comes first) 1.8.1 MOOD Verbs can be used for different functions, such as, stating facts giving commands asking questions, and supposing things. The manner in which a verb is used in a sentence is called the Mood of the Verb. There are three Moods in English, namely, 1. INDICATIVE MOOD 2. IMPERATIVE MOOD, and 3. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 86 A Handbook of English for Professionals

1. INDICATIVE MOOD : When a verb is used to state a fact or ask a question, it is said to be in the Indicative Mood. For example : The sky is blue. Terrorists attacked the Indian Parliament. Pete Sampras won the match against Agassi. America feels insecure. If it is necessary, I shall be back here. Who wrote the novel '1984'? How old are you? What is your mother tongue? 2. IMPERATIVE MOOD : When a verb is used to express a command, serious advice, request or appeal, it is said to be in the Imperative Mood. For example : Keep off the grass. Write legibly. Speak louder. Waste not, want not. Be punctual to the classes. Respect elders Give us our daily bread. Lead kindly light amid the encircling gloom. In the Imperative Sentence the subject which is Second Person 'You' is omitted, but understood. An Imperative Sentence can also start with 'Let' For example : Let's go for lunch Let children come to me.. Let there be light. Let's pray. An Imperative Sentence can express a Supposition, as follows: Help the widow and the orphan, and God will bless you Labour like an ant and you will become prosperous. Put him in jail and he will become a minister. Take care of the minutes and hours will take care of themselves Unit I - GRAMMAR 87

3. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD : 1. This mood of the verb expresses a wish or desire, as follows: God bless you, my child. Long live our friendship! God save the land! Thy kingdom come. God be with you and give you his light! I wish I were a bird. We wish America would help us. Oh! that I were on the Moon! 2. It also expresses a purpose, as follows : Waste not that you may want not. Let him run lest he miss the bus. See to it that our honour not be sacrificed Be determined so that you might succeed. 3. The Subjunctive Mood expresses doubt or possibility, as follows : If you could help us, we would be grateful to you. We hope that peace might prevail in Kashmir. Should you see him, send him here. If I could become the Moon, I would be the Full Moon always. 4. The Subjunctive Mood expresses a condition or supposition which is contrary to facts. For example : If I were you, I would not behave like this. If I were the Prime Minister, I could solve the Kashmir problem If she were alive now, she should be able to care for the children. She would not marry you even if you were Dev Anand. Note : The above sentences can also be written as follows : Were I you, I would not have behaved like this. Were I the Prime Minister, I could solve the Kashmir problem. Were she alive now, she should be able to care for the children. Were you even Dev Anand, She would not marry you. 88 A Handbook of English for Professionals

5. The Subjunctive Mood comes in certain Noun Clauses in which verbs expressing asking, ordering, urging, insisting, ruling and so on, are used. For example : The court ruled that the murderer be hanged. She insisted that her son be admitted into the course. The union leaders demanded that they be paid bonus. The clerk requested the Principal that he be granted casual leave. Note : Now-a-days the Subjunctive Mood is observed more in breach than in practice. The trend now is to use 'should' in place of the simple Subjunctive, as follows : The court ruled that the murderer should be hanged. She insisted that her son should be admitted into the course. The union leaders demanded that they should be paid bonus. The clerk requested the Principal that he should be granted casual leave. 1.8.2 TENSE The tense of a verb shows the time of the action and the degree of its completion. The following are the tenses in English : PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE These tenses have four parts each : INDEFINITE OR SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Thus there are twelve parts of tenses, as follows : PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Unit I - GRAMMAR 89

FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE The examples are as follows : PRESENT INDEFINITE She sings a song. PRESENT CONTINUOUS She is singing a song. PRESENT PERFECT She has sung a song. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS She has been singing a song. PAST INDEFINITE She sang a song. PAST CONTINUOUS She was singing a song. PAST PERFECT She had sung a song. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS She had been singing a song. FUTURE INDEFINITE She will sing a song. FUTURE CONTINUOUS She will be singing a song. FUTURE PERFECT She will have sung a song FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS She will have been singing a song. These examples show that the same verb can be used in as many as twelve different tense forms. The uses of these tenses are as follows : PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE : 1. It is used to express a regular or habitual action : I get up at 6 every morning. She carries her umbrella wherever she goes. We take our lunch at noon. 90 A Handbook of English for Professionals

2. It is used to express universal truths : The earth goes round the sun. Birds live in trees. Fish swim in water. 3. It is used to express an action that is sure to happen in the near future: The bus comes at 4 in the evening. The movie starts at 6 in the evening. The train arrives in ten minutes. 4. It is used to express a future action in the subordinate clause : If you come, we will welcome you. Unless you apologize, we will not accept you. The train won't wait until you come. He will forget everything as soon as he reads it. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE : 1. It is used to show an action taking place at the moment of speaking: The child is drinking milk. She is cooking food. The cat is sleeping on the staircase. The dog is barking. 2. It is used to express an action still continuing :She is reading her lesson. He is playing cricket. They are teaching in a college. We are searching for the pen. 3. It is used to express an action planned for a near future : I am meeting him on Sunday next. My brother is coming soon from the States She is marrying next month. We are buying a car in a few days. 4. 'Going to' is used to express an intention for a future action : I am going to buy a new fridge tomorrow. We are going to move into a new house. She is going to learn dancing. He is going to investigate the matter. ('He is going to go' is not acceptable). Unit I - GRAMMAR 91

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE : 1. It is used to express an action that took place in the recent or immediate past : They have bought a car. I have seen this movie. She has sung a sweet song. The sun has gone behind the clouds. Note : When a past time is mentioned the Present Perfect Tense should not be used. Only the Past Indefinite Tense should be used. 2. It is used to express an action that took place in the past, but is related to the present. Shakespeare has written thirty seven plays. Einstein has postulated the Theory of Relativity. Faraday has invented the dynamo. Valmiki has written the Ramayana. 3. It is used to express an action that began in the past and is continuing until the present moment : We have been in Hyderabad since 1989. I have worked in this University for decades. They have been friends since school days. Lata has so far sung over fifty thousand songs 4. It is used with 'just' to express an action that occurred immediately before speaking : I have just taken my tea. The train has just arrived. The final bell has just been rung. She has just been married. 5. It is used with 'ever' and 'never' to express a habit or a past action. Have you ever seen the Taj Mahal? I have never seen the Taj Mahal. Have you ever observed him? I have observed him ever since he was a child. 92 A Handbook of English for Professionals

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE : It is used to express an action that began in the past, is continuing in the present and may go into the future : She has been learning classical music for a year. The child has been crying for an hour. He has been studying the course for double the period. They have been doing research for many years.

EXERCISE 1.15 Name the verbs in the following sentences as Transitive or Intransitive 1. The kite is flying in the air.

2. Children fly kites.

3. The people elected him Mayor.

4. He was elected Mayor.

5. He always drinks.

6. He drinks tea.

7. Lata sings songs melodiously.

8. Lata sings melodiously.

9. I never smoke.

10. I never smoke cigarettes.

11. A sharp knife cuts smoothly.

12. A sharp knife cuts anything. Unit I - GRAMMAR 93

PAST INDEFINITE TENSE : 1. It is used to express past actions without reference to any particular time : (i) Floods paralysed rail and road traffic. (ii) Curfew was imposed in many parts of Gujarat. (iii) The police arrested a corrupt official. 2. It is used to express a past action that occurred at a definite point of the past. (i) He left for Delhi on Monday. (ii) I had my tea just now. (iii) Srilanka won a one-day cricket match against South Africa yesterday. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE : It is used to express an action that was happening some time in the past : (i) It was raining heavily last week. (ii) The train derailed while it was running very fast. (iii) The child was crying though the mother was feeding it. PAST PERFECT TENSE : It is used to express the earlier of two past actions : (i) I could not go to Mumbai yesterday as the Chennai-Mumbai Express had left just before I arrived at the station. (ii) The police reached the place much after the street fight had subsided. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE : It is used to express a past action still continuing when another past action that started later gets completed : (i) The invigilator took the attendance of the students while they had been writing the examination. (ii) As the students had been planting saplings the Cheif Minister arrived and encouraged them. (The uses of shall and will have been dealt with under Auxiliary Verbs.) The twelve parts of the tenses which give complete meaning are called Finite Verbs. However, the Non-Finite Verbs, being 94 A Handbook of English for Professionals

incomplete in form do not give complete meanings. The Verb Forms are shown in the table. They are as follows :

INFINITIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE : (WITH 'TO') It is not limited by the tense of the verb, person and number of the subject : (i) To err is human, to forgive divine. (ii) Grammar is too complicated to master. (iii) He is too young to understand these things (iv) I wish to see my native place. BARE INFINITIVE : (WITHOUT 'TO') (i) Let the child educate himself. (ii) He helped me solve my problems. (iii) She made him resign. PERFECT INFINITIVE : It expresses an action that was likely to have happened : (i) He seems to have suffered much. (ii) I would like to have gone abroad. (iii) You ought to have married her. (iv) He pretended to have done the work. (v) She is believed to have resigned. CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE : (i) She seems to be weeping. (ii) The child is supposed to be sleeping. (iii) They appear to be preparing for the test. PERFECT INFINITIVE CONTINUOUS : (i) She seems to have been stitching clothes. (ii) He appears to have been reading well. (iii) They are believed to have been quarreling.

PARTICIPLE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : (i) The barking dog never bites. (ii) The nightingale is a singing bird. Unit I - GRAMMAR 95

(iii) He is writing the test. (iv) The baby is sleeping. (v) The Principal saw him ragging freshers. (vi) I saw him sleeping. (vii) Being late, she missed the bus. (viii) Walking on the lawn, he felt refreshed. (ix) I found him copying. (x) The police caught him stealing. (xi) I saw her crossing the road. PAST PARTICIPLE : (i) The broken hand was removed. (ii) He lodged a written complaint with the police. (iii) She has sung a song. (iv) The attender has rung the bell. (v) He is wearing torn clothes. PERFECT PARTICIPLE : (i) Having seen the dog, the child cried. (ii) Having eaten much, he felt heavy. (iii) Having copied in the test, he was suspended. (iv) Having been dismissed, he felt despaired.

GERUND SIMPLE GERUND : (USED AS A NOUN) : (i) Smoking is dangerous to health. (ii) I hate drinking. (iii) He was fined for ragging freshers. (iv) Walking is good for legs. (v) She insisted on seeing the movie. (vi) Would you mind my smoking here? (vii) I am sorry for insulting you. PERFECT GERUND : (i) She regretted having insulted him. (ii) He was accused of having stolen money. (iii) She denied having cheated him. 96 A Handbook of English for Professionals

PASSIVE GERUND : (i) He denied having been beaten by her brother. (ii) She remembered having been praised by the Principal. The following table illustrates the verb form in both the active and passive voices.

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense

Indefinite AV : He breaks the glass He broke the glass He will break the glass PV : The glass is broken The glass was broken The glass will be by him by him broken by him Continuous : AV : He is breaking He was breaking He will be breaking the glass the glass the glass PV : The glass is being The glass was being (No passive form) broken by him broken by him Perfect : AV : He has broken He had broken He will have broken the glass the glass the glass PV : The glass has been The glass had been The glass will have broken by him broken by him been broken by him Perfect Continuous : AV : He has been breaking He had been breaking He will have been the glass the glass breaking the glass PV : (No passive form) (No passive form) (No passive form)

RULES OF CHANGE OF VOICE : 1. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. 2. The subject in the active voice comes at the end of the sentence in the passive voice. It comes after the preposition 'by'. 3. The verb in the active voice changes into the past participle form. It also takes on a 'be' form as helping verb. This 'be' form depends on the number of the subject and the tense of the verb in the active voice. 4. Only transitive verbs that have an object can be changed into passive voice. Intransitive verbs cannot be changed into passive voice because they do not have an object. 5. Passive voice is used when the doer of an action is well known, or unimportant, or when the sufferer of the action is more important than the doer. Sometimes the doer need not be mentioned, Unit I - GRAMMAR 97

For example: My umbrella has been stolen. Gandhi was assassinated. 6. When there are direct and indirect objects in the active voice, there can be two passive forms. For example : He teaches us English. (AV) We are taught English by him. (PV) English is taught to us by him. (PV) She gave him her autograph. (AV) Her autograph was given him by her. (PV) He was given her autograph by her. (PV) He told me her truth. (AV) I was told her truth by him. (PV) Her truth was told me by him. (PV) 7. In the case of requests and commands the subject is not mentioned. For example : Open the door. (AV) Let the door be opened. (PV) Follow my instructions. (AV) Let my instructions be followed. (PV) Please bring the bag. (AV) The bag may please be brought. (PV) Kindly spare your pen for a minute. (AV) Your pen may kindly be spared for a minute. (PV) 8. Sometimes the subject in the passive voice is not necessarily the doer of the action. In such cases the prepositions come. For example : Smoke filled the theatre. (AV) The theatre was filled with smoke. (PV) I know her. (AV) She is known to me. (PV) (See Fig. 1.1 for the classification of verb) 98 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.16 1. Rewrite the following in Passive Voice : (i) Please put your signature here.

(ii) Start reading.

(iii) They have repaid the loan.

(iv) The child is eating a chocolate.

(v) Children play all sorts of games.

(vi) A foul smell filled the room.

(vii) We know some bigwigs.

(viii) Someone snatched away his books.

(ix) We must honour good people.

(x) God blesses his devotees.

2. Rewrite the following sentences as directed : (i) We praise champions. (Past Continuous Tense)

(ii) I shall buy the tickets (Present Perfect Tense)

(iii) He wastes his money (Past Perfect Continuous Tense)

(iv) She sings songs (Future Perfect Continuous Tenses) Unit I - GRAMMAR 99

(v) Soldiers defend the nation (Future Continuous Tense)

(vi) Money makes many things (Past Perfect Tense)

(vii) Tailors have been stitching clothes (Future Indefinite Tense)

(viii) He tore his clothes (Present Perfect Tense)

(ix) The cow has been grazing grass (Present Indefinite Tense)

(x) The cat will be drinking milk (Present Perfect Tense)

EXERCISE 1.17 Rewrite as directed : 1. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate prepositions : (i) Two lorries collided each other. (ii) He was put bars for committing a theft. (iii) She is playing classical notes the violin. (iv) The two brothers are not good terms. (v) All men are different one another. 2. Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate auxiliary verbs. (i) He has many cars. He be a millionaire. (ii) You have come in time. You were unnecessarily given a memo. (iii) If I were born again, I be a non-violent lion or tiger. (iv) By this time next year he have gone to the States. (v) you kindly allow me to use your scooter for an hour? 100 A Handbook of English for Professionals

3. Identify the italized verbs in the following sentences as transitive or intransitive verbs : (i) She has been reading all the day long.

(ii) He gave me a ring in the morning.

(iii) The police are investigating the case.

(iv) The president unfurled the National Flag.

(v) The stream is flowing very fast.

4. Use the following phrases in sentences of your own : (i) in accordance with :

(ii) inspite of :

(iii) with a view to :

(iv) on the verge of :

(v) by means of :

5. Identify the tense of the underlined verb in each of the following sentences : (i) She has had very bad dreams. Unit I - GRAMMAR 101

(ii) He awoke early in the morning.

(iii) The dog's tail is never straight.

(iv) He has been learning grammar sincerely

(v) She had had her lunch before she came to the office.

1.8.3 SENTENCE STRUCTURES There are four structures of sentences, as follows : 1. SIMPLE SENTENCE 2. COMPLEX SENTENCE 3. COMPOUND SENTENCE 4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE 1. SIMPLE SENTENCE A Simple Sentence is one that has only one subject and one predicate. For example : 1. The bus has come. 2. Cows eat grass. 3. Sachin has scored most centuries. 2. COMPLEX SENTENCE A Complex Sentence is one that has only one independent or main or principal clause, and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses. For example : 1. He won the election as he was a popular leader. 2. Though it is raining, the boy is going to school. 3. He is running so that he may catch the bus. The following are the conjunctions used in a Complex Sentence. These conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions : that, so that, who, whose, what, when, why, where, whom, as, because, since, though, although, even though, if, unless, till, until, before, after, as soon as, the moment, lest, whether...... or, so...as, such...that, such....as, as though, as if, while, whereas, on condition that, now that, as long as, so long as, the day. 102 A Handbook of English for Professionals

Gerund

Passive

Gerund

Gerund

Perfect

Simple

Gerund

Perfect

Participle

Past

Participle

Participle

Non-Finite Verb

Present

Participle

VERB

Fig. 1.1

Perfect

Infinitive

Continuous

Infinitive

Continuous

Infinitive

Perfect

Infinitve

Bare

infinitive

Finite Verb

Intransitive Verbs)

(All the transitive and

Present

Infinitive Unit I - GRAMMAR 103

Because of the presence of the subordinating conjunctions, the subordinate clause does not give a complete meaning. It becomes a dependent clause since it cannot stand on its own. 3. COMPOUND SENTENCE A Compound Sentence is one that has two or more independent or coordinate clauses joined together by certain conjunctions known as coordinating conjunctions. For example : 1. He took his dinner and went to bed. 2. She went to Delhi, did her postgraduation and returned to Hyderabad. 3. He read voraciously but failed in the examination. The following are the coordinating conjunctions used to join together independent or coordinate clauses : and, and so, and therefore, so, but, yet, still, or, either...... or, otherwise, or else, nor, neither...... nor, not only...... but also. 4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE A Compound-Complex Sentence is one that has two or more Main Clauses and one or more Subordinate Clauses. For example : 1. While the mother stays at home, the father works in the office and the children go to school. 2. He is young, but he has a head that should belong to elders. 3. While the stronger animals kill the weaker ones, and the weaker ones try to protect themselves, man kills all the animals. CONJUNCTION EQUIVALENCE : While changing these sentences one into another, the following conjunction equivalence may be borne in mind : 104 A Handbook of English for Professionals

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND SENTENCE SENTENCE SENTENCE

because of, because, as, and, and so, so owing to, since and therefore due to, on account of as a result of, as a consequence of, in spite of though, although, but, yet, still even though in case of not if...not, unless or, or else, otherwise

too...... to so that...... not so, and so, and therefore

For example : 1. He is prospering because he is hardworking. (Complex) He is hardworking, so he is prospering. (Compound) Because of hard work, he is prospering. (Simple) Owing to hard work, he is prospering. (Simple) His prosperity is due to his hard work. (Simple) On account of hard work, he is prospering. (Simple) 2. Though he failed, he did not become desperate. (Complex) He failed but he did not become desperate. (Compound) In spite of (failure) having failed, he did not become desperate. (Simple) 3. Unless you improve the results, you cannot stay in this post for long. (Complex) You must improve the results, otherwise you cannot stay in this post for long. (Compound) In case of (your) not improving the results, you cannot stay in this post for long . (Simple) 4. She is so weak that she cannot do the household work. (Complex) She is very weak, so she cannot do the household work. (Compound) She is too weak to do the household work. (Simple) Being very weak, she cannot do the household work. (Simple) Unit I - GRAMMAR 105

Note : A clause, whether main or subordinate must have a finite verb. A simple sentence is only a main clause with one finite verb. The other finite verb must be converted to a phrase.

EXERCISE 1.18 1. Change the following sentences as directed : (i) I know your name (into a complex sentence). (ii) He lives in that house (into a complex sentence). (iii) They are trying to learn communication skills even while they are doing their regular course. (into a compound sentence). (iv) He holds a book in his hand and sleeps at the same time (into a simple sentence). (v) I request you to paint this picture. (into a complex sentence). 2. Combine the following sentences as directed : (i) He bought new shoes. They are costly. (into simple, complex and compound sentences) (ii) She is writing a letter She is writing very fast (into simple and complex sentences) (iii) These are roses. They are very fragrant (into simple, complex and compound sentences) (iv) You are viewing the TV continuously. You are wasting your precious time. (into simple and compound sentences) (v) The world is a stage. We are all actors on it. (into simple and compound sentences) 1.8.4 KINDS OF SENTENCES : A sentence is a group of words which makes a complete sense. There are five kinds of sentences, namely : 1. Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative sentence 2. Negative Sentence 3. Imperative Sentence 106 A Handbook of English for Professionals

4. Interrogative Sentence 5. Exclamatory Sentence. The Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative makes a simple statement of facts. For example : Kapil Dev is India's cricketer of the century. India is a sub-continent. A manager is the master of men, money and material. The Negative Sentence is the contradiction of the Assertive or Declarative Sentence. For example : Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative Negative Only fools question the None but fools question the existence of God. existence of God. This much money I can I cannot contribute more contribute now. money than this now. Only you can help me None but you can help me. She sometimes cooks food She does not always cook food Song and dance go together. There is no song without dance. He is always humble He is never proud. The Imperative Sentence expresses a command, or request. For example : Love thy neighbour as thyself. Waste not, want not. Please give me something to eat. The Interrogative Sentence asks a question. For example : Who is your favourite cricketer? Have you ever seen a Solar Eclipse? When did India become a republic? The Exclamatory Sentence expresses a strong and sudden feeling of amusement, anger, appreciation, wish, gratitude, sorrow, sympathy, surprise, shock, fear, wonder and astonishment. Unit I - GRAMMAR 107

For example : What a villain he is! How horrible the scene of accident is! What a nuisance he has created! How hot the sun is today! How wonderful the climate is! Whereas in the Exclamatory Sentence the subject is followed by the verb, in the Interrogative Sentence the subject is preceded by the auxiliary verb and followed by the main verb.

EXERCISE 1.19 I. Convert the following negative sentences into assertive/declarative/ affirmative sentences : 1. No other Indian poet is so great as Tagore. 2. We will never forget your generous help. 3. Honesty is not always the best policy. 4. Indians are not so industrious as the Chinese. 5. No sooner did the bus arrive than the waiting passengers ran towards it. II. Convert the following assertive sentences into negative sentences: 1. Delhi is cooler than Hyderabad. 2. All must abide by the Court orders. 3. Schools were closed on the Teachers' Day. 4. As soon as rains fell, the farmers sowed the seeds. 5. Lata is the best of all Indian singers. III.Convert the following interrogative sentences into assertive/ declarative/ affirmative sentences : 1. Who doesn't respect his parents? 2. How can I ever forget the insult? 3. Aren't the ups and downs of life indispensable? 4. Don't mothers love their children? 5. Isn't America trying to rule the world? IV. Convert the following assertive/declarative/affirmative into interrogative sentences : 1. We are all actors on this stage. 2. Most flowers are fragrant. 3. Experience is the greatest teacher. 108 A Handbook of English for Professionals

4. America wages wars to establish peace. 5. All major cities are faced with the menace of goondas. V. Convert the following exclamatory sentences into assertive/ declarative/affirmative sentences : 1. What a match the Indian team played! 2. How I wish I were a bird! 3. What a fall it was! 4. How unwise of him to reject the post! 5. What a pleasant surprise it is! VI. Convert the following assertive/declarative/affirmative sentences into exclamatory sentences : 1. The Indian team's victory was simply fantastic. 2. She felt very nervous before the examinations. 3. I wish I were a child again. 4. The condition of orphans is very pitiable. 5. The blood-curdling attacks of the terrorists are extremely shocking. 1.8.5 REPORTED SPEECH Direct Speech is called reporting speech while Indirect Speech is called reported speech. In converting direct speech into indirect speech the following guidelines must be observed : 1. The meaning of the speaker's words must be conveyed, but the same words need not be used. For example : Direct speech : He said, 'I saw this movie last night". Indirect speech : He said that he had seen the movie the previous night. Direct speech : The said "Our house is under construction". Indirect Speech : He said that their house was under construction. 2. If the reporting verb is in the present tense, present perfect tense or future tense, there is no change in the indirect speech. For example : She says, "They are very kind people". She says that they are very kind people. Unit I - GRAMMAR 109

He has said, "I know them." He has said that he knows them. She will probably say "I can certainly get a distinction." She will probably say that she can certainly get a distinction. 3. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verbs in the reported speech change as follows : (i) The present indefinite tense becomes the past indefinite tense. For example : He said, "I work for this company" He said that he worked for that company (ii) The present continuous tense becomes the past continuous tense. For example : He said, 'I am learning grammar" He said that he was learning grammar. (iii) The present perfect tense becomes the past perfect tense. For example : She said, "I have finished my course" She said that she had finished her course. (iv) The present perfect continuous tense becomes the past perfect continuous tense. For example : "I have been reading this book for a long time," he said. He said that he had been reading that book for a long time. (v) The past indefinite tense becomes past perfect tense. For example : He said, "I saw her yesterday." He said that he had seen her the day before. (vi) The past continuous tense becomes the past perfect continuous tense. For example : He said, "She was playing on the piano." He said that she had been playing on the piano. 110 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(vii) 'Will' and 'shall' become 'would' and 'should'. For example : Lata said, "I shall sing forever." Lata declared that she would sing forever. Note : 1. First person 'shall' becomes third person 'would'. For example : She said, "I shall come tomorrow." She said that she would come the next day. 2. would, should, ought to, might, could and had better, do not change. For example : He said, "The train might have gone." He said that the train might have gone. (viii) Universal truths do not change. For example : He said, "The stars are in the sky." He said that the stars are in the sky. (ix) 'This' becomes it, the or that, and 'these' becomes those, they or the. For example : He said, "I found this purse on the road." He said that he had found that purse on the road. She said, "These ornaments belong to my mother." She said that those ornaments belonged to her mother. (x) Adverbs of time change as follows : now : then today : that day tonight : that night yesterday : the day before tomorrow : the day after. day before last week : the previous week. yesterday : two days before next week : the following week. Unit I - GRAMMAR 111

Note : The adverb of place, 'here', becomes 'there' (xi) Question words, what, why, when, where, how, who, do not change For example : He said, "How are you?" He asked me how I was. She said, "Where did you go?" She asked him where he had gone. (xii) If auxiliaries come in the direct speech, if or whether comes before them in the indirect speech. For example : He said, "Is she married?" He asked if she was married. (xiii) Commands, requests, advice and suggestions start with present infinitives. For example : "Stand upon the bench," the teacher said to the boy. The teacher asked the boy to stand upon the bench. "Please help me," the clerk said to the officer. The clerk requested the officer to help him. (xiv) When 'let' is used, the reporting verb becomes "suggest" For example : He said, "Let's solve this problem". He suggested that they should solve the problem. He said, "Let her select her own course." He suggested that she should select her own course. (xv) In exclamatory sentences suitable descriptive words are used in place of expressions of emotions. For example : Hussain said, "Alas! we have lost another match!" Hussain regretted that they had lost another match. She said, "Oh, what a beautiful doll!" She wondered at the beauty of the doll. 112 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.20 Convert the following into indirect speech : 1. He said to her, "I am very sorry for being rude to you."

2. The officer said to me, "When did you join service?"

3. She said to the boy, "What games do you play?"

4. The mother says to the child, "Drink a little milk.'

5. She has said, "Has any one taken my pen?"

6. The teacher says, "All of you, boys, get out of my class."

7. "How dark the night is!" said she.

8. The doctor said to him. "Do you go for a walk every morning?

9. "The sky is blue, "said the man to his son.

EXERCISE 1.21 1. Identify the tenses of the finite verbs in the following : (i) You shall have a diary tomorrow.

(ii) I could have been working as a journalist.

(iii) He would have joined hands with terrorists.

(iv) They will be playing chess. Unit I - GRAMMAR 113

(v) Men should toil.

(vi) Bush intends to drive terrorists out of the bush.

(vii) Old temples are being renovated.

(viii) India beat England in cricket.

(ix) She has the talent of singing.

(x) My proposals were turned down.

2. Change the following as directed : (i) He is too modest to ask this question. (into a Compound Sentence)

(ii) We are so friendly that none can separate us. (into a Simple Sentence)

(iii) Though they are relatives, they are not on good terms. (into a Compound Sentence)

(iv) Stop wasting money, otherwise you will suffer later. (into a Complex Sentence)

(v) He can write Hindi script but he cannot speak the language. (into a Simple Sentence)

3. Change the voice of the following as directed : (i) The girl is learning dancing. (into Passive Voice)

(ii) Send a note immediately. (into Passive Voice) 114 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(iii) Who painted this picture? (into Passive Voice)

(iv) The police have arrested him at last. (into Passive Voice)

(v) Radio was invented by none other than Marconi. (into Active Voice)

4. Combine the following sentences as directed : (i) It is a Chinese doll. It is costly. (into a Simple Sentence)

(ii) A car is a luxury. I cannot buy one. (into a Complex Sentence)

(iii) The sky is cloudy. Rain may come. (into a Compound Sentence)

(iv) The elephant is a strong animal. It can do any hard work. (into a Simple Sentence)

(v) English is difficult. Hindi is easy. (into a Compound Sentence)

5. Change the following as directed : (i) December is the coldest month of the year. (into an Interrogative Sentence)

(ii) Isn't India the most populous country in the world? (into an Assertive Sentence)

(iii) What an opportunity the Indian team lost! (into an Assertive Sentences)

(iv) As soon as he passed the course, he married. (into a Negative Sentence)

(v) Not all politicians are selfish. (into an Assertive Sentences) Unit I - GRAMMAR 115

EXERCISE 1.22 1. Choose the correct form of the verb : (i) The hero, as well as the other actors, been felicitated.(has / have) (ii) Pen or pencil necessary to write anything. (are / is) (iii) Neither zebra nor giraffe wild. (is / are) (iv) The foreign dignitary with his wife come to India. (have / has) (v) A dog, a horse, a cat, a rat or a snake necessary to have ecological balance. (are / is) (vi) The Maldives a SAARC member. (are / is) (vii) The Parliament passed the bill by a huge majority. (has / have) (viii) Every ant, every elephant, every tiger, every lamb water and air. (needs / need) (ix) Each player a new dress on. (have / has) (x) Chinese Checkers a delightful game. (is / are) (xi) She is one of those dancers who rare talents. (have / has) (xii) All that is not gold. (glittes / glitter)

1.9 ADVERB An Adverb is a word that qualifies a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb, For example : She sings sweetly. The sunrise is very beautiful. He speaks Hindi extremely fluently. 1.9.1 KINDS OF ADVERBS There are many kinds of adverbs, as follows : ADVERBS OF MANNER : These adverbs express how an action takes place : For example : The horse is galloping fast. Old people walk slowly. 116 A Handbook of English for Professionals

Politicians speak loudly. The nightingale sings melodiously. ADVERBS OF TIME : These adverbs express the time of action. For example : The train will start shortly. I came today. The children have just gone to school. He arrived this morning. ADVERBS OF PLACE : These adverbs indicate the place of action For example : We are sitting here. He is standing there. The child fell down. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY : These adverbs indicate how often an action takes place. For example : I see movies often. He met me frequently. We go out occasionally. She practises dancing regularly. ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY : These adverbs express a sense of certainty. For example : He is surely gentle. She is certainly going abroad. I am definitely interested in social service. He is obviously intelligent. ADVERBS OF DEGREE : These adverbs express a level or degree of being. For example : She is very clever. This book is quite delightful. Unit I - GRAMMAR 117

The results are fairly satisfactory. He is extremely worried. She is seriously ill. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS : These adverbs express enquiries. For example : When are you leaving for the States? Where is he working? How do you do? Why is she so serious? RELATIVE ADVERBS : These adverbs are related to their antecedents. For example : Do you know the time when the train arrives? This is the College where I am studying. I know the reason why prices are rising. Please remember the time when the bus starts. Do you know how animals keep clean? ADVERB PHRASES : Some adverbs can be changed into adverb phrases For example : (i) She listens carefully : She listens with care. (ii) He is sitting alone : He is sitting by himself. (iii) The policeman looked at him suspiciously : The policeman looked at him with suspicion. (iv) We accepted their offer unconditionally : We accepted their offer without laying down any condition. (v) The children were hurrying home : The children were hurrying towards their home. 118 A Handbook of English for Professionals

EXERCISE 1.23 Pick out adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences and identify the words they qualify : 1. The early morning train is convenient to us.

2. Start early.

3. He spoke kindly.

4. His kindly words were encouraging.

5. Hard words spoil relations.

6. One must work hard to progress in life.

7. You seem to be very generous.

8. You shouldn't walk very fast.

9. Do you have any money in your purse?

10. These fruits are available everywhere.

11. He is in a very tight corner.

12. He is sitting tight.

13. Yesterday I saw him going to the office.

14. The child is still crying.

15. She speaks English fluently. Unit I - GRAMMAR 119

CHAPTER 2 Punctuation

Punctuation marks help the reader understand the meaning a n d message of a sentence. The following are the important marks of punctuation in English. 1. Full stop (.) 7. Exclamation Mark (!) 2. Colon (:) 8. Quotation Marks or 3. Semicolon (;) Inverted Commas (" ") or (' ') 4. Comma (,) 9. Brackets () 5. Apostrophe (') 10. Hyphen (-) 6. Interrogation or 11. Dash (––) Question Mark (?) 1. FULL STOP (.) : (i) The full stop indicates the end of a sentence. For example : The rose is the queen of flowers. All that is white is not silver. (ii) It is used after abbreviations: For example : U.N.O. U.N.I.C.E.F. N.C.C. B.Tech. M.Tech. Ph.D. Lt.Gen. etc. Prof.

119 120 A Handbook of English for Professionals

2. COLON (:) : (i) It is used to introduce a quotation. For example : Lenin said : "Liberty is so precious, it must be served in little quantities". (ii) It is used to introduce a list. For example : In Hyderabad there are a number of tourist spots : the State Assembly, Charminar, Golconda Fort, Public Gardens and Kutub Shahi Tombs. 3. SEMICOLON (;) : (i) It is used to separate two or more related sentences. For example : 1. The earth is round; the moon is round; the Venus is round; the Jupiter is round; so, every planet is round. 2. There was an outbreak of fire; fire engines came; the police came; the people brought pots of water; but, none could save the house from turning into ash. 4. COMMA (,) : It is used, (i) to separate more than two words of the same part of speech coming in a sequence in a sentence. For example : The earth, the moon, the Venus, the Jupiter and the Uranus are all planets. He likes the mango, the apple, and the orange. (ii) to separate phrases and clauses. For example : It was raining, but he left for school. This building, which was once an office, is his house now. Of course, China is a super power. This man, to tell you the truth, is a great artist. If you eat an apple a day, your health will improve. Having seen the police, the thief ran away. Being innocent, he was acquitted by the court. The day, as you see, is very hot. Unit I - GRAMMAR 121

(iii) to separate words of address. For example : Tom, please come. Friends, I shall tell you a story. (iv) after the initial yes, no, well. For example : Yes, he is a great singer. No, I have never seen him. Well, we are human beings. (v) to separate appositives from the rest of the sentence. For example : Nehru, the architect of modern India, died in 1964. (vi) to separate the stem from a quotation. For example : Dr. S. Radha Krishnan said, "Statesmanship lies in anticipating things." 5. APOSTROPHE (') : It is used, (i) in the possessive form of nouns. For example : Lata's voice, India's population, Japan's expertise, America's wealth and mother's love. (ii) in place of missing letters in words, For exmaple : I can't go. He doesn't like movies. I'll see you later. You'd better go now. (iii) in plurals of letters and numbers. For example : He was born in 80's. India became independent in 40's. You must take care of your T's and I's. 122 A Handbook of English for Professionals

6. INTERROGATION (?) : (i) It is used at the end of a question. For example : What is India's population now? How do you do? 7. EXCLAMATION (!) : It is used after words, phrases or sentences that express sudden emotion. For example : How sweet the mango is! Alas! what a pity! Lo! My God! My good God! 8. QUOTATION MARKS (" ") (' ') : Quotation Marks are used for direct or reporting speech. For example : Darwin said :" Man has descended from the ape." "Uneasy lies the head that wears the kingly crown," said Shakespeare. 9. BRACKETS ( ) : The brackets are used to put a word, phrase, clause or sentence in parenthesis. For example : Mumbai (Bombay) is the financial capital of India. My father (May his soul rest in peace!) loved me very much. 10. HYPHEN (-) : It is used, (i) in compound words. For example : multi-faceted genius one-sided judgment one-man committee Unit I - GRAMMAR 123

(ii) To combine a few words to form an adjective. For example : a touch-me-not plant I-know-everything attitude a cat-on-the-wall mentality (iii) To break a word at the end of a line. For example : Once upon a time there was a king. He was suffering from a curious psychological disease. Physicians all over the world were consulted for a remedy, but none could prescribe a suitable remedy. Note : The break is not abrupt, it is a break of syllables. 11. DASH (–) : It is used, (i) to introduce a list or service of names. For example : the government has introduced many welfare schemes– clean and green, abolition of child labour, literacy and water harvesting. (ii) Girls go in the rain–and get a cold! While digging a well, he found–a pot of gold. (iii) to separate any additional information from the main sentence. For example : He came only today–yesterday he was in Chennai– and is planning to leave tomorrow. CAPITALISATION : Capital letters are used as follows : (i) At the beginning of sentences. For example : Games and sports make us healthy. They provide a good exercise. So everyone should play games and sports. (ii) At the beginning of direct or reporting speech. For example : John Keats said, "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter." 124 A Handbook of English for Professionals

(iii) At the beginning of proper nouns and proper adjectives. For example : India, Indian America, American Milton, Miltonic (iv) At the beginning of the names of days and months. For example : Monday, Tuesday, January, February. (v) At the beginning of the names of Gods and related pronouns. For example : God, He, Him, His, Buddha, Buddhistic, Hindu (vi) At the beginning of each line of a poem. For example : The woods are lovely, dark and deep But I have promises to keep And miles to go before I sleep And miles to go before I sleep (vii) At the beginning of the names of religions, religious groups or denominations and political parties. For example : Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Shias, Sunnis, Congress Party, Telugu Desam Party and Akali Dal. (viii) The First Person Singular Pronoun 'I' is always a capital letter. (ix) Titles start with capital letters. For example : Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Sri (x) The first letters of titles of books, articles, poems and chapters. For example : Freedom at Midnight, Paradise Lost, The Roots. (xi) Salutation and complementary close in letters begin with capital letters. For example : Dear Sir, Dear Mother, My Dear Father Yours lovingly, Sincerely yours. (xi) Names of languages start with capital letters. For example : English, Hindi, and Sanskrit. Unit I - GRAMMAR 125

EXERCISE 2.1

Punctuate the following : 1. Mahatma Gandhi was killed by godse 2. Our final examinations will be conducted in may. 3. Einstein formulated the theory of relativity. 4. Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist in english. 5. The world is a stage and we are all actors on it. 6. india egypt greece and china are ancient countries. 7. Snake snake he cried. 8. He grows plants he grows vegetables he eats fruits and roots so he is a naturalist. 9. She speaks many languages hindi telugu tamil oriya bengali malayalam manipuri urdu english and kannada. 10. Get out dont show your face again. 11. Jesus was loving kind gentle truthful honest and altruistic. 12. The buddha was thoughtful pensive humanistic truthful honest philosophical and inquisitive. 13. Science is a good servant but a bad master 14. Machines havent made man lazy on the other hand they have made him the most restless creature in nature.