CULTURA 2016_271562_VOL_13_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare regional andinternationalcontexts. The editorialboardencourages mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro Axiology and Culture Founded in2004, www.peterlang.com ISBN 978-3-631-71562-8 ISBN Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo- rary world. - 2016
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2016 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol XIII 14.11.16 KW 4610:45 No 2 No CULTURA 2016_271562_VOL_13_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro Axiology and Culture Founded in2004, www.peterlang.com ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare regional andinternationalcontexts. The editorialboardencourages mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo-
rary world. - 2016
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2016 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol XIII 14.11.16 KW 4610:45 No 2 No CULTURA
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology E-ISSN (Online): 2065-5002 ISSN (Print): 1584-1057
Advisory Board Prof. Dr. David Altman, Instituto de Ciencia Política, Universidad Catolica de Chile, Chile Prof. Emeritus Dr. Horst Baier, University of Konstanz, Germany Prof. Dr. David Cornberg, University Ming Chuan, Taiwan Prof. Dr. Paul Cruysberghs, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Prof. Dr. Nic Gianan, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines Prof. Dr. Marco Ivaldo, Department of Philosophy “A. Aliotta”, University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy Prof. Dr. Michael Jennings, Princeton University, USA Prof. Dr. Maximiliano E. Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina Prof. Dr. Richard L. Lanigan, Southern Illinois University, USA Prof. Dr. Christian Lazzeri, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, France Prof. Dr. Massimo Leone, University of Torino, Italy Prof. Dr. Asunción López-Varela Azcárate, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain Prof. Dr. Christian Möckel, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany Prof. Dr. Devendra Nath Tiwari, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Prof. Dr. José María Paz Gago, University of Coruña, Spain Prof. Dr. Mario Perniola, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy Prof. Dr. Traian D. Stănciulescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iassy, Romania Prof. Dr. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, Purdue University & Ghent University
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief: Co-Editors: Prof. dr. Nicolae Râmbu Prof. dr. Aldo Marroni Faculty of Philosophy and Social- Dipartimento di Lettere, Arti e Scienze Sociali Political Sciences Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti Scalo, Italy B-dul Carol I, nr. 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania [email protected] [email protected] PD Dr. Till Kinzel Englisches Seminar Technische Universität Braunschweig, Bienroder Weg 80, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany [email protected] Editorial Assistant: Dr. Marius Sidoriuc Designer: Aritia Poenaru Cultura International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology Vol. 13, No. 2 (2016)
Editor-in-Chief Nicolae Râmbu Guest Editors: Asunción López-Varela and Ananta Charan Sukla Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.
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ISSN 2065-5002 ISBN 978-3-631-71562-8 (Print) E-ISBN 978-3-631-71635-9 (E-PDF) E-ISBN 978-3-631-71636-6 (EPUB) E-ISBN 978-3-631-71637-3 (MOBI) DOI 10.3726/b10729
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CROSS-CULTURAL INTERMEDIALITY: FROM PERFORMANCE TO DIGITALITY
CONTENTS
Asunción LÓPEZ-VARELA AZCÁRATE 7 Introduction: Performance, Medial Innovation and Culture
Ananta Charan SUKLA 13 Indian Intercultural Poetics: the Sanskrit Rasa-Dhvani Theory
Krishna PRAVEEN and V. Anitha DEVI 19 Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala
Jinghua GUO 27 Adaptations of Shakespeare to Chinese Theatre
Cyril-Mary Pius OLATUNJI and Mojalefa L.J. KOENANE 43 Philosophical Rumination on Gelede: an Ultra-Spectacle Performance
María VIVES AGURRUZA 53 The Cultural Impact of the Nanking Massacre in Cinematography: On City of Life and Death (2009) and The Flowers of War (2011)
Qingben LI 67 China’s Micro Film: Socialist Cultural Production in the Micro Era
Annette THORSEN VILSLEV 77 Following Pasolini in Words, Photos, and Film, and his Perception of Cinema as Language
Adile ASLAN ALMOND 83 Reading Rainer Fassbinder’s adaptation Fontane Effi Briest
Yang GENG and Lingling PENG 103 The Time Phenomenon of Chinese Zen and Video Art in China: 1988-1998
Carolina FERNÁNDEZ CASTRILLO 125 Lyric Simultaneities: From “Words in Freedom” to Holopoetry
Janez STREHOVEC 137 Digital Art in the Artlike Culture and Networked Economy
Stefano CALZATI 153 Representations of China by Western Travellers in the Blogsphere
Horea AVRAM 173 Shared Privacy and Public Intimacy: The Hybrid Spaces of Augmented Reality Art
10.3726/CUL2016-2_19
Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 13(2)/2016: 19–26
Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala
Krishna PRAVEEN School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore, India [email protected]
V. ANITHA DEVI School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore, India [email protected]
Abstract. The term Kathakali has by far become a word that is known widely among theatre lovers all over the world. It is no longer an art intended to perform within the four walls of a temple in Kerala, with only a limited educated upper class to appreciate. In its evolution, it has become a symbol that represents a society, culture and tradition. This paper exploresKathakali art form, tracing its origin and evolution and analyzing how it hasbecome a socio-cultural icon. The paper also intends a comparative analysis of Kathakali with its counterparts – Krishnanaattam, Koodiyattam and Yakshagana – in order to substantiate its pre-eminence. Keywords: Kathakali, traditional, Koodiyattam, Krishnanaattam, Yakshagana
INTRODUCTION
The state of Kerala, in South India remains a subject of international interest for natives and foreigners alike. Abode of many traditional art forms, Kerala has a rich cultural heritage and sophisticated social system. Among the art forms, Kathakali bears the torch before the world among the Kerala art forms, representing its life and culture. Kathakali could be defined as a classical art that uses sophisticated gestures and stylized and well-defined body movements performed in tune with background music and percussion. In his renowned book The Kathakali Complex: Performance & Structure (1984), Philip Zarrilly has described the origin of Kathakali as a dance-drama which “evolved during the seventeenth century from a confluence of historical circumstances and through unique confluence of performing genres, all of which are Kerala versions of the classical, folk and ritual performance traditions.” (Zarrilli, 1984: 41)
19 K. Praveen, V. Anitha Devi / Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala
Koodiyattam, Kalari Payattu and Theyyam (a most elaborate and theatrical ritual practice of Kerala) are a few of such classical, folk and ritual performances with which Kathakali bears close resemblance. Being a classical art form, Kathakali resorts mainly to the theatre rules described in the Natya Sastra, a scientific treatise on theatre written by Bharatha Muni (c. 4th century CE). According to Ananta Sukla (see previous paper in this volume), the Natya Sastra includes information on everything from the mythological origins of theatre to specific listening of movements of major and minor limbs of the body. This treatesise is, thus, an elaboration of an entire theory of aesthetics and dramatic communication between audiences and performers, stage, architecture, and so on. Kathakalitheatre has suffered significant changes in its process of evolution. Although it bears a substantial similarity with Koodiyattam – which is the oldest form of classical Indian theatre, it became increasingly popular and spread over four centuries, compared to Koodiyattam, with a longer legacy of two thousand years. The increasing interest in Kathakali, especially by foreigners, has caused its cultural and geographical expansion beyond Kerala. Moreover, people from various social classes and religionshave learnt this unique art form, initially reserved to a particular Hindu community. Considered first as a temple art and a source of entertainment for the upper classes of Hindu society in Kerala, it has gradually become a world symbol for the life and culture of this community.
KATHAKALI: ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION
To trace the history of Kathakali one has to go as back as the 17th century Kerala, then one of the kingdoms of Travancore and Malabar. Studies prove that Kathakali originated in Ramanattam and Krishnaattam theatrical dances. The term aattam refers to dance, hence the termKrishnaattam (or Krishnanaattam) which signifies a dance drama on the life and activities of lord Krishna. Krishnanaattam was created by Manavedan Raja, the former Zamorin (the hereditary royal title used by Hindu Eradi rules in the Kingdom of Kozhikode on the Malabar Coast) of Kozhikodefrom 1653 to 1658. Krishnanaattam was performed in the premises of Guruvayoor Temple in Kerala, and Manavedan Raja refused to send the performers to the provinces of Kottarakkara Thampuran. (Zarrilli, 2000: 18)
20 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 13(2)/2016: 19–26
Thus, akin to Krishnanaattam, Ramanattam wasbased on the epic Ramayana and explored the life and activities of mythological lord Rama. It was performedin episodic form, requiring eight whole nights for its completion. It author wasVira Kerala Varma, alias Kottarakkara Thampuran, former ruler of Elayidathu Swaroopam in Southern Kerala from 1625 to 1685. Ramanattam evolved during the 18th and 19th centuries under the guidance, for instance, of Vettath Raja, ruler of the Vettath province, near Thiroor in Malappuram District in Kerala (Achuthankutty, 2013: 15). However, Ramanattam achieved greater prominence in the princely state of Travancore, when it was brought to the Vettath Province and renovations in costume, and style were introduced, bringing into the performance stories from the epic Mahabharatha. The expansion of the sources for stories in Kathakali and the renovation of the term Ramanattam to Kathakali happened during the reign of Kottayath Thampuran, the ruler of the North Malabar province during 1645-1716. Phillip b Zarrilli (2000) in his book Kathakali Dance-Drama has mentioned this transformation of Ramanattam to Kathakali. The name ‘Kathakali’ (an amalgamation of ‘Katha’ meaning ‘story’ and ‘Kali’ which means ‘dance’)came into popular use when yet another ruling prince, the Kottayam Tampuran (c. 1645–1716), authored a set of four plays based on stories from the Mahabharath, thereby expanding the older repertoire (Zarrilli, 1998: 18). There had been some debate over the question whether Kathakali gives prominence to story (Katha) or dance (Kali). Renowned scholar and percussionist of Kathakali theatre, Kalamandalam Krishnan Kutty Poduval (2008) believes that Kathakali gives prominence to the dance and physical movements. Since Kathakali is essentially an offshoot of Krishnanaattam, it might be relevant o offer a comparison between both in the following lines.
KATHAKALI AND KRISHNANAATTAM
Krishnanaattam is a devotional dance drama which enacts the life of lord Krishna in a sequence of eight plays traditionally performed on eight consecutive nights. Krishnageethi, a devotional literary piece penned by Manavedan Raja is the text upon which Krishnanaattam is based. (Achuthankutty, 2013: 006). As mentioned, the earliest form of Kathakali,
21 K. Praveen, V. Anitha Devi / Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala known as Ramanattam, was created on the grounds of a political resentment between the Zamorin of Calicut and Kottarakkara. Krishnanaattam was written completely in Sanskrit, but Kathakali used the oriental Malayalam and Manipravalam, a mixture of Sanskrit and classic Tamil languages. However, one substantial disimilarity are the masksused in both art forms. Kathakali actors use the pastes made out of natural elements such as stones and flowers. The colors include white, black, yellow, green, red, blue, and rose. The colour combination for the makeup varies according to traits of each character. For virtuous characters, green will be the predominant colour and for the evil, red and black. This colour distinction in Kathakali is done on the basis of the rules described in Bharatha Muni’s Natya Shastra (Achuthankutty, 2013: 091, 092). The entire portion of the actors’ face is covered with the various combinations of these pastes, which serve to enchance their facial expressions. In the case of Krishnanaattam, the physical movements are given more priority than facial expressions. Certain characters like Narakasura, Murasura, Jambavan and Yama, Krishnanaattam use wooden masks which are beautifully carved in a way that projects the emotion of the character. Emotionsare projected through the designs engraved on the masks, so that the possibilities of facial expressions are diminished. Hence Krishnanaattam provides little chance for the actors to bring in their acting abilities when compared to Kathakali. Another significant difference pertains to the percussion used for both. Krishnanaattam employs Toppi Maddalam (an instrument made of leather which could played using both the hands), Chengila and Ilathalom, (both instruments are made of metal). Kathakali makes uses of another significant instrument Chenda (a traditional leather instrument of Kerala which could be played with sticks specially manufactured for it), along with Maddalam, Chengila and Ilathalom. The possibilities of Chenda are much higher than all the other traditional instruments in providing dramatic effects for the performance. According Kalamandalam Krishnan Kutty Poduval (2008), “Kathakali without Chenda is like sea without waves”. (Poduval, 2008: 281). The script for both dance forms also varies significantly. As mentioned, Krishnanaattam employs purely Sanskrit language in its literature, and Kathakali uses Malayalam and Manipravalam. Thunchath Ezhuthachan had translated the epic Ramayana into these oriental Kerala
22 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 13(2)/2016: 19–26 languages, helping Kathakali to reacher a wider audience than elitist Krishnanaattam. Another substantial difference is that Kathakali has undergone a series of changes and renovations in its process of evolution wherareas Krishnanaattam has remained unchanged, laden with ritualistic values.
INTERMEDIAL AND INTERCULTURAL ELEMENTS IN KATHAKALI
Traditional and ritualistic art forms of Kerala and Karnataka such as Yakshagana, Mudiyett, Theyyam and Porattunatakam (a folk theatre of Kerala) have also provided significant contributions to Kathakali in its stages of evolution and development. Kathakali has adapted to a greater extend, the elements from Kalari Payattu- the traditional martial art form of Kerala, particularly in its physical training process. The Sopana School of music – a style of music that is rendered near the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temples in South India especially in Kerala, essentially an offshoot of Carnatic School of music, has also contributed to the development of Kathakali. Astapadiyattam, a dance drama based on Geetha Govindam a poetic work written by 12th century poet Jayadeva has also provided some influences. But above all, Kathakali has adopted many aspects from Koodiyattam. Like Koodiyattam, the facial expressions and the body movements and gestures of Kathakali actors are in accordance with the rules as explained in the Natya Shastra, without following the text as closely as Koodiyattom. According to Krishnan Kutty Poduval (2008: 265) the closest resemblance occurs with regards to facial makeup. The Natya Shastra indicates that a drama must have a peaceful end (Subhandyam), with no scenes of bloodshed and war portrayed on stage. All these stories explain the triumph of good over the evil. Kathakali violates these rules seeking to penetrate into the psyche of its audience to create a sort of cathartis (as explained by Ananta Sukla in the previous chapter). For instance, Duryudhanavadham, Prahladacharitham are stories that exhibit bloodshed at the climax of the play. New stories from other art forms have been incorporated into Kathakali in the course of time. Karnashapadham, Nizhalkuthu, Dashamukha Ravanan are a few among them. Recent performances, such as Kaikaseeyam Nangiarkoothu by Kalamandalam Girija have tried with
23 K. Praveen, V. Anitha Devi / Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala new plots and experiments to bring in more theatrical effects. Some artists, like Sadanam Harikumar and Ettumanoor Kannan have renovated facial makeup and costumes in accordance with the emotional state and physical features of mythical characters. These changes have been received with both acclaim and rejection. On the other hand, Koodiyattom has never moved away from the classical rules. (Poduval, 2008: 173).
Kalamandalam Girija Sadanam Harikumar
Kathakali also bears substantial similarities in costumes with Yakshagana (from Yaksha with means demi god and Gana which means song). Borth art forms predominantly depend upon the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha for their plots, and both are performed before a lighted lamp (aattavilakku in Kathakali). Before the commencement of the performance, percussionists playing abbara or peetike in Yakshagana, and keli in Kathakali, announce the play. Maddale (hand drum), chande (loud drum) and pungi (pipe) are also used. Kathakali used a variety of rhythm patterns such as Adantha, Chepada, Champa, Muriadantha, Panchari etc in different tempos depending upon the situation in the play and nature of the characters. In Yakshagana rhythm patterns are less complicated and there is a predominant use of Mattu or Tala. Krishnan Kutty Poduval (2008) has explained the aesthetic confluence of music, dance and percussion in Kathakal. The term, bearing close etymological affinities with thouryathrika-kala refers to an art form which is an amalgamation of several art forms, including vocal and instrumental rhythmical and musical patterns. Characters in Yakshagana perform vaachikaabhinaya (meaning “acting through speech words”), the first type of performance among the four explained in the Natya Shastra. This is done by vocalists and percussionist together. Kathakali actors remain mute, especially those who are noble
24 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 13(2)/2016: 19–26 and virtous (pacha), such as Nala, Arjuna, and Dharmaputhrar. For the virtous female characters the term Minukku is used. They express their emotions through facial expressions and body movements, accompanying the words sung by the Ponnani and Sinkidi Bhagavathars (lead singers in Kathakali).
abbara maddale
As mentioned, Kathakali includes Kathi characters (with mixed qualities of virtue and evil), Thadi characters (essentially evil in nature) and Kari (to refer to demonesses such as Poothana and Simhika). Each of these categories does not speak and is introduced by oral sounds, (a type of roar termed alarcha). The physical movements of the actors in Yakshagana are not stylized and aesthetic as it is in Kathakali. It is said that the warriors in the army of Kottarakkara Thampuran and later Kottayath Thampuran were the performers of Kathakali at its initial stages. They were trained in Kalaripayattu, a martial art learnt by the warriors in South India, and these elements were introduced in Kathakali. Vellinezhi Achuthankutty (2013) has described how Kathakali actors create a virtual world with only a few physical movements, ultimately intending to have a purgative effect upon the audience.
CONCLUSIONS
Possibly one the oldest forms of art expression, the impact of performance upon human lifeobeys to its capacity to enkindle thought and emotion and project them in order to exercise a contagion effect that makes the audience respond in particular ways. Each dramatic form is distinct and serves diverse socio-cultural purposes. The example of classic Kathakali is significant in the intermedial amalgamation of
25 K. Praveen, V. Anitha Devi / Kathakali: The Quintessential Classical Theatre of Kerala elements that it uses, including vocal and instrumental rhythmical and musical patterns, as well as its intercultural characteristics, when compared to other forms of classical theatre in South India.
References Achuthankutty, Vellinezhi. Kathakaliyute Kaippusthakam. (Handbook of Kathakali). Dubai: Thiranottam. 2013. Lal, Anand. Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. India: Oxford University press. 2008. Lal, Anand. Theatre of India, A concise Companion. India: Oxford University press. 2008. Madhavan, Arya. Kudiyattam Theatre and the Actor’s Consciousness, N.Y: Amsterdam. 2010. Poduval, Krishnankutty. Melapperukkam. (Percussion Multitudinous). India: Kerala Kalamandalam Deemed University for Art and Culture. 2008. Varadpande, Manohar. History of Indian Theatre. India: Abhinav Publication. 2005. Zarrilli, B Phillip. Kathakali Dance - Drama. London: Routledge. 2000. Zarrilli, B Phillip. The Kathakali Complex: Performance & Structure. India: Abinav. 1984.
Krishna PRAVEEN is currently doing full-time PhD in VIT University Vellore. His area of research is English language teaching through multimedia assisted materials of children’s theatre. Apart from the area of research, his other interests are in culture studies in association with traditional art forms.
V. ANITHA DEVI is Associate Professor, SSL, VIT University, Vellore Tamil Nadu, India, has implemented the use of English Language Laboratory, and a complete lab course in the M.Tech programme. She has been adept in training teachers to use technology in language classes. Her research interests: CALL, Web 2.0, Technology and Art, Education, Culture, Literacy and Literature.
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