sign in sign up
<<
Home , Abhayananda, Abhinavagupta, Aghor Yoga, Albert Rudolph, Amrit Desai, Annaprashana

Jyoti, Amar 215 J

birth and but remains alive. Most Shaivite Jnanasambanthar See SAMBANTHAR. traditions, and the of SHANKARA, accept the possibility of jivanmukti (living liberation). Other Hindu traditions, such as , do See . not accept the concept; they insist that full libera- tion occurs only at death. Neither Jains nor believe in jivanmukti. jnanedriya See . Historically, many of the earlier philosophies of , such as SAMKHYA, had no place for the idea. A strict reading of YOGA would not Jnaneshvara (1275–1296) poet- allow for it either. Jnaneshvara was a Vaishnavite (see VAISHNAVISM) poet-saint from , who wrote hymns Further reading: Andrew O. Fort, Jivanmukti in Transfor- of praise to and , the Maha- mation: Embodied Liberation in advaita and Neo-Vedanta rashtran forms of and who are (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998). worshipped at Pandharpur. He is most famous for his commentary on the BHAGAVAD GITA writ- ten in old Marathi, a beloved and revered text jivatman See VEDANTA. in Maharashtra. It is said that Jnaneshvara died at the age of 22, at Alandi on the Krishna River. This is now an important pilgrimage site; his jnana shrine is visited there at the time of the poet’s Jnana (from the root jna, “to know”) literally death in November. means “knowledge” but is better translated as “gnosis” or “realization.” Specifically, it is the Further reading: P. V. Bobde, trans., of Divine knowledge of the unity between the highest real- Flowers: Selected Devotional Lyrics of Saint Jnanesvara ity, or , and the individual self, or JIVATMAN. (: , 1987); Subedar, The role of jnana is developed in the philosophy trans., Gita, the Mother: Commentary by Dhyaneshwar of the and most clearly outlined in the Maharaj (: Kalyani, 1972). ADVAITA (non-dualist) philosophy of SHANKARA. Much thought and writing have focused on the of jnana in Indian tradition. Some see Jyoti, Swami Amar (1928–2001) Indian it as a cognitive function: once one understands and founder the truth of the unity of brahman and the self Swami Amar Jyoti was a humanitarian activist, intellectually, that is enough. Others require a who founded Jyoti Ashram, Sacred Mountain realization of a mystic sort. VEDANTA has often Ashram, the Desert Ashram, and the Truth Con- been characterized as interested only in gaining sciousness movement. Born in northwest India jnana, but it has many paths that stress on May 6, 1928, in a small town close to the or devotion as the first step on the path toward banks of the Indus River, Swami Amar Jyoti was the ultimate. is one of the three major named by his parents. As a child he was mentioned in the BHAGAVAD GITA. interested in science, math, writing, cycling, drama, and sports. The partition of India in 1947 Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian interrupted his college , causing him Philosophy, vols. 1 and 2 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, to transfer to a university in Bombay (). 1975). Just a few months prior to his graduation he left

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 215 12/14/06 9:28:50 AM K 216 Jyotipriya

school in order to obtain the remainder of his Colorado. A few years later he established the education from the world itself. At 19, without Desert Ashram in Tucson, Arizona, under Truth money or a destination, he took a train to Cal- , a nonprofit organization created cutta (). to disseminate Swami Amar Jyoti’s teachings. He Political tensions and mass violence had bro- continued to travel and teach until his death on ken out in India at the time, and refugees were June 13, 2001. flooding into West by the thousands. Jyoti Ashram is a pilgrimage site. It contains During this time Rama worked for an aviation a memorial temple housing the remains of the company in Calcutta; when offered a partnership swami. in the company, he decided to leave and instead volunteer his services to help the refugees. Dur- Further reading: Swami Amar Jyoti, Immortal Light: The ing this time he lived on a railway platform some- Blissful Life and Wisdom of Swami Amar Jyoti (Boulder, where close to the border of India and East Bengal Colo.: Truth Consciousness, 2004);———, of (now Bangladesh). He soon became the leader of Himalaya: The Story of a Truth Seeker (Boulder, Colo.: the entire volunteer effort, working more than Truth Consciousness, 2001). 20 hours per day. A year later, as the inflow of refugees began to subside, Rama moved back to Calcutta. Here he turned down a government Jyotipriya See TYBERG, JUDITH M. position in order to work for the rehabilitation of refugees. Rama chose to live alone on the fringes of Jyotirmayananda , Swami Calcutta in an ASHRAM, where he learned classi- (1931– ) advaita teacher and educator cal music, sitar, , and . In Swami Jyotirmayananda Saraswati founded the the contemplative atmosphere he began to have Yoga Research Foundation. visions. His , YOGA, and practices Born in Dumari Buzurg on February 3, increased, and soon he knew where his life’s work 1931, in the state of , the boy who would was leading him. He lived in silence for close to a become Swami Jyotirmayananda was a calm, decade, focused on the goal of realization. In reflective, and successful student. He studied at those years he made many pilgrimages through- the Science College of , where he first met out India, but his “awakening” is attributed to the Swami SIVANANDA of . He traveled to time he spent in a temple village near the source the in Rishikesh, where his of the River. GURU, Sivananda, put him to work teaching oth- In 1958, Rama was initiated into Vidyut San- ers. In February 1953, he took the vow of SAN- nyas (lightninglike ) in in NYAS (renunciation) from Sivananda and began the and given the name Swami Amar to teach at the Yoga Vedanta Forest Academy Jyoti (eternal light). Now he was ready to com- as a professor of . He became the editor municate to the world. He founded his first center, of the journal of the Divine Life Society, Jyoti Ashram, in , in the state of Maharash- Yoga-Vedanta. tra close to his mother’s home. In 1961 he was In 1962, after many requests, he traveled to invited to the by a devotee; on this the West, staying two years in Puerto Rico, where trip he gained a degree of popularity. In 1974, he he founded the Sanatan Mandir. In 1969 set up the Sacred Mountain Ashram near Boulder, he opened his center in Miami, Florida, where he

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 216 12/14/06 9:28:50 AM Jyotirmayananda Saraswati, Swami 217 J

set up a publishing center and the Yoga Research Jyotirmananda teaches and lectures on inte- Foundation. Branches of this organization now gral yoga and sponsors a monthly magazine, Inter- exist throughout the world. In 1985, he founded national Yoga Guide. an ashram near New Delhi that offers yoga classes, publishes the Hindi journal Yoganjali, and assists Further reading: Swami Jyotirmayananda Saraswati, the needy through a medical clinic. The ashram Meditate the Tantric Yoga Way (London: Allen & Unwin, also runs a school for children, the Bal Divya Jyoti 1973); ———, The Art of Positive Thinking (Miami: Public School. Yoga Research Foundation, 1988).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 217 12/14/06 9:28:50 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 218 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM K J: AF

Kabir (c. 15th century) medieval Hindi saint-poet pundits but less important for the transmission , a poor, illiterate man, was one of the great of tradition. saint-poets of northern India. He is revered by Kabir was the disciple of the GURU , , , and Sikhs, although his work a famous c. 15th-century teacher. A story tells includes much social and religious criticism of how Kabir, a convert to , tricked this ortho- Islam and Hinduism. dox Hindu into accepting him as a student. Kabir The poet was born in BENARES () into is said to have lain upon the steps that the guru a weaver family who had recently converted to always took in the morning to do his bathing and Islam. As with other poet- such as RAM- ablutions in the river. Tripping in the dark over PRASAD and , the actual details of his life the supine Kabir, the guru in fear uttered, “Ram! are not known for certain; it is not even known Ram!” This is, in fact, a in and of itself, and which of the poems attributed to him were so the crafty Kabir insisted he must be accepted as authentically his. Indian poet-saints, particularly a disciple since he had heard the guru’s mantra. those who relied upon song to communicate, very (It should be added that Kabir’s understanding of quickly became legendary figures, the possessions the mantra RAMA is not an orthodox one. For him of everyone. More important than the concrete the word did not designate the of details of these people’s lives or the verses that of that name, but was a divine “name” that leads may be authentically theirs is the collective imagi- one to an undifferentiated ADVAITA (non-dual) nation of them, which makes them part of the consciousness.) cultural consciousness and makes their writings a There exists a story, probably apocryphal and collective possession. invented by Hindus, that Kabir was actually born It is understood from his verses that Kabir of a woman and set afloat in a basket was illiterate, but in India this is less important on a pond to be found by a Muslim couple. Both than in the bibliophilic West. Real Indian tra- Hindus and Muslims still claim Kabir as their dition, the culture that occupied the center of own (while his words are included in the sacred Indian consciousness, was always oral and aural books of the Sikhs, the .) It is first. Written texts were the abode of scholars and said that when Kabir died, Muslims and Hindus

219

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 219 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM K 220 Kailasanatha Temple

confronted each other, each wanting to take the Kailash, Mount (Mount Kailas or Mount body for their own . Before they could come Kailasha) to blows, however, they pulled up the shroud only Kailash (from kelasa, crystal) is the name of a to find there a heap of flowers, which they happily mountain peak about 18,000 feet up in the HIMA- divided in half. LAYAS. It is sacred to both Hindus and Tibetan There is hardly a person who grew up in North Buddhists. In Indian mythology it is seen as the India over the last 400 years who has not been abode of the Lord and of , the god of able to recite many verses of “Kabir” by heart. His wealth and of the northern direction. Mythology work is deeply ingrained in the culture of North places it to the south of Mount MERU. Kailash is India. This said, his poetry combines highly eso- sometimes also said to be the source of the GANGES teric symbolism, highly mystical non- River. Throughout history it has been an impor- dual devotion that envisions a “divinity” beyond tant Hindu pilgrimage site. any form or description, a deep criticism of the orthodoxy of both Muslims and Hindus, and a Further reading: , The Holy Mountain, strong social critique of the hierarchy of Hindu Mansarovar, and Mount Kailas: Being the Story of a Pil- society. In his poetry he again and again evokes grimage to Lake Marias and of on Mount Kailas the watchword Ram without any sectarian con- (London: Faber & Faber, 1934); Sharma, Kailash tent. It is a mantric word used to point toward the Mansarovar: A Sacred Journey (New Delhi: Lotus Collec- highest consciousness that sees beyond the veil or tion, Roli Books, 2004). of this world. Kabir’s poems are found in the Guru Granth Sahib of the Sikhs (see ); in the Panchvani, a compilation of sayings of five northern saints; Kaivalya (from kevala, sole or only) liter- and in the Bijak, an anthology attributed to Kabir ally means “isolation” and refers to the liberated alone. All of these were first published around the state of the self, when it is “isolated” completely 17th century, although the Guru Granth Sahib from the pulls and distortions of PRAKRITI, or in its formative stages may have contained these natural reality. The term originated in the ancient poems earlier. SAMKHYA tradition and is important in the yoga tradition of . Both living and dead per- sons may be in the state of kaivalya. It is a unique Further reading: P. D. Barthwal, The Nirgun School of state where one becomes absorbed in the root- Hindi Poetry (Benares: The Indian Bookshop, 1936); consciousness of the Self () alone. Bliss is Linda Hess and Shukdev Singh, trans., The Bijak not an element of traditional kaivalya. of Kabir (: North Point Press, 1983); David Lorenzen, Kabir Legends and Ananda-Das’s Kabir Further reading: M. N. Parthasarathi, Journey to Alone- Parachai (Albany: State University of New York Press, ness: Commentaries on the (Mumbai: 1991); Karine Schomer and W. H. McCleod, eds., The Eeshwar, 2001); Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Tradition of India (Berkeley: Berkeley Religious Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga (Albany: Studies Series and Motilal Banarsidass, 1987); Charlotte State University of New York Press, 1998). Vaudeville, trans., Kabir, 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1974). The name Kali has two derivations. In the sense of Kailasanatha Temple See ELLORA. “she who is black” it is from kala (black). In the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 220 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM Kali 221 J

sense of “she who is the ruler of time” it derives from kala (time, spelled slightly differently in SANSKRIT letters). Kali is the most frightening of the and the most misunderstood by non-Hindus. Mythologically, she originates in the fury of the and emerges physically from that goddess’s forehead. She has a terrible, frightening appearance. She is originally very black (though in modern depictions she is often lighter), usually naked, emaciated, with long disheveled hair. She wears a skirt of severed arms, earrings made of the corpses of children, and a necklace of human skulls. In one hand she holds a cutting instru- ment, in another the severed head of a man. She has long sharp fangs, bloody lips, and a bloody lolling tongue. In Kali is often depicted as stand- ing upon the chest of the supine corpse of SHIVA, her nominal husband. She is known to frequent the burning grounds where burned and unburned corpses abound, where she is always accompanied by female jackals. She, as does DURGA, likes liquor, meat, and blood. There is little doubt that Kali is a fierce The temple to the goddess Kali, in Dakshineshwar, autochthonous non- goddess who has been Bengal, where Sri served as a absorbed into the larger Brahminized of (Constance A. Jones) Hinduism. Kali first appears in developed liter- ary form in the Devibhagavatam of the 11th to 12th centuries, where she is seen to be , wife of Shiva, who becomes completely black out modern Bengali Saint RAMAKRISHNA, who had of fury when battling the demons Shumbha and perhaps the greatest influence in the West of any Nishumbha. She also appears in the 16th-century Indian spiritual figure, was known as a devotee Devimahatmya, part of the Purana; of Kali alone. this is the source of the story that Kali emerged Devotion to Kali requires the utmost surrender from the enraged Durga. and the ability to see that her chaotic and fearsome Kali is most associated with eastern India, visage is only a barrier placed before the devotee, particularly Bengal. Her devotional literature who must have the courage to seek the inner and cultic followings began to proliferate as depths of her and the or uni- early as the 13th and 14th centuries. Bengal is versal power she represents. When one has accom- the only state to Kali during the all- plished this step, one can learn to become Kali, as India festival of DIVALI. The medieval Bengali Sri Ramakrishna so clearly demonstrates. When poet Ram Prasad is best known for his Bengali one has learned to be her truth, then one’s con- hymns in devotion to “Mother Kali,” and the sciousness and being are completely transformed

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 221 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM K 222

and one can live in her endless bliss for longer and Malvikagnimitra begins as a story of political longer periods. alliances toward the end of the Mauryan dynasty, Kali has been associated with tantric religious but the political aspect is eventually equaled forms. TANTRISM in this context focuses on the or overshadowed by the love affair between cremation ground; normative elements and prac- the princess Malvika and the prince Agnimitra. tices are frowned upon or forbidden. When one The drama Vikramovashiya tells how one of the realizes the divinity within even the lowest reali- celestial nymphs, or ASPARAS, goes to live ties, within the rotting corpse, within the dark of with her lover Pururavas thanks to his prowess the cremation ground, then one has learned to or vikrama. It has been called a drama of “luster find the limit of time and one can began to see the and brilliance” with no plot or real action. In the secrets buried in the depths of reality. Then one skeleton story the celestial nymph Urvashi falls in can begin to experience Kali as the sweet, compas- love with an earthly king, Pururavas. She loses her sionate, nurturing mother that she is. celestial status but is allowed to live with him. The Iconographically it is understood that Kali’s play is graced with nature description, beautiful nakedness symbolizes the stripping away of illu- poetry, and effects. sion; the severed head is a symbol of her cutting Abhijnanasakuntalam sometimes abbreviated away of the ignorance that binds one to the cycle to Shakuntala, is recognized as its author’s mas- of birth and rebirth. Kali’s lolling tongue is most terpiece. The heroine Shakuntala is the daughter often taken to indicate her anger, but some in of the celestial nymph Menaka and the sage Vish- India have taken it to be a gesture, like “biting the vamitra. She is abandoned by her parents and tongue” in shame. is raised by the caring sage in his forest hermitage. The king Dushyanta finds the hermit- Further reading: David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: age and falls in love with the beautiful, simple Visions of the Divine Feminine in Religious Tra- maiden. In Kanva’s absence the lovers consum- dition (Berkeley: University of Press, 1988); mate a permitted “love marriage.” The king has ———, The Sword and the Flute: Kali and Krsna, Dark to leave but gives Shakuntala his signet ring and Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in promises to send someone for her in a few days. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Rachel Shakuntala soon realizes that she is pregnant. Fell McDermott and Jeffrey J. Kripal, eds., Encountering While Shakuntala daydreams about her lover, the Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, In the West (Berkeley: irascible sage visits; enraged at being University of California Press, 2003). ignored, the sage curses her that her lover will forget her. Shakuntala loses the king’s signet ring, her only proof of their meeting. She visits the Kalidasa (circa fourth or fifth century C.E.) king in her pregnancy, but he swears he has never Sanskrit poet seen her. Finally the ring is discovered in the Kalidasa is considered one of the greatest SANSKRIT belly of a fish and is taken to the king, who then dramatists and poets. remembers. Eventually the king flies back to the Little is known for certain about the life of hermitage in a celestial chariot provided by the poet and dramatist Kalidasa. He appears to and sees a boy playing there who he recognizes have lived in the time of the imperial GUPTAS, must be his son. The drama ends happily. perhaps in central India, in what is now called Among Kalidasa’s great poems is Raghuvamsha, . Three dramas are attributed a look back at the dynasty of RAMA, the hero of the to him: Malvikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiya, and . The poem describes the lives of all of the Shakuntala. ancient progenitors of his line. He also wrote Kuma-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 222 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM 223 J

rasambhava, a consummate masterpiece about SHIVA a period of decline. It was preceded by the ages of and PARVATI and their young son, Kumara. Another gold, silver, and bronze. After the end of the KALI of his great works is Meghaduta (Cloud messenger), YUGA and a short hiatus, a will begin: a charming poem about the God Kubera’s sending the age of truth (KRITA YUGA), when all the wick- a message of consolation to his lover far away by edness, strife, and dissension of this era will be means of a cloud messenger. Nature here is beauti- replaced by righteousness. It is understood that fully described. Finally, Ritusamhara, a short lyric this age will be ushered in by , the future uncertainly ascribed to Kalidasa, includes a beauti- incarnation or AVATAR of VISHNU, riding on a mag- ful description of the four seasons and the amorous nificent white horse. moods appropriate to each. Further reading: Shakti M. Gupta, Vishnu and His Further reading: Chittenoor Kuhan Raja, Survey of Incarnations (Bombay: Somaiya, 1993); Pandrimalai (Bombay: Bharatiya Bhavan, Swamigal, The Ten Incarnations: Dasavatara (Bombay: 1962); Moriz Winternitz, History of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982). (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1964–67).

A kalpa is a traditional Indian eon or unit of time, All of the YUGAS or ages in the Indian tradition an eon. Sources differ as to its exact length, but refer to throws in an ancient game of dice. Kali a common measure is that a kalpa is made up of (spelled differently in Sanskrit from the goddess 1,000 MAHAYUGAS, or 4,320,000,000 years. This of that name) is the “four,” the worst throw of the is considered to be a day in the life of the god dice, comparable to “craps” in the Western dice . game. Our age is understood to be the Kali Yuga, in which , the worst aspect of nature, pre- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van dominates. Trickery, envy, and even the murder of Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the holy persons are the norm in this era, as are fatal Sanskrit (Philadelphia: Temple University disease, fatal hunger, fear, and instability. Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Kings in the Kali Yuga are angry and debauched. Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). People are short-lived and short in stature. Money, power, pleasure, and falsehood reign. BRAHMA, VISHNU, , and the Sun are all worshipped in See ENDS OF LIFE, FOUR. the Kali Yuga.

Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Kamadeva (Kama) Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Kamadeva or Kama is the Indian cupid, the god Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University of love. He is found in the as a divinity, but Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and his character was developed in the Indian epics Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). and PURANAS. Most famously Kamadeva is known to have been burned to ashes by the of Lord SHIVA. In that tale, Shiva was in a state of Kalki Avatar MEDITATION and ascetic withdrawal. The des- Indian tradition speaks of YUGAS or ages of his- perately wanted him to marry and have progeny, tory. Today we are in the KALI YUGA, or Iron Age, because they knew that his offspring would be

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 223 12/14/06 9:28:51 AM K 224 Kamakhya

able to defeat the demon Taraka who was plaguing The image of the goddess Kamakhya (also them. They sent the god of love to awaken sexual called Kamarupa, the shape or form of desire) at desire by shooting him with his flower arrows. the shrine is actually a stone, the matri or Shiva became angry at Kamadeva for his presump- “Mother’s mound of Venus.” Steep stone steps tion and he incinerated him with his third eye. lead from the entrance of the temple to a cave Upon the mournful request of Kamadeva’s wife, deep in the earth, where Ma Kamakhya sits along- , Shiva relented and restored the god of love side stones of (SARASVATI) and Kamala to life, but without a body. This is why he is invis- (). ible. In other versions of the story, Kama is not Kamakhya herself is a form of Shodashi, or revived, but rather reborn as , the son -Sundari, one of the DASHA , of KRISHNA. each of whom has a dedicated temple on the hill. Kamakhya is also associated through various Further reading: Catherine Benton, God of Desire: Hindu and tantric traditions with SRI LALITA and Tales of Kamadeva in Sanskrit Story Literature (Albany: PARVATI. State University of New York Press, 2005); Cornelia In June, during the height of monsoon season, Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu the spring that flows inside the cave is said to turn Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadel- to menstrual blood, signifying the start of one of phia: Temple University Press, 1978); E. Washburn the holiest festivals in India. In fact, the water Hopkins, Epic Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, that washes over the stone at this time of year has 1986). a reddish color due to its chemical components. During AMBUVACHI (Ameti) Festival, the temple is closed for three days, as are all the temples in Kamakhya the area; then it is believed to be inauspicious to Situated near the top of Nilachal Hill in Guwa- start new ventures, cook food, study scripture, hati, overlooking the majestic , seeds, or till the earth. On the fourth day, is a famous pilgrimage site. It is the doors open to tens of thousands of scarlet- the most important of the SHAKTI PITHAS, or centers clad pilgrims, who carry flowers, sweets, and of devotion for the GODDESS. According to Hindu other offerings. The goddess’s is given in mythology, when SHIVA carried the body of his the form of angadhak (ritu), the water that is the wife, , her YONI fell to Earth, where the Kamak- menstrual blood of the goddess, and angabastra, a hya Temple stands today. According to local piece of the red sari draped over the stone during mythology, it is here that Shiva descends to unite its menstruation. with the goddess’s yoni. Thus, Nilachal Hill is the The origins of the first temple on this site are symbolic site of Shiva and the goddess’s eternal shrouded in mystery. Some say it was built by the sexual union and is the primordial or original seat demon Narakasura, whom KRISHNA fought when of the goddess. he tried to marry the beautiful goddess Kamakhya This association points to Kamakhya Temple’s (she foiled his plans by outwitting him). The orig- strong tantric tradition (see TANTRISM). It remains inal temple was destroyed in the 16th century by one of the holiest pilgrimage sites in India for Mughal invaders and then rebuilt in 1665 by King practitioners, who associate it with the Nara Narayana. This temple has a beehivelike powerful creative force of the mother goddess. structure, surrounded by carved panels pictur- It is a center of tantric worship and transmission ing figures such as , , temple of tantric traditions by devotees, adepts, and dancers, animals, and women menstruating and . giving birth. Harkening back to its origins as an

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 224 12/14/06 9:28:52 AM 225 J

ancient sacrificial site, goats are sacrificed to the the life of a religious student at BENARES [Vara- goddess daily, particularly during the height of nasi], and wholly engaged in the contemplation festival seasons. of the . This work is not to be used merely as an instrument for satisfying our desires. A person Further reading: Subhendugopal Bagchi, Eminent Indian acquainted with the true principles of this science, Sakta Centres in Eastern India: An Interdisciplinary Study who preserves his DHARMA [virtue or religious in the Background of the Pithas of Kalighata, Vakresvara, ], his [worldly wealth] and his kama and Kamakhya (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1980); David [pleasure or sensual gratification], and who has Kinsley, Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten regard to the customs of the people, is sure to Mahavidyas (Berkeley: University of California Press, obtain mastery over his senses. In short, an intel- 1997). ligent and knowing person attending to dharma and artha and also to kama, without becoming the slave of his passions, will obtain success in Kama Sutra everything that he may do.” The Kama Sutra (Aphorisms on love) by Vatsya- The Kama Sutra’s audience is clearly male yana, probably the most widely known of Indian and it is oriented toward the fulfillment of male texts, was written around the second century desires, particularly the sexual. Even the chap- C.E. It consists of 1,250 verses. It is divided into ter on courtesans is intended to guide them on seven parts, divided into 36 chapters, and further how males are best pleasured. Parts of the book divided into 64 paragraphs. give details on how men might increase women’s Legend says that the author originally sexual pleasure, but even this is framed in a male- wrote the Kama Sutra in 1,000 chapters, later centered way. abbreviated to 500 chapters by the poet Shveta- A brief summary of the seven parts of Vat- ketu. Babhravya, a descendent of the Panchalas syayana’s Kama Sutra is as follows: In Part I, (whose homeland is south of Delhi), abridged it Vatsyayana justifies the study of Kama, desire, still further to 150 chapters under seven heads against those who feel that it is not appropriate. or parts: Desire or Kama as a part of life; Sexual They may argue, for instance, that the pursuit Intercourse; Acquisition of a Wife; the Wife; Wives of prosperity, another of the sanctioned goals of of Other People; Courtesans and Prostitutes; life, requires giving up the pursuit of pleasure. the Arts of Seduction. The sixth of these parts Vatsyayana argues that pleasure is necessary for was expounded by Dattaka at the request of the the natural maintenance of the body, although he prostitutes of Pataliputra (Patna); the other parts adds that it must be sought in moderation. Part were explained by Charayana (first part), Suvar- one also tells of 64 arts relating to pleasure that nanabha (second part); Ghotakamukha (third a young woman (and a wise man) should know; part); Gonardiya (fourth part); Gonikaputra (fifth gives a detailed account of the pleasures and part); and Kuchumara (seventh part). Given this amusements of a citizen, such as gambling; and confusion of authors, and the length and difficulty tells men what sort of women are appropriate for of the original material, Vatsyayana decided to sexual intercourse. compose his own work as a sort of condensation Part II gives all the details of sexual intercourse of all the previous efforts. and its elements, such as kissing, biting, and role A quote from the introduction to the Kama playing. Part III discusses courtship and marriage. Sutra says that “this treatise was composed, Part IV prescribes the conduct of a wife in her according to the precepts of the VEDAS, for the husband’s absence and how she should act toward benefit of the world, by Vatsyayana, while leading his other wives. Part V describes how a man might

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 225 12/14/06 9:28:52 AM K 226 Kamban

gain the confidence of and seduce women other The extant manuscripts of the Iramavataram, than his own wife. Part VI discusses the duties and varying from 10,000 to 12,000 verses in length, activities of courtesans and prostitutes and advises probably include interpolations. From the very them on how to earn more money; it also discusses beginning of the poem RAMA is presented as the the different classifications of prostitutes. Part VII AVATAR of VISHNU; he is referred to by Vishnu’s discusses additional methods of seduction, includ- epithets throughout. This is quite different from ing aphrodisiacs. the SANSKRIT version of , in which Rama There are two well-known commentaries on is clearly associated with Vishnu only in the first the Kama Sutra. Jayamangala or Sutrabhasya was and last chapters. written between the 10th and 13th centuries; In other ways, the story as told by Kamban Sutravritti was written somewhat later. is very much along the lines of Valmiki; in many places it is clear that the author is familiar with Further reading: Haran Chakladar, Social the Sanskrit version. Among the noticeable varia- Life in Ancient India: Studies in Vatsyanana’s Kama Sutra tions is that Kamban omits the entire final chapter (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1990); Wendy of the Sanskrit version (the Uttarakanda) of the Doniger and Sudhir Kakar, trans., Kamasutra of Vatsya- Ramayana, which recounts a tale of Rama’s chil- yana Mallanaga: A New, Complete English Translation of dren and the history of the demon king . the Sanskrit Text with Excerpts from the Sanskrit Jaya- When Kamban’s Ramayana ends Rama and mangala Commentary of Yashodhara Indrapada and the live happily in the ideal kingdom. Hindi Jaya Commentary of Devadatta Shastri (New York: Also, although Kamban relates Sita’s abduction Oxford University Press, 2002). by Ravana, in his version Ravana cannot touch Sita, who is protected by a deadly curse. Finally, in the story of , the maiden who was turned Kamban (c. ninth to 12th century) classical to stone on account of her dalliance with INDRA, Tamil author the curse that was put upon Indra varies between Kamban is the author of the Ira- the two versions: in the Sanskrit tale he is cursed mavataram (The Avatar of Rama), perhaps the with the testicles of a goat; in the Tamil version he most ornate and aesthetically pleasing of all the is cursed with 1,000 vaginas (which he begs the many versions of the RAMAYANA written in the gods to transform into eyes—thus his epithet “the regional languages of India. one with 1,000 eyes.”) The details of Kamban’s life, as those of many other classical Indian authors, are uncertain. Even Further reading: George L. Hart and Hank Heifetz, his name, which is not his given name, can trans., The Forest Book of the Ramayana of Kampan be interpreted in different ways. The traditional (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Kamil account has him the son of Adita, a resident of V. Zvelibil, Tamil Literature. Vol. 10, Fascile 1, A History Muvalur village in Tanjore District of . of Indian Literature. Edited by Jan Gonda (Wiesbaden: He belonged to either the drummer or the Otto Harrassowitz, 1974). caste of hereditary in the KALI temples. He mentions his patron, Sataiyan, in his verses. A con- temporary Chola king is said to have given him the fief of a place called Kambanatu (a possible source Kamsa See KRISHNA. for his name) and the title of “king of poets.” Some believe that the poet was murdered by the Chola king himself out of jealousy for his fame. (c. 600 B.C.E.) See -.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 226 12/14/06 9:28:52 AM 227 J

Kanchipuram Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal. The local goddess Kanchipuram, located about 40 miles southwest Kanya Kumari is considered by some to be a form of Madras (), is one of the seven sacred of DURGA. cities of India. It has been an important South The story goes that the god of Suchindram, Indian religious and cultural center since well a nearby town, was going to marry the goddess. before the Pallava dynasty of the sixth to eighth The gods did not like this—if she married she centuries, when it served as the capital city. It also would lose her powers to fight demonic forces. served as one of the Chola capitals in the ninth to They asked the to solve the prob- 13th centuries and as a secondary Pandyan capital lem. When Suchindram was on the way to the around 1000. ceremony, Narada made the call of a rooster. The city has been influenced by VAISHNAVISM, Thinking that he had departed too late for the , and . Between the fourth and sev- ceremony Suchindram returned home and left enth centuries Kanchipuram was also known as the goddess in her virgin state. Because of this one of the great centers for Buddhism, and there she was able to kill the demon Bana and protect are still vestiges there of the Buddhist presence. her land. SHANKARA (c. seventh century) established one The seashore temple of Kanya Kumari is one of his five original or site for in of the most visited PILGRIMAGE sites in India today. Kanchipuram. The city has a sizable Jain popula- Offshore, a newer temple to memorialize Swami tion today concentrated in an area known as Jain VIVEKANANDA has also been created. The town has Kanchi, where there are many Jain shrines and a been a pilgrimage site since very ancient times, few quite remarkable ancient Jain temples. since it is mentioned in the parvan of The oldest Hindu temples in Kanchipuram, the , which took its current form by dating from the seventh and eighth centuries, are the second century C.E. (with some sections going the Kailasanatha temple devoted to SHIVA, and the back to perhaps the fifth century B.C.E.). Perumal temple devoted to VISHNU, both built by the Pallavas. Additionally, the Kamakshi Further reading: Francis X. Clooney, Divine Mother, Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kamakshi, dates Blessed Mother: Hindu Goddess and the Virgin Mary (New from the same period. Notable also are two temples York: Oxford University Press, 2005). in the later VIJAYANAGARA style (circa 14th through 16th centuries): one of them dedicated to Varadara- raja (Vaishnavite) and also to Shiva in form, Kapila (c. 100 C.E.) philosopher and the other known as the Ekambaranatha temple, The sage Kapila is the legendary founder of which has an ancient mango tree on its grounds. SAMKHYA tradition, and thus a key figure in the Kanchipuram is also famous for its beautiful saris. history of yoga. He is said to have passed on his knowledge to Asuri, who in turn passed it on to Further reading: T. V. Mahalingam, Kanchipuram in Panchashikha. According to the oldest commen- Early South Indian History (London: Asia Publishing tary on the samkhya karika, a later text, Kapila House, 1969). was a “wise ascetic, . . . born of heaven, . . . and innately endowed with the four fundamental dis- positions of virtue, knowledge, renunciation, and Kanya Kumari supernatural power.” Kanya Kumari (Virgin maiden) is a town of The story is told that Kapila, out of pity for suf- approximately 200,000 people at the tip of India fering humanity, selected a BRAHMIN , at the meeting place of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Asuri, as an appropriate person to whom to reveal

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 227 12/14/06 9:28:52 AM K 228

the knowledge of Samkhya. Kapila approached Karttikeya him as he was performing (as he had Karttikeya is the younger son of SHIVA and PARVATI; been doing for thousands of years). Asuri would GANESHA is the elder son. There are many versions not listen. Only after being approached two more of his life story, as is usual in Hindu tradition. In times did he relent and become Kapila’s student. the best known version, from the PURANAS, Shiva Some sources say Kapila is the son of Svambhu- accidentally spills his semen into fire (). The va’s daughter, MANU, and ’S son, Kardama. fire is distressed because of the semen’s incred- Other sources say that he may be an incarnation ible power and asks the GANGES River for help. of VISHNU who learned his wisdom directly from She agrees and the semen is thrown into her cool SHIVA; as such he would then be known as HIRANYA- waters. GARBHA, or lord of the world. There are numerous The Ganges waits 5,000 years for the seed to references to Kapila in the epics and later texts, gestate and produce a child, but none comes forth. which give him various powers and statuses. She goes to BRAHMA to ask for advice. He tells her to leave the seed in a vast grove of reeds for Further reading: John Davies, : An 10,000 more years. After that long period a child Exposition of the System of Kapila (New Delhi: Cosmo, is indeed born in the reeds. As he cries out, the 1981). six krittika goddesses (the Pleides) vie with each other to be the first to nurse him. Because of their karma quarreling he develops six faces around his head to look at all of them at once. As he is reared by In ancient VEDIC tradition karma (action) simply these six goddesses, he receives the name Kart- referred to the Vedic rites. often tikeya, from their names. contrasts the karma kanda (action aspect) of tradi- Once the word spreads that this child is born, tion with its jnana kanda (knowledge aspect). Later, the term karma came to refer to the “law of action.” the god of fire suddenly renews his interest and According to this ethical concept, the actions or wants to claim him. The Ganges also wants of individuals in their current births shape him. They go to Shiva and Parvati to settle the their lives in their next births. Finally, in the con- dispute, but this only creates complications, as text of the BHAGAVAD GITA, refers to the couple also want the child. They all agree a YOGA of action in the world without regard to to ask the child and to accept his choice. The its . Mohandas Karamchand made boy, loving them all, becomes four versions of the term karma yoga well known, as his political himself. The one named Karttikeya became son actions were all undertaken under this name. The of Shiva, the one named Kumara becomes son of Indian traditions of Hinduism, JAINISM, Buddhism, the Ganges, the one named becomes son and SIKHISM all accept the notion of karma. of Parvati, and the one named Guha becomes the son of fire. Further reading: C. F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel, Karttikeya is depicted iconographically with Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry (Berkeley: University a peacock vehicle, some sort of weapon in his of California Press, 1983); Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, hand, and a rooster on his banner. At times he ed., Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions is considered unmarried, while other stories give (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). him a wife named ; in he has a second wife, Valli. Karttikeya is very popular in South India, where he takes the name Murugan karmendriyas See SAMKHYA. along with his other traditional names.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 228 12/14/06 9:28:52 AM Kashmiri Shaivism 229 J

Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van The earliest texts of Kashmiri Shaivism have Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the no known human authors and are considered Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University revealed sacred texts. According to tradition, in Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology the ninth century C.E. Shiva revealed to (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu the Shiva Sutra, a text composed of aphorisms that Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, presents the early teachings of Kashmiri Shaivism. 1973). The Spanda Karika, whose authorship is attributed to either Vasugupta himself or his disciple Kalat- tabhatta, expands upon the teachings in the Shiva Kashi Church Foundation See JAYA SATI Sutra. In particular, the Spanda Karika describes , MA. the nature of Paramashiva as spanda, the divine pulsation or vibration. Paramashiva’s nature is to expand and contract, and thereby to emanate and Kashmiri Shaivism (est. ninth century) withdraw the universe on both a cosmic and a Kashmiri SHAIVISM includes the philosophies and mundane level. A disciple can thus realize Shiva practices of the ADVAITA (non-dual) Shaivite tradi- as his or her own nature by perceiving vibration as tions that flourished in from approx- part of his or her own experience. imately the ninth to the 13th centuries C.E. and his disciple Utpaladeva Kashmiri Shaivism describes ultimate reality as developed Kashmiri Shaivism further by estab- Paramashiva, or supreme Shiva, and teaches that lishing the teaching of , the recogni- nothing exists that is not one with Paramashiva. tion of Shiva as one’s own Self. They describe All of reality, with all of its diversity and fluctua- the experience of liberation as this recognition. tion, is the play of this single principle. The two Somananda first introduced this teaching in his aspects of this single reality are inseparably united: work , and Utpaladeva systemati- SHIVA and SHAKTI. Shiva is the self-luminous, static cally presented it in his writings, including the consciousness, and Shakti is the dynamic, blissful Pratyabhijnakarika. power of awareness. Through their union, the Kashmiri Shaivism reached its creative climax universe is constantly established, sustained, and with the teachings of and his dis- withdrawn. ciple Kshemaraja in the 10th and 11th centuries. Kashmiri Shaivism also teaches that Para- In his magnum opus, , Abhinavagupta mashiva is the true nature and Self of every encompasses almost every aspect of Kashmiri human being. Through self-effort and divine Shaivism and gives the most sophisticated and grace individuals can know both their Self and comprehensive expression of its teachings. Ksh- the world around them as supreme Shiva. A being emaraja continued his work and made Kashmiri who lives with the constant experience of this is Shaivism more accessible to wider audiences , liberated in this lifetime. through commentaries and digests. Within Kashmiri Shaivism, the most crucial Kashmiri Shaivism has continued to influence element of this journey to liberation is the relation- and inspire people in India and throughout the ship between the GURU and the disciple. The dis- world. Leading modern exponents include Swami ciple receives , the descent of divine grace LAKSHMANJOO (1907–91), who was raised and or power, from the guru. This essential initiation taught in the oral tradition of Kashmir, and Swami awakens the dormant spiritual energy within the (1908–82), who traveled through- individual called Shakti, and ultimately out the world sharing the teachings of Kashmiri leads to the realization of Paramashiva. Shaivism.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 229 12/14/06 9:28:53 AM K 230

Further reading: J. C. Chatterji, to 10 years for a Kathakali dancer to become (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986); Mark fully trained. The training is very demanding Dyczkowski, The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the and includes the study of one of the traditional Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism (Albany: State martial arts of to create stamina, con- University of New York Press, 1987). centration, and physical flexibility. It also, not incidentally, prepares the actors for the many dramatic fight scenes in the epics. There are 24 Kathakali main in Kathakali and a number of less Kathakali (katha, story, kali, performance) is a commonly used ones. special type of Indian dance-drama. It originated Kathakali uses a set “color code” for the in the state of Kerala in South India more than 500 makeup of the characters. Noble characters such years ago. It combines drama, dance, music, and as have their faces painted green. Evil . Characters with vividly painted faces and characters who have heroic roles will have green elaborate costumes reenact stories from the epics makeup with red marks on the cheeks. Very angry MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA and the Puranas. The or very evil characters will have red makeup and most popular stories enacted are “The Death of a red beard. Women and mendicants have yellow DURYODHANA,” “The Story of ,” “The Fight painted faces. Hunters and forest dwellers have between ARJUNA and SHIVA,” and “The Story of primarily black painted faces. As in most other and Kacha.” classical Indian forms, such as NATYAM, As has happened for centuries new stories facial expressions for Kathakali actors accord with are added to the Kathakali repertoire from time the nine RASAS (sentiments): love, humor, com- to time when they become sufficiently popular. passion, fear, disgust, anger, wonder, valor, and In recent times stories from the Bible or Shake- tranquility. speare have been added to appeal to modern With elaborate costumes projecting larger- audiences. than-life images, loud music with a heavy percus- The dramatic form is based, somewhat as sive element, and very vigorous dance steps that opera is, on the notion that the audience is fully require great stamina and balance, the Kathakali familiar with the stories being told. In the play is the most powerful of dramatic instruments: the elaborately costumed actors (all male, even the audience is left not merely enthralled but for female roles) do not speak; they pantomime often completely mesmerized. This art form had the dialogue, while accompanists sing the lyrics. its roots in shamanic costumed possessions that The language is an amalgam of and were taken up by Sanskritic culture and adapted SANSKRIT. The traditional Kathakali show begins to the Sanskrit language and sensibility. The pri- at night and lasts till dawn; in the modern urban mordial element, surviving from traditional pre- context in India and abroad the plays last only ARYAN Kerala culture, is quite palpable in these several hours. performances. The actors in Kathakali are always accompa- nied by drummers and singers; the lead singer Further reading: David Bolland, A Guide to Kathakali controls the entire show with a special rhythm (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1980); Clifford R. instrument. The story is conveyed purely through Jones and Betty True Jones, Kathakali: An Introduction hand gestures (MUDRAS), facial expressions, and to the Dance-Drama of Kerala (San Francisco: Ameri- body movements. Complete control over facial can Society of Eastern Arts, 1970); Phillip Zarrilli, The muscles is a prerequisite for this demanding Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance and Structure dramatic art form. It takes a minimum of eight (New Delhi: Abhinav, 1984).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 230 12/14/06 9:28:53 AM 231 J

Kathasaritsagara Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1963–64); ———, Vetala- The , The Ocean of the Rivers of panchavimsati: Twenty-five stories of a Vampire from Story, by the Kashmiri writer Somadeva (c. 11th Somadeva (Bombay: Jaico, 1956). century), is one of the most important collec- tions of tales deriving from the lost of GUNADHYA. The work is the source for dozens of stories that have since been repeated over and The Katha Upanishad is part of the Black YAJUR over in various forms and versions within the VEDA. It is based on an ancient story of a young Indian literary tradition, both in Sanskrit and in man, NACHIKETAS, who is mistakenly sent to hell the vernacular languages. by his father after he questions his father’s gener- The work itself consists of 22,000 verses, more osity. When the boy reaches the realm of the god than the Iliad and Odyssey combined, divided into of death (), he finds no one at home. Since 18 books. The first section tells stories about how he, as a guest, is kept waiting, Yama offers the the collection itself was created—for example, the young, but very wise, boy three boons. story of Gunadhya and the story of king Satava- The story of the three boons of the god of hana. Among the many popular tales in the later death forms the narrative core of this Upani- sections are the story of Indra and King Shibi, the shad. The first boon the boy asks for is that he story of Urvashi and Pururavas (see ), the be returned to the upper world to live with his story of AHALYA (which appears in another form in father. The second boon he asks for is the secret the RAMAYANA), and the story of the BRAHMIN and of preserving good works. His final request is to the mongoose. Still other tales include the story of learn the secret of overcoming continuous rebirth. , the story of , and the story of Death gladly assents to the first two requests, giv- the 10 princes (Dasakumaracarita). ing the boy the Nachiketas fire, named for him, to In the collection are stories of animals such fulfill the second wish. When asked for the secret as The Mouse Merchant; The Ichneuman, the Owl, of ending rebirth, however, Death tries to dissuade the Cat and the Mouse, the Crane and the Crocodile, the boy with offers of wealth and other boons. the and the Hare; The Parrot Who Was Taught When Nachiketas persists he is given the secret of Virtue by the King of the Parrots; and The Ass in Ultimate Reality or the BRAHMAN. the Panther’s Skin. Many of these stories closely resemble Aesop’s fables in their structure and Further reading: , trans., The Upa- moral objectives. However, a large proportion of nishads (New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, the hundreds of stories in this work are dedicated 1975); S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads to the lives and adventures of kings, some of (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1994). whom may have been historical, such as Satava- hana and . kaula Further reading: Aparna Chattopadhyay, Studies in the Kaula is a tantric practice (see TANTRISM) that seeks Kathasaritsagara (Varanasi: A. Chattopadhyay, 1993); unity with the kula, an esoteric term best under- N. M. Penzer, ed., The Ocean of Story: Being C. H. stood to signify SHIVA (but often the menstrual Tawney’s Translation of Somadeva’s Katha Sarit Sagara blood of the goddess), sometimes focusing on (or Ocean of Streams of Story), 10 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Shiva as the ultimate and sometimes on SHAKTI. Banarsidass, 1968–84); J. S. Speyer, Studies about the It includes a variety of different acts and has no Kathasaritsagara (Wiesbaden: M. Sandig, 1968); C. definitive boundaries. It is known to make use of H. Tawney, trans., Stories of Vikramaditya (Bombay: practices such as the PANCHA MAKARA or Five M’s,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 231 12/14/06 9:28:53 AM K 232 Kauravas

which involve practicing sexual rituals, eating Further reading: Peter Brook, director, The Mahab- beef, and drinking alcohol. It focuses on raising harata (videorecording), produced by Michael Prop- the KUNDALINI serpent at the base of the spine per (Chatsworth, Calif.: Image , 2002); up through the toward the place above William Buck, trans., The Mahabharata (Berkeley: the head where it meets its lover Shiva to create University of California Press, 1973); J. A. B. van ADVAITA (non-dual) consciousness and bliss. Buitenen, trans., The Mahabharata, 3 vols. (: University of Chicago Press); P. C. Roy, trans., The Further reading: J. C. Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivism Mahabharata, 12 vols. (Bombay: Bharata Karyalaya, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986); 1888–1896). Mark Dyczkowski, The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analy- sis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987). Kautilya () (c. 300 B.C.E.) See . Kauravas The 100 Kauravas (descendants of KURU) are the Kaveri River See CAUVERY RIVER. chief villains in the great Indian epic the MAHAB- HARATA. They also descend from the ancient king Bharata. These sons of the blind king Dhritarashtra, led by Duryodhana, the eldest, conspire to steal the of the land from its rightful heirs, their Kedarnath is a famous Shaivite (see SHAIVISM) PIL- GRIMAGE site in the Indian state of ; cousins the PANDAVAS. Kaurava is only a convenient designation, as the Pandavas are also descendents one of India’s svamyambhu, or “Self-generated” of King Kuru via Pandu, Dhritarashtra’s brother. is located there. As in Amarnath the focus The story tells that Dhritarashtra’s wife, Gand- is upon an ice lingam. Pilgrimage can take place , receives a boon that she will bear 100 sons. only during the middle of the summer, because of She is pregnant for two years, when she hears the inaccessibility of the mountainous location. that Kunti, wife of Pandu, has given birth. She Kedarnath has been a pilgrimage site at least then aborts herself, yielding a hard ball of flesh. since the 12th century; it is listed in the eighth The ball is sprinkled with water and severed into chapter of the text Krityakalpataru of Bhatta 101 parts, which are incubated and put into sepa- Lakshmidhara, a chief minister to King Govin- rate pots. From these come forth the 100 sons of dachandra of the Gahadvala dynasty of Kanauj. It Gandhari and Dhritarasthra, plus one daughter is usually said that there are four abodes of sanc- named Duhshala. (Dhritarashtra also incidentally tity in all of India: BADRINATH, Puri (see JAGAN- has one bastard son, Yuyutsu.) NATH TEMPLE, PURI), RAMESHVARAM, and DWARAKA. After his older brother Pandu dies, Dhri- In North India alone Kedarnath is considered tarashtra becomes regent and his sons (always one of the additional three abodes of sanctity; the called “the 100” although in actuality 101), led other two are Yamnotri and Gangotri. by Duryodhana, begin plotting to destroy their cousins, the five Pandavas. The story of the epic Further reading: Anne Feldhaus, Connected Places: revolves around the struggle for the kingdom Region, Pilgrimage, and Geographical Imagination in between these sets of brothers, culminating in the India (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Subhadra “Mahabharata” war, in which the Pandavas are Sen Gupta, Badrinath and Kedarnath, the Dhaams in the triumphant, but with frightening losses. Himalayas (New Delhi: Rupa, 2002).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 232 12/14/06 9:28:53 AM Keshavadas, Sant 233 J

Kena Upanishad the world. At age 11, he received a mystical vision The or “By Whom [Kena] Upa- of Lord VISHNU, which inspired him to sing the nishad,” takes its name from its first words, which word of God wherever he went in order to spread ask the question, Who impels , breath and sanatana DHARMA “the eternal way”—a synonym speech? Its subsidiary name, the Talavakara Upa- for Hinduism—across the world. nishad, is from the Talavakara of the In 1956, Radha-Krishna earned a B.A. from SAMA VEDA, in which this Upanishad is sometimes Memorial College, and two found. The answer to the initial question is found years later he received an L.L.B. at the Udipi Law in the second stanza: “That which is the hearing College. After graduation he married Srimathi of the ear, the thought of the mind, the voice of Rama Mataji, who joined him in his mission and speech and also the breathing of breath, and the helped him establish an ashram in , sight of the eye” is the thing by which everything comes about. This short Upanishad, with about 34 stanzas, tells a story (vss. 14–28) about the gods’ first encounter with the BRAHMAN. They approached the unknown being to see whether they could overpower it, but all were defeated. INDRA himself could not overcome it, but on his way back the goddess Uma told him that the being was brah- man. He passed on this information to the rest of the gods, and was recognized as the greatest of the gods because of this knowledge. Uma somehow does not get the credit.

Further reading: , Kena Upanishad (Pon- dicherry: , 1952); S. Radhakrish- nan, The Principal Upanishads (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1994).

Keshavadas, Sant (1934–1997) teacher A prolific writer, composer, and international teacher, Sant Keshavadas founded the Temple of Cosmic Religion to advance his in the mys- tical unity of all . Sant Keshavadas was born on July 22, 1934, on the Hindu holy day of , in Bhadragiri, a small village near Mysore in southern India. He was named Radha-Krishna by his parents, Ven- Sant Keshavadas (1934–1997), prominent teacher of kataramana Pai and Rukmini Bai, At his birth, a Vedanta philosophy and yoga, known for his entranc- priest cast his horoscope and predicted that the ing music and storytelling (Courtesy Temple of Cosmic child would spread the devotion of God around Religion, Oakland)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 233 12/14/06 9:28:53 AM K 234 kevalin

Karnataka, in the 1960s. Between 1959 and 1966, 700 stanzas of the Bhagavad Gita are carved in Keshavadas made 47 pilgrimage tours of India, black marble there, in English, Sanskrit, Hindi, singing and speaking about his teaching. and . In 1966, at the MELA festival in On December 4, 1997, at the age of 63, Kes- , Keshavadas met the immortal BABAJI, havadas passed away while on a lecture circuit in who encouraged Keshavadas to go to the West . His work of unity and peace is to establish a following for the cosmic religion. continued by Guru Mata, who assumed responsi- Keshavadas and his wife (called Guru Mata) bility for her husband’s mission. took this advice and traveled that year to Ger- many, England, and to spread Further reading: Sant Keshavadas, of the message of sanatana dharma. Their message Bhagavad-Gita and Bible (Oakland, Calif.: Temple of was received enthusiastically in the West and Cosmic Religion, 1982); ———, Life and Teachings of Keshavadas continued to make frequent trips Sadguru Sant Keshavadas (Southfield, Mich.: Temple across the world over the next 30 years. He of Cosmic Religion, 1977); ———, Mystic Christ established several in India, including (Bangalore: Dasashrama Research, 1972); ———, Self his headquarters at the Vishwa Shanti Ashram Realization (Southfield, Mich.: Temple of Cosmic Reli- in Bangalore, an ashram in Trinidad, and one in gion, 1976); Mukundadas (Michael Allan Makowsky), Oakland, California. Minstrel of Love: A Biography of Satguru Sant Keshavadas Keshavadas taught that or direct (Nevada City, Calif.: Hansa, 1980). experience of God is the future of religion. On the basis of this belief he established the Temple of Cosmic Religion. He believed that humanity kevalin See JAINISM. is preparing itself for , but that the ego prevents each person from reaching transformation to a . His Khajuraho main teaching focused on overcoming doctri- Khajuraho is a small village near Jhansi in the nal differences by emphasizing unity among all state of Madhya Pradesh. Some 22 temples are religions. He offered many different approaches located around the village; they are considered to unity but taught that the path to enlighten- the finest of the medieval period and are known ment requires repetition of God’s holy name. His for their erotic art. teachings include BHAKTI, deity worship, JNANA The temples were constructed between 950 YOGA and VEDANTA as understood through Swami and 1050 C.E. under the Chandel empire. They VIVEKANANDA. show murals and a profusion of sculptures that Keshavadas was an accomplished composer depict explicit scenes from the KAMA SUTRA. Some who wrote and recorded over 6,000 songs. He have explained their frank depiction of myriad often used music, storytelling, philosophy, and sexual positions as being tantric in origin, as TAN- humor in his teachings. He spoke eight languages TRISM is known to stress sexual ritual. and lectured widely to audiences in the East and One legend gives a more personal explanation West. He also authored over 50 books includ- of the erotic artwork. The mother of the king who ing The Bhagavad Gita and the Bible, a work that built the temple had been seduced by the Moon god explores the teachings of love and wisdom in and became a social outcast. When the boy grew up Hinduism and . During the 1980s to become king, he had a dream visitation from his he organized construction of the Bhagavad-Gita mother; she asked him to show all the passions of Mandir (temple) near his Bangalore ashram. All love in order that people would learn the goodness

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 234 12/14/06 9:28:54 AM Klein, Jean 235 J

of sexuality and not condemn it. The temples of Klein, Jean (c. 1916–1998) Western teacher of Khajuraho above all celebrate the feminine form. yoga and advaita Vedanta Women in every pose and posture, sexual and oth- Jean Klein was an important 20th-century teacher erwise, are depicted with great care and art. of non-dual VEDANTA, who focused on the direct Though the temples are variously dedicated as experience of the Self rather than the gradual, Vaishnavite, Shaivite, GODDESS, and Jain (see JAIN- progressive method of enlightenment. ISM), they all appear quite similar; on the exterior Klein was born around 1916 into a family that one sees only women and men in sexual postures, loved music, painting, and art. He describes the and the sectarian identities are not apparent. Carv- family as “harmonious.” His childhood was spent ings and pictures in these temples show a dizzying in Brno (Czechoslovakia), Prague, and Vienna. profusion; every wall and ceiling is covered with He studied music and medicine in Vienna and painting and sculpture. Berlin, where he explored the relationships among thought, feeling, and muscle function. Further reading: Devagana Desai, Khajuraho (New He became a physician, and undertook the Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000); Krishna , study of Eastern philosophies, particularly the Temples of Khajuraho (New Delhi : Archaeological Sur- works of Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI, Lao vey of India, 1990). Tse, Chuang Tsu, Tagore, Coomaraswamy, J. KRISHNAMURTI, and Sri Aurobindo. After reading Gandhi, he became a vegetarian. He also read See SIKHISM. Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, and the Western Sufi René Guénon. Guénon’s writing on cosmology and tra- dition proved a turning point in Klein’s life. What Kirpal Light Satsang See RADHASOAMI struck him was the distinction Guénon made MOVEMENT. between traditional and tradition—the principle transmitted from teacher to disciple through ini- tiation: “This awoke in me the feeling that it was actually humanly possible to become fully inte- Kirtans are songs to the glories of a god. They are grated and awake in the whole.” usually sung in groups of people, accompanied He left in 1933 and spent World War by an accordionlike instrument called the harmo- II in secretly helping thousands escape nium. Percussive instruments are sometimes used from Germany. After the war, he left Europe for as well. singing may be the most common India seeking an environment that would wel- form of collective devotional worship in India. come self-inquiry. There he met a , a profes- Both men and women participate. Singing alterna- sor of SANSKRIT in Bangalore, Atmananda Krishna tively slows down and speeds up until the singers Menon, who became his teacher and who initi- are in a trance, ideally experiencing the presence of, ated him into the wisdom of ADVAITA (non-dual) or even union, with the divinity. Both kirtans and VEDANTA. He also deepened his long study of YOGA are songs of worship sung in devotion. by spending several months with Krishnamacha- rya, the famous teacher of South India. Further reading: Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Indian Although Klein could do (postures) quite Classical Music and Sikh Kirtan (San Bernardino, Calif.: well, he was not attracted to yoga of the physical Borgo Press, 1985); , Kirtan: Ancient body. He wanted to understand how the body Medicine for Modern Man (Hopland, Calif.: Hansa can become more subtle, more energized, more Books, 1984). expanded; he began to see that the real body is

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 235 12/14/06 9:28:54 AM K 236 Klemp, Harold

energy and light, not the bone-muscle structure Transmission of the Flame (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Third that we assume to be the body. As Klein taught Millenium, 1990). asanas and yoga, he always gave the energy body priority, stressing that all postures could be done independently of the physical body. After he had Klemp, Harold See . lived intensely with this understanding, one day the teaching became a lively reality, a bright and integrated truth. Konarak Klein’s teaching sprang from his insight into Konarak in the state of Orissa is the site of the the nature of being and existence. He is regarded largest temple to the sun god in India. It was built as a prominent teacher of advaita in the 20th around the 13th century C.E. The main building century and an embodiment of the non-dual represents the sun god’s chariot, which in mythol- awareness he taught. His teaching is “direct,” ogy was pulled across the sky each day by fiery- cutting through all experiences, states, and paths maned horses. The chariot has 24 massive wheels. of purification that depend upon progressive or Pulling the chariot are seven carved horses. The sequential methods. He encourages students to experience existence directly. According to Klein, the progressive way may produce many delight- ful experiences, but all these are support for the ego, which is thus kept alive in a more and more subtle way. Klein’s direct approach says that our real nature cannot be known or experienced as an object. When this is clearly understood there is a letting go, a giving up of trying to achieve, to become, to find, or to understand. This letting go is the beginning of real maturity and openness to our true nature. For 40 years, Dr. Klein responded to invita- tions from all over the world to share his knowl- edge. He lived in Europe and the United States and died in February 1998 in Santa Barbara, California. He is the author of several books in English and other languages. Klein created the nonprofit Jean Klein Foun- dation in 1989 to help in the process of dissemi- nating his teaching. Based in Santa Barbara, the foundation holds meetings that are open to the public and continues to publish newsletters. It has published Klein’s journal Listening and plans to publish several books and dialogues of Klein’s.

Further reading: Jean Klein, Be Who You Are (Long- mead, England: Element, 1989); ———, The Ease of Temple to the sun god, with the god’s chariot, in Being (Durham, N.C.: Acorn Press, 1984); ———, Konarak, Orissa (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 236 12/14/06 9:28:54 AM , Swami Sri 237 J

temple was decorated with erotic sculpture resem- physical, mental, and spiritual levels. In the third bling that at KHAJURAHO. Its tower appears to have stage, one learns to participate in “meditation fallen but is said to have been 200 feet high. in motion,” allowing the wisdom of the body to move itself into the postures apart from any con- Further reading: A. Boner, S. R. Sarma, and R. P. Das, scious willing. Though simply described in three New Light on the Sun Temple of Konarka: Four Unpub- stages, each stage requires a significant amount of lished Manuscripts Relating to the Construction History both physical and psychological work. and Ritual of the Temple (Varanasi: Chowkhambha San- Desai began teaching his new variation on skrit Series Office, 1972). yoga in 1972 through the Kripalu Yoga Fellow- ship, in Somneytown, Pennsylvania, which he founded. The fellowship trained and commis- for Yoga and Health sioned many teachers of Kripalu Yoga. In 1994, See DESAI, AMRIT. after the discovery that Desai had had sexual relations with several of his students, the board of the Kripalu Center for Yoga and Health in Lenox, Kripalu Yoga , the showcase center of the fellow- Kripalu Yoga is a form of HATHA YOGA originally ship, asked him to leave. Subsequently, the fellow- developed by (b. 1932) in the United ship became organized as an educational institute States. The Indian-born Desai had been teach- without a focus on one teacher. ing yoga in the United States through the 1960s. The Kripalu Center hosts a variety of pro- However, in 1970, a significant development grams, including yoga retreats, healing arts train- occurred in his work. Immediately after a visit to ing, leadership instruction, and yoga teacher his teacher, Swami KRIPALVANANDA (1913–81), and certification. while engaged in his regular practice, he experi- enced a spontaneous flow of yoga postures. He Further reading: , Yoga and the Quest for attributed this occurrence to the intelligence of the True Self (New York: Bantam, 2000); Amrit Desai, the life force, which performed the postures with- Kripalu Yoga: Meditation in Motion (Lenox, Mass.: Kri- out willful direction. He studied his experience palu Yoga Fellowship, 1981); Richard Faulds, Kripalu and discovered the means of leading others into Yoga: A Guide to Practice on and off the Mat (New York: the same experience. As he began to teach this Bantam, 2005); Deva Parnell, “Kripalu Yoga: Theory technique to others, he named it in honor of his and Practice.” Available online. URL: http://www. guru, Sri Kripalvananda. discoveryyoga.com/KYTheory.htm. Accessed August Kripalu Yoga begins with the eight aspects of 17, 2005. Ashtanga Yoga derived from Patanjali’s YOGA SUTRA. The postures (ASANAS) are learned in a three-step progress. One first learns the asanas consciously Kripalvananda, Swami Sri (1913–1981) and practices them until some mastery of the Popular Gujarati yogi and inspiration for yoga positions is gained. In the second stage, as the His Holiness Swami Sri Kripalvananda, whose practitioner holds each position, she or he with- teachings inspired the popular form of HATHA draws attention from the outward world (in this YOGA known as KRIPALU YOGA, was born in 1913 in case, the posture) and focuses attention inward on , India. His childhood was marked by sev- the accompanying body sensations. At this stage, eral attempts to commit suicide, but after his last one generally encounters a variety of psychologi- attempt, he met his GURU, known affectionately as cal barriers and works to release all blockages on Dadaji, in a visionary experience. He later learned

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 237 12/14/06 9:28:54 AM K 238 Krishna

that Dadaji was Lakulish, the 28th incarnation of ure. Krishna is technically the black god, since the Lord SHIVA. Sanskrit word krishna means “black.” However, The vision transformed his life and, after eight he is generally depicted with blue skin. months, he took initiation into sannyas, renuncia- Krishna appears in the MAHABHARATA epic tion, from Dadaji and was guided by Dadaji for as a friend to the PANDAVA brothers. In that epic the rest of his life. Dadaji then disappeared until Krishna is rarely referred to with divine epithet, 1952, when Kripalvanandji saw him as a young or as a divinity. It is only in the BHAGAVAD GITA, man. In his later appearances he encouraged Kri- the famous text that recounts the teaching of palvananda to develop and continue intense 10- Krishna to ARJUNA just before the battle, that the hour-a-day practice of KUNDALINI meditation that divinity of Krishna is clearly detailed. Some have he continued for the rest of his life. suggested that the worship of Krishna in this con- At Kayavarohan, Gujarat, Kripalvananda was text may constitute a form of euhemerism, or the inspired to build a temple to Lord Lakulish and to deification of a famous warrior. reestablish the town of Kayavarohan as a center of A second role of Krishna is as the divine lover, spiritual culture and learning. dancing at midnight with the cowherd maidens As his own practice matured, Kripalvananda (GOPIS), who are drawn to his , his beauti- became the guru of two brothers, SHANTI and ful music, and the magic of his divine presence. AMRIT DESAI (b. 1932), both of whom would later According to tradition he eventually favors Radha go to America and begin organizations teaching among the gopis; the passionate love of Radha the type of kundalini and hatha yoga that inspired for her furtive, often unavailable lover becomes Kripalvananda. In 1977, Amrit Desai invited Kri- the paradigm for Krishna devotionalism. Finally, palvananda to go to America, where he would stay Krishna appears as a child and youth, mischie- for more than three years. In those years he was a vous, naughty, and beloved of every mother who significant influence on the emerging community lays eyes upon him. of in the United States. He returned to The god was born in , where his father, India shortly before his death at the end of 1981. , was minister to the evil king Kamsa. Kamsa discovered that Vasudeva’s wife, DEVAKI, Further reading: Yogi Amrit Desai and Kripalvana- was to give birth to a son who would eventually nda, The Passion of Christ: A Discourse (Lenox, Mass.: kill him. Therefore, he kept Vasudeva and Devaki Kripalu, 1983); Shri Kripalvanandiji, Krpalupanisad under guard and killed their first six children. (St. Helena, Calif.: Sanatana Publication Society, 1979); The seventh child, , was miraculously ———, Pilgrimage of Love, Books 1–3 (Lenox, Mass.: transferred to the womb of Vasudeva’s other wife, Kripalu, 1992); ———, The Stages of . When the eighth child, Krishna, was (Lenox, Mass.: Kripalu, 1976); Swami Muni, born, a profound slumber fell upon Vasudeva’s Infinite Grace: The Story of My Spiritual (Vado- guards and the father was able secretly to take the dara: Life Mission Publications, 2002). child across the River to BRINDAVAN and consign him to the cowherd Nanda and his wife, YASHODA, who became Krishna’s foster mother. Krishna As a child, Krishna was extremely mischie- The god Krishna is understood to be an incarna- vous, stealing and (one of his epithets tion of VISHNU. None of the other incarnations of is “butter thief”), overturning wagons, and felling Vishnu has attracted as passionate and widespread trees with strength far beyond that of an ordinary a devotion in India as Krishna. There is some evi- child. Once Yashoda tied him to a huge mortar dence that Krishna was originally a historical fig- used for grinding things. Krishna, even though

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 238 12/14/06 9:28:54 AM Krishna 239 J

Lord Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, with consort Radha (Institute for the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

a baby, dragged it out of the house and used it to demon’s innards were sucked out and she died. In fell two trees. a later incident the demon Kaliya poisoned Once when Yashoda caught him eating mud, the drinking water in the Yamuna River, threat- she forced him to open his mouth; within, she saw ening the lives of the cowherds and the cows. the entire universe. Krishna’s magic made her for- Krishna found the pool where Kaliya was hiding get this incident, lest she not be able to treat him and danced a furious dance upon him until he as an ordinary child. was killed. In two stories of his childhood he outwits evil In another tale the young Krishna asked peo- forces. Putana, a witch, was sent by the evil king ple to worship the mountain Govardhana, rather Kamsa to kill the infant by suckling him with poi- than the great king of the gods Indra. Indra, learn- sonous milk. Krishna was completely unharmed, ing this, sent terrible rain storms to wash away the but he sucked so ferociously at her breast that the cowherds who had defied him. Krishna with his

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 239 12/14/06 9:28:55 AM K 240 Krishna, Gopi

divine strength lifted up the mountain, Govard- Vishnu. While in the forest doing YOGA then, he is hana, to use as an to protect the people accidentally pierced in the foot with a spear by a and thus defeated Indra himself. hunter who mistook his foot for a deer’s foot. He As a young man, Krishna began to attract blesses the man who threw the spear that will take the interest of the cowherd women as he played him to heaven. his magical flute day and night. He would flirt Many devotional Vaishnavite movements in with them and play tricks on them. Once when India focus on worship of Krishna only. Most the cowherd girls were bathing he took all their famous of these are the followers of Saint CHAI- clothes and put them up into a big tree. When the TANYA of Bengal, whose Goswamis, or followers women left the water and begged him for their of Chaitanya’s tradition, moved to Brindavan to garments, he bent the tree down and let them be closer to the place where Krishna lived. The retrieve their clothes. followers of Chaitanya include Sri Swami Prabhu- Particularly at night Krishna would work his pada BHAKTIVEDANTA, who traveled to the United divine magic. The women would yearn to see States to found the movement. As him and could not find him. They would begin do many Krishnaites, they worship in ecstatic to think of all his magical deeds and praise him. devotion, while chanting to their god. When they finally found him, they began to dance with him; he became many , pairing with Further reading: W. G. Archer, The Loves of Krishna in each woman as though she were the only one. Indian Painting and Poetry (London: Allen & Unwin, This is referred to as the Rasalila dance and is the 1957); Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, metaphor for the way that god is intimate with eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in each while it is only one. Finally, in the sto- the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University ries of later times (c. 10th century) one cowherd Press, 1978); David Haberman, Journey through the woman alone, named RADHA, becomes Krishna’s Twelve Forests: An Encounter with Krishna (New York: favorite. Her passionate love for him, her yearn- Oxford University Press, 1994); John S. Hawley, Krsna ing when he does not appear at their assigned the Butter Thief (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University spot, and their loveplay are all celebrated in the Press, 1983); Alf Hiltebeitel, “Krsna and the Mahab- passionate liturgy of Krishna worship, where the harata,” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research devotee sees himself or herself as Radha seeking Institute 60 (1979): 65–107. passionate union with god. After the death of Kamsa, Krishna becomes an ally of the Pandavas. He assists them in every way Krishna, Gopi (1903–1984) master of fair and foul and helps them triumph; the BHAGA- Kundalini Yoga VAD GITA makes clear that this was divine aid. Gopi Krishna was an influential teacher whose We are left here with the mystery of Krishna, impact depended on conveying his own trans- a divinity who is mischievous and naughty as a formative KUNDALINI YOGA experiences. He was child, naughty as a young man—playing games known for his clear exposition of the awakening with the hearts of many women—and who in of kundalini. However, he never had his own spir- war does not hesitate to use stratagems that the itual teacher, was not initiated into any spiritual the authoritative texts, might find inap- lineage, and did not himself train disciples. propriate for a warrior. Krishna effects his , his Gopi Krishna was born in Kashmir in 1903 as divine game, in ways that humans cannot grasp, an only son. In his childhood, his father renounced except through complete devotion. Krishna must the world to lead a religious life and left his wife to eventually die, as must all the other of care for three children. Since he was the only son,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 240 12/14/06 9:28:55 AM Krishnabai, Mother 241 J

he bore responsibility for his family’s welfare. He However unbalanced his experience, he main- did not attend university because he did not pass tained in all of his subsequent writings that the a major examination. In reaction to his father’s awakening of kundalini is the means of spiritual decision to leave the world, he vowed to live as evolution for humanity. a householder. And in shame over his failure at Gopi Krishna was not a GURU in the classical examination, he took on a practice of MEDITATION sense of one who has disciples. He did not found in order to refine his concentration. a movement or a but remained a seeker who While employed by the Indian government, later became a teacher. He documented his expe- he practiced meditation for 17 years and devel- riences in a number of books that attempted to oped the ability to sit for hours in concentration teach the reality of the kundalini experience and without discomfort. In 1937, while meditating to help others who encounter this extraordinary and imagining a lotus at the crown of the head, phenomenon. He died on July 31, 1984. he felt a roar like a waterfall and felt a stream of liquid light entering the brain through the spinal Further reading: Gopi Krishna, The Awakening of cord. This was his first experience of the serpent Kundalini (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1975); ———, Higher power of kundalini, a power said to reside as a Consciousness: The Evolutionary Thrust of Kundalini latent force at the base of the spine that can be (New York: Julian Press, 1974); ———, Kundalini: Evo- awakened so that it travels through and opens the lutionary Energy in Man (London: Robinson & Watkins, seven CHAKRAS (energy centers along the spine). 1971); ———, The Secret of Yoga (New York: Harper His report of this episode, for which he was totally & Row, 1972). unprepared, described a vast circle of conscious- ness in which the body was but a point, bathed in light and in a state of impossible to Krishnabai, Mother (1903–1989) teacher describe. who embodied the love of service Shortly after the initial experience, he experi- The child who later became known as Mother enced a continuous “luminous glow” around his Krishnabai was born in 1903, although little else head. He began to have a variety of psychological is known of her childhood. The first years of her and physiological problems and even thought he life were turbulent. When she was 10 her father was becoming mad. Although he read accounts died. At age 13 she married K. Laxman Rao, who of this phenomenon, he found no one who could passed away seven years later, in 1926, leaving her help him through this difficult period. The mental a young widow. and emotional destabilization lasted for several In 1928 she encountered , who years. Aware that a fundamental change had taken provided uplift from her sorrows. Krishnabai place in him, he believed that his entire nervous became a devoted disciple and attained self-real- system would be slowly reorganized and trans- ization by strictly following the swami’s teaching. formed. He viewed this energy, once activated, As the foremost disciple and successor of Swami as an intelligent force over which one has little Ramdas, she embodied the love of service and control. provided for the spiritual and material needs of His autobiography records this experience and the poor. Under Swami Ramdas’s guidance she its aftermath in one of the most detailed accounts helped to establish Anandashram in Kerala, South of the unleashing of a psychospiritual power and India. She worked with her beloved teacher there, spiritual transformation. He describes the dif- becoming a mother to all who went to the ash- ficulties and dangers of the spiritual path and the ram. In 1963, upon the death of Swami Ramdas, pressure that it can exert on the physical body. she assumed leadership of Anandashram. In spite

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 241 12/14/06 9:28:55 AM K 242 Krishnalila

of poor health she propagated Swami Ramdas’s thought, particularly Buddhist and Hindu cos- teachings and served the poor until her death on mologies, to form a worldview that included a February 12, 1989. complex cosmology, an esoteric , and an evolutionary scheme that encompassed eons. Further reading: Mother Krishnabai, Guru’s Grace Drawing upon many religious traditions and (Kahnangad: Anandashram, 1963); Swami Ramdas, , the at the time Krishna Bai (Ramnagar: Anandashram, 1940); Swami of Krishnamurti’s youth was actively looking for a Satchidananda, Viswamata Krishnabai (Kahnangad: messiah, a world teacher, who would destroy evil Anandashram, n.d.); Sriram, With the Divine Mother and restore righteousness. (Kahnangad: Anandashram, n.d.). In his early teen years, Krishnamurti was chosen by the Theosophists as the young world teacher and appointed head of the Order of the Krishnalila See LILA. Star in the East, an organization devoted to real- izing his teaching mission. For a number of years he traveled and addressed audiences, maturing in Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1895–1986) spiritual teacher of radical self-observation Chosen while still a child as the new messiah, or World Teacher, by the THEOSOPHICAL SOCI- ETY, the Indian J. Krishnamurti acquired world fame as he traveled and lectured on the society’s universalist teachings. After a personal spiritual transformation, he rejected the society and its occultism and went on to teach his philosophy of free inquiry toward the goal of understanding the self. Born on May 12, 1895, in , near Madras (Chennai) in colonial India, Krishnamurti (the image of Krishna) grew up in an orthodox BRAHMIN family steeped in tradition, ritual, and a sacred view of the world. After the death of his mother when he was only 10 years old, he moved with his father and siblings to the compound of the Theosophical Society, a rapidly growing spiri- tual movement, in Adyar, near Madras. The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875 in New York City, began as an organization dedicated to a synthesis of science, religion, and philoso- phy with the credo “There is no religion higher than truth.” Theosophical teaching includes the exploration of clairvoyant powers for discov- ering the hidden mysteries of nature and the (1895–1986), philosopher and esoteric powers of humanity. The Theosophists teacher of radical self-observation (Krishnamurti drew freely from their understanding of Eastern Foundation America)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 242 12/14/06 9:28:55 AM Krishnamurti, Jiddu 243 J

his understanding of the order, the Theosophical workings. Accompanied by simplicity and humil- Society, and his role in each. ity, this awareness can open a person to the reality Over many months in 1922–23, Krishnamurti of oneself. experienced a profound transformation. Begun as The of America MEDITATION, Krishnamurti’s “process” contained was founded in 1969 to preserve and disseminate moments of great beauty and clarity offset by peri- his teachings. Activities include the Oak Grove ods of physical pain, even agony. He would fall School, the Krishnamurti Archives, the Krish- unconscious, converse with nonphysical entities, namurti Study Center, the Krishnamurti Library, and speak from several personas. Krishnamurti’s and Krishnamurti Publications of America. The account is consistent with other reports of mys- Krishnamurti Foundation of England, begun in tical non-dualist transformations. His personal- 1968, oversees the Brockwood Park School. The ity dissolved into communion with all that lay Krishnamurti Foundation of India sponsors the beyond him. In his words, “I was in everything, , the Krishnamurti Study Cen- or rather everything was in me, inanimate and tre in Varanasi, Vasanta College of Rajghat, and animate, the mountain, the work and all breath- other centers. ing things.” During his lifetime Krishnamurti created After “the process” was complete, he experi- schools for children and young adults in India, enced a growing dissatisfaction with the author- the United States, England, and . ity structure of the Theosophical Society and These alternative schools continue today in their its emphasis on occultism. At the death of his mission to provide a new definition and practice brother, which the occultists of the Theosophi- of education, free of the conditioning and author- cal Society did not foresee, his dissatisfaction ity structures prevalent in modern educational became overwhelming. He declared himself in institutions. revolt against and against all forms of In his later years, Krishnamurti joined the spiritual authority, advising every person, “Be a physicist in an exploration of the light unto yourselves.” He disbanded the Order of human condition through a series of dialogues. the Star in the East in 1929, declaring, “Truth is a Both men recognized the limitations of traditional pathless land.” didactic teaching and sought a way in which truth From then until his death in 1986, Krish- and insight might be discovered within individu- namurti traveled around the world teaching his als and small groups. The dialogue process, prac- insights. He became a champion of freedom and ticed today in all Krishnamurti Foundations in inquiry and a relentless advocate of the discovery the United States, India, and England, encourages of truth without the aid of any organization, reli- individual inquiry without didactic formalism gion, or belief system. His teaching emphasized and authority structures. Krishnamurti and Bohm the necessity of developing awareness of one’s predicted that the actual structure of the human conditioning and one’s bondage to thought, fear, brain could change as a result of increased aware- and time. His goal was to make people “uncon- ness and open inquiry. ditionally free” and, to this end, he invited Krishnamurti died on February 18, 1986, in those who listened to him to observe their inner Ojai, California, among his students. selves, including their motives and the functions of thought. With each audience, Krishnamurti Further reading: S. Holroyd, The Quest of the Quiet inquired into the basic nature of humanity and Mind: The Philosophy of Krishnamurti (Wellingborough, found that real self-transformation involves an England: Aquarian Press, 1980); , J. instantaneous awareness of the psyche and its Krishnamurti: A Biography (New York: Penguin, 1986);

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 243 12/14/06 9:28:56 AM K 244 Krishnamurti, U. G.

Constance Jones, “Krishnamurti Foundations,” in J. discover. There is a “natural state” for humans Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann, eds., Religions that simply happens, without thought and with- of the World (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2002); out effort. Thought is an enemy because thought J. Krishnamurti, , from the cannot touch anything living and cannot capture, Notebooks of J. Krishnamurti. Edited by D. Rajagopal, 3 contain, or express the quality of life. Further, vols. (Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical Publishing House, religious and spiritual teachings that reduce the 1960); ———, Education and the Significance of Life quality of life to thought and systems of thought (San Francisco: Harper, 1953); ———, The First and are polluting to the spirit of humanity. Anything Last Freedom (San Francisco: Harper, 1954); ———, based on knowledge through thought is an illu- (San Francisco: Harper, 1969); sion. Any moment of experience cannot be cap- ———, Talks and Dialogues of J. Krishnamurti (New tured or given expression. Once the moment is York: Avon, 1968); J. Krishnamurti and David Bohm, captured, it is made a part of the past. In this The Ending of Time (San Francisco: Harper, 1985); Mary way, U. G. Krishnamurti challenges the way that Lutyens, Krishnamurti, 3 vols. (New York: Farrar, Straus society is organized, in its political ideologies, Giroux, 1988). legal structures, and religious institutions. What is necessary for survival of the human organism are an intelligence of the body and awareness of the Krishnamurti, U. G. (1918– ) unorthodox moment of existence. teacher of philosophy of “no self” U. G. Krishnamurti continues to teach in Swit- U. G. Krishnamurti is an original teacher in the zerland, India, and the United States. Hindu tradition, who that conscious thought is the enemy of true knowledge. Further reading: Mahesh Bhatt, U. G. Krishnamurti—a Born into a BRAHMIN family on July 9, 1918, in Life (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2001); U. G. Krish- , India, U. G. Krishnamurti was namurti, Mind Is a Myth—Disquieting Conversations with exposed by his family to many forms of Hindu- the Man Called U. G. Edited by Terry Newland (Volant: ism as well as the philosophy of the THEOSOPHI- Dinesh, 1988); ———, The Mystique of Enlightenment: CAL SOCIETY. His childhood home was visited by The Unrational Ideas of a Man Called U. G. Edited monks, SWAMIS, pundits, GURUS, and religious by Rodney Arms, 3d ed. (Bangalore: Sahasramana scholars, who engaged in constant conversations Prakashana, 2001); ———, Thought Is Your Enemy: on philosophy, religion, occultism, and metaphys- Mind-Shattering Conversations with the Man Called U. G. ics. He studied classical yoga with Swami SIVANA- Edited by Anthony Paul Frank Noronha and J. S. R. L. NDA of Rishikesh and visited Sri Narayana Moorty (Bangalore: Sowmya, 1991). in Tiruvannamalai. At the University of Madras (Chennai), U. G. Krishnamurti studied philosophy and psychol- Krishnananda, Swami (1922–2001) ogy. He married in his 20s and had four children. philosopher of advaita Vedanta He became a public speaker and delivered ora- Swami Krishnananda was a great scholar of San- tions for the Theosophical Society, becoming skrit scripture, who shared his learning in many acquainted with J. KRISHNAMURTI (no relation), books and lectures. He served the Divine Life the person chosen in 1914 by Theosophists as the Society in Rishikesh as secretary for 40 years. “world teacher.” Subbaraya, later named Swami Krishnananda, U. G. Krishnamurti’s teaching centers around was born on April 25, 1922, the eldest of six a radical notion that so-called SELF-REALIZATION siblings in an orthodox Madhva BRAHMIN family. is actually the discovery that there is no self to Raised through the example of his father’s -

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 244 12/14/06 9:28:56 AM Krishnananda, Swami 245 J

ness and piety, Subbaraya learned to maintain his family’s religious tradition with earnestness. He became versed in SANSKRIT as a young boy and was a passionate learner of scripture. Subbaraya attended school in Puttur, where he excelled in all subjects, rising to the top of his class. Aside from his usual studies, he spent time reading and memorizing Sanskrit scriptural texts. At age 16 he memorized the entire BHAGAVAD GITA by heart, reciting it each day. Subbaraya’s self-study of major Hindu scrip- tures led him to an acceptance of ADVAITA (non- dual) philosophy. His growing interest pushed him toward a renunciation of the material world, Swami Krishnananda (1922–2001), scholar, teacher, even as he was pressured by his father and uncle and secretary of Divine Life Society, Rishikesh (Courtesy to seek employment and earn money. Subbaraya Divine Life Society, Rishikesh) accepted a government post at the Hospet Govern- ment Training School in Bellary District in 1943 but soon fell ill and returned home. Succumbing (action) and JNANA (learning) YOGA, and his ability to his desire for the religious life, he traveled to to communicate complicated concepts to students. Rishikesh in 1944 to join the Sivananda ashram. He was a regular lecturer, teaching three-month- In 1946 Swami SIVANANDA initiated Subbaraya long courses at the Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy into SANNYAS (renunciation), giving him the name of the Divine Life Society. His literary skill was Swami Krishnananda. used in varying degrees throughout Sivananda’s Swami Krishnananda was employed at the organizations. He was made president of the Siva- ashram as a letter writer and editor of books. nanda Literature Research Institute because of his Sivananda later gave him the job of handwriting understanding of all 300 of his guru’s works. He and typing manuscripts. In 1948, at Sivananda’s was later made president of the Sivananda Lit- request, Krishnananda began to write books on erature Dissemination Committee, which worked philosophy and religion. He accepted the task on translating Sivananda’s books into the major with great zeal and wrote his first book, The Real- Indian languages. ization of the Absolute, in a mere two weeks. He Swami Krishnananda wrote over 40 books of spent the remainder of his life writing commen- his own, including works of poetry. His topics taries on Hindu scriptures and delivering lectures included yoga, MEDITATION, traditional scriptures, on Eastern and and religion. mysticism, and philosophy. Many of these books In 1957, Krishnananda became secretary of convey an essential message of peace, wisdom, the ashram and focused his attention on managing and SELF-REALIZATION, which the Divine Life Soci- finances. In 1961, he was nominated by Sivananda ety continues to spread. to the position of general secretary of the Divine Life Society. Krishnananda retained this position Further reading: Swami Krishnananda, An Introduc- for the next 30 years until his death on November tion to the Philosophy of Yoga (Shivanandanagar: Divine 23, 2001. Life Society, 1982); ———, Meditation, Its Theory Swami Krishnananda is recognized for his and Practice (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life Society, knowledge of scriptures, his balance of KARMA 1974); ———, The Philosophy of the Bhagavad-Gita

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 245 12/14/06 9:28:56 AM K 246 , Sri

(Shivanandanagar: Divine Life Society, 1980); ———, before her death: her daughter, Moti, and an The Realization of the Absolute (Rishikesh: Divine Life Englishman he had known at Cambridge. The Society, 1972). ashram grew and eventually included other Indian disciples, some of whom built their own cottages near the temple. Krishna Prem, Sri (1898–1965) Western-born Krishna Prem traveled little, but in 1948 he Vaishnavite guru visited Sri RAMANA MAHARSHI and Sri AUROBINDO British-born Sri Krishna Prem was a prominent and the MOTHER. At his death on November 14, GURU in the orthodox Vaishnavite tradition. 1965, leadership of the ashram passed to Sri Ronald Nixon was born in Cheltenham, ASHISH, another Englishman, who col- En gland, on May 10, 1898; served as a pilot laborated with Krishna Prem on publications and in while still a teenager; and later edited some of his work posthumously. graduated in philosophy from King’s College, Cambridge. While at Cambridge, he studied The- Further reading: Krishna Prem, Initiation into Yoga: An osophy, Buddhism, and and took a Buddhist Introduction to the Spiritual Life (Bombay: B. I., 1976); initiation. ———, The Yoga of the Bhagavat Gita (Longmead, In 1921, after graduation from Cambridge, England: Element Books, 1988); Krishna Prem and he went to India to take a position as lecturer in , Man, the Measure of All Things, in the English at University and to continue his Stanzas of Dyzan (London: Rider, 1969); Dilip Kumar spiritual search. The vice-chancellor of Lucknow Roy, Yogi Sri Krishnaprem (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya University, Dr. G. N. Chakravarti, was a Theoso- Bhavan, 1968). phist, who had known Madame BLAVATSKY and was a friend of , then president of the THEO- SOPHICAL SOCIETY. During a party at the home of Dr. Krita Yuga Chakravarti and his wife, Monica, Nixon observed All of the YUGAS, or ages, in the Indian tradition, Monica in a meditative and devotional state in front refer to throws in an ancient game of dice. Krita of an image of Lord KRISHNA. In 1924, she became (“the one that made it!”) is the best throw—a 4. his guru and gave him initiation into VAISHNAVISM The Krita Yuga, which like all ages has appeared (the worship of incarnations of VISHNU). an infinite number of times and will return an In 1928, Monica took the vow of SANNYAS infinite number of times, is also called Yuga, (called in the GAUDIYA Vaishnavite tradi- or the age of truth. It is 1,728,000 years long. In tion) and assumed the name Yashoda Ma. Soon Krita Yuga the highest virtue is said to be MEDITA- after, Nixon took vairagi vows from her and was TION. In this age, BRAHMA is god. Eternal DHARMA is given the name Krishna Prem. They looked for a said to have all its four feet in this age, while in the place to start a community and found a rural area others it progressively has three, two, and one. In near ; they founded the Uttar Brindaban the Krita age there is no distinction between the Ashram and dedicated a temple to Radha and best and worst of creatures. Their life, happiness, Krishna there in 1931. The ASHRAM began and and attractiveness are all equal. They are also free has continued to be aligned with strict ortho- of sorrow, completely good, and enjoy solitude, dox Vaishnavism, including total , rather than crowds. They are devoted to MEDITA- thrice-daily PUJAS, and a sacramental attitude TION, active in spiritual restraints and austerities, toward all of life. and act always without self-interest. They are Yashoda Ma died in 1944, leaving Krishna always joyful and have no permanent homes, but Prem as her successor. He initiated two people live in the mountains or by the oceans.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 246 12/14/06 9:28:56 AM , Swami 247 J

Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van SRF and decided to put his time into realizing the Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the development of several small economically inde- Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University pendent communities. He wrote several books Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and underscoring the rationale for such communities, Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). including Cooperative Communities: How to Start Them and Why (1968). His lectures from this time would later be compiled and published as Crises Kriyananda, Goswami See TEMPLE OF in Modern Thought (1972). KRIYA YOGA. In 1967 he purchased land in the foothills of the Sierra as a site for the first Ananda Coopera- tive Community. The next decade would be spent Kriyananda, Swami (1926– ) in building the community, making it a center for kriya yoga guru teaching the kriya yoga he had learned with Yoga- Swami Kriyananda is the founder of the ANANDA nanda, and writing. MOVEMENT of religious and communal organiza- In 1983, Kriyananda abandoned his vows of tions, designed to spread the teachings of KRIYA SANNYAS (which included celibacy) and became YOGA and the principles of cooperative living. a lay believer/teacher. He began using his birth James Donald Walters was born in Toleajen, name again and married in 1985. Members of the Romania, to American parents. As a youth he community accepted this change with relative was sent to boarding schools in Switzerland and ease. In 1990, he led in the establishment of a new England and later attended Haverford College, religious community, the Ananda Church of Self- a Quaker school in Pennsylvania, and Brown Realization, part of the ANANDA MOVEMENT. University. He left school before completing his The progress of Ananda has been punctuated degree and settled in South Carolina. by several traumatic events. First, in 1976, a for- In South Carolina, he had his first serious est fire swept through the Ananda Village in the contact with Hinduism, when he read the Bhaga- Sierras, destroying almost all its structures and vad Gita followed by by threatening the survival of the community. How- . At about the same time ever, it was rebuilt. After the incorporation of the he became a vegetarian. In 1948, he moved across church, Ananda began a lengthy litigation with the continent to meet Yogananda and offer himself SRF over usage of the term SELF-REALIZATION. SRF as a disciple. He quickly moved into a leadership also sought to deny Ananda the use of a number position with Yogananda’s relatively small organi- of Yogananda’s books and images. Ananda won zation, the SELF-REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP (SRF), most of the issues being litigated, although the and within a year was lecturing on its behalf. His community faced a huge bill for more than a leadership role increased after Yogananda’s death, decade of legal work. When a former member and in 1955 he was named the main minister at successfully sued Ananda claiming sexual harass- the center in Hollywood. It was at this time he ment, Ananda was thrown into bankruptcy, from took the vows of the renounced life and became which it is slowly recovering. known as Kriyananda. Most recently, Walters has resumed his vows In 1960 he was selected as a member of SRF’s of sannyas and is once again known as Swami board of trustees and named its vice president. Kriyananda. In November 2003, he and several However, by this time he had become focused on leaders in Ananda moved to Delhi, India, and exploring the communal aspects of Yogananda’s opened an Ananda branch in India. He has contin- thought, and in 1962 he resigned all posts with ued to turn out numerous books as well as music

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 247 12/14/06 9:28:56 AM K 248 kriya yoga

(his role as a composer is one of the less known transformation. The culmination of the process aspects of his career). The Ananda movement has occurs when the crown is energized and also established a center in Assisi, . opened to receive energy from the divine. The process of kriya yoga transmutes the life force Further reading: Swami Kriyananda, The Essence of or energy that connects the physical body and the Bhagavad Gita (Nevada City, Calif.: Crystal Clarity, the subtle anatomy described in the Hindu 2006); J. Donald Walters, The Art and Science of Raja scriptures. Yoga (Nevada City, Calif.: Crystal Clarity, 2002); ——— In the last century, BABAJI, LAHIRI Mayasaya, , Cooperative Communities: How to Start Them and Why Sri YUKESWAR, and Paramahansa YOGANANDA have (Nevada City, Calif.: Ananda, 1968); ———, Crises in been responsible for a renewed interest in kriya Modern Thought (Nevada City, Calif.: Ananda, 1972); — yoga. ——, The Path: Autobiography of a Western Yogi (Nevada City, Calif.: Ananda, 1977); Ted A. Nordquist, Ananda Further reading: , Encyclopedic Dic- Cooperative Village: A Study in the Beliefs, Values, and tionary of Yoga (New York: Paragon House, 1990). Attitudes of a New Age Religious Community. Religion- historiska Institutionen Monograph Series (Uppsala, : Uppsala University, 1978). Kriya Yoga Centers The Kriya Yoga Centers are a set of related ashrams founded by Swami Hariharananda Giri kriya yoga (1907–2002), a god-brother to Swami Paramah- The “yoga of ritual action,” kriya yoga is con- ansa YOGANANDA. Both swamis learned KRIYA YOGA trasted with jnana (learning) YOGA and equated under the tutelage of Sri YUKTESWAR (1855–1936), with KARMA (action) yoga in the Trishikhi-Brah- who made his home in Puri, Orissa, and who built mana Upanishad. The practice of kriya yoga an ASHRAM (religious community) there in 1906. involves concentrating the mind upon a particular Yukteswar passed his lineage to Yogananda, who object that transmutes energy and experience. left India and took the concepts of kriya yoga to Kriya yoga is said to obliterate the subliminal the United States. In India, the lineage passed first activators (SAMSKARAS) through (), to Sreemat Swami Satyananda and then in 1970 study (svadhyaya), and devotion to God. to Swami Hariharananda Giri. Hariharananda was Kriya yoga is based on specific breathing pat- chosen from among the members and disciples terns. Through (disciplined breath- who had remained close to the ashram through ing) the devotee’s focus leaves ordinary reality the years. as it begins to climb in order to merge with the Born Rabindranath Bhattacharya in Habibpur, divine. It is important that the practitioner leave , on May 27, 1907, Hariharananda thoughts of mundane reality behind because took initiation in the path of JNANA yoga from Sri such thoughts interfere with the ability to focus Bijaykrishna Chattopadhyaya. In 1932, he met Sri concentration on the other-worldly. This abil- Yukteswar, who initiated him into kriya yoga and ity to turn inward to receive spiritual energy gave him charge of the ashram in Puri. In 1935, is believed to lead the disciple to God realiza- Swami Yogananda gave him a second initiation tion. As each CHAKRA (invisible energy wheel) into kriya yoga. In 1938 he renounced the world is opened through MEDITATION, the KUNDALINI and spent 12 years in seclusion in Puri. In 1949, energy is released to travel from the base of he had a vision of the eternal yogi BABAJI, who the spine, where it is coiled in latency, through prophesied that he would spread the message the glands of the body to release the energy of of kriya yoga to the world. In 1951, Yogananda

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 248 12/14/06 9:28:57 AM Kriya Yoga Tantra Society 249 J

empowered him to give initiation to others. In a student of the esoteric sciences, tantra, and the 1959, he took formal monastic vows from the martial arts. During his travels he went to India, of Puri and was given the name where he studied with , Hariharananda Giri. the most significant tantric teacher of the 20th After assuming leadership, Hariharananda pro- century and the founder of the Bihar School of moted the work of the ashram throughout India, Yoga (now the International Yoga Fellowship) in creating affiliations with other ashrams. Believing Bengal. After completing his course of tantra and that the kriya path should be shared with other MEDITATION he returned to the United States and peoples around the world, he proceeded to make founded Beyond/Beyond in Los Angeles, Califor- formal visits to promote knowledge of kriya yoga nia, which eventually evolved into the Kriya Yoga as the clearest path to enlightenment around the Tantra Society. world. Sunyata availed himself of a number of teach- By 1974, Hariharananda had made the deci- ers and teachings in order to be more fully sion to go west, initially with plans to develop informed about a variety of esoteric topics. He ashrams in Switzerland. He continued to found made an independent evaluation of different tan- ashrams and centers throughout Europe. His tric teachers and studied with several Taoist mas- decision to start an organization in New York City ters in Hong Kong. From his studies he selected introduced the work to the United States, much tantra as the most powerful of all paths to libera- as Yogananda’s mission had evolved into the SELF- tion and enlightenment. His central and primary REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP. path is the system called KRIYA YOGA, originally The United States headquarters of the Kriya popularized by Paramahansa YOGANANDA (1893– Yoga Centers is located in Homestead, Florida. 1952), which was thought to be the original tan- The international headquarters is in Orissa, India. tra of the legendary BABAJI, who is believed to live, The center publishes a periodical, Soul Culture: A after many centuries, in the HIMALAYAS. Journal of Kriya Yoga. Although Yogananda occasionally taught from the perspective of tantra, he did not stress left- Further reading: Swami Hariharananda Giri, Isa Upa- hand tantra, the system that Sunyata adopted. nishad (Homestead, Fla.: Kriya Yoga Ashrams, 1985); According to the teachings of Sunyata, tantra ———, The Laughing Swami: Teachings of Swami Hari- promotes intense sexual energy through touch harananda (Washington, D.C.: Yes International, 2005); and yogic practices. The intense energy that is ———, Secrets and Significance of Idol Worship among developed unleashes the KUNDALINI energy, a latent the Hindus (Puri: Karar Ashram, 1984). energy believed to be resting at the base of the spine. Once released, this power travels the spine, opening each CHAKRA (seven invisible wheels of Kriya Yoga Tantra Society energy along the spine) to the top of the head, The Kriya Yoga Tantra Society is one of the many when a person reaches (spiritual libera- tantric movements (see TANTRISM) that entered tion) or enlightenment. the West from their spiritual homeland in India Sunyata travels widely seminars in in the later decades of the 20th century. The his method of tantric enlightenment. Retreats are society was founded by Andre O. Rathel, more offered by the society in relatively secluded areas commonly known by his spiritual name, Sunyata in order to preserve the sacredness of the teach- Saraswati. ings and the privacy of the attendees. Headquar- The American tantric groups have developed ters are in San Francisco, California. The society through several independent sources. Sunyata was publishes the periodical Jyoti.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 249 12/14/06 9:28:57 AM K 250 K’s, Five

Further reading: Andre O. Rathel and Annette B. Ksatriya Tribes (Varanasi: Bharatiy Publishing House, White, Tantra Yoga: The Sexual Path of Inner Joy and 1975); C. T. Metcalfe, The Rajpoot Tribes (New Delhi: Cosmic Fulfillment (Hollywood, Calif.: Beyond Beyond, Cosmo, 1982). 1981); Sunyata Saraswati, Activating the Five Cosmic Energies (San Francisco: Kriya Jyoti Tantra Society, 1987); Sunyata Saraswati and Bodhi Avinsha, The Jewel Kubera in the Lotus: The Art of Tantric Union (San Francisco: Kubera is the early god of wealth in India. How- Kriya Jyoti Tantric Society, 1987). ever, he did not develop a large following and perhaps was overshadowed by the goddess LAKSHMI, whose attributes and realm of power were similar. K’s, Five See SIKHISM. There are different stories about Kubera’s birth and upbringing. Generally he is said to have ruled over () until the demon Ravana gained the power to steal some of his magical The are the warrior/kingly class in the belongings and exile him. Both Kubera and Rav- ancient fourfold class system of India. They are ana are seen as descendents of the mind-born son second in the hierarchy beneath the . of BRAHMA, . Kubera apparently took up Their duty was to protect and rule. They were residence in the north; he is seen as the guardian always allied with Brahmins in their role as kings of the northern direction, while INDRA guards the and overlords, but they vied for control of the top east, YAMA the south, and the west. In all of the social hierarchy. In the sixth century B.C.E. these stories he is always heralded as the lord of the heterodox movements of Buddhism and JAIN- gold and riches. ISM, which opposed Brahminical orthodoxy, were founded by men of Kshatriya lineage, respectively, Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Gautama (later, BUDDHA) and Vardha- Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the mana (later, ). Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University As do Brahmins, Kshatriyas receive the SACRED Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology THREAD, making them “twice-born.” Up to the (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu GUPTA era (c. 600 C.E.) they learned SANSKRIT and Mythology, Vedic and Puranic (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). to some degree the scriptures. The UPANISHADS give examples of Kshatriya kings who teach Brah- Kumar, Guru Sushil (1926–1994) Jain mins the highest wisdom. teacher Kshatriyas play a significant role in Indian lit- Guru was a teacher of Jain tradition erature, along with the Brahmins. Both the RAMA- and of interreligious understanding. He broke YANA and MAHABHARATA are essentially Kshatriya with Jain convention by traveling abroad in pur- epics dealing with issues of kingly succession. suit of his mission, and he founded the Interna- They also, of course, highlight the two Kshatriya tional Jain Mission (see JAINISM). heroes RAMA and KRISHNA, both recognized as ava- Sushil Kumar was born on June 15, 1926, into tars of Lord VISHNU. a Hindu Brahmin family in the small village of Sikhopur in Hariyana, India. The village was later Further reading: Anand, Ksatriyas in Ancient renamed Sushalgarh in his honor. When he was a India: A Socio-Economic and Religious Study (Delhi: very young boy, a deceased Jain YOGI and enlight- Atma Ram, 1985); Bimla C. Law, Ancient Mid-Indian ened master, Sri Roop Chandji Maharaj, appeared

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 250 12/14/06 9:28:57 AM 251 J

to him in a vision and told the young Sushil to Jain Mission in 1978, Sangh in 1979, and the become a . At age seven, he left his family World Jain Congress in 1981, and World Center of and village to live with a Jain monk, Sri Chotelal . He died on April 22, 1994. Maharaj, who became his guru. In 1941, at age 15, Sushil’s main ashram is , in Sushil took initiation () and became a monk Blairstown, New Jersey, established in 1983, the in the STHANAKVASI sect of Jainism. first Jain pilgrimage site () established out- Sushil pursued an academic career in classical side India. Siddhachalam is a residential commu- Indian and yogic philosophies, while experiencing nity for monks, nuns, and laymen and laywomen, directly the topics he was studying. His abilities to as well as a retreat center. It serves as headquarters teach and share his experiences attracted disciples, for the International Jain Mission, the World Fel- who recognized him as a source of wisdom, truth, lowship of Religions, and the World Jain Con- and understanding. He actively promoted peace gress. The ashram is also a wildlife sanctuary. and harmony throughout India and worked to establish a sense of universal brotherhood among the country’s conflicting religious traditions. See PRANAYAMA. In 1975 he began a controversial international tour, which broke with the Jain tradition’s require- ment that monks travel only by foot. He broke the Kumbhakarna ancient restraint against traveling by in order Kumbhakarna (He with , ears [as big as], to share the Lord MAHAVIRA’s message of nonvio- kumbha, pots) is a , a demon, the brother lence, peace, and oneness of all living beings. of Ravana (see DEMONIC BEINGS). He plays a part His teaching of the Arhum Yoga system involves in the RAMAYANA story and he is burned yearly mastery of the inner self through watchfulness in effigy during the celebration, when and direct . Arhum yoga includes the the victory of Lord RAMA over the evil demons is eight limbs of PATANJALI’s yoga system, sound remembered. vibration, healing, awakening of the KUNDALINI, The story goes that Kumbhakarna was a very energy, holistic health, and the teachings of Jain- powerful demon, and naturally strong. Other ism. The main text he used was the Matrika Yidya demons, , acquired their powers as the of the , a foremost mantra in the result of austerities and boons, but he alone had Jain tradition. the natural power to kill any god, man, or being. Sushil presided over a number of world reli- Once Kumbakarna was besting INDRA, the king of gion conferences and was director and president the gods himself, in battle. Indra, along with other of many organizations devoted to intercultural gods, , and various beings went to BRAHMA to and interreligious cooperation, world peace, uni- ask for aid. Brahma cursed Kumbhakarna at that versal brotherhood, animal and environmental moment, to sleep forever. Ravana, his brother, protection, and nonviolence. He was a founding pleaded with Brahma to soften his curse and member of the VISHWA HINDU PARISHAD. Brahma then cursed him to sleep for six months Sushil motivated the Sikh leader Singh at a time, after which he would voraciously eat for to participate in dialogue with the Indian govern- one day, and then would go back to sleep again. ment to solve the animosities that were threaten- This curse was meant to hold him in control so ing the state of . that he would not conquer all the worlds. He also founded many spiritual organizations, In the RAMAYANA, when the rakshasas have including the World Fellowship of Religions in begun their war with RAMA, , and the 1950, Vishwa Sangh in 1957, International monkeys, there is a rather humorous scene that

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 251 12/14/06 9:28:57 AM K 252 Kumbha Mela

takes place when Ravana tries forcibly to wake when the planet Jupiter enters Aquarius and the Kumbhakarna to fight. They beat him and scrape Sun enters Aries. Millions of people assemble him in every way; they have elephants drag him; together at this sacred site for ceremonial proces- they beat a thousand drums; and so on, but sions, devotional singing, religious discourses, and Kumbhakarna continues to snore. Finally, hit other special activities for the religious. Monks with trees and doused by thousands of pitchers of and holy men and women from every Hindu sect water, Kumbharakarna awakes. This done, he is converge together at this site to participate in this asked to fight and agrees, but first he must be fed sacred and festive gathering. vast wagon loads of food, which he takes whole into his voracious mouth. His endless hunger Further reading: Jack Hebner and David Osborn, sated, he goes into battle. After wreaking havoc, he Kumbha Mela: The World’s Largest Act of (La Jolla, eventually is slain by Lord Rama himself. Calif.: Ganesh, 1990); D. K. Roy, Kumbha: India’s Ageless Festival (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1955). Further reading: S. P. Bahadur, trans., The Complete Works of Gosvami (Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1978–2005); Robert Goldman, ed., The Ramayana of kundalini Valmiki, 6 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer- The kundalini is envisioned in Tantric Yogic prac- sity Press, 1984–2005); C. Rajagopalachari, Ramayana tice as a serpent at the base of the spine with her (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1972). head turned downward. She is the embodiment of the GODDESS. When the practioner has learned to control the breath in its channels (NADIS) in Kumbha Mela the proper way, the serpent is made to turn her The Kumbha Mela (pot festival) is held once every head upward and begin the ascent up the spine, three years, moving in rotation among four river- piercing as she goes the energy centers or CHAKRAS side sites in India: Prayag (ALLAHABAD), HARIDVAR, in their various locations along the spine. This Ujjaini, and Nasik. The first two of these loca- piercing activates energies of the body to create tions are in Uttar Pradesh, Ujjaini is in Madhya powers and spiritual awakening. When the Pradesh, and Nasik is in Maharashtra. kundalini goes beyond the body to a place 12 fin- The Kumbha Mela may have originated in gers above the head called , or the place great antiquity when various seeds were taken of the thousand lotuses, it joins in erotic embrace to river banks, dipped into the water, and then Lord SHIVA, engendering complete enlightenment sown for a bountiful harvest. One myth of the and liberation in this world. festival’s origin begins with a pot of the nectar of ; it was carried away by Jayanta, the Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Centers son of INDRA, with the gods and demons in hot of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 2000); pursuit. As he carried the pot for 12 divine days Sir , trans. and ed., The Serpent Power, (12 human years) a little was dropped in each of 4th ed. (Madras: Ganesh, 1950). the four festival locations. Hence the name Pot Festival. The Kumbha Mela festival at Allahabad Kundalini Research Foundation (est. 1971) (Prayag), held every 12th year and called the A number of gurus have introduced KUNDALINI Maha (great) Kumbha Mela, is the largest festival methods to the United States for dissemination. in India and perhaps in the world. According to One such yogi is Gopi KRISHNA (1903–84), who astrologers, the Maha Kumbha Mela takes place led a life of MEDITATION in search of liberation

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 252 12/14/06 9:28:57 AM Kurukshetra 253 J

(moksha) and enlightenment (). He exper- repeated in Sanskrit epics, the PURANAS, and story. imented with several types of yoga for 17 years There, the story goes that the fate of the gods before achieving enlightenment. After his experi- took a bad turn when the king of the gods, INDRA, ence with the awakening of KUNDALINI energy, he was cursed by the sage DURVASAS for slighting became a prolific writer, speaker, and teacher of him. The gods asked Vishnu his advice on how spiritual kundalini yoga. to restore their good fortunes. Vishnu suggested Kundalini energy is believed to be a well- that they churn the Milk Ocean, from which they spring of spiritual energy that is coiled at might obtain the nectar of immortality. They were the base of the spine. Seven invisible wheels advised to do this in concert with their enemies of energy (CHAKRAS) along the spine are the the or antigods (demons), since the task sites of powers that must be accessed to allow was monumentally difficult. When they stirred enlightenment to occur. Teachers of yoga, such the Milk Ocean, they used the divine serpent as Gopi Krishna, frequently speak of opening Vasuki as the churning stick. Vishnu offered him- these chakras with special breathing techniques self as a huge tortoise () upon which to rest so that the life force () can be utilized to the churning stick. transform consciousness into a state of enlight- enment (samadhi). Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Gopi Krishna, with a wealth of knowledge Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the about yoga, wrote 17 books about various aspects Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University of the awakening of kundalini. In 1970, an Ameri- Press, 1978); Shakti M. Gupta, Vishnu and His Incarna- can, Gene Kietter, realized the significance of tions (Bombay: Somaiya, 1993); E. Washburn Hopkins, what Gopi Krishna had learned and founded the Epic Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); Kundalini Research Foundation in New York in Pandrimalai Swamigal, The Ten Incarnations: Dasavatara 1971 in order to promote his work. The founda- (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982); W. J. Wilkins tion, now headquartered in Darien, Connecticut, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic (Calcutta: Rupa, seeks to promote the scientific investigation of 1973). enlightenment, inspiration, genius, and the evolu- tion of consciousness. Kurukshetra Further reading: Darrell Irving, Serpent of Fire: A Mod- Kurukshetra (province of the Kurus) is a tract of ern View of Kundalini (York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser, land south of present-day Delhi and is the site of 1994); Gopi Krishna, Awakening of Kundalini (New the great war depicted in the MAHABHARATA epic. York: E. P. Dutton, 1975); ———, The Biological Basis of The Kurus were a great clan, including both the Religion and Genius (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); PANDAVAS and the KAURAVAS, the main contenders ———, The Goal of Consciousness Research (Darien, in that war. Both groups were descended from an Conn.: Friends of Gopi Krishna, 1998); ———, The ancient progenitor named Kuru. Wonder of the Brain (Norton Heights, Conn.: Kundalini The place-name also appears in the first line of Research Foundation, 1987). the BHAGAVAD GITA, where it takes on a metaphori- cal significance. The battle, as the Gita under- stands, actually takes place in the consciousness Kurma Avatar of every human being, who must ascertain right The Kurma Avatar or tortoise AVATAR (incarna- action (dharma) in relation to God. In the sim- tion) of VISHNU plays a small role in the myth of plest terms this battle is between right and wrong, the churning of the MILK OCEAN, which is widely or, yogically, between higher and lower states of

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 253 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM K 254 Kurus

being. Kurukshetra has been an important pil- Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the grimage site from ancient times (perhaps since the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, time of the Mahabharata). It is mentioned as such 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology (Delhi: in different PURANAS. Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); P. C. Roy, The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana , 12 vols. (Calcutta: Bharata Further reading: J. A. B. van Buitenen, trans., The Karyalaya, 1888–96); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Mahabharata, Vol. 1, The Book of the Beginnings, Vol. 2, Vedic and Puranic (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). The Book of the Assembly Hall, vol. 3, The Book of Virata and the Book of Effort (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973–78); Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Kurus See MAHABHARATA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 254 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM L J: AF

Lahiri Mahasaya (1828–1895) kriya yoga would remain in the world and would be a highly teacher respected being committed to the God-realization Sri Lahiri Baba, also called Yogiraj, was a mod- of others. est but intensely pious and learned man. He was In 1832, a flood destroyed the family home a disciple of the legendary BABAJI, an honored and killed his mother. Shyamacharan moved with teacher of KRIYA YOGA, and a pioneer in women’s his father and sister first to Calcutta and then to education in India. BENARES (Varanasi), a city holy to Lord Shiva. As Born as Shyamacharan Lahiri to Gourmohan a boy, he was humble, quiet, calm, and detached. and Muktakeshi Lahiri on September 30, 1828, He attended an English school and studied SAN- in the village of Ghurani in the Punjab, Lahiri SKRIT, Hindi, , Farsi, and English. At age 12 Mahasaya was raised in a pious family of devout he entered Sanskrit University in Benares. In 1848 followers of Lord SHIVA. Gourmohan Lahiri was a he completed a degree in English, with significant recognized pundit and scholar of King Krishnana- study of Indian philosophy and literature, as well gar’s court. In early childhood, Shyamacharan’s as Western philosophy. He studied the VEDAS with mother would find him smeared in ashes and sit- the noted Maharashtrian Sanskrit scholar Pundit ting in MEDITATION with his eyes closed. The most Nagabhatta. He later continued Sanskrit study significant of these events took place when both under the tutelege of Pundit Devanarayan Gho- mother and son were completely absorbed in the sal Vidya Vachaspathi from Bengal. Gourmohan worship of Lord Shiva in the temple. Muktakeshi was proud of his son’s achievement, but was also opened her eyes upon hearing “mother” from an concerned that his quiet nature would lead him unknown voice. Standing before her was a monk to asceticism, so he arranged for a marriage. The draped in a saffron cloth with locked and matted took place in 1846; Shyamacharan was hair. The monk was the immortal yogi, Babaji. He 18, and Kashimoni was 10, as was common prac- told her that he had initiated her son for the pur- tice of that time. During their 47-year marriage, pose of liberating both saints and householders she remained completely loyal and supportive of from worldly suffering using simple techniques her husband’s goal of self-realization. They lived of SELF-REALIZATION. He assured her that her son a simple, impoverished life in the early years of

255

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 255 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM K 256 Lakshmana

their marriage. As Kashimoni grew older, she Lakshmana See RAMAYANA. became an advocate of the education of women at a time when it was unpopular. Her husband taught her to read. Lakshmi One day, Kashimoni had a profound vision Lakshmi is the wife of VISHNU and the GODDESS of and saw her husband to be none other than an wealth and happiness. She also is associated with incarnation of Lord Shiva himself. From this point beauty. Lakshmi sometimes goes by the name of onward, her commitment to God was intensified Sri, though in very early times Sri seems to have and her support for her husband’s work increased. had an independent identity and was only later From 1851 to 1888, he worked as a clerk in conflated with her. public works and tutored children of kings and Laksmi is most often depicted seated on a merchants. Some of these students would later lotus. She is golden or white in complexion. She take YOGA initiation from him. In 1888, he opened has four arms; in two hands she holds lotuses and a Bengali school, of which he remained secretary with an upraised hand and downward pointing throughout his life. He later established a school hand she gives gestures that indicate well-being exclusively for women, an unprecedented action and prosperity. She is commonly depicted in for the time. her iconography being bathed by two celestial On November 27, 1861, BABAJI called on elephants holding a pot of water. When she him. Leaving his wife in Kashi (or Benares) he stands beside VISHNU, her husband, she is gener- set out on a journey to , not know- ally shown with only two hands. Lakshmi is an ing why. There he met Babaji, who claimed extremely popular goddess. to have been waiting for him for quite some time. With just an extension of his hand onto Further reading: Upendra Nath Dhal, Goddess Laksmi: Shyamacharan’s head, an electromagnetic force Origin and Development (New Delhi: Oriental, 1978); passed through his body, and slowly he started Niranjan Ghosh, Concept and Iconography of the God- to remember his past life as an ascetic. He now dess of Abundance and Fortune in Three Regions of India fully recognized Babaji and the place where they (Burdwan: University of Burdwan, 1979); David Kins- were. With their reunion, Shyamacharan’s path ley, Hindu Goddesses (Berkeley: University of California was clearly defined, and thus began his life as Press, 1986). Sri Lahiri Baba, also called Yogiraj. He went on to initiate many students, including his wife, in the lost practice of kriya yoga. This technique Lakshmanjoo (1907–1991) teacher of integrates the use of mantras and meditation to Kashmiri Shaivism endow calmness and control on the body and Rajanaka Lakshmana, known as Lakshmanjoo, mind. In his lifetime, Lahiri Baba did not author was a popular and widely respected scholar and any books, but his teachings, when imparted, yoga master in the tradition of KASHMIRI SHAIVISM. inspired many books by his disciples. He died on He was the last living representative of the great September 26, 1895. lineage of teachers of Kashmir Shaivism, and the only remaining repository of its oral teachings. Further reading: Paramahansa Prajnanananda, Lahiri Born in Srinagar, Kashmir, on May 9, 1907, Mahasaya: Fountainhead of Kriya Yoga (Orissa: Graphic Lakshmana was raised by his father, Sri Narayan- Art Offset Press, 1999); Paramahansa Yogananda, Auto- das Raina, and his mother, Shrimati Aranyamali, biography of a Yogi (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fel- both of whom were devotees and disciples of lowship, 1969). Swami Ram Joo. Sri Narayandas was a well-known

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 256 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM Lakshmanjoo 257 J

builder of houseboats in Srinagar who had similar AUROBINDO at , and RAMANA MAHARSHI aspirations for his son. Yet, in early childhood, at Tiruvannamalai. the boy exhibited actions of a spiritual nature In 1957, Lakshmanjoo commissioned a new and appeared to be on the path of becoming a ashram, , in the village of Ishaber, yogi. At the age of three he made a clay Shiva for where his public teachings attracted a large num- his worship. He spent long hours in MEDITATION, ber of devotees. Disciples began to call him Swami which caused him to act oddly. Out of concern for Ishvara Svarupa, a name given to him by Sharika his well-being, his parents approached the family . Lakshmanjoo taught the Shaivite guru, Swami Ram Joo, who assumed care for the (see TANTRISM) and other texts of the tradition boy’s spiritual education. to his disciples and to scholars from India and Lakshmana learned the discipline of Shaivism Europe. He gave Sunday talks on Shaivite yoga first under the guidance of Swami Ram, and then, and received other spiritual teachers and scholars. when the latter died, under Swami Mahtab Kak. As the last in an unbroken lineage of masters of an His father’s illness forced him to look after the “oral tradition,” he dedicated his life to the sacred family business while still a teenager. He ended teachings of Kashmiri Shaivism. He also estab- his formal education but continued to practice lished the Ishwara Ashram Trust and, in 1982, YOGA and study under Mahtab Kak. During this the Universal Shaivite Trust, which served as the time he began to learn the Shaiva Sastras. foundation for the Universal Shaivite Fellowship. Lakshmana endured great struggles with his Lakshmanjoo embodied the full yogic tradi- family as his developed. At the age of tion, on both the practice side and the theoretical 13, he refused his parents’ request for an arranged side. During his life he experienced all the trans- marriage. When he experienced SELF-REALIZATION formative disciplines of the Shaivite tradition—he for the first time at the age of 20, he became was a jnani (realized sage). uninterested in his family’s business and felt a The knowledge of Kashmir Shaivism was tra- strong urge to practice his (spiritual ditionally passed along by oral communication or search) in solitude. He left home and traveled other unseen means, directly from master to dis- to Sadha-malyun Ashram in Handawara, Kash- ciple. Some material was written from the eighth mir. His parents searched frantically for him and century, but the texts were often intentionally eventually found him at the ashram. His father obscure in an effort to prevent misunderstanding convinced him to return home only after promis- and misuse. The texts dealt with yogic experi- ing to build an ashram for him. Four months later ences that are extremely individual and difficult he moved into an ashram located on the slopes to describe in words, and the practices involved of a mountain opposite Srinagar. Lakshmanjoo are emotional. A living master, founded in the oral continued his studies of the Shaivite Sastras tradition, was always needed for guidance. for the next seven years under the guidance of To forestall the loss of these oral traditions, the scholar Maheshuvar Nath Razdan. During Lakshmanjoo published works in Sanskrit, Hindi, this time he accepted the daughter of Sri Jai Lal and English. He was universally recognized for his Sopori, Sharika Devi, as a student and taught her scholarship as well as his perfection in Shaivite the practice of Shaivite YOGA. After she attained yoga. He received an honorary doctoral degree in self-realization under his guidance, the ashram 1965 from the Varanaseya Sanskrit University for attracted other devotees. his contribution to Sanskrit and to tantra. He is During the 1930s, Lakshmanjoo traveled best known for reviving Kashmiri Shaivism as a throughout India, making the acquaintance of vital philosophy. His influence on the scholarship Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI in , Sri of Shaivism extended into Europe and the United

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 257 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM K 258 lalata chakra

States. He made his only trip to the United States among Kashmiris to this day. Her philosophical in 1991 just months before his death on Septem- standpoint is in alignment with the tantric tradi- ber 27, 1991. tions of Kashmiri SHAIVISM. Lalleshvari was born to the family of a Kash- Further reading: Vijnana , The Practice of miri BRAHMIN pandit in the village of Pandrenthan, Centering Awareness: Commentary by Swami Laksman four miles south of Srinagar. According to legend, Joo (Varanasi: Indica Books, 2002); John Hughes, Self- she married the son she had borne in a previous Realization in Kashmir Shaivism: The Oral Teachings of life in the same village. In that life, when it was Swami Lakshmanjoo (Albany: State University of New time for the 11-day purification ceremony after York Press, 1994); Swami Lakshman Jee, Awakening to the son was born, Lalla (her given name) asked the Supreme Consciousness. Edited by Jankinath Kaul the priest, “What relation is this child to me?” The (Delhi: Utpal, n.d.); ———, Kashmir Shaivism: The priest, amazed at the question, answered that the Secret Supreme (Albany, N.Y.: Universal Shaiva Trust, child was her son. 1988); ———, Self Realization in Kashmir Shaivism. The mother answered that this was not the Edited by John Hughes (Albany: State University of case. She said that she would soon die and be born New York Press, 1994); Shiva : The Supreme as a female horse with certain obvious markings Awakening, Revealed by Swami Lakshmanjoo. Edited by that the priest would know. If he were to find this John Hughes (Albany, N.Y.: Universal Shaiva Fellow- foal, he would learn who her son really was. That ship, 2002). very moment the woman died. The priest hurried to the place where he was told the horse would be. He indeed found her, lalata chakra but when the foal told him she would soon be The lalata (forehead) chakra is the seventh reborn as a puppy, the priest gave up the search. CHAKRA from the base of the spine in some sys- Lalla underwent six births in the animal world tems of KUNDALINI YOGA. It is located at the crest before she was finally reborn as a girl, who grew of the forehead. A place of peace, calm, and con- up to become the wife of the very son she had tentment, the lalata chakra takes the YOGI to the borne. When the same priest arrived to perform verge of the highest consciousness, giving him the wedding ceremony, Lalla confided in him the or her every supranormal power. The associated full story. deity is SHIVA himself or, in certain systems, Shiva Lalla thus became the daughter-in-law of her and his consort in erotic embrace. The SHAKTI, former husband, who had remarried, and she or energy, of this chakra is the highest Shakti, went to live with the family. She was badly mis- or goddess herself. This chakra has eight bluish treated there, and after 12 years she left to become white petals. a disciple of the Shaivite Sri Kantha, the family priest she had known in her previous Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Centers life. He lived in the village of Pampur and was a of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 2000); direct disciple of one of the founders of KASHMIRI John G. Woodroffe, The Serpent Power, 7th ed. (Madras: SHAIVISM, Vasugupta. Ganesh, 1964). Lalleshvari became a wandering , going about naked, despite the ridicule and criticism she received. As the yogic scriptures state, she took Lalleshvari (14th century) poet-saint praise and blame equally, not being swayed by Lalleshvari was a 14th-century poet-saint of the either. She went about the Kashmir countryside Kashmir region of India. Her songs are beloved and towns singing and dancing in mystical ecstasy

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 258 12/14/06 9:28:58 AM lila 259 J

and died, it is said, at an advanced age in Brijbi- the householder stage of life, dealing with mar- hara, some miles southeast of Srinagar. riage, children, ceremonies for ancestors, virtues Her verses in the old Kashmiri language such as generosity and merit, and a listing of the constitute a major contribution to the somewhat permitted occupations for a twice-born person, limited Kashmiri literature. They reveal a mystic a person of the three top . Among other perception that the notion of a god with character- topics are the acceptance of food from various istics and form, approaching a monistic absolute people, the types of foods that can or cannot that comprehends infinity, both visible and invis- be eaten, and things that will pollute a Brahmin ible. She says: by contact. It also discusses the forest dweller’s (’s) duties and behavior that would In that place not even Shiva reigns supreme be taken up when the householder reached that Nor the Shakti that belongs to him stage of life. Only is the Unknown, like a dream, Two chapters deal extensively with the proper There pursuing a hidden sway conduct of kings. There is a chapter on women that has become notorious for its call for their Further reading: R. N. Kaul, Kashmir’s Mystic Poetess, complete submission to men, and other sections Lalla Ded, Alias, Lalla Arifa (New Delhi: S. Chand, on issues of inheritance and kingly justice. The 1999); Swami Muktananda, trans., Lalleshwari: Spiri- book outlines the four-CASTE system and discusses tual Poems by a Great Siddha Yogini (South Fallsburg, the various mixed of castes. It has a chapter N.Y.: SYDA, 1981); Jaishree Kak Odin, The Other Shore: on restitution for various crimes; a lower-caste Lalla’s Life and Poetry (New Delhi: Vitasta, 1999); B. N. person is to be punished more severely than an Parimoo, trans., The Ascent of Self: A Re-Interpretation of upper-caste person. Finally it discusses issues of the Mystical Poetry of Lalla Ded (Delhi: Motilal Banar- transmigration and KARMA. sidass, 1978); B. N. Parimoo, Lalleshwari (New Delhi: National Book Trust, India, 1987). Further reading: Wendy Doniger, with Brian K. Smith, The Laws of Manu (London: Penguin Books, 1991); Rustagi and Sudesh Narang, Manu/Manu Smrti: Lanka See RAMAYANA. An Appraisal (Delhi: J. P., 1995).

Laws of Manu (c. 200) The Laws of Manu is a seminal text in Indian Lekhraj, Dada See . social history. It gives greatest attention to the social obligations of BRAHMINS, whose supremacy in the social order is assumed, but it also outlines lila the obligations of rulers and other castes. It was A common notion in Indian tradition is that there the first of many systematizations of Hindu social is no logical “reason” for things as they are in the law. universe; everything is merely the lila (play) of The book begins with the history of the the divinity. This term is used only in association world and the creation by the divine being of with a deity who can be seen as overseeing all of the social order, with the Brahmins at the top. the universe. This would most often be VISHNU (or It then outlines the elements of VEDIC education one of his incarnations), SHIVA, or the great GOD- that are required in the BRAHMACHARYA or student DESS. Any such divinity will be said to have his or stage of life. It gives an idealized description of her divine lila.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 259 12/14/06 9:28:59 AM K 260 lingam

Further reading: Harish Johari, Leela: The Game of Self- to brandish his erect penis before the women. knowledge (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 1993). Because of his divine power, the women were enthralled. However, the rishis were appalled lingam and cursed the god so that he would lose his The lingam or SHIVA LINGAM is a phallic-shaped penis. icon that is a primary object of Shiva worship. Instead of falling, Shiva’s penis took off at The lingam always stands on a base, lightning speed and fearsome energy and began which is representative of the YONI or vagina of rocketing around the universe causing endless the GODDESS. destruction. The frightened rishis went to the The origin story for this cult object is well gods to see how they could save the universe known. Shiva in his guise as a mad ascetic, from destruction. The gods called upon the devi naked, smeared with human ashes, and dishev- or goddess to offer her yoni as a safe place for the eled, appeared in the Pine Forest (deodar for- Shiva lingam to rest; thus it is that every Shiva est) where sages had retired with their wives to lingam rests on a representation of the vagina of meditate. Mischievous and powerful, he began the goddess.

Main symbols of Lord Shiva: lingam and , in Gujarat (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 260 12/14/06 9:28:59 AM Long, Barry 261 J

Further reading: Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva the memories of the visions never left him. After his Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, pilgrimage in the Himalayas he founded a social 1981); Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva (Princ- service and religious center where he could nur- eton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981). ture those in need. The design of his mission and the scope of his services, from medicine to social support, are reminiscent of the work of Swami Lingayat sect See VIRASHAIVAS. SARASWATI of Rishikish, the founder of the Divine Life Society. During the 1990s Swami trav- Lokenath Divine Life Mission eled to the United States to share his spirituality Lokenath Divine Life Mission is an outgrowth of the and to talk about the way he has designed his work of Swami Shuddhananda (b. 1949), who has social service mission. A small number of disciples become a holy figure serving the poor of Calcutta have joined to learn from him and help with his (Kolkata), much as his late Roman Catholic coun- charitable work in India. The Fellowship in the terpart . His fellowship carries out its United States is located in Louisiana. The Interna- social and religious service in the areas where there tional Mission has headquarters in Calcutta. are poverty and sickness. He has played a major role in developing schools and medical facilities, as Further reading: and Jerry Jones, From well as economic activity, to provide nourishment, Here to (New York: Riverhead Books, 1998). homes, and education for the underprivileged. The mission offers courses to transform stress into a positive power that produces success, peace, and Long, Barry (1926–2003) Australian teacher harmony. The mission also sponsors programs to of realization foster women’s empowerment and sustainable rural Barry Long was a spiritual teacher from development in India. whose realization of immortality in 1965 trans- The fellowship is named for Baba Lokenath formed his life and advanced him to realization of (1730–1890), who reportedly lived for 160 years a higher consciousness. as an embodiment of love, compassion, and Born in , Australia, in 1926, Long pur- . He taught his disciples that he would sued a career in newspaper editing and politics. guide and help them forever, even after his death. At the age of 31 he experienced a death of self The Lokenath Fellowship calls upon this promise and a dawning of a new sense of existence. The and assumes that the enlightened sage watches event sparked in him a lifelong quest for truth over the social service organization devoted to his and self-knowledge. In the 1970s he traveled to work in life. London to secure publication of his experiences. As a young man, Shuddhananda emerged from There he continued writing and began meeting school and university as a professor in business at regularly with small groups of people interested Hyderabad University. Concerned about the reli- in his teachings. In the 1980s he started holding gious and social service needs of underprivileged meetings and meditation classes with larger audi- people he eventually left the academic arena and ences. His first widely circulated book, The Ori- sought in the Himalaya Mountains. He gins of Man and the Universe, published in 1984, remained there several years searching his soul increased his public recognition. about how to help others. The Barry Long Foundation was established as As a very young man he had had visions of the an educational charity in England in 1985. Later 19th-century rishi and saint Baba Lokenath. The that year, he founded the Barry Long Centre on

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 261 12/14/06 9:28:59 AM K 262 Lozowick, Lee

the Gold Coast of Queensland. In England, North he recognized as true, he became enlightened, or America, Australia, and New Zealand he taught as he puts it, “woke up.” He describes the process seminars in his increasingly popular Course in as completely impersonal and not the result of Being. In 1993 Long began teaching a 16-day event any training or discipline. In 1977, Lozowick called the Master Session, which took place annu- went to India and met Yogi RAMSURATKUMAR, who ally in New South Wales. His teachings emphasize was living at the ashram of RAMANA MAHARSHI in the living of truth and the realization that no dual- Tiruvannamalai, South India. Lozowick called the ity exists between one’s self and the greater power. yogi his “father.” Long’s seminars introduce the stillness of being Lozowick relates that since 1975 he has been and the attainment of an inner place from which teaching in the Western tradition. The people can live their daily lives. The Barry Long of Bengal are a 500-year-old sect of ecstatic sing- Foundation headquartered in Australia does not ers, love poets, and wandering minstrels who have formal membership but continues to publish sprang from the folk tradition of rural Bengal. and distribute Long’s written works through its The Bauls blend tantric Buddhism and devotional publication branch, Barry Long Books. Hinduism with music, dance, and yoga of sexual Long died of prostate cancer on December 6, energy and breath, to form a path to God-realiza- 2003. tion through the body. Lozowick has adapted this tradition to serve spiritual seekers in the West. Further reading: Barry Long, Knowing Yourself: The Lozowick’s teachings emphasize the practice True in the False (London: Barry Long Foundation, of guru yoga, which he himself practiced for 25 1996); ———, Only Fear Dies (London: Barry Long years when his own guru was alive and continues Foundation, 1994); ———, The Origins of Man and to practice since his death. Lozowick functions the Universe (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984); as both guru and disciple. He has published over ———, Wisdom and Where to Find It (London: Barry 1,000 poems to his master, Yogi Ramsuratkumar. Long Foundation, 1994). After awakening, Lozowick formed a small community called Hohm in New Jersey and began to teach spiritual devotees. In 1980, the com- Lozowick, Lee (1943– ) Western Baul teacher munity moved to Arizona, where both the Hohm Lee Lozowick is an American teacher of the YOGA Sahaj Mandir (temple) and Hohm Community practices and syncretic Buddhist-Hindu philoso- are located. Lozowick also founded two ashrams, phy of the BAUL SECT of Bengal. He is a prolific in France and India. Hohm Press has issued a poet and writer, whose practice strongly empha- number of publications on spiritual topics, natu- sizes music—he and his followers have performed ral health, Eastern religion, poetry, and parenting. around the world. Lozowick himself has written 18 books. Born on November 18, 1943, in Brooklyn, Lozowick is known for the poetry and music New York, to Russian Jewish parents, Lozowick he has produced in the past 20 years. He is the describes his early life as “completely ordinary.” lead singer in Sri, a blues band composed of His grandfather had been a tzaddik, or religious members of his community that has produced teacher, and his father, Louis, a successful artist. nine albums and performs yearly tours to large In 1970, while living in New Jersey, Lozowick audiences throughout Europe and the United became a teacher of Silva Mind Control and stud- States. His community also has a theater company, ied the human potential movement in depth. In a gospel choir, a children’s school, a publishing 1975, after reading the works of SAMRAJ company, and several published authors. He is a (known at the time as Bubba Free John), which passionate advocate for children and teaches prac-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 262 12/14/06 9:28:59 AM Lust, Benedict 263 J

tices for conscious parenting. For Lee Lozowick toward a new synthesis of nonintrusive healing and his students, spiritual maturity is expressed in arts, which he termed naturopathy (a name he and through all aspects of life, and service to the actually purchased from a colleague). divine is expressed through service of humanity. In 1919, by which time Lust had launched his long-term battle to have the government Further reading: Georg Feuerstein, Holy Madness: recognize naturopathy, Lust met Sri YOGENDRA, a The Shock Tactics and Radical Teachings of Crazy-Wise yogi who had traveled to New York from Bombay Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus (New York: (Mumbai). Yogendra was a pioneer in reviving Arkana, 1990); Lee Lozowick, Alchemy of Transforma- HATHA YOGA as a discipline for body and mind in tion (Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm Press, 1996); ———, The India and had gone to the United States to con- Book of Unenlightenment/The Yoga of Enlightenment duct a set of scientific tests with the Life Exten- (Prescott Valley, Ariz.: Hohm Press, 1980); ———, In sion Institute in New York. Lust quickly saw the the Fire (Tabor, N.J.: Hohm Press, 1978); ———, Spiri- value that hatha yoga might have in his repertoire tual Slavery (Tabor, N.J.: Hohm Press, 1975). of healing tools. In 1924, Yogendra returned to Bombay. The restrictive, discriminatory immigration laws that Lust, Benedict (1872–1945) founder of went into effect at the time prevented him from naturopathy making any return visits. Thus, Lust, through Benedict Lust was a pioneer in what has come his naturopathy, was to become the major dis- to be called holistic medicine and a facilitator of seminating force for yoga in the next generation. the dissemination of YOGA in the United States. Only after World War II did Asian teachers arrive Lust was born in Michelbach, Baden, Germany. in the United States once more to help popularize As a youth, he became ill and was cured by Fr. hatha yoga. Sebastian Kneipp, a famous advocate of the water Lust died in 1945. Subsequently yoga has cure, a popular form of healing in the 19th cen- been deemphasized by naturopaths, and Lust’s tury. He eventually traveled to the United States role in introducing yoga in America largely for- as Kneipp’s official representative and in the late gotten. The Benedict Lust Publication Company 1890s organized the water cure movement, espe- still offers books on naturopathy, health, and cially among the many first generation German healing. Americans. Meanwhile, Lust studied osteopathy and vari- Further reading: Benedict Lust, The Fountain of Youth ous schools of healing that eschewed the use of (New York: MacFadden, 1923); Paul Wendall, Standard- drugs and surgery. By 1900, Lust was looking ized Naturopathy (Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Author, 1951).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 263 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 264 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM M J: AF

Maa, Shree (1950– ) teacher of introspectively and to worship in seclusion, show- After spending her childhood and early adult ing little interest in family and social gatherings. years meditating and worshipping virtually in After completing college she left home and trav- solitude, Shree Maa emerged in the 1980s as a eled to KAMAKHYA, the famous pilgrimage site in teacher and religious singer in India. In 1984 she the foothills of the HIMALAYAS. She spent the next founded the Devi Mandir temple in California and eight years wandering in the area living the life began spreading her teachings through worldwide of an ascetic. Villagers always found her in deep tours and music recordings. meditation. She spoke very little and ate only basil Shree Maa was born in in northeastern leaves and sandal water. Devotees claimed that she India around 1950. Although no records exist reached SAMADHI, the highest state of conscious- for her name and date of birth, she reportedly ness, and gave her the name Shree Maa, Respected was born in the year a great earthquake shook Holy Mother. the region. She is from a family, that included Breaking her solitude in the late 1970s, Shree businessmen as well as advanced and is a Maa began worshipping in temples and sing- descendant of the 18th-century Bengali poet-saint ing publicly, exposure that drew an increasing and KALI devotee . She received audience of devotees. In 1980, at a temple in her early education from her grandmother, whose Bakreswar, West Bengal, Shree Maa met Swami attentiveness to worship in daily activities made a Satyananda Saraswati, an American-born trav- great impression upon her. She spent much of her eler who had been studying under a number of childhood in meditation at the local temple and in gurus in India since the 1960s. The two traveled the family shrine room. together throughout India, performing religious In her early teens, Shree Maa spent many rituals wherever they were invited. hours in solitude and worship, both at home and In the early 1980s, Shree Maa received divine in the nearby caves of the Himalayas. She knew instruction from Sri Ramakrishna to move to as a child that the 19th-century priest of Kali, America and teach the meaning of DHARMA, the path Sri RAMAKRISHNA, would be her personal GURU. of righteousness. In 1984, with few possessions In high school and college she continued to live and almost no money she and Swami Satyananda

265

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 265 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM K 266 Madhva

Saraswati arrived in California. Refusing to adver- circuit of the south of India, going first to Trivan- tise or promote their presence, the two established drum and staying in RAMESHVARAM, the famous a temple, Devi Mandir, in Martinez, California, Vaishnavite holy city in Tamil Nadu. As he spoke, and undertook the , a three-year fire he would argue against the various existing philo- ceremony. As word spread, people traveled from sophical schools. He later traveled in North India, around the world to worship at the temple. In the living in such places as HARIDVAR and Badarika. He early 1990s as a regular congregation formed, Devi is said to have converted many followers of Shan- Mandir moved to Napa Valley, California. kara in his travels. Eventually, he even converted Since 1992, Shree Maa and Swami Satyananda his own GURU. have traveled much of the world offering pro- Madhva produced a massive corpus of work grams and teachings of devotion and inspiration, including commentaries on all the 13 orthodox while maintaining Devi Mandir. Shree Maa has Vedic Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutra, and the recorded compositions inspired by Ramprasad Bhagavad Gita. In these works he relentlessly and has produced several instructional videos argued for the idea that God and the human self demonstrating systems of worship. Following the or soul were completely distinct from each other, tradition of Ramakrishna, she encourages worship and that the world also was completely distinct and devotion in all places, insisting that all action from God. His profound dualism was a challenge can be a service to the divine. to the non-dualist thinkers who preceded and fol- lowed him, who represent by far the largest school Further reading: Linda Johnsen, Daughters of the God- of Vedanta. He argued that only the grace of God, dess: The Women Saints of India (St. Paul, Minn.: Yes in the form of KRISHNA, could save a human being International, 1994); Shree Maa and Swami Satyananda from the endless round of birth and rebirth, and Saraswati, Shree Maa: The Guru and the Goddess (Napa, only BHAKTI, or devotion to the divinity, could res- Calif.: Devi Mandir, 1996); Swami Satyananda Saras- cue humans from the abyss of successive rebirth. wati, Shree Maa: The Life of a Saint (Napa, Calif.: Devi Mandir, 1997). Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, The History of Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1975); Vasudeva Rao, Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva (c. 1197 to 1276 C.E.) Vedanta Madhva of Udupi (New Delhi: Orient Longman, philosopher 2002); B. N. K. Sharma, Dvaita Philosophy as Expounded Madhva was a brilliant, prolific scholar of by Sri Madhvacarya (Madras: University of Madras, VEDANTA who developed his own DVAITA or dual- 1996); Swami Tapasyananda, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta ist philosophy. (Madras: Sri , n.d.). Madhva was born near Udipi in in a village called Rajapitha, which may be the mod- ern Kalyanapura. He was born into an orthodox madya See PANCHA MAKARA. Vaishnavite BRAHMIN family. He became the dis- ciple of Acutyapreksha, a great teacher. Madhva studied the writings of SHANKARA, Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) the great non-dual (ADVAITA) philosopher, but Mahabalipuram was an ancient port city, known concluded by rejecting his teachings. In fact, he to Greek traders, which served as a provincial eventually wrote tracts opposing 21 important capital under the Pallava dynasty (sixth through philosophers in order to establish his own phi- eighth centuries). It is known for its extraordinary losophy of dvaita or dualist VEDANTA. He made a rock carvings.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 266 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM Mahabalipuram 267 J

Monolithic stone in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu (Constance A. Jones)

The city served as the port for the chief Pal- heaven, flanked on both sides by NAGAS and capital at KANCHIPURAM. It was situated at the NAGINIS. , human beings, and animals mouth of the Palar River, 32 miles south of Madras all face the fissure in the rock where the Gan- (Chennai). The river long ago changed course. ges descends in attitudes of adoration. A small A granite hill about 100 feet high and a half a shrine immediately to the left has a standing mile in length, and a smaller granite outcropping SHIVA image, before which bows Bhagiratha, who farther south, provided the site and the raw mate- was responsible for the Ganges’s descent. Above rial for the sculptures. Each work is carved out of the temple Bhagiratha is shown doing penance, solid stone, without the use of any brick or mor- emaciated, holding his arms above his head, as tar, and without assembly of individual pieces. was on the orthodox ascetic practice. There are The technique was also used at the Kailasanatha monumental elephants to the right of him and temple at ELLORA TEMPLE contemporaneously. a cat, delightfully imitating the ascetic posture The most dramatic carving, “Descent of the of the sage. Mice are depicted at his feet and GANGES” (also known as ARJUNA’S Penance), nearby are remarkably realistic carvings of deer covers an entire cliff 30 feet high and 60 feet and a monkey plucking fleas from its mate. The wide. It shows the Ganges’s descending from “ascetic” cat is faking asceticism to get mice, a

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 267 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM K 268 Mahabharata

not so subtle jab at renunciants who have not before. From time to time Vyasa himself plays an truly left behind desire. important role in the epic. The hills contain 10 carved-out mandapas The epic recounts a dynastic struggle that took (temple areas) with pillars. The largest is 25 feet place near Delhi in northern India. The eldest wide and 15 to 20 feet high, with a depth of about son in the dynasty of the Kurus is Pandu, whose 25 feet. The mandapas contain reliefs and statues wife, Kunti, has five sons (considered Pandu’s of and (AVATARS of VISHNU), the sons, although each was fathered by a different Sun God , DURGA, and the special LAKSHMI, god): , ARJUNA, BHIMA, Nakula, and , a form showing her being bathed by Sahadeva. Collectively they are known as the celestial elephants. PANDAVAS. Because of a curse on Pandu that he Several rathas (chariot-shaped temples) can will die if he has sexual intercourse with either be found as well—the granite copying in every of his wives (Kunti and Madri), Pandu is forced detail the shape and form of wooden buildings, to give up his claim to the throne in favor of his although without finished interiors. They are blind brother, Dhritarashtra. Dhritarashtra has dedicated variously to DRAUPADI, Arjuna, BHIMA, 100 sons, the oldest of whom is DURYODHANA. Dharmaraja, and Sahadeva. Some of these are of They are known collectively as the KAURAVAS. the oblong chaitya type, most often associated Dhritarashtra becomes regent until Pandu’s with . sons are of age, when one of them will rightfully Finally, there is an elaborate shore temple, assume the throne. Dhritarashtra is weak-willed with two towers, all carved from solid granite. It and cannot resist his son Duryodhana’s attempts contains images of both SHIVA and Vishnu, quite to usurp power. The plotting of Duryodhana and unusual in Indian temples of any era. his Kauravas against the Pandavas forms the cen- tral dynamic in this intriguing story. When their Further reading: Michael Lockwood, Mamallapuram: A plot to murder the five Pandava brothers fails, they Guide to the Monuments (Madras: Tambaram Research fleece them at dice and drive them into exile. Associates, 1993); M. Purushothama Rao, K. Lalitha, Finally, events culminate in open warfare and M. C. Subramanyam, Mahabalipuram (Madras, between the two camps. The Pandavas are forced Maps and Atlases Publications, 1970); C. Sivarama- to fight against not only their evil cousins and , Mahabalipuram (New Delhi: Archaeological Sur- uncles, but their venerable guru DRONA and their vey of India, 1978). grand-uncle BHISHMA. In fact, part of the epic’s greatness is that the story is not pure black and white, but instead shows shades of gray on both Mahabharata sides. The Mahabharata (MBh), is one of the two great The god KRISHNA serves as the noncombatant Indian epics (the other is the RAMAYANA). It tells charioteer of the brave Pandava, Arjuna. As the the story of the descendents of BHARATA, the leg- two pull up to look at the opposing armies before endary leader of the early Indian tribes. It is the the war begins, Krishna recites the celebrated world’s largest epic, containing at least 100,000 BHAGAVAD GITA, a profound poem that summarizes verses. It is often said in India that there is noth- Hindu philosophy. On the battlefield of KURUK- ing that is not in the MBh and that which is not in SHETRA a terrible carnage ensues, as the Pandavas the MBh is to be found nowhere. The story is said eventually triumph and gain the kingdom. to have been dictated to the god GANESHA by the This epic story is known to all Indians, many sage VYASA. Vyasa is the teller of the tale for our of whom are named for its heroes; place names own era, but it is considered to have existed long in every part of India are taken from this story as

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 268 12/14/06 9:29:00 AM mahavakyas 269 J

well. There are versions in every one of the local shivaya—and praying for . If the rites Indian languages, as well as simplified folk dramas are performed faithfully one is rewarded with that act out its tales for those who cannot read. worldly success and the heavenly realm of Shiva. The festival and its vows probably originated Further reading: Peter Brook, director, The Mahab- around the fifth century C.E. In mythological harata (videorecording), produced by Michael Propper terms the Mahashivaratri observance is often (Chatsworth, Calif.: Image Entertainment, 2002); Wil- attributed to an episode that occurred on that liam Buck, The Mahabharata (Berkeley: University of day: when Shiva manifested himself as the fiery California Press, 1973); J. A. B. Buitenen, The Mahab- lingam (jyotir lingam), BRAHMA set off on his swan harata, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, vehicle to find the lingam’s top, and Vishnu set 1973–78); Alf Heiltebeitl, The Cult of Draupadi, 2 vols. out in the form of a boar to root for its bottom. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988–91). Neither of the two divinities was successful, thus proving that Shiva was supreme. In another story, Mahashivaratri was the day when Shiva, in order Maha Kumbha Mela See KUMBHA MELA. to save the world from destruction, drank the ter- rible poison that emerged when the MILK OCEAN was churned by the gods and demons to produce Maharaj Ji, Guru See RAWAT, PREM. the nectar of immortality.

Further reading: Swami Harshananda, Hindu Festivals Mahashivaratri and Sacred Days (Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994); The 14th day of the dark half of every lunar Nath Sharma, Festivals of India (New Delhi: Abhinav, month (when the Moon is waning) is called 1978); Guy Welbon and Glenn Yocum, eds., Religious Shivaratri (Shiva night). The Shivaratri of the Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka (Delhi: Manohar, month of Magha (February–March) is designated 1982). as Mahashivaratri (Great Shiva night) and is cel- ebrated with a festival. Several stories in the Skanda, Lingam, and mahat See . Padma Puranas describe this festival, and the power associated with it. Once, it is said a hunter unknowingly fasted, watched over, and bathed a mahavakyas Shiva LINGAM all night, not knowing it was the The mahavakyas (maha, great; vakya, sayings) Mahashivaratri time. For this simple deed he was are usually a series of brief statements extracted rewarded by being taken directly to the abode of from the UPANISHADS that are said to sum up their Shiva. philosophy. Occasionally, they are from commen- Mahashivaratri is the one major Hindu cel- taries on the Upanishads or other sources that ebration that is not accompanied by revelry express Upanishadic philosophy. They are sub- and gaiety. It is a solemn event that emphasizes jected to extensive exposition and in the restraint; devotees make vows such as forgive- different schools of VEDANTA. ness, truth telling, and noninjury to beings, which Most commonly, only four mahavakyas are must be honored for the full 24 hours. and counted. These four statements are from the staying awake all night to worship Shiva are also YAJUR, SAMA, RIG, and ATHARVA VEDAS in order. important aspects of this observance. One spends Some Vedic systems cite five, six, or even seven the night reciting the MANTRA of SHIVA— namah mahavakyas.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 269 12/14/06 9:29:01 AM K 270 Mahavira

The first of the basic four is from BRIHADA- Mahavira (c. 599–527 B.C.E.) Jain Arhat RANYAKA UPANISHAD I. 4. 10: “ brahmasmi” (omniscient being) (I [aham] am [asmi] the ultimate reality [the Mahavira (great spiritual hero) is considered by brahman]). In other words, the individual self Jains to be the last of the great disseminators of is identical to the ultimate reality of the brah- their faith in this half-era (see JAINISM). His life is man. From the VI. 8. 7 celebrated in legends and festivals and is consid- is the second phrase, “Tat tvam asi” that [tat] ered a model for all Jains to imitate. (is what) you [tvam] are [asi]. That refers to the He was born in 599 in Kundagrama, a large brahman, while you refers to the , the indi- city near the modern city of Patna. His father, vidual soul or self within every human being. In Siddhartha, belonged to the Jnatri clan, and his Vedanta the atman as ultimate self and the brah- mother, , was the sister of the king of the man are seen to be one. This particular phrase area. The texts say they were followers of the earlier is used in succession eight times in chapter 6 Jain and teacher PARSHVANATH. They of the Chandogya Upanishad, and once each in named their child Vardhamana, “he who brings sections 8 through 16, when , the father, prosperity.” The SHVETAMBARA Jains believe that is teaching his son the truth of the Atman, the Mahavira was originally conceived by a Brahmin Ultimate Self. couple, Rishabhadatta and Devananda, and that the The third mahavakya is “ayam atma brahma” embryo was transferred into Trishala’s womb magi- (This [ayam] self [atma] is brahma.) This means cally. Jains do not accept this story. that the individual self is the Ultimate Reality, the Before Mahavira’s birth Trishala had a series of All, the brahman. This phrase is found verbatim auspicious dreams. Of the two major Jain , in I. 2 and is the logical the SHVETAMBARAS say there were 14 dreams; the conclusion of statements made by say 16. In these dreams she saw (1) a to two different questioners in Brihadaranyaka white elephant, (2) a white bull, (3) a lion, (4) the Upanishad, II.4. 1; II.4.2 and II. 5.1. The fourth Goddess Sri, (5) of mandara flowers, (6) phrase is taken from , III.3.13: the full Moon, (7) the rising Sun, (8) a large and “prajnanam brahma.” The Ultimate Reality is wis- beautiful , (9) a vase of fine metal, (10) a lake dom (or consciousness [prajnanam]). full of lotuses, (11) an ocean of milk, (12) a celes- Another mahavakya from the Upanishads tial house in the sky, (13) a huge heap of gems, that is sometimes cited is “sarvam khalu and (14) a blazing fire. Digambaras add (15) a brahma” (All indeed is that [60]) (CHANDOGYA lofty throne and (16) a pair of fish cavorting in a UPANISHAD III.14.1 and Maitri Upanishad IV.6 2). lake. Jains today recall and reenact these dreams Other mahavakyas commonly cited are from the when they celebrate the five auspicious moments commentaries of specific Vedanta philosophers of Mahavira’s life. such as SHANKARA or from still other sources. It is said that Vardhamana remained very The word can be used generically to refer to the quiet inside the womb, exhibiting the Jain virtue “Great Sayings” of any particular person, for of AHIMSA or noninjury. He only moved when by example, . his powers he learned that his mother worried he was not alive. His birth was accompanied by Further reading: Jan Gonda, Notes on Brahman (Utre- many marvels as all beings celebrated the birth cht: J. L. Beyers, 1950); M. P. Pandit, Gleanings from the of the Tirthankara, the karmically special unique Upanishads (Pondicherry: Dipti, 1969). R. Puligandla, teacher, of this half-era. “That Thou Art”: The Wisdom of the Upanishads (Fre- Not much is known of his childhood. There mont, Calif.: Asian Humanities Press, 2002). is a story of his subduing a ferocious snake by his

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 270 12/14/06 9:29:01 AM Mahavira 271 J

courage and calm. The Shvetambaras and Digam- all his hair in five bunches (as is the norm for Jain baras disagree about what occurred once Mahavira monks and nuns even today), becoming a naked reached a marriageable age. The Shvetambaras ascetic. say that he fulfilled his duties as a householder, The Shvetambaras accept most of these details, married a princess called Yashoda, and fathered but they believe he wore a small loincloth given to a daughter called Priyadarshana. They say that him by INDRA, king of the gods. They say that he he did not become a mendicant until his parents wore this cloth for 13 months, when out of com- died. The Digambaras believe that Mahavira never plete disregard for such things he let it fall from married. They stress the notion that he had an him and proceeded as a naked mendicant. aversion to worldly matters from an early age. Mahavira wandered for 12 years, abstain- When Mahavira was 30 years of age some ing for long periods from water or food or both, gods went to him and urged him to renounce ignoring all bodily pains or pleasures, not caring the world. A great ceremony took place when whether he was in the burning sunshine or the he embarked on his renunciation in a large park pouring rain. (Digambaras, however, believe he under an tree. According to the Digam- observed a vow of silence and solitude for these baras he removed all his clothes and pulled out 12 years.) According to the Shvetambaras, he

Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, in Palitana, Gujarat (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 271 12/14/06 9:29:01 AM K 272 mahayuga

was approached during this period by the AJIVIKA mahayuga ascetic Makkhali Gosala, who, upon seeing his A Mahayuga or “great age,” is a traditional Indian magical yogic powers, became his disciple and unit of TIME In Hindu tradition. It consists of four companion. Unfortunately, they report, Gosala YUGAS in descending order, totaling 4,320,000 eventually broke away and declared himself a jina years. or spiritual victor, cursing Mahavira when the lat- ter contradicted his claim. Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van After an amazingly difficult and extended Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the period of austerity, in which Mahavira showed Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University no concern for any bodily insult or trial, he Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and ascended to kevalajnana enlightenment—an infi- Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). nite supreme knowledge and . He then became the 24th and final Tirthankara of the cur- rent half-era. Mahendranath, Sri (Lawrence Amos When he became enlightened and omniscient, Miles) (1911–1991) tantric teacher the gods built him a vast assembly hall, where he Sri Mahendranath was a British-born student of a sat quietly and uttered a divine sound that carried great variety of Eastern religious movements. He the essence of the Jain teaching. The Digambaras founded an ashram to teach his syncretic system believe that the message was heard by all beings of of twilight YOGA. Lawrence Amos Miles was born every sort—heavenly beings, hell beings, humans, on April 29, 1911, in London, England. As a child, animals, and gods—all of whom gathered there he was interested in spiritual questions and the in amazement; they also believe that Mahavira pagan way of life, and as a young man he had no longer ate, drank, slept, or aged, as a sign of a series of unique experiences that forecast his his pure state. Shvetambaras believe that only the devotion to the inner life. gods and a select few disciples heard his teach- In his early 20s Miles met ing. A Jain community began to form around him (1875–1947), who suggested that he study the I from that moment, though he made no effort to Ching with Asian adepts. Miles went to India in create it. 1953 and was initiated into SANNYAS (renuncia- After his enlightenment, Mahavira lived for 30 tion) by Sadguru Lokanath, a teacher in the Adi- years as an omniscient being, traveling from place nath branch of the Nath School (see to place. At the age of 72, after undergoing a series NATH YOGIS). This tantric order (see TANTRISM) is of ever more rigorous fasts, he took his death. He unorthodox in its practices, which include wan- passed from this world, his soul heading toward dering and nudity. During his 30 years as a renun- the top of the universe, where it remains eternally ciant in India, Miles studied with other GURUS and in unlimited consciousness and bliss. was initiated into two other schools, the Kaula Historians believe that a Jain community of and the Sahajiya, both of which are “left-handed” monks, nuns, and lay people emerged during tantric sects, meaning that they use the impurities Mahavira’s lifetime. Nuns always outnumbered of life as a means of SELF-REALIZATION. He also went monks in the community by a significant margin. to Bhutan, where he was initiated into ; to , where he became a - Further reading: , The Jains (London: ist priest; and to Sri Lanka, where he became a Routledge, 1992); P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purifica- Theravadin monk. tion (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); L. C. Lalwani, In 1975, he founded an ashram in Gujarat Kalpa Sutra (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979). and began to teach a spiritual system called

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 272 12/14/06 9:29:01 AM Mahesh Yogi, 273 J

twilight yoga, which included elements of the I years. On a visit to South India in 1955, he gave Ching, Tibetan Buddhism, Buddhism, and his first talks and became a popular lecturer on SHAIVISM. In 1978 he established an East-West the wisdom of Hinduism. tantric order, the Arcane Magickal Order of the In 1958 at a lecture in Madras (Chennai), the Knights of Shambhala/AMOOKOS. As a sannyasi, Maharishi spoke of his vision for the “spiritual Mahendranath traveled to Sri Lanka, Southeast regeneration of all mankind,” which received a five- Asia, and Australia. He died at his ashram near minute ovation. The next evening he announced the Vatrak River in the state of Gujarat on August the formation of the Spiritual Regeneration move- 30, 1991. ment, dedicated to the accomplishment of that goal. Soon after, he began the first of more than 12 Further reading: Lokanath Maharaj, “The Guru of world tours. He first left India to settle in London, Twilight Yoga,” Yoga Today 6, no. 10 (February 1982): where he established the International Meditation 10–12; Sri Gurudev Mahendranath, The Amoral Way Society. He taught primarily out of a small apart- of Wizardry (Oxford: Mandrake, n.d.); Muz Mur- ment in London’s Knightsbridge section, as well as ray, Seeking the Master: A Guide to the Ashrams of private homes and hotels. India (Spearman Jersey, the Channel Isles: Spearman, He arrived in the United States in 1959 teach- 1980). ing a technique called TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION (T.M.), a practice that draws from Vedic science and employs a MANTRA, or , that is given to Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi (b. 1911 or each student in an initiatory ritual. Each person’s 1917) founder of Transcendental Meditation mantra is meant to saturate the mind and allow a The played an important peaceful state of mind, absent of thought. Initiates role in spreading the theory and practice of MEDI- are encouraged to practice at least a half-hour in TATION in the West. During the height of the West- the morning and a half-hour in the evening. T.M. ern “counterculture,” he acquired a large degree of is well suited to life in the secular, technological fame and notoriety. West, as the practice does not require devotion or Little is known about the Maharishi’s early faith and claims a scientific rather than religious life. Mahesh is his family name, and Maharishi in basis. In the 1960s were his most cel- Sanskrit means “great sage or saint.” His date of ebrated followers. birth has been variously given as either October In addition to the Spiritual Regeneration move- 18, 1911, or January 12, 1917. Acquaintances ment founded in 1958, the Maharishi formed the in India claim that he is a native of Uttarkashi, a Students International Meditation Society and the small town in the HIMALAYAS, and the son of a local International Meditation Society in the 1960s. income tax collector. According to his official In 1971, Maharishi International University was biography, he received a degree in from founded by the Maharishi in Iowa to train teach- Allahabad University in 1942 and then worked ers of T.M. in a factory before studying SANSKRIT and Indian The Maharishi returned to India in the late philosophy. 1970s and moved to the in 1990. His According to his biography, the Maharishi organization includes ashrams, clinics, schools, studied ADVAITA (non-dual) VEDANTA for 13 years universities, and Vedic study centers. His teach- under Swami , ings have stimulated a broad array of interest in and Shankaracharya of , Himalayas Vedic literature. With over 5 million initiates, (1870–1953). Upon the death of Brahmananda, T.M. has expanded the reach of traditional yoga he withdrew to a cave near Uttarkashi for two and Vedic philosophy.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 273 12/14/06 9:29:02 AM K 274

Further reading: Martin Ebon, Maharishi: The Guru: were culturally Tamil, although significant num- The Story of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (Bombay: Pearl, bers were Telugu and Gujarati. SIKHS from the 1968); Jack Forem, Transcendental Meditation (New Punjab served in the military and police forces. York: Dutton, 1974); Paul Mason, The Maharishi: The The Tamil financier caste introduced worship of Biography of the Man Who Gave Transcendental Medita- the deity Murugan, or KARTTIKEYA son of SHIVA, tion to the World (Rockport, Mass.: Element, 1994); who became the principal deity recognized in Helena Olsen and Roland Olsen, Maharishi Mahesh Malaysia. Yogi: A Living Saint for the New Millennium (Herndon, Today South Asians compose 8 percent of Va.: Lantern Books, 2001); , Gurus, the population of the Malay Peninsula. Most Godmen and Good People (Bombay: Priya Adarkar, Ori- Hindus do not practice orthodox Hinduism, but ent Longman, 1975). rather Tamil . Recently, Brahminical practices have become more popular, a process called Sanskritization. Hindu maithuna See PANCHA MAKARA. was growing among a minority, as in India, at the close of the 20th and beginning of the 21st cen- Malaysia The earliest Hindu state to appear on the Malay Peninsula was Kamalanka, which emerged dur- ing the seventh century C.E. It appears to have developed out of the earlier kingdom of Lang- La-Tsiu, a dependency of the Cambodian king- dom of Funan. Eventually the Malay Peninsula became part of the Hindu kingdoms of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Majapahit (Java). Hinduism as well as Buddhism were practiced throughout the peninsula, which became in 1957 the Fed- eration of Malaya. Malaysia was formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of and Sabah and Sarawak (on Borneo) joined the federation. Malaysia became a British colony during the 19th century; from the start, the colony accepted Hindu immigrants. Immigration from India con- tinued until World War II, with peak numbers entering Malaysia during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The movement of laborers to Malaysia constituted one of the largest Indian out-migrations in history. Unlike in earlier peri- ods (the era of Hindu expansion), emigrants were primarily from the lower castes, recruited to work in the sugar and rubber plantations, or in the fishing, forestry, and mining industries. in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Institute for Most migrants were from the state of Madras and the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 274 12/14/06 9:29:02 AM mangala 275 J

turies. Hindus have been very active in politics Mandukya Upanishad in Malaysia. The Mandukya is a short UPANISHAD (12 small See also DIASPORA; INDONESIA. stanzas) in the Atharva Veda, one of the most important for the ADVAITA (non-dual) VEDANTA of Further reading: Crispin Bates ed., Community, Empire, SHANKARA. Shankara’s guru, , wrote a and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora (New York: commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad that Palgrave, 2001); George Coedes, The Indianized States became important in that tradition. of Southeast Asia. Edited by Walter F. Vella (Canberra: In its first stanza the Upanishad establishes the Australian National University Press, 1968); K. S. supremacy of the syllable om, equating it to the Sandhu, Indians in Malaya: Some Aspects of Their Immi- ultimate BRAHMAN. Stanzas 3 through 7 outline the gration and Settlement (1786–1957) (London: Cam- four STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS. Stanzas 9 through bridge University Press, 1969); K. S. Sandhu and 12 establish that the four parts of om (esoteri- A. Mani, eds., Indian Communities in Southeast Asia cally understood as a, u, m, and a fourth, which (Singapore: Times Academic Press and Institute of is beyond parts) are identical to the four states of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993); Steven Vertovec, The consciousness, thus establishing om as the ATMAN Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns (London: Rout- or self. ledge, 2000). Further reading: Patrick Olivelle, trans., The Early Upanishads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads (Atlantic Mallinatha See . Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1994); Thomas E. Wood, The Mandukya Upanisad and the Agamasastra: An Investigation Into the Meaning of the Vedanta (Honolulu: mamsa See PANCHA MAKARA. University of Press, 1990).

mangala Manas (mind) is the term for the mental capacity Mangala is the name for the planet Mars in Indian in the 24 categories that define reality in SAMKHYA tradition; in North Indian languages it is used as and YOGA. It is seen to oversee the five capacities the name for Tuesday. Its widest meaning, how- of action and the five capacities of perception ever, is “auspicious.” Along with its opposite, directly. Above mind in the schema are the ego amangala, the term is constantly heard on a daily () and the intellect (buddhi). While basis in Indian culture. manas is essential for the proper functioning of A number of factors can contribute to mak- the human being, it is always understood to be ing something auspicious in India. It may be an subject to the whims of ego under the disguise astrological issue—the stars and conjunctions of of instinct or in terms of ego’s role in creating the planets can indicate that a particular day, month, “grasping” self. or year will be mangala or amangala. Certain individuals are by definition mangala, such as Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- GURUS, saints, and other holy men. Additionally, losophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975). certain events can be described as auspicious, for instance, the arrival of an unexpected guest. Places, including rivers, mountains, and shrines, See . also can be seen as mangala, or auspicious, and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 275 12/14/06 9:29:02 AM K 276 Manikkavacakar

yield benefits in both spiritual and worldly terms as a devotee. He surrendered to his guru all the if they are visited. treasure entrusted to him by the king. When the A wide variety of places, times, locations, or king found out, he imprisoned Manikkavacakar. objects can be described as mangala. In Jain tradi- Forced to stand in the hot sun so that he would tion the or eight auspicious things agree to return the money, the saint prayed to are taken out for special occasions. They include Shiva, and a herd of beautiful horses was deliv- a mirror and a pot full of water. In fact, the poten- ered to him to give to the king. Unfortunately, tial for auspicious or inauspicious occurrences the horses were jackals who had been magically is practically unlimited on a day-to-day basis in transformed and reverted to their former nature Indian tradition. during the night. The king again tormented Manikkavacakar Further reading: John Carman and Frederique Apffel in the hot sun. Eventually, when Shiva revealed Marglin, eds., Purity and Auspiciousness in Indian Society himself to the king, Manikkavacakar was released. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985). He was ordered by Shiva to go to three shrines to teach and to defeat the Buddhists in debate. One of these shrines was the famous Shiva Manikkavacakar (c. ninth century) Tamil shrine of . It was there that most of poet-saint the hymns that formed the Tiruvacakam were first Manikkavacakar is often considered the Tamil sung (and probably written by his followers). It people’s most revered Shaivite poet-saint, even is said that the Buddhists there heard of the saint though he is not included in the traditional and sent someone to debate him. Manikkavacakar grouping of 63 saints. His works, Tirukkovaiyar completely vanquished the Buddhists in debate, and TIRUVACAKAM, form the eighth book of the invoking SARASVATI to strike them dumb. The Bud- Tamil Shaivite canonical work . There is dhists then all became devotees of Shiva. Eventu- hardly a Tamil Shaivite who does not know a line ally, Shiva himself wrote all the poet’s works, and from these two poems, which express devotion to the saint disappeared into the icon of Shiva in Lord SHIVA with great beauty and fervor. Chidambaram. Manikkavacakar was born in a Tamil Brahmin family in Tiruvatavur, a village on the Vaikai River, Further reading: G. U. Pope, The Tiruvacakam (Oxford: which also runs through the city of , and Clarendon Press, 1900); K. Ravi, Saint Manikkavasagar’s thus he has the proper name of Tirvatavur (He Verses of Wisdom: A Bio-Cosmic Worldview (Madras: Who Belongs to the Sacred Village of Tiruvatavu- Anand Jothi, 2002); Glenn Yocum, Hymns to the Danc- ras). But he is best known, Manikkavacakar (he ing Siva: A Study of Manikkavacakar’s Tiruvacakam whose utterances [vacaka] are like rubies [manik- (Columbia, .: Books, 1982). kam]). His father was an adviser to the Pandya king. The son followed in his father’s footsteps and became chief minister to the Pandya monarch chakra Arimarttanar. The manipura or “City of Jewels” CHAKRA is the The story goes that Manikkavacakar was sent third chakra from the base of the spine in the by the monarch to a port city with a huge sum of KUNDALINI YOGA system. It is situated on the spine money to buy horses. There Manikkavacakar, who at the level of the navel. This chakra is associated was inclined to renounce the world, met his GURU, with the drive for power and accomplishment. who was in fact a form of SHIVA himself. There he Arrogance and vanity are the emotions that mani- took teaching from the guru and asked to be taken fest from it. Its element is fire (see PANCHA MAHAB-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 276 12/14/06 9:29:02 AM mantra 277 J

HUTAS). Its deity is RUDRA. Its SHAKTI, or presiding for this purpose. The Jains female divinity, is , sometimes also called have what is called the mantra of five salutations, . It has 10 blue petals. which is used for giving and for asking for good fortune. Since Buddhism grew up on Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Cen- Indian soil, mantras are part of every sect of Bud- ters of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, dhism, although their usage and interpretation 2000). may vary from those of the various Hindu sects. The bija mantra, or seed mantra, is used most often in rituals. It is a one-syllable mantra, almost mantra always ending with an m sound, which embodies A mantra is a specially empowered spoken or the full power of a divinity. For instance, gam is chanted utterance, usually in SANSKRIT, although the bija mantra for GANESHA and is always used in there are utterances called mantras in every Indian chanting to him. language. Mantras vary in size from one short All Hindu sects have slightly different philoso- syllable to a long chant, such as found in the phies of mantra, and all sects have long litanies “mantras” of the RIG VEDA. Etymologically mantra of names of their divinities that can be recited comes from the man, “think,” and tra, “instru- for any purpose, including liberation. There is ment,” making a mantra literally an “instrument the famous VISHNU , for instance, the of thought,” or more truly an “instrument of con- Thousand Names of Vishnu, that VAISHNAVITES sciousness.” faithfully recited for all purposes. In the VEDAS the mantras were understood to In Hindu TANTRA it is common to understand be of superhuman origin, eternal and uncreated, the mula mantra, the basic mantra, as being the and were received and recited by seers and reciters ultimate form of the divinity, more powerful and in order to call to divine powers. They were used efficacious than either the yantra (the esoteric for the removal of sins, diseases, and misfortune; graphic form) or the image of the divinity itself. the conquest of enemies; and innumerable other When one does a tantric mantra, one literally purposes. becomes the divinity, as the mantra is the divin- In post-Vedic Hinduism the word mantra ity. Finally, according to tantra belief, by chant- acquired a philosophical meaning. It was said to ing the mula mantra or the litany of mantras to be derived from man (think) and tra (protect); the divinity one can realize the ajapa mantra, or a mantra then is that which conditions or pro- mantra that constantly recites itself. That is, the tects consciousness and helps lead to liberation. mantra begins to repeat itself in one’s conscious- All the old Vedic usages remained throughout ness without further external utterance, thus Indian tradition, but the use of mantras to purify totally transforming the adept. In the SHAKTA consciousness, identify with the divinity, and forms of tantra the Goddess mantras are called lead one toward liberation was always highly VIDYAS (wisdom), and the term mantra is reserved valued. for utterances that relate to the male divinities Mantras are used in India for building tem- only. ples, for installing icons, and for worshipping Behind the power and significance of mantra them. Those who enter various orders are often in India is the understanding that the universe given initiation mantras. Any Indian tradition has itself is constituted of nothing but sound. The its mula, or basic mantra. Recitation of this mantra world is from nada BRAHMAN or ultimate sound. in or repetitive utterance is efficacious for all A mantra then is not a mere utterance, but must purposes. The Shaivite traditions use the mantra be understood to be intimately connected to the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 277 12/14/06 9:29:02 AM K 278 Manu

substance of the universe itself, and hence yields ing the Manu who began the age we live in today, power when recited. who is known as Vaivasvata. There will be seven See also . more Manus in the remaining ages until our kalpa is ended. Further reading: Harvey P. Alper, Mantra (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989); Guy Beck, Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Sonic : Hinduism and Sacred Sound (Columbia: Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Sharon Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Brown, Om Namah Shivaya: A Mantra Experience Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and (Ganeshpuri: Shree Gurudev Ashram, 1977); Harold Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973) G. Coware and David J. , Mantra: Hearing the Divine in India and America (New York: Columbia Uni- versity Press, 2004); Jan Gonda, “The Indian Mantra,” in Selected Studies: History of Ancient Indian Religion A manvantara is one of the divisions of time in (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975), 4:248; Andre Padoux, Vâc: Hindu tradition, made up of 71 YUGAS. Fourteen The Concept of the Word in Selected Hindu Tantras. make up one KALPA, which consti- Translated by Jacques Gontier (Albany: State Univer- tutes one day in the life of the god Brahma or sity of New York Press, 1990); A. C. Bhaktivedanta 4,320,000,000 years. Each manvantara has its Swami Prabhupada, Chant and Be Happy—the Story of associated MANU, or human progenitor. Each the Hare Krishna Mantra (Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta manvantara also has seven RISHIS (saints/seers), Book Trust, 1982); , of India certain deities, and its own INDRA (king of the (sound recording) (New York: Angel Records, 1997); gods). Swami Sivananda, Japa Yoga: A Comprehensive Treatise on Mantra- (Sivanandanagar: Divine Life Soci- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van ety, 1967). Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Manu Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). Manu is the name of the first man in each of the designated ages or MANVANTARAS in Indian tradi- tion, a progenitor somewhat akin to the West- Mariyamman ern biblical Adam. There have been an infinite Mariyamman is the smallpox GODDESS of Tamil number of ages in the past, as there will be in Nadu. She compares to SHITALA in other regions the future. Therefore the Manus are infinite in of India. Every village in Tamil Nadu has a number. temple to Mariyamman. It was understood that According to TIME calculations in Hindu tra- smallpox was both caused and cured by this ditions, there are 14 MANVANTARAS in each eon goddess. or KALPA, which constitutes a day in the life of There were those who understood the disease BRAHMA or 4,320,000,000 years. The first Manu to be in some way a blessing of the goddess upon of our kalpa was Svayambhuva Manu, who Indian them, with the white pustules seen as auspicious tradition says composed the LAWS OF MANU, markings. However, the worship of Mariyamman the famous text on social law. In all there have was almost always intended to ward off the dis- already been seven Manus in the current kalpa, ease or to alleviate its effects. Because smallpox each one leading off his designated age, includ- has been eliminated, Mariyamman is propitiated

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 278 12/14/06 9:29:03 AM Mata, Sri Daya 279 J

in the case of chickenpox and other diseases Mata, Sri Daya (1914– ) prominent today. American Hindu leader Sri is the American-born third presi- Further reading: Pia Srinivasan Buonomo and S. A. dent of the SELF-REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP (SRF). Srinivasan, The Goddess Mariyamman in Music and Faye Wright was born in , Utah, (Reinbek: Dr. Inge Wezler Ver- and grew up in an environment of the Church of lag für Orientalische Fachpublikationen, 1999); Paul Latter-Day Saints (Mormons). As an elementary Younger, Playing Host to Deity: Festival Religion in the school student she first learned about India and South Indian Tradition (New York: Oxford University quickly developed an emotional attachment that Press, 2002). stayed with her as she grew up. Her reading of the BHAGAVAD GITA as a teenager set her on a quest for God that only began to be satisfied in 1931 when marriage See ASHRAMAS. she attended a lecture given by Paramahansa YOGANANDA in her hometown. Wright saw in Yogananda a person with a Maruts relationship to the divine that she wanted for The Maruts were originally the storm and wind herself; she resolved to follow him. Because of an illness that kept her out of school she was able gods of the RIG VEDA. They accompanied INDRA, king of the gods, who holds a lightning bolt. In to attend some of his classes, her face bandaged. During one class Yogananda approached her and various references they are said to be 27, 49, or announced that she would be healed within a 180 in number. They throw thunderbolts, churn week. His materialized. Two weeks later, up wind, and cause the Earth to quake with their with the permission of her parents, she entered fury. Yogananda’s ashram in Los Angeles. In the Puranas the Maruts are instead seen Wright became one of Yogananda’s closest as the sons of and Diti. Having no associates in his Self-Realization Fellowship child, Diti asked her RISHI husband for a boon. (SRF). She took vows of renunciation and was She wanted a child who could defeat Indra. Her given a new name, Daya Mata. At the time of husband said this could happen if she carried Yogananda’s death, she was placed in charge of the son in her womb for 100 years while remain- the movement’s headquarters at Mount Washing- ing completely pious and pure. At the 99th year, ton, California, and James Lynn (Swami Rajasi she is said to have faltered and Indra, anxiously Janakananda) was placed in charge of the SRF observing, the embryo into seven parts to organization. Lynn died three years later. In 1955, become the seven Maruts. The name Marut was Daya Mata succeeded Lynn as the third president given to them by Indra when he told them not to of Self-Realization Fellowship, a position she has cry (rut). retained for decades. She has been very active as president, oversee- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van ing a growing international organization, meeting Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the frequent speaking engagements, and authoring Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University several books. On March 5, 2005, she celebrated Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology her 50th anniversary as the leader of SRF. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, Further reading: Daya Mata, Enter the Quiet Heart (Los 1973). Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship, 2005); ———,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 279 12/14/06 9:29:03 AM K 280 Matagiri

Finding the Joy within You: Personal Counsel for God- the MANU (primordial man) of that era was a great Centered Living (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellow- king. He came upon a tiny fish as he was washing ship, 2002); ———, God Alone: The Life and Letters himself in the morning. The fish, speaking in a of a Saint (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship, human voice, beseeched the king to save him. He 1998); ———, Only Love: Living the Spiritual Life in a promised to reward Manu by saving him in turn Changing World (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellow- from an impending flood. ship, 1976). Manu agreed. He first put the fish in a bowl of water, but the fish grew very quickly and outgrew it. Then Manu put the fish in a pitcher, Matagiri See AUROBINDO, SRI. but it became too big for it overnight. Manu suc- cessively put it into a well, pond, and then the GANGES, but it outgrew them all. Finally, he put math it in the ocean, where it became very huge. Once Math is a word for in the Hindi lan- in the ocean the fish instructed Manu that after guage. Many Hindu traditions established maths certain cataclysms a flood would wipe out all of as austere residences where monks could live the beings on Earth. The fish instructed Manu to and study. Most famous are the four maths estab- build a huge boat, put the world’s creatures in it, lished by the great VEDANTA teacher SHANKARA and tie a rope to it in preparation for that time. (circa eighth century): BADRINATH in far northern When the flood arrived, Manu attached the rope India, DVARAKA (Dwarka) in Gujarat, Shringeri in to the fish’s horn and the fish took him to the Karnataka, and Puri in Orissa. Monks from the northern mountain, where he attached the boat Dashanami order following Shankara’s teachings to a tree. Thus were all creatures rescued by the now live at these locations. The abbot of each of incarnation of VISHNU. these maths is referred to as the Shankaracharya (while Shankara himself is referred to as the Adis- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van hankaracharya, or first Shankaracharya). Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Further reading: Austin B. Creel and Vasudha Naray- Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology anan, Monastic Life in the Christian and Hindu Traditions: (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu A Comparative Study (New York: Edwin Mellen Press, Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1990); Ram Niwas Pandy, The Mathas of the Dasanami 1973). Sanyasis of Lalitpur, Valley (Kathmandu: Royal Academy, 2002); Vasudeva Rao, Living tra- ditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2002). The British acquired the island nation of Mauri- tius in the Indian Ocean from the French in 1814 as part of the Treaty of . Sugar production matsya See PANCHA MAKARA. on the island flourished under the British, who imported large numbers of African slaves to work on plantations. Prior to 1835, almost 70 percent Matsya avatar of the population of Mauritius was of African The Matsya (fish) AVATAR of VISHNU is said to have descent. After the abolition of slavery, British preserved the world from a cataclysmic flood in officials began in 1835 to employ indentured ser- a previous cycle of time. According to the story, vants from India to fill the labor shortage on the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 280 12/14/06 9:29:03 AM Mauritius 281 J

island. Since that time, the migration of Indians Murugan. The festival is recognized officially as to the island has steadily increased. Indians of all a Tamil holiday, but Hindus of all origins join now constitute about 68 percent of the total the celebration of the deity. DIVALI, the festival population. of lights, is another popular festival proclaimed Most Hindus in Mauritius were from Bihar as a national holiday, in which both Hindus and Uttar Pradesh in northern India and Tamil and non-Hindus celebrate. During the height of Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Divali observances, Hindu temples and Christian Many migrated to escape the drought and poverty churches are lit with many earthen lamps to sym- that had ravaged regions of India during much bolize dispelling the darkness of ignorance. The of the mid-19th century. Others were enticed by festival of Divali represents religious solidarity the prospects of owning land. Large numbers of across ethnic barriers. migrants from India continued to enter Mauritius Hindus in Mauritius have established strong until 1922, when contracts of indentured servi- traditions of both VAISHNAVISM and SHAIVISM. Addi- tude were discontinued. tionally, reform movements such as From their first days in Mauritius, Hindus have increased in popularity over recent years. In were much more organized and had greater politi- 2000, a celebration of the 125th anniversary of cal leverage than their compatriots in other colo- Arya Samaj drew over 15,000 people to more than nies with sizable Indian populations. Conditions 165 fire rituals. for the indentured laborers were deplorable, but Other organizations that have made their Hindus did not face severe persecution because home in Mauritius over the decades include of their religion. Throughout their residence in the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CON- Mauritius, Hindus established temples, gained SCIOUSNESS, the VEDANTA RAMAKRISHNA SOCIETIES recognition of their religious festivals as public MATH AND MISSION, the Chinmayananda Mis- holidays, and maintained frequent contact with sion, and the Swami Lakshmanacharya Vishwa the Indian homeland. When MOHANDAS KARAM- Santi Foundation. In 1983, Swami Krishnananda CHAND GANDHI visited Mauritius in the early 20th converted an infirmary established in 1888 in century he was impressed by the social justice and Calebassus into an ASHRAM and AYURVEDIC health activism of the Hindu population on the island. care center that houses over 200 poor and needy Overall, Hinduism has enjoyed success and lon- residents. gevity there. Hindus in Mauritius still frequent pilgrimage The earliest temples were constructed in the centers in India, even as several sites have been mid-1880s on the sugar estates by traders and established on the island for pilgrimages. One indentured laborers. They were dedicated to such destination is Spiritual Park, established in Annam and KARTTIKEYAN, or Murugan. At present 1999 by Satguru , to there are over 250 Hindu temples on Mauritius. house worship, music, education, and other activ- Temples serve as centers for many traditional ities. The park features three eight-foot statues Hindu festivals. MAHASHIVARATRI, SHIVA’S Great of GANESHA, Dakshinamurti, and Lord Murugan Night, is one of the largest. The annual celebra- (KARTTIKEYAN), hand-carved in MAHABALIPURAM, tion is designated a national holiday for those India. of North Indian descent. The festival involves Hinduism remains the dominant religion of a nine-day ceremony of fasting that concludes Mauritius. A 2000 census estimated that there are with a night-long worship service to Shiva. over 500,000 Hindus on the island, making up to Other popular festivals in Mauritius include Thai 44 percent of the total population. Pusam, a celebration of the South Indian God See also DIASPORA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 281 12/14/06 9:29:03 AM K 282 maya

Further reading: Somdath Bhuckory, Profile of the Ma Yoga Shakti International Hindu Community (Port Louis, Mauritius, n.p. 1972); Mission (est. 1979) Marina Carter, Voices from Indenture: Experiences of The Ma Yoga Shakti International Mission, with Indian Migrants in the British Empire (New York: Leices- ashrams and centers in India, the United King- ter University Press, 1996); Chand S. Seewoochurn, dom, and the United States, is dedicated to the Hindu festivals in Mauritius (Quatre Bornes, Mauritius: spread of YOGA in the West. It offers instruction in Editions Capuchins, 1995). a variety of yoga paths. Ma Yoga Shakti (no birth name available) was born April 6, 1927, and raised in the holy city of maya BENARES (Varanasi), India. She spent her youth fas- The term maya has several senses. In the VEDAS cinated by high ideals and devoted herself to the the term referred to the magic or power of the quest of finding solutions to life’s mysteries. She divinity. The term is still used in this sense in obtained an M.A. in political science and became theistic branches of Hinduism to refer to the principal of an all-women’s college in Bihar, India. delusive and enthralling power of the personal In 1956 she founded the Annie Besant Lodge of divinity. the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY in Chapra. In 1965, she In SHANKARA’S ADVAITA VEDANTA the term devel- took vows of SANNYAS, renouncing the worldly life, oped a specialized meaning of “illusion,” spe- and became a paramadesa SANNYASI, or one who cifically, the illusory nature of the world of becomes a monastic without being initiated by phenomena. It is an alternative term for another SANNYASI. She does not acknowledge any or ignorance—that is, ignorance of the unitary one GURU or Hindu lineage. She took the name character of the ultimate reality. Maya in this con- Ma Yoga Shakti Saraswati. In 1969 she was given text is the veil of illusion over the BRAHMAN or the the name Shakti Sant Shiromani by several monas- highest reality. It neither exists nor nonexists, but tic orders of India at the KUMBHA MELA. She was is something that cannot be defined. Maya, the given the title Maha Mandleshwar in 1974 by the world as we sense it and know it, is thought to Niranjani , one of India’s largest orders of disappear as a fog does when the light of knowl- monks. edge of the singular nature of the ultimate reality In 1979, following her intention to spread moves forward in consciousness. yoga to the West, she established the Ma Yoga In the SHAKTA traditions of GODDESS worship, Shakti International Mission, with ashrams in the goddess as supreme divinity is sometimes South Ozone Park, New York, and Palm Bay, Flor- called Maya or Mahamaya. In this case the word ida. Other ashrams are active in London and in has no negative connotations, but simply refers to five cities in India. Following the teaching of Ma the goddess’s supreme magic and power. Yoga Shakti, the mission emphasizes four forms of yoga—HATHA, raja, KARMA, and BHAKTI—and Further reading: Paul David Devandan, The Concept of instructs students to pursue the yogic path that Maya (London: Lutterworth Press, 1950); Margaret Dev is most accessible to their inclinations and abili- and Neena Dev, Maya: The Divine Power (Piercy, Calif.: ties. The mission publishes books by Ma Yoga Chinmaya, 1999); L. Thomas O’Neil, Maya in Sankara: Shakti in English and Hindi and offers a monthly Measuring the Immeasurable (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, periodical, Yoga Shakti Mission Newsletter. Each 1980); Tracy Pintchman, The Rise of the Goddess in the of the movement’s ashrams offers retreats, devo- Hindu Tradition (Albany: State University of New York tional services, yoga and MEDITATION classes, and Press, 1994). workshops.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 282 12/14/06 9:29:03 AM meditation 283 J

Further reading: Guru Chetanshakti, Guru Further reading: Sandria Freitag, Collective Action and (Calcutta: Yogashakti Mission Trust, 1977); Ma Yoga Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Commu- Shakti, and Poems from Mother’s Heart (Melbourne, nalism in North India (Berkeley: University of California Fla.: Yogashakti Mission, 1976; ———, Yoga Syzygy, 2d Press, 1989); D. N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow ed. (Melbourne, Fla.: Yogashakti Mission, 1982); ———, (London: Verso, 2002); Brian K. Smith, “Eaters, Food Yoog Vashishtha (Gondia: Yogashakti Mission, 1970). and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India.” Journal of the Academy of Religion 58, no. 2 (1990): 177–205; Francis Zimmerman, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats (Berke- meat-eating ley: University of California Press, 1987). Meat-eating was apparently well established for all classes and castes in very ancient India. The VEDAS show BRAHMINS and others eating beef as well as meditation an assortment of other meats. With the rise of the The term dhyana (meditation) is used by Jains (see notion of AHIMSA (nonharm), first introduced by JAINISM), Buddhists, and Hindus, with somewhat the Jains (see JAINISM) and Buddhists, meat-eating different technical meanings. became less sanctioned. The Jains may very well have been the first In the Manu or Manavadharma Shastra to practice meditation. Their tradition does not (LAWS OF MANU) (c. 400 B.C.E.), a transitional stage preserve a great deal of information about the can be seen; meat, including beef, that is killed early practice; there is no mention of PRANAYAMA as part of a Vedic ritual is allowed for Brahmins. or breath control, but dharana (focus), as known However, non–ritually killed meat was not to be to the PATANJALI Yoga tradition, was apparently eaten by them. Eventually orthodox Brahmins included. adopted a Jain-like scrupulous VEGETARIANISM that Jain tradition has four types of dhyana: artad- became a cultural ideal of the faith. hyana (focus on things unpleasant or sorrow- However, many sectors of society in India still ful), raudradhyana (focus on cruel and perverse eat meat and fish. The most common meat eaten things), dharmyadhyana (virtuous concentration), in India by Hindus is chicken, followed by lamb and shukladhyana (pure concentration). Most and goat. Water buffalo meat is also sometimes literature on the SIDDHA (perfected beings) and eaten. Only the lowest sectors of Hindu society eat TIRTHANKARAS (most exalted personages) refers pork or beef. Pork is raised by (untouchable) to the shukladhyana state, which involves intense communities as a regular food source. also concentration. eat beef, taken as carrion. In the Hindu tradition, the term dhyana first Under British rule, tensions arose between appears in the Upanishads, in a handful of places, Muslims and Hindus over the issue of beef. Mus- used as a rather generic term. By the time of the lims do not eat pork but do eat beef. Tensions epics (c. seventh century B.C.E. to third century have persisted into postindependence India. Par- C.E.), dhyana was a well-established practice. Most ticular offense can be taken if Muslims cook beef later Hindu YOGA traditions derive from on a Hindu holiday, or in an area where Hindus or Patanjali Yoga, where dhyana is a refined medi- can smell the process. Some cities, such as Delhi, tative practice that is taken up after one has mas- have simply banned the slaughter of cows entirely. tered pranayama, or breath control, and dharana, McDonalds, Wimpy’s, and other international “mental focus.” It is a deeper concentration of hamburger outlets have been open in India for a the mind, eventually leading to the SAMADHI state, long time, but they never serve beef, usually sub- which involves highly concentrated focus on the stituting the meat of water buffalo. highest reality (or realities).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 283 12/14/06 9:29:04 AM K 284 Temple, Madurai

Wedding of Shiva and Minakshi, goddess of Madurai, Madurai Temple, Tamil Nadu (Constance A. Jones)

In other yogic traditions, those practicing dhy- and to SHIVA as the beautiful lord (Sundaresh- ana focus on a MANTRA (recited word or phrase); varar), is one of the largest in India. The original a YANTRA, or sacred diagram; or an ISHTA DEVATA, or temple was built by Kulasekara Pandyan, a king, chosen divinity. sometime in the first millennium C.E., but it fell into ruins. The current structure was laid out by Further reading: Harold H. Bloomfield, Michael Peter Viswanath Nayakar, a later monarch of Madurai, Cain, Dennis T. Jaffe, and Robert B. Kory, TM*: Discov- in the 16th century and was completed by Tirum- ering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress (New York: alai Nayakar in the 17th century. Delacorte Press, 1975); Georg Feurstein, The Yoga- The original site was dedicated exclusively to Sutra of Patanjali: A New Translation and Commentary the goddess Minakshi, whose presence in the area (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions International, 1989); is very ancient. The current temple also contains, P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal in addition to the inner sanctum with Minakshi’s Banarsidass, 1990). image, a LINGAM (phallus) for Shiva worship, as well as a striking, huge (Shiva as Lord of Dance) in one of its larger halls. Most notable are Meenakshi Temple, Madurai the 120-foot towers at each of the four entrance- The Meenakshi Sundareshvarar Temple at Madu- ways. These are all elaborately decorated with rai, dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi (MINAKSHI) myriad stucco-covered stone carvings of scenes

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 284 12/14/06 9:29:04 AM Meera, Mother 285 J

from mythology, beautifully painted in bright SRI AUROBINDO’s ashram, attracting considerable colors. attention there, and soon began giving DARSHAN, Points of interest include the arched area of her own blessings to others. Her presence in the eight ; the golden lotus pond near the Pondicherry attracted many and her popularity Minakshi shrine, where people descend to bathe; grew. the hall of the parrots, where parrots sing praises Devotees throughout the world consider of the two divinities, Shiva and Minakshi; the an avatar of the Divine Mother, who 1,000-pillared hall; and the wall paintings that has previously incarnated in other forms, such as depict scenes from the Purana telling the story KALI and the Virgin Mary. The appearance of the of the holy acts of Shiva. Each year during the Mother is believed to offer people of the world CHITTIRAI FESTIVAL in April–May the wedding healing, protection, and transformation in a time of Shiva and Minakshi is celebrated. Because of crisis. Mother Meera has stated that the world VISHNU is said to be the brother of Minakshi is now in crisis and that her role is to give the and takes part in the wedding, the temple also transformative light of , the Supreme houses depictions and sculptures representing Self, to everyone around the world. The light that Vishnu. she speaks of is the Supreme Being, which is an untapped energy permeating the world. Mother Further reading: Chris Fuller, A Priesthood Renewed: Meera believes that the ignition of supreme energy Modernity and Traditionalism in a South Indian Temple will give health, joy, and happiness to anyone who (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003); is open to it. ———, Servants of the Goddess: The Priests of a South In 1982, Mother Meera married a German by Indian Temple (New York: Cambridge University Press); the name of Herbert and relocated to Schaumburg, William P. Harman, The Sacred Marriage of a Hindu God- Germany. Thousands have met with her there and dess (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). receive her darshan. Her teaching is not through words, but through silence. She greets all devotees who arrive for her blessing with an intense gaze. Meera, Mother (1960– ) embodiment of the Looking into their eyes, she encounters every Divine Mother corner of their being in order to determine what Mother Meera is considered by her followers as an help she can give. AVATAR of the Divine Mother. She is a silent teacher, Mother Meera meets with hundreds of visitors primarily offering DARSHAN (eyegazing) to visitors each year and offers regular darshan. She requires to help them achieve health and happiness. no devotion and is open to all individuals regard- Born Kamala Reddy on December 26, 1960, less of their religion. She continues to draw the Mother Meera was raised in the village of Chan- interest of devotees from around the world. drapalle in southern India. Her parents were not religious and raised her under no particular Further reading: Martin Goodman, In Search of the tradition. She was described as an unusual child, Divine Mother: The Mystery of Mother Meera (London: who often spoke of mysterious lights that visited Thorsons, 1998); Sonia L. Linebaugh, At the Feet of her. She would later reveal that she received Mother Meera: The Lessons of Silence (United States: much of her love and spiritual guidance from XLibris, 2003); Mother Meera, Answers (Ithaca, N.Y.: visions. At the age of six she experienced her first Meeramma, 1991); ———, Bringing down the Light: SAMADHI, higher state of consciousness. Her uncle Journey of a Soul after Death (Ithaca, N.Y.: Meeramma, recognized the child’s gift and invited her to stay 1990); Adilakshmi Olati, Mother Meera (Thalheim, Ger- with him in Pondicherry. In 1974 she visited many: Mother Meera Publications, 1987).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 285 12/14/06 9:29:04 AM K 286 Meher Baba

Meher Baba (1894–1969) God-Realized master summon an avatar when needed to assist the said to be avatar of the age world. Although they appear to be five different Meher Baba considered himself to be an AVATAR, a individuals, they are actually Satgurus, who are being who ushers in a new cosmic age. in the unity of the one God. They “bring down” Born Merwan Sheriar Irani to Persian parents the avatar so that the world can escape MAYA, the on February 25, 1894, in Poona, India, Meher cage of illusion, and experience reality. While in Baba (compassionate father) was exposed to a college, in 1913, Irani met the first perfect mas- number of faiths early in life. His father, Sheriar ter, Hazrat Babajan, an Islamic woman saint who Irani, was a devout Zoroastrian. Merwan went to a kissed him on the forehead and showed him inde- Christian high school in Poona and later attended scribable bliss, which continued for about nine Deccan College. months. In 1914, Babajan gave him instant God- According to Meher Baba, five perfect masters realization and made him aware of his spiritual exist in the world at all times. These masters can calling and destiny. Another perfect master, Upasni Maharaj, a Hindu who resided in Sakori, gave Merwan gnosis or divine knowledge over the course of seven years. Through these experiences he gained spiritual perfection. In 1921 his spiritual mis- sion began when his first close disciples gathered around him. His disciples gave him the name Meher Baba. After years of teaching disciples, Meher Baba founded a colony near Ahmednagar, called Mehe- rabad. The colony included a school, hospital, dispensary, and shelter for the poor. From its inception, Meherabad did not recognize caste distinctions in training its students or serving the needy. Another important part of the work begun by Meher Baba is work with the masts, the advanced or “God-intoxicated” individuals who live perpetually in awareness of the highest realm of consciousness. He sought out masts and took care of their physical needs, which the masts themselves often ignored. He also washed the feet of and fed lepers and the destitute of India. From July 10, 1925, Meher Baba observed silence, communicating with others and giving discourses only through dictation on an alphabet board. Much later, he abandoned the alphabet board and communicated through hand gestures Meher Baba (1894–1969), God-realized master from unique to him. western India, said to be the avatar of the current age He asserted that he was the Ancient One who who bridged Hinduism and (Courtesy Avatar had returned to redeem humankind from its Meher Baba Trust) bondage to ignorance and to show to all their true

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 286 12/14/06 9:29:04 AM Metamorphosis League for Monastic Studies 287 J

Self, which is God. He was acknowledged by his good friends. However, the mischievous sage followers to be the avatar of the age. Narada approached and instigated him to In 1959, when he was 65 years old, Meher humble the mountain. Vayu blew with full force Baba established the Avatar Meher Baba Trust to for one full year, but Meru did not yield. However, provide for disciples who were dependent on him after a year Meru relaxed for a while, and taking and to care for his tomb and property. The trust advantage of this opportunity, Vayu increased in oversees charitable activities in India and the intensity. The top of the mountain was broken off United States and has created a development plan and it fell into the sea. Thus was the island of Sri for Meherabad, the site of Meher Baba’s tomb. Lanka born. Meher Baba traveled to the United States six times between 1931 and 1958. His center in the Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. van Buite- West is located at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. nen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: A He left his body on July 31, 1969. Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Further reading: Meher Baba, The Everything and the Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986). Nothing (Berkeley: Beguine Library, 1963); ———, God Speaks (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1973); ———, The Path of Love (Ahmed Nagar: Awakener Press, 1986); C. Metamorphosis League for Monastic B. Purdom, The God-Man: The Life, Journeys and Work Studies (est. 1987) of Meher Baba with an Interpretation of His Silence and The Metamorphosis League for Monastic Studies Spiritual Teaching (Crescent Beach, S.C.: Sheriar Press, was founded by Kailasa Chandra Das (born Mark 1964); Kevin Shepherd, Meher Baba, an Iranian Liberal Goodwin) in 1987, in response to disputes within (Cambridge: Anthropographia, 1986). the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CON- SCIOUSNESS (ISKCON) between the leadership and some other disciples who had been trained and Meru, Mount initiated by the founder, Swami A. C. Prabhupada In ancient Indian cosmology Mount Meru is a BHAKTIVEDANTA. The stated goal of the league is to golden mountain, supporting the heavens, located help define norms for a valid devotional Vaish- at the center of the known universe. Its location is navite organization. These norms suggest that a at the center of the continent of Jambudvipa (the GURU, teacher; YOGI, or spiritual guide must be a island of the rose-apple tree). The part of Jambud- self-realized Vaishnavite, that is, a devotee of vipa south of the mountain is called Bharatavarsha, VISHNU who has traveled the spiritual path to which is identified with historical India. BRAHMA, enlightenment and God. This person also must SHIVA, and VISHNU are understood to reside on the have realized the supreme personality of the god- summit of Mount Meru, accompanied by sages head, KRISHNA. praising the gods, apsarases (celestial dancers), Those who seek help from the league are and (celestial musicians). The pole advised to leave any guru who attracts disciples star is seen to shine directly over the summit of by charisma only. The charismatic personality, the Meru. league believes, may not always follow spiritual The GANGES falls from heaven to the peak of rules and may succumb to the illusion of power Meru, where it is channeled to the four regions and self-aggrandizement, which would mislead below. There are numerous mythological stories disciples on the path to SELF-REALIZATION. On the associated with this mountain. One says that other hand, there is a danger that an institutional Mount Meru and the god of the wind (VAYU) were guru, with a following of disciples who have

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 287 12/14/06 9:29:05 AM K 288 Milk Ocean

accepted him in a leadership role, might succumb cooperative task, which could be accomplished if to empty ritualism, devoid of spirituality. A genu- they all worked together. ine guru, according to this view, is modeled on the At Vishnu’s command, they gathered some prototype of Bhaktivedanta Swami Pradhupada, herbs to throw into the ocean; took Mount Man- who was said to derive his authority from God dara, which props up Mount Meru, as a churning and to live his life in the purity of spirit. stick; and used Vishnu himself, incarnated as a The league upholds the paradigm of Prad- tortoise, as the base for churning. They used the hupada and advises that devotees be very care- divine serpent Vasuki as the churning rope and ful about proclaiming allegiance to a guru who began to churn. does not have a direct lineage to the godhead. In some versions of the story, the first thing to The league follows the beliefs and principles of emerge from the churning ocean was a poison that Prabhupada. Members must abide by all rules, could consume all the worlds. The gods begged including VEGETARIANISM, repetition of the Hare SHIVA to control it, and he drank it up in one gulp. Krishna mantra, and abstinence from intoxicating His wife, PARVATI, fearing for his life, grabbed his substances. Members are also required to refrain throat so the poison would not enter his stomach; from associating with members of ISKCON and the burn on his throat can be seen in his iconogra- consorting with “fake gurus” who are merely phy as a dark blue marking. Fortunately, the next charismatic or who receive their status from a things to emerge from the Milk Ocean were more group that does not promote the truth as the salubrious: Surabhi, the wish-fulfilling cow, came league sees it. The league is headquartered in Bea- forth, followed by Sri, the goddess of prosperity verton, Oregon. and fortune (see LAKSHMI); Dhanavantari, the phy- sician of the gods; the gem that always adorns Vishnu’s chest; and other wondrous things Milk Ocean and beings, until finally, the nectar of immortality Between cosmic eras, Lord VISHNU is said to lie was churned out. asleep on a couch made of the great snake Adishe- Knowing that the demons would want to seize sha, who in turns floats upon a primordial ocean the nectar, Vishnu took the form of the enchant- of milk. This ocean appears in another well-known ress , and, while the demons were mesmer- Hindu myth: the churning of the MILK OCEAN by ized with her beauty, she served the nectar to the the gods and the ASURAS (the antigods). gods alone. As only the gods were now immortal, The story goes that the irascible sage Durvasas when the demons attacked them they were easily once obtained a beautiful garland from a woman. routed; the world was once again in the hands of Seeing Indra, king of the gods, go by on his white the gods. elephant Airavata, the sage offered the garland to him. INDRA placed the garland on the head of his Further reading: Guruseva Dasi, Churning the Milk elephant, who immediately took it with his trunk Ocean: A Young Reader’s Edition of the Classic Story from and tossed it on the ground. the Puranas of Ancient India (LaCrosse, Fla.: Bhavani Durvasas was outraged at this insult. He Books, 2002); Cornelia Dimitt, and J. A. van Buitenen, cursed Indra with the loss of his power to the asu- eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology A Reader in ras, who then triumphed over the gods. The gods the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University went to Lord Vishnu to ask his help. Vishnu sug- Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology gested that they go to the Milk Ocean along with (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu the demons to churn out the powerful elixir of Mythology: Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, immortality (). The demons agreed to this 1973).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 288 12/14/06 9:29:05 AM Minakshi 289 J

Mimamsa refined the doctrine further, using careful philo- Mimamsa (inquiry) is one of the six traditional sophical analysis of perception, causation, and the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. The like, for the purposes of this school. This precise Mimamsa SUTRAS of (c. third century C.E.) investigation was replicated in the commentary is the first extant text of the tradition. on the Upanishads that developed into VEDANTA. Mimamsa in its earliest form (Purva [early] Because it was seen as an extension of the earlier Mimamsa) preserves a strict Vedic tradition; it Mimamsic investigative method, Vedanta is often sees the Vedas as eternal, divine texts that should called Uttara Mimamsa, or “later Mimamsa.” guide all life and action. According to early Mimamsa one must do one’s ritual duties and Further reading: Francis X. Clooney, Thinking Ritually: worldly duties precisely according to the Vedas. Rediscovering the Purva Mimamsa of Jaimini (Vienna: The Mimamsa texts, therefore, aim to clarify the Institut für Indologie, 1990); S. N. Dasgupta, A History precise meaning of each Vedic injunction, so that of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, devotees can reach the heavenly realm after death. 1975). The Mimamsakas argue very strongly that even the UPANISHADS, valued by so many for their phi- losophy, should be read only to learn any require- Minakshi ments for action that they may contain. Minakshi is the GODDESS of the city of Madurai. Her Mimamsa cannot be said to be theistic or ori- shrine is the site of one of India’s most spectacular ented toward gods in a true sense; the gods are at temples, the Meenakshi Sundareshvarar Temple. the beck and call of humans thanks to the power Her name (, fish; aksha, eye) is understood of the Vedic MANTRAS. Gods exist, but the Vedas to mean “she whose eyes are the shape of lovely supersede all. The soul or self is understood to fishes,” the translation of her original Tamil name, exist in Mimamsa, as in all six orthodox Brah- Ankayalkanni. minical systems. There is little question that Minakshi was Early Mimamsa preserved the ancient Vedic the overseer of Madurai from very ancient times. understanding of the : after death, a However, as the Brahminical influence entered person went to a heavenly realm somewhat like Tamil Nadu she was assimilated into the larger the earthly one, where one remained in a happy Brahminical culture as the wife of SHIVA. state, being fed by one’s family. There is no overt The story goes that Minakshi’s father and mention of reincarnation in the Vedic mantras mother performed a special ritual to get a son. themselves, with the exception of the late ISHA Instead of a son, a girl child emerged from the fire UPANISHAD, which is appended to the mantras with three breasts. The parents were told to treat of the YAJUR VEDA. Salvation itself in Mimamsa her as a prince would be treated and have her put the soul in an inert state, liberated from the assume rulership. She was a powerful warrior and bonds of earthly existence through proper per- defeated all beings in all the directions. One day, formance of Vedic duty. As Mimamsa developed however, she contended with SHIVA himself; upon and changed around the seventh century with seeing him, she fell in love. As this happened, she the commentary of Shabaraswamin, it accepted suddenly became bashful and timid (no doubt the notion of karma and rebirth. In this respect it a patriarchal addition to the story!) and lost her converged, as did YOGA, with the other VEDANTIC third breast. She and Shiva were ceremoniously schools. married, and he then became the king of Madurai Two lines of teachers, drawing upon Prabha- and she the queen; the temple is now dedicated to kara and Kumarila (eighth and ninth centuries), both deities.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 289 12/14/06 9:29:05 AM K 290

The kings of Madurai have retained their Mirabai’s works, written in the Hindi dialect connection with Shiva, seeing themselves as rul- Braj, show a passionate all-consuming devotion ing in his line. However, in the temple precincts to Lord Krishna as the divine lover. As was the Minakshi retains pride of place in the inner sanc- case with so many Vaishnavite (see VAISHNAVISM) tum, which contains a small image of her. saints, her songs often depict the agony of sepa- Each year the CHITTIRAI FESTIVAL (in the lunar ration from God (Lord Krishna), who only rarely month of Chittirai) commemorates the marriage visits in mystical union. The mode of Mirabai of Minakshi and Shiva. It is is marked by 10 very much resembles that of St. John of the Cross days of pageantry and celebration; a huge temple in his famous “Dark Night” (Noche Oscura). chariot bearing the festival images of Minakshi Mira’s songs are known all over India but are and Shiva is paraded around. Because of her status sung particularly in . in Madurai, a great many businesses there, from tire companies to restaurants, are named after the Further reading: Robert Bly and Jane Hirshfield, Mira- goddess. bai: Ecstatic Poems (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004); Rita Dalmiya, Meerabai (Calcutta: Writers Workshop, 1988); Further reading: Chris Fuller, A Priesthood Renewed: John Stratton Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Modernity and Traditionalism in a South Indian Temple , and Kabir in Their Time and Ours (New Delhi: (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003); Oxford University Press, 2005). ———, Servants of the Goddess: The Priests of a South Indian Temple (New York: Cambridge University Press); William P. Harman, The Sacred Marriage of a Hindu God- Mishra, Ramamurti (1923–1993) (Swami dess (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). Brahmananda Saraswati) teacher of raja yoga Ramamurti Mishra was an Indian-born yogi who founded the ANANDA ASHRAM in Monroe, Mirabai (c. 1450–1547) mystic poet and devotee New York. He wrote many books on YOGA and of Krishna and he commented upon many SAN- Mirabai is one of the great mystic poets of India. SKRIT texts. A princess of the Rajput warrior clan in the Indian Ramamurti Mishra was born in Benares (Vara- state of Rajasthan, she married a great prince of nasi), India, on March 6, 1923, into a reli- the famous town of Udaipur but was so devoted to gious Brahmin family. His mother was a spiritual Lord KRISHNA that she could not play the role of a teacher with many disciples and his father was proper wife. She eventually became the disciple of a high court judge and practitioner of astrology. Raidas, a low-caste Hindu who was himself later From an early age, Ramamurti was immersed worshipped as a saint. in the study of Sanskrit, MEDITATION, and YOGA. Mirabai was persecuted by her husband and At the age of six, he became ill and apparently his family; it is said that they even gave her poison died—for 36 hours, no vital signs of life, includ- to drink, which failed to kill her. Finally Krishna ing respiration, were detected. As his father was appeared to her and told her to abandon family about to light the fire for his cremation, the child life and go to BRINDAVAN, his most sacred shrine. sat upright and declared that he was alive. Rama- After spending some time there she settled at last murti always considered this date, March 6, was in Gujarat in Dvaraka, where she died. Legend has his real birthday. it that she disappeared into the icon of Krishna in At a young age he left home to pursue the order to avoid a delegation from Rajasthan that study of Sanskrit and medicine. He completed his was pleading for her to return. first medical degrees in Ayurveda and Western

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 290 12/14/06 9:29:05 AM Mohini 291 J

medicine at Banares Hindu University. In 1955, he the Veda Vyasa’s authoritative commentary to the left India to study medicine in the United States YOGA SUTRA of PATANJALI. and served as a resident in neurosurgery at Bel- levue Hospital in New York City. Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- In 1964, he founded Ananda Ashram in Mon- losophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975). roe, New York, where figures such as and visited and taught. The ASH- RAM continues to function as a year-round retreat Mitra for . Mitra is a minor deity often mentioned in the In 1966, Mishra resigned from his medical Vedic hymns, especially in association with VAR- career to devote himself to spiritual discipline UNA. Many hymns and offerings are given to the and the teaching of raja yoga, with a focus on the pair Mitra-Varuna in the Vedic rituals. Some question, Who am I? Convinced that the cause believe that Mitra was a form of Sun god who of suffering is not in the body or the mind, but lost his ancient character. The Iranian Avesta has rather in ignorance of the true Self, he began to a prominent god named Mithra, who is clearly teach and explore the path to discovery of the “I related historically to the Mitra of the VEDAS. AM” consciousness that he believed to be eternal and ever present. Further reading: Gonda, Jan. The Vedic God Mitra (Leiden: In 1984 he was initiated into the vow of san- E. J. Brill, 1972). nyas (renunciation) by Swami Gangeshvarananda and was given the name Brahmananda Saraswati. He was a prolific writer who published texts on Mohenjodaro (Mohenjo Daro) See INDUS yoga, meditation, raja yoga, Ayurveda, and com- VALLEY CIVILIZATION. mentaries on Sanskrit texts. He died on September 19, 1993. Mohini Further reading: Ramamurti S. Mishra, Fundamentals The enchantress Mohini was a form that VISHNU of Yoga (Monroe, N.Y.: Baba Bhagavandas Publication took during the churning of the MILK OCEAN. The Trust, 1996); ———, Self Analysis and Self Knowl- demons and gods had cooperated in churning edge (Monroe, N.Y.: Baba Bhagavandas Publication the ocean to produce the nectar of immortality Trust, 1997); ———, The Textbook of Yoga Psychology (AMRITA). Knowing that the demons would want to (Monroe, N.Y.: Baba Bhagavandas Publication Trust, seize the nectar for themselves, Vishnu assumed 1997). the form of MOHINI, mesmerizing the demons with her beauty while she served the nectar to the gods alone. As only the gods were now immortal, when Mishra, Vachaspati (c. 840 C.E.) Hindu the demons attacked they were routed, and the scholar and commentator world was once again in the hands of the gods. Vachaspati Mishra was a philosopher particularly celebrated for his Bhamati, a subcommentary on Further reading: Guruseva Dasi, Churning the Milk SHANKARA’S commentary on the VEDANTA SUTRA. Ocean: A Young Reader’s Edition of the Classic Story from the He was a prolific scholar and writer whose name Puranas of Ancient India (LaCrosse, Fla: Bhavani Books, is attached to commentaries on NYAYA (logic), 2002); Cornelia Dimitt, and J. A. van Buitenen, eds. and SAMKHYA, YOGA, and other subjects. Another of trans., Classical Hindu Mythology A Reader in the Sanskrit his well-known works was a subcommentary on Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 291 12/14/06 9:29:05 AM K 292 moksha

moksha In a literal sense, moksha is the desire to be released from birth and rebirth, but the term has come to mean the release itself. It is used inter- changeably with mukti. Moksha is the highest spiritual goal in the Hindu tradition (the term is used in as well). Traditional Hinduism recognizes four primary ENDS OF LIFE and moksha is the last in the list. While every Hindu tradition sees moksha as the ideal, there are different understandings of its nature. Some traditions believe that one can be liberated while still alive—JIVANMUKTA. Some see liberation as a merging into a characterless BRAH- MAN, while others see liberation as simply becom- ing one with God, or being liberated near God.

Further reading: M. C. Bharatiya, trans. and ed., Moksa the Ultimate Goal of Indian Philosophy (Ghaziabad: Indo-Vision, 1984); Balbir Singh, Atman and Moksha: Self and Self-Realization (Atlantic Highlands, N. J.: Humanities Press, 1981).

Mother, The (Mirra Richard) (1878–1973) revered utopian yoga teacher The Mother (1878–1973), spiritual partner of Sri French-born was a revered teacher Aurobindo and founder of Community, Tamil of YOGA in a modern context and of utopian social Nadu (Courtesy Sri Aurobindo Archives, Pondicherry) thought. The title Mother was given to her by her associate, the great Indian sage Sri AUROBINDO. It indicated that she was considered a form of the At the age of 28 Mirra went to to GODDESS. study occultism under a little-known teacher, Mirra Alfassa was born to an Egyptian mother Max Theon, and his wife, Alma, but decided in and Turkish father in Paris on February 21, 1878. the end that Theon was not a pure master. She Though she lived in a strictly atheistic household, felt that he was ego driven and self-centered. On young Mirra began to have spiritual and occult a 1914 trip to India with her second husband, the experiences as a young girl. She would often fall diplomat Paul Richard, she met Sri Aurobindo, into a silent trance for minutes at a time. As she who had recently taken refuge in Pondicherry. She grew older she had experiences of distance sight describes this visit dramatically in her diaries. She and . As a young woman she took had dreamed of just such a person, with flowing full advantage of the cultural excitement of Paris robes and beard, when she was much younger at the turn of the 20th century. Her first husband, and she felt that she had met a person of pure and with whom she had her only child, was an artist powerful spirit. She relates how she was enveloped associated with the burgeoning modern art scene. in his presence in the most profound silence of the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 292 12/14/06 9:29:06 AM Mother India 293 J

mind. She did not, however, join Sri Aurobindo at proceeded from that day to prepare the world for that time, but went with her husband to . the power of a new consciousness that she felt After leaving Japan and spending some time would now inevitably manifest. in Europe, Mirra Richard abandoned married life Mother had already, in the early 1950s, envi- and joined Sri Aurobindo as his spiritual partner sioned a utopian ground where all nations could in 1916. At first there were questions about her join to manifest the unity on Earth that she felt status at his ASHRAM from people close to Sri would accompany the new consciousness. This Aurobindo, but he quelled them by declaring early vision of an international center for edu- that his consciousness and the Mother’s con- cation gradually changed into the idea of a city sciousness were one; it was he who gave her the to be built in South India under her auspices. important spiritual title, Mother. In his book On In 1968 she broke ground for this city—AURO- the Mother he explained her spiritual role in the VILLE—which was to be a guide for the new new world. earthly transformation. People from around the The yoga that she and Sri Aurobindo practiced world flocked to the city to begin the new spiri- was worldly. Rather than the isolated transcen- tual experiment. dence of the renunciant in a cave, it was a trans- Mother died in 1973 at the age of 95 and was formative yoga aimed at changing all of reality in buried in a tomb beside her beloved spiritual its wake. They wanted to bring to earth the divine partner, Sri Aurobindo. She left a legacy of prac- superconsciousness, termed the supramental, by tice and commitment that few women spiritual Aurobindo, which would, they thought, alter teachers in the 20th century could match. Her the nature of reality itself. The , or writings were not vast as her mentor’s were, but complete yoga, of Sri Aurobindo and Mother was her words and wisdom were dutifully recorded by designed to orient its devotees yogically toward a her student , who transformed them into life in the world that would progressively become a many-volume series, The Mother’s Agenda. divine. In 1926 Sri Aurobindo went into seclusion in Further reading: Kireet Joshi, Sri Aurobindo and the the ashram and left Mother in charge of day-to- Mother: Glimpses of Their Experiments, Experiences, and day affairs. He declared that he had reached the Realisations (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Overmind in his yogic work and needed seclu- 1989); Satprem, Mother’s Agenda, 12 vols. (Paris: Institut sion to work with the powerful forces in order recherches évolutives, 1991); George Van Vrekhem, to expand this into a supramental manifestation. The Mother: The Story of Her Life (New Delhi: Harper- Mother from then on managed all ashram affairs, Collins Publishers India, 2000). designed the movement’s educational programs, and provided inspiration to the burgeoning group of followers who began to attend more Mother India (1927) regularly. Mother India was a controversial book, written in Sri Aurobindo died in 1950 without complet- 1927 by Katherine Mayo, an American medical ing his spiritual project. He declared that it was and journalist, that condemned Hin- the Mother herself who would succeed in bringing duism as a cause of India’s suffering. about the supramental manifestation that would The book was inspired by Mayo’s encounters begin the transformation of all life, all matter, and with Indian women and customs during her all the cosmos toward perfect consciousness and travels to the country in 1925 and 1926. It raised bliss. In 1956 Mother announced that she had consciousness of important gender and caste succeeded in bringing down the supramental and issues that needed to be addressed; however, it

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 293 12/14/06 9:29:06 AM K 294 Mount Abu

also served as an indictment against Indian society however, Mother India received enthusiastic and Hinduism in general. reviews. Indignant Hindus in America rebutted Mayo claimed that Hindu customs were dan- the publication with many books and pamphlets; gerous not only to India but to the entire world. they tried to turn the tables by condemning She believed the customs weakened the human American society as rampant with crime, political “stock” with poverty, disease, and physical and scandal, and marital infidelity. mental frailties. Historians have interpreted the The book did succeed in raising awareness of book as a racist tract that emerged from the age some issues and fostering British reforms in India, of British and American imperialism. The book such as the Child Marriage Act of 1929. Ironi- negatively influenced popular Western percep- cally, Mother India also contributed to an alliance tions of India for decades and hindered support between Indian nationalists and women’s move- and sympathy for Indian independence around ments, which organized to refute and neutralize the world. Mayo’s indictments. The alliance helped to pass The main thesis of Mother India was an asser- the Sarada Act, a law enforcing a minimal age for tion that Hindu practices made Indians weak, marriage. incapable of self-rule, and unable to become eco- Mother India continues to influence Western nomically self-sufficient. A primary indictment of Hinduism and India. Its whole- concerned the roles of women. Mayo charged sale rejection of Hindu beliefs and practices and that the Hindu religion enslaved women, forced its depiction of a sexually deviant culture have them to be sexually subservient to men, and influenced popular media to represent India as demanded that they follow social patterns that exotic, forbidden, and dangerous. Yet, Mother produced impoverishment and ignorance. Mayo India remains inspirational to others who use cites factors such as child marriage, lack of edu- its thesis to promote heightened awareness for cation, the burdens of having many children, reform in India. child widowhood, prostitution, and epidemics of venereal disease as significant problems for Further reading: Elizabeth Bumiller, May You Be the women in India. Mother of a Hundred Sons: A Journey among the Women of Some American feminists during the 1970s India (New York: Random House, 1991); W. Estep, An revered Mayo as a pioneer who created awareness American Answers Mother India (Excelsior Springs, Mo.: of the plight of Indian woman. Indian critics, Super Mind Science, 1929); Katherine Mayo, Mother India (New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1927); ———, The by contrast, dispute Mother India’s representa- Isles of Fear; The Truth about the (New York: tion of all Indian women as weak, passive, and Harcourt, Brace, 1925); Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Mas- incapable of resistance. Mayo made no mention culinity: The “Manly Englishman” and the “Effeminate of the Indian women’s movement or of efforts by Bengali” in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York: Man- the Indian National Congress to support women’s chester University Press, 1995). rights. While depicting Indian women as helpless victims, the book lauds the British imperialists as a civilizing force, saving India from the customs of Mount Abu See ABU, MOUNT. a decadent religion. The book prompted outrage and criticism from Indian nationalists. Mohandas Karamchand Mount Kailasa See KAILASA, MOUNT. GANDHI referred to it as a “gutter inspector’s report,” and it received further condemnation from Indian women’s organizations. In Britain, Mount Meru See MERU, MOUNT.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 294 12/14/06 9:29:06 AM Muktananda, Swami 295 J

See PANCHA MAKARA. ashram, he studied VEDANTA, took vows of san- nyas (renunciation), and received the name Muk- tananda (the bliss of freedom). In 1930, a year mudra after Siddharudha’s passing, Swami Muktananda Mudra is a technical term used in both YOGA and began an extended period of wandering. Indian dance. In yoga the mudras are particular Muktananda once said that he walked across hand gestures or bodily attitudes that have spiri- India three times. He traveled mostly on foot, tual or yogic meaning or purpose. In Indian dance carrying only a water bowl and staff as he moved the mudras are hand gestures accompanied by from one teacher to the next. During this time he particular bodily stances. For example, in BHARATA studied all of the major texts of the Hindu scrip- NATYAM, the Indian national dance, mudras are tural canon; he became adept at HATHA YOGA and used to communicate the moods of characters and AYURVEDIC medicine, and he met scores of holy their dramatic interactions. beings. He became a renowned teacher in his own right, and still he kept searching. Further reading: Mudras in Symbols: Bharatnatya Man- In his spiritual autobiography, Play of Con- ual Primer (Madras: Centre for Promotion of the Tradi- sciousness, Muktananda calls August 15, 1947, tional Arts, 1988); Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Pranayama Mudra (Bihar: , 1999).

Muktananda, Swami (1908–1982) Shaivite guru Swami Muktananda was an influential teacher who formulated the philosophy and helped spread it around the world. Muktananda (his birth name was Krishna) was born on May 16, 1908, into a prosperous farming family. His father was the headman of a village near Mangalore in Karnataka state. His mother, deeply pious, had prayed for the birth of a son, and from his earliest years she provided him with a strong religious foundation. While still in his teens he had several encounters with the wandering spiritual adept, Bhagawan NITYANANDA, who would later become his GURU. At the age of 15 Krishna decided to dedicate his life to attaining a direct experience of God and adopted one of the traditional Indian paths to that experience, that of a wandering , mendicant. In the early 1920s, shortly after his travels began, Krishna went to Hubli in northern Kar- Swami Muktananda (1908–1982), Shaivite teacher, nataka, to the ASHRAM of Siddharudha Swami, scholar, and founder of Siddha Yoga Dham (© SYDA a renowned VIRASHAIVA yogi. In Siddharudha’s Foundation)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 295 12/14/06 9:29:06 AM K 296 mukti

“the most auspicious of all auspicious days”, it own writings and his synthesis of the teachings of was the day that Bhagawan Nityananda, by then VEDANTA, KASHMIRI SHAIVISM, and the writings of living in Ganeshpuri, gave him shaktipata DIKSHA, the BHAKTI poet-saints. spiritual initiation. This was followed by nine In 1982, Muktananda named his disciple years of intense meditation under Nityananda’s Swami CHIDVILASANANDA to carry the Siddha Yoga direction, until the guru declared that Muk- lineage forward. The ceremony that announced tananda was “one with BRAHMAN.” In 1956 Bhaga- and enacted this transmission was held publicly wan Nityananda installed Muktananda in a tiny in Gurudev Siddha Peeth in May 1982. On Octo- ashram just down the road from his own. That ber 2, 1982, on the full Moon night of Sharad- spot, where Swami Muktananda’s tomb and shrine , Baba Muktananda left his body (took now stand, remains the heart of what has become mahasamadhi). an international center for spiritual learning and “Baba Muktananda’s shakti [energy] is sat the Siddha Yoga “mother” ashram, Gurudev Sid- [being],” Guru Chidvilasananda has said. “It was dha Peeth. experienced strongly in the past; it is powerfully Shortly before Nityananda’s death in 1961, he with us now; and it will continue to be so in the made Swami Muktananda his spiritual successor. future. His shakti awakens an ever-new life in all After his guru’s passing, Muktananda began for- those it touches.” Through his teachings, his ash- malizing Nityananda’s teachings, which he called rams, and the exemplary story of his own spiri- the Siddha Yoga path. Siddha Yoga is the way of tual life related in Play of Consciousness, people an enlightened, or SIDDHA, master; the practice continue to receive transmission of energy and is to follow the master’s guidance and teachings spiritual awakening, which are the basis of his with the aid of the master’s enlivening grace. spiritual mission. For all siddha yogis, the path begins as it did for One of the first American disciples to receive Muktananda, with shaktipata diksha, spiritual ini- shaktipat from Muktananda was Albert Rudolph tiation. The goal is permanent dwelling in a real- (1928–73), who became Swami RUDRANANDA, a ization of the divinity that exists within and as teacher of Shaivism in the United States. Later, everything. Muktananda’s emblematic teaching, Franklin Jones became a disciple of Muktananda one that he repeated again and again through- and returned to the United States to become a out the two decades of his teaching mission, is spiritual teacher called Bubba Free John (now ADI “Meditate on your own Self. Worship your Self. DA SAMRAJ). Respect your Self. God lives within you as you.” By the capitalized s of Self, he emphasized that he was referring not to one’s individual ego but to an Further reading: Douglas Renfrew Brooks et al., Medi- expanded identification of the Self with supreme tation Revolution: A History and Theology of the Siddha consciousness. Yoga Lineage (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: Agama Press, Baba Muktananda, as he became known, trav- 1997); Swami Muktananda, from the Finite to the Infinite, eled throughout India and completed three world 2d ed. (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: SYDA Foundation, 1994); tours, initiating and guiding students of Siddha ———, Play of Consciousness: A Spiritual Autobiography Yoga meditation. He created the Siddha Yoga (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: SYDA Foundation, 2000); [Prat- Shaktipat Intensive as the ideal environment for ibha Trivedi] Amma, Swami Muktananda Paramahansa spiritual awakening. He founded ashrams around (Ganeshpuri: Shree Gurudev Ashram, 1971). the world, established the SYDA Foundation to manage the Siddha Yoga mission, and created the canon of Siddha Yoga philosophy through his mukti See MOKSHA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 296 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM myths of creation 297 J

chakra myths of creation In the muladhara (basic foundation) CHAKRA at The Hindu myths of creation are many and varied. the base of the spine rests the coiled KUNDALINI The VEDAS, the most ancient scriptures, include serpent, who awaits her awakening through several striking creation hymns. One hymn sees YOGA to begin the journey upward to meet her creation as emerging from a divine person, the transcendent counterpart SHIVA at the SAHASRARA PURUSHA, who is sacrificed in order for time to juncture above the head. This chakra is associ- begin; creation results directly from his body and ated with the most basic urge for survival and being. Another account, in the RIG VEDA, suggests gross physicality. It is the site of the lower emo- that no one knows what existed before this world; tions, such as anger and greed. Its element is only the one in the highest heaven knows, and earth, the densest of the elements (see PANCHA perhaps not even he! Still another hymn speaks of BHUTAS). Its deity is BRAHMA and its ruler GANE- a Golden Embryo that precedes all creation, out of SHA. Its SHAKTI or energy power is . It has which everything emerges. 10 blue petals. The UPANISHADS, part of the Vedas, contain numerous cosmogonic (creation) stories. Several Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Cen- of them relate that the world was emitted from the ters of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, supreme Self or ATMAN, which pervaded all reality. 2000). Others speak of reality’s emerging from the one BRAHMAN, or ultimate all. Still others speak of the creation’s beginning with PRAJAPATI, a male creator muni god or principle. A muni is a saint, sage, ascetic, or hermit. This In the Puranas, written from about 400 C.E. is a traditional term found in the epics and the to 1000 C.E., the god BRAHMA is usually said to be Puranas, superseding the earlier VEDIC term RISHI. responsible for creation. He is depicted emerging It is still used in modern Hinduism, although from a lotus in the navel of VISHNU, who is sleep- somewhat less than the terms sadhu and swami. ing on the primordial MILK OCEAN between eras. The Jain tradition (see JAINISM) uses the term muni However, worshippers of either Vishnu or SHIVA for a respected monk. often credited their chosen god with creating the entire universe. Further reading: Patrick Olivelle, trans., Upa- nishads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); F. B. J. Kuiper, Ancient Indian Cosmogony Murugan See KARTTIKEYA. (New Delhi: Vikas, 1983).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 297 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 298 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM N J: AF

Nachiketas found within the breath). The goals are to alter In the , the explanatory portions of consciousness, strengthen the body, and help the ancient VEDAS, nachiketas was a special kind bring about the transformation needed for libera- of fire. The word later became personalized as a tion from the cycle of births. character in the KATHA UPANISHAD. There, Nachik- In HATHA YOGA, prana is forced through these etas was a boy banished by his father’s curse to channels to aid in raising the KUNDALINI at the the underworld. He arrived at the house of YAMA, base of the spine. The most commonly known the god of death, but was not greeted as a proper is the sushumna nadi, which travels up the guest. When Yama returned, he offered Nachik- spinal cord. The ida and pingala nadis are depicted etas three boons because he had neglected him. as widely rippling waves that intersect at each Nachiketas asked to return to his father, to be CHAKRA ( center), exactly mirroring each restored to life, and to learn the secret of death— other as they ascend around sushumna. or rather deathlessness. Yama tried to dissuade Nachiketas from the third request, but the wise Further reading: Swami Sivananda Radha, Hatha Yoga, young man persisted. Yama then gave him a teach- the Hidden Language: Symbols, Secrets and Metaphor ing on the nature of the BRAHMAN, the ultimate real- (Boston: Shambala, 1989); Pancham Sinh, trans., The ity, and the nature of the Self, or universal soul. (New Delhi: Munshiram Mano- harlal, 1975). Further reading: Easwaran, Dialogue with Death: A Journey into Consciousness, 2d ed. (Tomales, Calif.: Nilgiri Press, 1992); Mysore Sivaram, Death and Nagapanchami Nachiketas (New Delhi: Vikas, 1981). The Nagapanchami snake-worshipping festival takes place on the fifth day of the lunar month of (July–August). The worship focuses on nadi the cobra, to thank the snake for its auspicious In certain YOGA systems, a nadi is a subtle bodily presence and to palliate the serpent world so that it channel used to redirect PRANA (the life force will not bite. The mythical and mysterious power

299

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 299 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM K 300 nagas

of the serpent is recognized the world over; this A divine, semidivine, or demonic naga is festival is an ancient Indian tribute to its semidi- associated with all the foremost personages and vine power, as a being that moves between this divinities in the Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu tradi- world and the powerful underworld. tions. The BUDDHA was said to have been guarded On Nagapanchami, images of mythological once by a semidivine serpent. The Jain TIRTHAN- serpents such as Vasuki are worshipped and given KARA (saint) PARSHVANATH is depicted in his ico- milk, considered a favored food of (of nography protected by a huge multiheaded cobra course, Indian villagers often offer milk to live being, or naga. SHIVA, too, has a naga or serpent cobras on a daily basis). Figures of snakes may around his neck as a necklace. VISHNU reclines be drawn on walls with cow dung or on boards on the divine serpent or ADISHESHA on the with red powder to be worshipped. Also, people primordial MILK OCEAN. The huge serpent Vasuki go to abandoned termite hills and other places was used as a churning rope when the gods and were snakes live to make offerings. Snake charm- demons churned the Milk Ocean to get the nectar ers may be invited to perform on this day, and in of immortality. KRISHNA, when he was young, van- certain areas there are huge processions of men quished the evil serpent Kaliya. (and some women) who handle cobras in fulfill- The term naga also denotes a category of ment of vows. semidivine creatures, the top half human and the bottom half snake, who guard precious gems and Further reading: Balaji Kundkur, The Cult of the Ser- ores underground, similar to dragons in some pent: An Interdisciplinary Survey of Its Manifestations and Western mythology, but without their ferocity. Origins (Albany: State University of New York Press, Occasionally, these nagas can take fully human 1983); Binod Chandra Sinha, Serpent Worship in Ancient form; famous personages such as are India (New Delhi: Books Today, 1979). said to be their descendants. Myths usually place the half-human nagas under the Earth, but they may also live under nagas water or in mountain caves. They are beauti- The term naga appears in different contexts in ful and opulently attired. Their human heads Indian tradition. Its basic meaning is “serpent” are overarched by cobra hoods emerging out or “snake,” usually the cobra. NAGAPANCHAMI, for from the back of the neck. They have great instance, is a snake festival celebrated on panchami, wisdom and superhuman powers and indulge the fifth day of the lunar month of Shravana. The in pleasures that are the envy of the human nagakal in South India are “snake stones,” stone world. These demigods play an important role images of cobras placed under PIPAL (ashvattha) or in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu traditions and are neem trees. They are commonly worshipped by frequently encountered in the mythology of all women who desire to have offspring. three religions. The snake or naga plays a very important role in Indian folk religion. Villagers make shrines of Further reading: James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent abandoned termite hills, where snakes take up Worship (Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1971); O. C. residence, give them offerings, and feed them Handa, Naga and Traditions in the Western Hima- milk. In southwestern India people have a naga laya (New Delhi: Indus, 2004); E. Washburn Hopkins, shrine or grove in the corner of a garden. Most Epic Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); Jean often the snakes are seen as protective, but they Philippe Vogel, Indian Serpent Lore or the Nagas in Hindu also connote immortality and fertility. Legend and Art (Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan, 1972).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 300 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM namarupa 301 J

Naga sect The Naga is a sect of or holy men devoted to SHIVA. Many of its followers go about naked, as the word naga implies. In doing this they fol- low the example of Lord Shiva, who was himself a naked mendicant. They often live in mountain caves completely naked, with the mountain snows outside. Following the example of Shiva, Naga sadhus smear their entire bodies with ashes from cremation grounds and wear dreadlocks. As does Shiva, they smoke great quantities of hashish, par- ticularly when singing praises to that god. The Nagas are also known as ascetic warriors. Though most Indian holy men are known as peaceful seekers of truth and higher conscious- ness, Nagas have been known to be extremely militant. In the past they have taken up arms against other sects of ascetics, Muslims, and the British. Today Naga sadhus still carry weapons as they wander the countryside—sticks, spears, swords, and most especially the trident (which is a symbol of Shiva). At the KUMBHA MELA (festival) at ALLA- HABAD, these sadhus are usually the first to have the honor of entering the confluence of the waters of the YAMUNA and GANGES. Naked hermit of Naga sect at source of Ganges River, Further reading: Shashi Bhushan Dasgupta, Obscure Gomulkh, near Gangotri, in the foothills of the Religious Cults, 2d rev. ed. (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Muk- Himalaya Mountains (Constance A. Jones) hopadhyay, 1962); Dolf Harsuiker, Sadhus: Holy Men of India (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993); John Campbell Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India: A Study of Sadhuism with an Account of the Yogis, the phenomenal world, the world of finiteness Sanyasis, Bairagis, and Other Strange Hindu Sectarians and limited nature, as opposed to the transcen- (New Delhi: Cosmos, 1984). dent reality of the BRAHMAN or god. In Hindu thought, reality begins as an unmanifest infin- ity devoid of any manifestation or “thing.” As Nakula See PANDAVAS. things emerge that acquire a “name” and take a shape or “form,” the manifest world or namarupa appears. Most Hindu traditions see liberation namarupa from birth and rebirth as a release or escape from Namarupa (from nama, name, and rupa, form) the clutches of name and form, or namarupa. The is a term used in Hindu philosophy to refer to term namarupa also appears in Buddhism with a

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 301 12/14/06 9:29:07 AM K 302

quite different meaning, referring to the mind- District of Tamil Nadu. The pair had body complex. prayed for a child at a temple at Tirukkurungudi and were told there that the child would be a Further reading: Maryla Falk, Nama-Rupa and Dharma- part of VISHNU himself. Vishnu sent his minister Rupa: Origin and Aspects of an Ancient Indian Concep- Vishvaksena (theologically a part of Vishnu) to be tion (Calcutta: , 1943); Wilhelm incarnated as the child. Halbfass, ed., Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker Maran (the later ) was born only 43 on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Albany: State Uni- days after KRISHNA himself passed from the world. versity of New York Press, 1995). As a baby, he is said never to have cried or drunk milk, but to have been possessed of a beatific, divine smile. After 11 days the parents took this namaste divine child and placed him in the creche of a Namaste is the common greeting and farewell in tamarind tree. The child, in a deep trance, opened every part of India except Tamil Nadu. It is derived neither mouth nor eyes for 16 years. from the word namas (from the root nam, to bow) As Nammalvar was in this trance, the 10th and te (to you). Thus it is understood as “obei- of the , Mathurakavi, was traveling in the sance,” “homage,” or “salutation.” It is said to mean north of India. One night he saw a vision of “I honor the god that is within you.” If one wishes blazing light in the south, which told him that to be slightly more formal, one says “Namaskar,” a saint had been born there. He managed to find with essentially the same meaning. The statement the young person seated in MEDITATION, looking “Namaste” is accompanied, usually, by a gesture impervious to the outside world. To see whether placing the palms of the hands together in front of he could distract Nammalvar he dropped a stone one. (Even in Indian areas where the word namaste on the ground and Nammalvar opened his eyes. is not used, this gesture is found.) Mathurakavi tested him with a difficult riddle; when he answered insightfully the older saint Further reading: C. J. Fuller, The Flame: bowed down and accepted Nammalvar as his mas- Popular Hinduism and Society in India (Princeton, N.J.: ter. At this moment the transcendent vision over- Princeton University Press, 1992); Richard Lannoy, whelmed Nammalvar and he began to pour forth The Speaking Tree: A Study of Indian Culture and Society his devotional songs in a continuous stream. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974). Further reading: John Carman and Vasudha Narayanan, The Tamil Veda: Pillan’s Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli Nammalvar (c. 880–930 C.E.) Tamil Vaishnavite (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); Alkon- poet-saint davilli Govindacharya, The Holy Lives of the Azhvars or Nammalvar, “Our Own Alvar,” was the 11th and the Dravida Saints (Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological greatest of the 12 ALVARS, the poet-saints, of Tamil Research Institute, 1982); A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns for VAISHNAVISM. He composed four works, of which the Drowning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University the 1,100-verse Tiruvaymoli is most influential. Press, 1981). Also celebrated are Tiruviruttam and Periyatiru- vantati. According to legend Nammalvar was born Nanak, Guru (1469–1539) founder of the in a Vellala family (technically or ser- Sikh religion vant class) to his father, Kariyar, and mother, was a charismatic religious and social Utaiyanankaiyar, in Kurugur (Tirunagari) in the reformer. He tried to bridge the gap between

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 302 12/14/06 9:29:08 AM Nanak, Guru 303 J

Hindus and Muslims but instead founded a new to Nanak, the process of realization involves the religion, SIKHISM. Guru Nanak was born on April grace of both God and GURU. the spiritual mas- 15, 1469, in Talwandi-Rai-Bhoe in the district of ter. The Sikh tradition maintains that the goal of Shekhupur, now in . His father, Mehta all human beings is to achieve self-perfection in Kalu, was a land surveyor and small farmer of the their lifetime and to help others do the same. Sikh Khatri caste of the Bedi tribe. philosophy states that self-transformation occurs In his early life Nanak showed great devotion through guru, guru’s grace, guru’s will, devotion, to God and was often enveloped in spiritual medi- discernment, and detachment. He composed the tation while watching over cattle. From age five he Adi Granth, the sacred text later revered by Sikhs began to utter mysterious sayings; at seven, when as the last guru. Today the Adi Granth is the only taken to a teacher to learn to read, he would lapse guru honored among traditional Sikhs. Guru into silence. Myths of have been associ- Nanak died on September 7, 1539. ated with his childhood. In response to such signs of withdrawal the local community suggested to his parents that he be married. His wife, Sulakhani, a Khatri of the Chona subcaste, eventually gave birth to two sons, Lakhmi Das and Siri Chand. Nanak studied reading and writing in the local dialect, traditional scripture in SANSKRIT, and poetry in Persian. Throughout his life he had many mystical experiences; one story recounts how he went to the river to bathe and was vis- ited by “messengers of God” who took him to a divine court and fed him nectar. For three days he remained missing, and upon his return he declared that there are no Hindus or Muslims, that all people are equal. His inner experiences gave him . He taught love, equality, justice, selfless service, and the worship of God. His teaching renounced religious hypocrisy. Guru Nanak was considered to be a leader in the BHAKTI (path of devotion) movement but was also active in calling for reform of Indian social and religious customs that he saw as unjust. He was outspoken against caste oppression, discrimi- nation, and injustice and committed to awakening the consciousness of people. Guru Nanak criticized what he considered the empty rituals and sacrifices of Hinduism in his time. Working in the villages near his own he founded and developed the SIKH tradition, which integrated Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic ideals of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), founder of the Sikh religion the virtuous life and enlightenment. According (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 303 12/14/06 9:29:08 AM K 304 Nandi

Nandi, the divine bull and vehicle of Lord Shiva (www.shutterstock.com/Arteki)

Further reading: Anil Chandra Banerjee, Guru Nanak represented as a human with a bull’s head, he is and His Times (Patalia: Punjabi University, 1971); believed to be one of the great masters of music Prithipal Singh Kapur, ed., The Divine Master: Life and and dancing. He is a prominent iconic figure in Teachings of Guru Nanak (Jalandhar, India: ABS, 1988); many Shiva temples. Particularly notable is the W. H. McLeod, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion (Lon- massive 10-ton Nandi lying on his belly that don: Oxford University Press, 1968); Gurbachan Singh greets all those who arrive at the BRIHADISHVARA Talib, Guru Nanak: His Personality and Vision (Delhi: TEMPLE in Tanjore. Gur Das Kapur & Sons, 1969). Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Nandi Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, 1974); Nandi is the divine white bull who is the Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Ico- vehicle of SHIVA. He is the son of Kashyapa, a nography (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); W. well-known RISHI (sage), and Surabhi (the wish- J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. giving cow). In his form as Nandikeshvara, (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 304 12/14/06 9:29:08 AM Narayan, R. K. 305 J

Narada Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary The RISHI (sage) Narada appears in numerous of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and contexts in Indian mythology. Though he is often Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, 1974); taken to be the son of BRAHMA, there are varying Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Ico- accounts of his birth and exploits. In some con- nography (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); W. texts he is seen very positively: he is considered J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. the inventor of the vina or Indian lute, and the one (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). who revealed the DHARMASHASTRAS, or tracts on law. In other contexts he is seen as something of a troublemaker. It is Narada who informed Kamsa, Narayan, R. K. (1906–2001) novelist of the king who desired to kill KRISHNA, about Krish- Hinduism na’s impending birth. Narada is also said to have R. K. Narayan was one of India’s most celebrated cursed his own father, Brahma, to be worshipped modern novelists. Writing in English, he created by very few, to repay him for a curse that Brahma works that are gentle evocations of small-town had placed on him. Indian life, the life of everyday Hindus. Rasipuram Krishnaswami Ayyar Narayanas- Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary wami, better known by his pseudonym, R. K. of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, Narayan, was born in the Prasawalkam section and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, of Madras (Chennai) on October 10, 1906, and 1974); B. L. Raina, Legends and Teachings of the Greatest died May 13, 2001, at the age of 94. His father, Hindu Divine Sage Narada (Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya R. V. Krishnaswami , moved the family to Bhavan, 1999); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic Mysore, where he became a schoolteacher and and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). later headmaster of Maharajah’s Collegiate High School. R. K. was not an outstanding student but avatar managed to receive his bachelor of arts degree at the University of Mysore in 1923. Once he had Narasimha is the man-lion AVATAR of VISHNU. His graduated his natural path was to take a govern- story has many versions, all relating to the demon ment job, but R. K. had already decided that he . The latter had undergone severe austerities to make himself superior to the gods wanted to be a writer. R. K.’s first published works appeared in maga- and nearly invincible. BRAHMA had given him the boons that he could not be killed by man or beast, zines and in the newspaper Hindu. He eventually at night or during the day, outdoors or indoors. worked for that paper’s Sunday edition. In 1934 The gods beseeched Vishnu to intervene and put he married for love, an unconventional move very an end to the demon’s depredations in the worlds. much in line with his writing. His wife, Rajam, Vishnu took up the man-lion form (neither gave him one daughter, Hema, before she tragi- man nor beast) and confronted Hiranyakashipu cally passed away of typhoid in 1939, leaving him at the threshold of his palace (neither indoors with a three-year-old daughter. nor outdoors) at twilight (neither day nor night). Most of R. K. Narayan’s novels take place in Thus he was able to kill Hiranyakashipu. The the imaginary South Indian village of Malgudi, common iconographic depiction of Narasimha portrayed with brilliance and charm. He gives shows a sitting creature with a man’s body and a English readers who do not know his country a lion’s head, ripping into the supine demon lying glimpse into the foibles and joys of the simple life on his knees. and everyday piety of Hindu culture in India. He

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 305 12/14/06 9:29:08 AM K 306 Narayana

is also popular in India, where readers revel in Narayanananda, Swami (1902–1968) seeing the India they know so brilliantly evoked pioneer Hindu teacher in Scandinavia in his deceptively simple prose. Swami Narayanananda established VEDANTA cen- There is always a breezy, easy quality to Nara- ters throughout Europe and North America. yan’s work. It is not fraught with high philosophy He was born in Coorg, a village in the state of or complex themes, but rather blessed with an Karnataka, in southern India. A bright boy, from accessibility that takes great skill to produce. an early age he showed a marked tendency to His extraordinary productivity included many spiritual matters. He never married and at the age short stories and articles as well as his novels. On of 27 took the vows of the renounced life (san- request, Narayan wrote popular versions of both nyas) and began searching for a GURU. His pilgrim- the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. age around India eventually took him to the Belur In the late 1980s R. K. Narayan was elected Math of the VEDANTA/RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND to India’s upper house of parliament, the Rajya MISSION, where he met Swami Shivananda, who Sabha. He was also honored with many literary became his teacher. Several years later, he was awards, including India’s Sahitya Akademi Award instructed by his guru to spend time alone in the (for The Guide), the Royal Society of Literature’s Himalayas to strengthen his spiritual practice. In Christopher Benson Award, and Indian’s second February 1933 he had a deep spiritual experience, highest literary award, the Padma Vibhushan, in which he described as merging into the formless 2000. He also made the short list for the Nobel aspect of God, that is, nirvikalpa samadhi. Prize in literature. He remained in seclusion until the partition He died in 2001 after his own daughter’s sad of India in 1947. The violence of the period con- early demise, still working on another novel. vinced him to dedicate his life to helping people; Narayan was a great figure in world literature, he left his retreat and began to accept disciples. In whose own personal humility and desire to avoid 1955, as a step toward building a more formal fol- pretense may have made him less widely known lowing, his devotees established a printing press than he deserved. and began to publish Narayananda’s writings. It would be another 12 years, however, before the swami would consent to incorporating an organi- Further reading: A. L. McLeod, ed., R. K. Narayan: zation, the Narayanananda Universal Yoga Trust. Critical Perspectives (New Delhi: Sterling, 1994); R. K. The first ASHRAM was opened in in 1967. Narayan, An Astrologer’s Day, and Other Stories (Mysore: The first ashram in the United States was opened Indian Thought, 1968); ———, The Bachelor of Arts in Chicago in the early 1970s. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); ———, Initially, the leaders of the rapidly expanding Gods, Demons and Others (New York: Viking Press, movement were all monks who had trained with 1964); ———, The Guide (London: Bodley Head, Narayanananda in India, but in the course of the 1970); ———, The Mahabharata: A Shortened Modern 1970s a number of Westerners took vows of san- Prose Version of the Indian Epic (London: Heinemann, nyas and took on leadership roles. As in India, the 1978); ———, Malgudi Days (London: Heinemann, monks live a life of celibacy and follow a spiritual 1982); ———, My Days: A Memoir (Hopewell, N.J.: discipline that includes twice-daily MEDITATION Ecco Press, 1999); ———, A Story-Teller’s World (New sessions with the community and the practice of Delhi: Penguin Books, 1990). HATHA YOGA. Narayanananda died in 1988. His movement continues from its international headquarters in Narayana See VISHNU. Gylling, Denmark, and the ashram in Chicago.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 306 12/14/06 9:29:09 AM Nathdwara 307 J

The various centers offer a range of instruction in female counterpart; once he danced as a beggar hatha yoga and the teachings of Narayanananda. for PARVATI’S hand; once he danced a mad, erotic dance in the deodar forest for the wives of the Further reading: Swami Narayanananda, The Ideal RISHIS there; and he danced after the destruction Life and Moksha (Freedom) (Gylling, Denmark: N. U. of DAKSHA’S . The great shrine at CHIDAM- Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979); ———, The Mysteries BARAMI in South India is perhaps the most famous of Man, Mind, and Mind-Functions: A Masterly Treatise one depicting Shiva’s Nataraja form. There is also on Psychology (Rishikesh: Narayanananda Universal an awe-inspiring 20-foot-high Nataraja in black Yoga Trust, 1965); ———, A Personal Guide to Sama- stone in the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai. (Rishikesh: Narayanananda Universal Yoga Trust, 1966); ———, The Primal Power in Man: Or, the Further reading: Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance Kundalini Shakti (Rishikesh: Narayanananda Univer- of Siva: Essays on Indian Art and Culture. Foreword by sal Yoga Trust, 1970); ———, The Secrets of Prana, (New York: Dover, 1985); Cornelia Pranayama and Yoga-Asanas (Gylling, Denmark: N. U. Dimmitt and J. A. van Buitenen, eds. and trans., Clas- Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979). sical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva (Princeton, N.J.: Prince- Nataraja ton University Press, 1981); Margaret Stutley, The Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance (nata, dance; raja, Illustrated Dictionary of (Boston: king or lord), is one of the most popular iconic Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). forms of SHIVA (the most common is the LINGAM). In his cosmic dance he creates, sustains, and even- tually destroys the universe. When Shiva’s dance Nathdwara is seen as symbolizing only the end of time, it is Literally, “the doorway to the Lord,” Nathdwara called the dance. is a sacred town near Udaipur in the Indian state Nataraja is depicted in a pose from the BHARATA of Rajasthan; it is the principal seat of the cult of NATYAM dance, with his left leg raised and his right Sri Sri NATHJI and of the sect. The town leg resting on a dwarflike being representing igno- itself is sometimes called Sri Nathji. rance and delusion, sometimes called Apasmara Sri Sri Nathji is a form of KRISHNA. His image (forgetfulness [of the truth of the divine]). He was taken to Nathdwara from Mathura in 1669 has four arms. In his upper right hand he holds to prevent its destruction by the armies of the the “shake-drum” (damaru) that can be sounded iconoclastic Mughal Muslim king . The with one hand, a tethered ball striking either end chief temple of Nathdwara enshrines the image of of a small two-sided drum. His lower right hand Krishna taken in 1669, which holds Govardhana is formed into the ABHAYA MUDRA, a gesture that Mountain, recalling the myth in which Krishna removes fear. His upper left hand holds the flame protected the cowherds of BRINDAVAN from storms that symbolizes the end of creation. His lower left caused by INDRA, king of the gods, by holding up hand points toward his upraised left foot. Around this mountain as an umbrella. his head and in the circular frame to which he is attached is a halo of flames that show his divine Further reading: Amit Ambalal, Krishna as Shrinathji: energy. Rajasthani Paintings from Nathdvara (: Among Shiva’s many celebrated dances: he Mapin, 1987); H. S. Verdia, Religion and Social Struc- danced in the sky with VISHNU; once he danced ture in a Sacred Town, Nathdwara (Delhi: Researchco, in the cremation ground to please KALI, his 1982).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 307 12/14/06 9:29:09 AM K 308 Nath Yogis

Nath Yogis The Nath Yogis emerged in the 12th and 13th Natya Shastra, “the authoritative scripture [shas- centuries C.E. as a confederation of devotees of tra] regarding drama [natya],” is often considered Shaivite (see SHAIVISM) and SIDDHA practices. The the “fifth VEDA.” It was composed by the teacher sect honors a legendary group of nine exemplars, Bharata around the second century C.E. Made up called the nine , or “lords,” who give the of over 5,000 verses, it delineates the art form sect its name. The nine exemplars are listed of dance-drama of its time. The revived BHARATA with a wide variety of names, but they usually NATYAM dance-drama form of modern India still include Matsyendranath and (with follows the guidelines of this text. somewhat varying forms). These quasi-histori- The Natya Shastra claims that drama was cal Naths are considered the original sources for created by the creator god BRAHMA himself. The the various Nath lineages. The forerunners of text outlines every aspect of the drama, includ- the Nath Yogis were probably the various radical ing the dress of the actors, the music, the stage, Shaivite groups that arose in the early centuries of and the construction of the theater building. the Common Era. Indian drama has always relied greatly on dance; The Nath Yogis were outsiders and very thus the steps, rhythms, and hand gestures or unconventional. They often adopted outrageous MUDRAS are carefully detailed. The text also sug- practices such as eating offal and public curs- gests the most common themes that the drama ing, in order to emphasize their lack of fealty can present, such as the battle between the gods to any convention. They were extreme ascetics, and demons and the adventures of the individual gods. From a philosophical standpoint the two practicing under the umbrella of TANTRISM, which most important chapters are those that outline sought above all to emphasize the dark and nega- the principles of in dramatic presen- tive aspects of existence as the source of spiritual tations. They present the distinctive theory of power and transformation. However, the Naths RASAS, the emotional “” that are commu- abstained from the sexual practices generally asso- nicated via the drama. ciated with tantrism, as they generally avoided women entirely. Further reading: The Natya Sastra of Bharatamuni Alchemy was an important element of Nath (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 2003); Vasanta Vedam, A Handbook Yogi practice. Usually, this included not only of Natya Sastra (Chennai: Vasanta Vedam, 2003). changing base metals into gold via mercury, but also changing the body by the use of oxides of mercury to create an immortal body. This esoteric practice is combined with HATHA YOGA and the The Navaratri (Navaratra) or Nine Nights festival effort to raise the KUNDALINI at the base of the is celebrated for nine days in the lunar month of spine to effect complete spiritual transformation. (September–October). It is a pan-Indian festival that takes different forms in different Further reading: Akshaya Kumar Banerjea, Philoso- regions. phy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha Vacana Samgraha In most Hindi-speaking areas of North India (Delhi: Motilal Benarsidass, 1988); George W. Briggs, Navaratri is celebrated as Rama Lila (the mysteri- Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis (New Delhi: Moti- ous divine magic of Lord Rama), a commemo- lal Banarsidass, 1982); , The ration of the RAMAYANA epic. Each day features Alchemical Body (Chicago: University of Chicago readings from the medieval Hindi TULSIDAS Rama- Press, 1996). yana; in most places plays are presented depicting

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 308 12/14/06 9:29:09 AM Nayanmars 309 J

scenes from the Ramayana story, sometimes on a the eighth century C.E. They sang the praise and grand scale. love of Shiva at numerous holy places, shrines, The largest of the Rama Lila plays is staged and temples throughout the region, opposing across the river from the holy city BENARES the Jains, Buddhists, and VAISHNAVITES in their (Varanasi), where the kings have established an efforts to advance everyone to the grace of their immense field as a stage for the Ramayana story. Lord Shiva. They apparently participated in Actors go from station to station on different India’s first known popular devotional move- days as the story develops. On , ment, as all their verses are sung in Tamil, the the day after Navaratri, effigies of Rama’s ene- spoken language of the local people, and not in mies—the demon king RAVANA, his son Megha- SANSKRIT. nada, and his brother KUMBHAKARNA—are burned The last of the , SUNDARAR, was to celebrate the victory of Rama over the demons granted a revelation by Lord Shiva himself at Tiru- or Rakshasas. varur, of the lives of the 62 saints who preceded In Bihar, Bengal, and Assam Navaratri is cel- him. His work is the first to give the entire list, ebrated as a DURGA festival. The festival begins by to which his own name was later added. Nambi awakening Durga, who is asleep, and continues Andar Nambi (c. 1000 C.E.) is said to have com- by manufacturing a temporary image of her that piled the songs of all of the Nayanars, adding to is enlivened for the purpose of the festival. PUJAS them the works of several other famous poet- or worship services are performed for Durga on saints, including MANIKKAVACAKAR, to form the the last three days of the festival. On Vijaya- basis of the TIRUMURAI, the basic Tamil Shaivite dashmi the image of Durga is taken in a great sacred canon. It consists of 12 books, 11 of them procession to be immersed and left in a tank, a assembled by Nambi. river, or the ocean. Included in Tirumurai is Nambi Andar Nam- In South India SARASVATI, goddess of learning bi’s own account of the “holy labors” of the 63 and the arts, is worshipped on the seventh day of saints, as well as his own story and verses. The the festival and Durga on the eighth day. On the 12th and final book is SEKKILAR’s ninth day there is a worship of instruments and (c. 1200 C.E.); its more than 4,000 verses summa- implements of livelihood, which are taken out to rize and add to the earlier Nayanar compendiums be honored with mantras and small offerings. and include the works of some other Shaivite saints. Further reading: Diana L. Eck, Banaras, City of Light The three best-known and most prolific of (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); H. V. the Nayanars are APPAR, SAMBANTHAR, and Sun- Shekar, Festivals of India: Significance of the Celebrations darar. Their hymns make up the , which (Louisville, Ky.: Insight Books, 2000). serves as the primary liturgical scripture for Tamil Shaivites. These songs are strongly oriented toward particular sacred places, shrines, and Nayanmars temples that were visited by the three peripatetic A Nayanmar or Nayanar is a “leader” or “master.” saints as they pursued their PILGRIMAGE in order In the Tamil devotional tradition the Nayanmars to sing Shiva. In Shaivite temples in Tamil Nadu were poet-saints who spread the message of today the Tevaram songs are sung in ritual wor- devotion to SHIVA throughout Tamil Nadu. Tra- ship, along with Sanskrit MANTRAS. dition makes them 63 in number, but some of Most Nayanars were men, but a few were the names are probably legendary figures. The women. The most famous of the women saints is real Nayanars lived from roughly the sixth to the first on the list of 63, Karaikal Ammaiyar. The

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 309 12/14/06 9:29:09 AM K 310

saints were from every class and trade, from Brah- Neem Karoli was born min (Sundarar and Sambanthar) to Dalit (untouch- Sharma to a BRAHMIN family in Akbarpur in ables) (Tirunalaipovanar, alias Nantanar). Uttar Pradesh, India. In his childhood he was described as detached from desires of the mate- Further reading: Vidya Dehejia, Slaves of the Lord: rial world. When he was 11 his family arranged The Path of the Tamil Saints (New Delhi: Munshiram a marriage with a girl from another Brahmin Manoharlal, 1988); Indira Viswanthan Peterson, Poems family. After the wedding, the groom left home to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints (Princeton, N.J.: and wandered the country as an ascetic for sev- Princeton University Press, 1989); Kamil V. Zvelibil, eral years. His father, Sri Durga Prasad Sharma, Tamil Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). eventually found him in the village of Neem Karoli (hence his name) and demanded that his son return home. The young man complied and Neem Karoli Baba (c. 1900–1973) bhakti spent the remainder of his life in dual roles as yoga teacher householder and saint. Neem Karoli Baba, popularly known as Maha- Neem Karoli always considered the world as raji, is one of the most influential GURUS from his larger family and stated that the key to attain- India to encounter the West. Although he never ing salvation is to love all, serve all, and feed all. visited America or wrote any books, he graced Devotees who were close to him describe the GURU the lives of many devotees during the 1960s and as one who radiated love. He based his teachings 1970s. Baba RAM DASS was particularly inspired on a form of BHAKTI YOGA, emphasizing service and by Maharaji and Ram Dass’s works were among unconditional devotion to God. His techniques the first to introduce Eastern wisdom on a large have been described as both subtle and literal, scale to the West, particularly through portrayals and his teachings varied from individual to indi- of experiences with Neem Karoli. vidual. His advice was determined by the needs of the student, even though he always asserted that one’s focus in life should be toward the welfare of others. Neem Karoli established two ashrams, at Kainchi in Uttachal and at BRINDAVAN in Uttar Pradesh. Over 100 temples have also been founded in his name. American devotees, includ- ing Ram Dass, gathered together in 1977 to form a common place of worship in honor of Neem Karoli. The group proposed the construction of a statue representing , a deity most revered by Neem Karoli. The statue was com- missioned in India and completed in 1978. It found its permanent home in Taos, New . Devotees formed the Neem Karoli Baba Ashram around the Hanuman figure and have since held Neem Karoli Baba (c. 1900–1973), teacher known for annual celebrations in September, marking the his dedication to devotion and service; guru of Baba mahasamadhi (death) of Neem Karoli Baba on Ram Dass (Kashi Church, Sebastian, Florida) September 11, 1973.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 310 12/14/06 9:29:09 AM new moon/full moon ceremonies 311 J

Further reading: Ram Dass, of Love: Stories laywomen. With him were 400 monks who had about Neem Karoli Baba (New York: Dutton, 1979); achieved the highest wisdom short of being per- Sudhir Mukerjee, By His Grace: A Devotee’s Story (Santa fected and many other monks whose knowledge Fe, N. Mex.: Hanuman Foundation, 1990). was developing. They say that lived for 300 years as a bachelor, 54 days as a monk, and 700 years as an omniscient being. Thereupon, Neminatha taking food once every month he fasted until he Neminatha was the 22nd TIRTHANKARA (Jain saint) left his body and achieved NIRVANA. More than of our era, or, more precisely, half-era, as there are 84,000 years has elapsed since this event. always 24 Tirthankaras in each half of a longer era. Unlike the 23rd Tirthankara in our time, PARSHVA- Further reading: Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: NATH, and the 24th, MAHAVIRA, both historical fig- Routledge, 1992); P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purifica- ures, Neminatha is not a historical figure. tion (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); K. C. Lalwani, Neminatha is said to have had his previous Kalpa Sutra (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979). incarnation in the celestial abode. He was born to the king Shauripura and his wife, Shiva Devi. His birth was accompanied by many auspicious signs, new moon/full moon ceremonies including the appropriate auspicious markings on New moon (amavasya) and full moon (purnima) his body to indicate his special status. He never observances and rituals have been held in India undertook the householder life. At the death of since VEDIC times at least. Many festivals and own parents he resolved to take up the path of a holy days occur on these days in contemporary Jain renunciant, to the acclaim of the gods. He dis- India. tributed his vast worldly wealth to the indigent. The following are some of the full moon As Neminatha ascended his royal palanquin celebrations: (1) (or Chitra) Purnima is for the last time to go to his place of renunciation, celebrated to recognize , assistant to all beings hailed him and shouted their praises the god of death YAMA. It is thought that if he is and encouragement. He arrived at a park named honored while people are alive he may be more Revika and there removed all his garlands and lenient with them after death. (2) The full moon ornaments and tonsured himself in the fashion of of the month of Ashvina (September–October) Jain monks by removing all his hair in five hand- is a day for worshipping LAKSHMI for wealth. A fuls. At that time he took the vow of taking food vow is taken on that day to stay awake all night. only once every third day until he entered the (3) The full moon in the month of Shravana order of the wandering monks. (July–August) is the time when certain BRAHMINS For 54 days Neminatha lived completely change their sacred threads. In the celebration ignoring his body in every way. On the 55th day of RAKSHABANDHAN sisters generally put a thread on top of Mount Ajjinta, after reducing his food wristlet on brothers for good luck. (4) On the full to once every fourth day, he attained to supreme moon in the month of (May–June) occur knowledge and the status of a kevalin, having the bathing of the images of the Jagannatha for the unobstructed wisdom. He attained, afterward, the festival at Puri, and the observance of a fast day by status of a Tirthankara, a crosser of the ford, and married women in recognition of the devotion of omniscience, knowledge of all that occurred in SAVITRI, who retrieved her husband from the jaws the world at all times. of death. (5) In Chaitra (March–April) the birth- At this time he had a community of 18,000 day of HANUMAN, the monkey god, is observed on monks, 40,000 nuns, 169,000 laymen, and 369,000 the full moon. K 312 Nimbarka

The following are some of the new moon difference) between the divinity and the world. observances: (1) In the month of Bhadrapada Unlike SHANKARA’S VEDANTA, Nimbarka saw the (August–September) the 15 days of the dark half world as real and not an illusion. of the Moon are for worshipping ancestors. (2) Less scholarship has been done on Nimbarka’s During the month of Magha (January–February) a philosophy than on several of the other major day of silence is observed on the new Moon day; it Vedanta philosophers. Eight major works in SAN- is one of the important days of the Maha KUMBHA SKRIT are attributed to him but only three are Mela (festival) at ALLAHABAD. available in published form: Vedanta--sau- rabha, his commentary on the Vedanta Sutra; a Further reading: Swami Harshananda, Hindu Festivals work called Dasasloki, which has only 10 verses; and Sacred Days (Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994); and Krishna-stava-raja, a devotional work. Several Hindu Festivals (Bombay: Central subcommentaries have been written on his work Trust, 1989). on the Vedanta Sutra. Nimbarka’s system took Krishna to be god, while the devotee took the role of Krishna’s con- Nimbarka (c. 12th century) Vedanta sort, Radha, in adoring him and serving him. philosopher Nimbarka is perhaps best known to modern India Nimbarka was a philosopher of the VEDANTA, through the Vaishnavite sect named after him, who founded a sect of VAISHNAVISM centered in the Nimbarki sect, which is also referred to as the Mathura, North India, that focused on RADHA and Sanakadi or Hamsa sect of Vaishnavites, centered KRISHNA. in Mathura. Nimbarka was born in Andhra Pradesh; his name has been traced by some to the village Further reading: M. M. Agarwal, The Philosophy of Nim- Nimba or Nimbapura in the Bellary District. One barka (Varanasi: Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan, myth explains his name more colorfully: once 1983); Unmesha Mishra, Nimbarka School of Vedanta a wandering mendicant visited Nimbarka, who (Allahabad: Tirabhukti, 1966); Swami Tapasyananda, offered him food. Because the Sun had already The Bhakti Schools of Vedanta (Madras: Ramakrishna set, the ascetic refused, saying that he had vowed Mutt, 1990). not to eat after the Sun had set. Thereupon the philosopher took the last rays of the Sun (arka) and put them up in a neem tree (nimba tree) until food could be prepared and the ascetic could eat. movement (est. 1851) Formally, Nimbarka’s Vedantic philosophy is The Nirankari movement developed within the called dvaitavaita, “both dualist and non-dualist,” larger Sikh community as an effort to revive a which makes it quite similar (but not identical) to faltering SIKHISM. The founder, Baba Dyal (1783– the philosophy of and his VISHISHTAD- 1855), denounced new rites and rituals being VAITA, “non-dualism via differencing.” Dvaitad- introduced into Sikhism at the time, which he vaita, as does non-dualism, understands that all is said were an indication that Sikhism was being the divinity. All souls and all matter are the stuff absorbed into the more dominant Hinduism. The of the divine. In this sense there is non-duality movement gained its name from his emphasis on between the selves, between materiality and the , or God the formless one. ultimate. At the same time no individual soul (let In 1851, Baba Dyal formally organized his alone matter) can ever be as supreme or sublime small following as the Nirankari Darbar. He was as the divine, so in that sense there is duality (a succeeded four years later by his son, Baba Dar-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 312 12/14/06 9:29:10 AM nirvana 313 J

bara Singh. Among the emphases of the move- 1971, he traveled to North America and organized ment was abstinence from alcohol. the work in the United States and . He also The movement remained small but received authored Avtar Bani, which serves as a holy book a boost in the 1930s from Boota Singh (1883– for the . 1944), who sought to revitalize it. He began to Gurbachan Singh asserted his belief that preach against all regulations based upon external Nirankaris were Sikhs, in spite of their separate habits and appearances, including all rules about organization. Many Sikhs disputed these claims; what one wears, eats, or drinks (including the against the tense background of Sikh demands prohibition of alcohol). for independence from India, intra-Sikh violence Boota Singh received initiation from the SANT occasionally erupted. In 1980, Gurbachan Singh MAT lineage that looks back to was assassinated. He was succeeded by Hardev (1838–1903). He not only passed the lineage to Singh Ji Maharaj (b. 1954), who continues as head the present leader of the movement but also added of the movement, now known as the Nirankari the practice of jnana, the giving of knowledge by Sant Samagam of the Nirankari Universal Brother- the GURU (or his representative) to each member hood Mission. Assisting Hardev Singh Ji Maharaj of the movement. The giving of knowledge is a are seven men chosen by him and known as the confidential aspect of the Nirankari faith, and Seven Stars. members agree not to divulge its nature. Members also agree not to discriminate against people in Further reading: J. S. Chugh, Fifty Years of Spiritual respect to caste, sex, color, religion, or worldly Bliss: Commemorative Souvenir of the Golden Jubilee status; not to criticize anyone because of his or Nirankari Sant Samagam, November 6–10, 1997 (Delhi: her diet or dress; and to make no renunciation of Sant Nirankari Mandal, 1997); C. L. Gulotti, A Mis- the world. sion for All (Delhi: Sant Nirankari Mandal, 1997); Boota died in 1944, and he passed leadership Krishnan Lal, The Mission and the (Delhi: of his small following within the larger Nirankari Sant Nirankari Mandal, 1987); Nirankari Baba Hardev movement to Avtar Singh (1899–1969). The lat- Singh, Stream of Thoughts (Delhi: Sant Nirankari Man- ter saw the partition of India and the movement dal, 1994). of many Hindus from what is now Pakistan back into Indian territory. Operating from Delhi, he began to gather a following especially among Devi, Mataji the newly migrating Sikhs. In 1947 he formally See YOGA CENTER. organized the Nirankari Sant Mission, which held its first annual meeting (Samagam) the next year. The growth was such that Avtar Singh’s following nirvana constituted the main body of Nirankaris. Nirvana is the term used to refer to the state of In 1969, Avtar Singh was succeeded by Gur- liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth, from bachan Singh (1930–80), who would oversee worldly existence. The term probably originated significant growth of the movement outside India within Buddhism. It literally means a “blowing through the British Commonwealth and the out”—of the fires of worldly existence. In the United States. A major stimulant for growth was early Buddhist context this implied the recogni- Gurbachan Singh’s world tour the year before he tion that nothing is permanent and that there is became the head of the movement. Once in his no permanent self, but only a shifting combina- leadership role, he formed a foreign section to tion of aspects that constitute themselves so as stimulate further growth around the world. In to make us believe in a permanent “self” or soul.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 313 12/14/06 9:29:10 AM K 314

Early Buddhists tried not to describe this state At age 34, Maruti began to seek answers to elaborately as it is beyond human conception. universal questions. His friend took him to Sri The Jain tradition also adopted the word to Maharaj, a teacher in Bombay refer to the blissful, powerful, superconscious in the Sampradaya, who gave Maruti a state of liberation from birth and rebirth. In the MANTRA and instructions on MEDITATION. Maruti Brahminical tradition it came to mean union with quickly developed a practice, giving attention to the ultimate reality. This implies a realization of nothing else than the sense of “I am.” Soon, Maruti the infinite being, consciousness, and bliss of the began to have visions and to experience trance godhead. states. Between 1933 and 1936, he experienced SELF-REALIZATION and reported that he lived in full Further reading: George S. Arundale, Nirvana: A Study awareness of the transcendent reality. He named in Synthetic Consciousness (Adyar: Theosophical Pub- himself Nisargadatta (One Given True Being). lishing House, 1978); Muni Shivkumar, The Doctrine After Sri Siddharameshwar’s death in 1936, of Liberation in Indian Religion: With Special Reference Nisargadatta left his family and business to live to Jainism (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1984); the renounced life of a SADHU, a wandering monk , Philosophies of India (Princeton, N.J.: who owns nothing and begs for food, in the HIMA- Princeton University Press, 1974). LAYAS. His journey was short-lived, after a fellow disciple convinced him that his spiritual inten- tions would be more fruitful at home. Returning Nisargadatta Maharaj (1897–1981) to Bombay he found his business in shambles. He reestablished one bidi shop, which sustained him advaita teacher and his family. Nisargadatta spent the remain- Maharaj Nisargadatta was a Bombay (Mum- der of his life tending his business and devoting bai) merchant and householder, whose ADVAITA himself to a strict discipline of daily observances VEDANTA teachings and JNANA YOGA practices drew and veneration of his GURU. He meditated and dis- him a large following. His conversations, recorded cussed his master’s teachings with all who visited by disciples and translated into English, ensured his bidi shop and did not visit saints or temples. that his ideas would continue to spread after his As he began to speak to others, larger and larger death. groups of inquirers and students went to his shop Born in Bombay in March 1897, Maruti (his to learn from his eloquence and wisdom. birth name) was raised on a small family farm Nisargadatta’s teachings are based on jnana near Kandalgaon in Maharashtra. As a boy he yoga and advaita Vedanta, a non-dualistic phi- became familiar with spiritual topics by listen- losophy. His teachings emphasize the individual’s ing to his parents discuss the spiritual life with a direct experience with the eternal in the here and BRAHMIN friend, Vishnu Haribha Gore. When his now. His typical recommendation to new students father died in 1915, Maruti and his elder brother was to practice with discipline and follow the became responsible for supporting the family. same instruction provided to him, which fostered They left home to seek employment in Bombay. SELF-REALIZATION. Nisargadatta encouraged seek- Here, Maruti opened a shop selling bidis, hand- ers to draw attention to “I am.” In doing so, he made cigarettes. He became prosperous in the asserted that the practitioner’s mind would soon trade and established several more shops across gain self-realization in thought and feeling. Nisar- Bombay. In 1924, Maruti married Sumatibai, and gadatta died in Bombay on September 8, 1981. they later became the parents of a son and three Ramesh S. Balsekar became one of Nisarga- daughters. datta’s closest disciples. Balsekar, a graduate of

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 314 12/14/06 9:29:10 AM Nityananda, Swami Bhagawan 315 J

London University and retired banker, met Sri Nisargadatta in 1970. He became entrusted with recording the conversations of Nisargadatta, the guru’s primary method of teaching. Many of these were later published in the book (1972), which has become a classical treatise on how one person can realize the non-dual reality outside time and space. As more Westerners encountered Maharaj they furthered his teachings by translat- ing his conversations into English, publishing them throughout North America and Europe. After Nisargadatta Maharaj’s death, Balsekar continued his guru’s teachings and established the ADVAITA Fellowship in 1987. Since that time he has made annual visits to America and has become esteemed as a teacher of advaita Vedanta. The fellowship has its headquarters in Bombay (Mum- bai), India, and in Redondo Beach, California.

Further reading: Ramesh S. Balsekar and Sudhakar S. Dikshit, Explorations into the Eternal: Forays from the Teaching of Nisargadatta Maharaj (Bombay: Chetana, 1987); Ramesh S. Balsekar and Sudhaker S. Dikshit, Pointers from Nisargadatta Maharaj: Maharaj Points to Swami Bhagawan Nityananda (c. 1900–1961), the Eternal Truth That Is Before Time Ever Was (Durham, renowned devotee of Lord Shiva and siddha yogi N.C.: Acorn Press, 1990); Jean Dunn and Nisargadatta (Kashi Church, Sebastian, Florida) Maharaj, Seeds of Consciousness: The Wisdom of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (New York: Grove Press, 1982); Nisargadatta Maharaj, I Am That. Translated by Maurice as servants in the house of a lawyer, Ishwara Iyer. Frydman (Bombay: Chetana, 1973). His childhood name was Ram. Even as a child Ram lived in an exalted state. Swami MUKTANANDA, Nityananda’s successor, Nityananda, Swami Bhagawan (c. 1900– wrote of his GURU, “Beyond a shadow of a doubt 1961) Shaivite siddha yogi he was a born SIDDHA [a person who is spiritually Swami Bhagawan Nityananda was an inspiring perfected]. Even though he was a self-born siddha teacher of siddha yoga MEDITATION, who attracted still he had to have a guru. . . . It is the spiritual thousands of followers and disciples. law—one has to have a guru.” Nityananda consid- The early years of Bhagawan Nityananda are ered his teacher to be Ishwara Iyer, who was not shrouded in mystery of the sort that often charac- only his patron but also a devout BRAHMIN and a terizes the life of a saint from village India. From proficient YOGI. It was he who gave Nityananda his interviews with people who knew him in his early name. The story is that after spending a number years, it appears that he was born near the turn of years in the HIMALAYAS, Nityananda returned to of the 20th century in the town of Qualandi in Qualandi to see Iyer, who was ill and praying for Kerala state, South India, to parents who worked him to return. When Iyer saw the young yogi, he

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 315 12/14/06 9:29:10 AM K 316 Nivedita, Sister

said, “Ah, my Nityananda has come!” From that Gurumayi CHIDVILASANANDA, who has been car- point forward, he was known by that name, which rying forward what is now known as the Siddha means “eternal bliss.” Yoga mission since 1982. Nityananda began manifesting miraculous powers while still in his teens, and he was a Further reading: Douglas Renfrew Brooks et al., wandering SADHU (mendicant) before he was 20. Meditation Revolution: A History and Theology of the There are accounts from Kerala and Karnataka Siddha Yoga Lineage (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: Agama states of the “sky-clad” (naked) yogi who traveled Press, 1997); Swami Muktananda, Bhagawan Nity- only on foot and ate only what was handed to ananda of Ganeshpuri (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: SYDA him. In his presence, people had profound expe- Foundation, 1996); Shakti Smriti Interview Collec- riences of meditation and healing, both physical tion, Unpublished oral history manuscripts held by and spiritual. In the 1920s Nityananda built the Shakti Punja, the SYDA Foundation archives, South Kanhangad Ashram around some jungle caves Fallsburg, New York. near the town of Kanhangad in Kerala, which is maintained to this day. By the 1930s, however, he left the region, again on foot. In 1936, Nityananda Nivedita, Sister (Margaret Noble) (1867– arrived in Ganeshpuri, the Maharashtrian village 1911) supporter of women’s education in India that was to be his home for the rest of his life. On , an Irish-born convert to VEDANTA, the day he arrived, the caretaker of the local SHIVA became a social activist and supporter of women’s temple built him a hut, and within a few years that education in India. kutir was enlarged to become Vaikuntha Ashram, Margaret Noble was born on October 28, the very spot where Bhagawan Nityananda’s SAMA- 1867, to Samuel Noble and Mary Hamilton in DHI shrine stands today. Dunganon, Northern Ireland, in county Tyrone. Bhagawan Nityananda is recognized in Ganesh- Before Margaret was a year old, Samuel moved puri not only for his spiritual power but also for to , England, where he enrolled as the material help he provided to the local people, a theological student of the Wesleyan church. who at that time were often living at a subsistence The young baby was left with her maternal level. He distributed the offerings given to him, grandmother in Northern Ireland, where she providing for the villagers food and clothing and enjoyed a happy childhood while her father stud- establishing a local school and hospital and the ied and became ordained. At four years of age, she Balbhojan (children’s food) Center, which still returned to live with her father, unhappy to leave functions in Ganeshpuri. her grandmother’s home. In the last two decades of his life, thousands of With her sister, she attended Halifax College, pilgrims traveled to Ganeshpuri for Nityananda’s run by the Congregationalist Church. She learned blessings and the experience of his DARSHAN. personal sacrifice from the headmistress of Hali- Swami Muktananda writes, “In his presence, fax, a member of the Plymouth Brethren. After everyone meditated spontaneously.” Nityananda’s her father was appointed minister of a church, hallmark teaching is “The heart is the hub of all she liked to listen to him preach and to imitate his sacred places. Go there and roam.” expressions. Shortly before Nityananda took mahasamadhi Margaret was a thoughtful girl who asked (died) on August 8, 1961, he passed on the guru’s many questions. She had learned about the char- gaddi, the seat of power of his spiritual lineage, acter of a nation from her paternal grandfather in to Swami Muktananda, just as, years later, Swami his fight for home rule for Ireland. At age 18, in Muktananda would pass it on to his disciple, 1884, she received a post as teacher and became

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 316 12/14/06 9:29:11 AM Nyaya-Vaisheshika 317 J

engaged in the movement to foster child-centered (). The remainder of her life was learning in schools. In 1885, she opened the spent in India working on behalf of Indian women. Ruskin School in Wimbledon, for adults as well She died on October 13, 1911, in Calcutta. as children who wished to study modern educa- tional methods. She was a cofounder of the Con- Further reading: Atmaprana, Sister Nivedita of Ramak- gress of Modern Pedagogy, centered on the child’s rishna-Vivekananda (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Math, experience of school. She also served as a welfare 1999); Barbara Foxe, Long Journey Home: A Biogra- worker, while championing the underprivileged phy of Margaret Noble (London: Rider, 1975); Swami by writing pamphlets in London. Ghambhirananda, History of the Ramakrishna Math and After ’s famous appear- Mission (Calcutta: , 1957); Nivedita, ance at the WORLD PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS in As I Saw Him, 10th ed. (Calcutta: Udbod- Chicago in 1893, he stayed for three months han Office, 1966); ———, The Complete Works of in London; in 1885, Margaret met him and Sister Nivedita (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Sarada Mission, declared herself his disciple, calling him “Mas- 1967); Lizelle Reymond, The Dedicated: A Biography of ter.” Through Vivekananda, she found a religion Nivedita (Madras: Samata, 1985). whose elements could be discussed scientifically and whose goal was expressed in terms of spiri- tual freedom rather than, as she thought, sin- See YOGA SUTRA. defined slavery. While the swami was in England she followed his teaching assiduously, attending lectures four times a week. When Vivekananda nonviolence See AHIMSA. left England in November 1895, Margaret began to study the swami’s philosophical ideas in prep- aration for meeting him again, declaring herself Nyaya-Vaisheshika a “monk.” Nyaya and Vaisheshika represent two of the six In 1898 Margaret traveled to India to start “orthodox” systems of Indian philosophy. Ortho- her new life of service to education and women. dox here simply entails an acceptance of the VEDAS In March of that year, she was initiated by Vive- as an ultimate authority. In practice, even this kananda and given the name Nivedita (she who requirement is observed only nominally in the had been dedicated). He asked her to live in an case of one system, the SAMKHYA. orthodox Hindu way. She opened a school for For many centuries these two schools have Indian girls in 1898 in a single room of her house been integrated in a single philosophical system. in a poor section of Calcutta (Kolkata). While a However, certain of their distinctive and separate plague raged in Calcutta, she nursed the sick and features are worth noting. dying. She lectured on KALI, goddess of destruc- Vaisheshika, from the term vishesha (distinc- tion and plagues, to audiences of thousands. She tion), is usually thought of as the earlier of the met and worked with Sri RAMAKRISHNA’s widow, two systems. There is strong evidence that this Sri (1853–1920), who was revered system began to take shape as early as 400 B.C.E., by the Ramakrishna monks as the embodiment of though the earliest extant texts are probably a the Holy Mother. little later. The 10 chapters of the Vaisheshika In 1902 she left the Ramakrishna Order, after Sutra, by the sage Kanada, date around the sec- Vivekananda’s death, because her political activi- ond century C.E. They teach that salvation can be ties for Indian independence were declared incom- obtained only by “real knowledge” of things, as patible with her status as a Hindu renunciant outlined in this SUTRA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 317 12/14/06 9:29:11 AM K 318 Nyaya-Vaisheshika

Vaisheshika admits of six philosophical cat- it was easily merged with the earlier Vaisheshika egories, with a seventh controversial category school. added later. The six original categories are (1) Whereas the focus of Vaisheshika was the substance, which consists of nine eternal realities nature of things and how to categorize them, the that compose the foundation of the universe; sub- focus of Nyaya is on the method of argument, syl- stance is divided into (a) “atoms” of each of the logism, and the reliable means for knowing. The five main elements or MAHABHUTAS and (b) time, syllogisms that Nyaya constructed were similar, ether, space, and soul; (2) attribute, of which but not identical to those of Aristotle. Whatever there are 24; (3) karma, action or motion; (4) the similarities, Nyaya developed a rigorous philo- samanya, “generality,” that which characterizes sophical basis that makes it quite comparable to all the members of a given class; (5) vishesha or Western analytical philosophy. particularity, which distinguishes one member The school of Navya Nyaya, or New Nyaya, of a class from another; and (6) samavaya, “rela- that emerged in eastern India around the 14th tion,” or combination, that is, the relationship century was particularly sophisticated philosophi- that exists between substance and its qualities. A cally. Nyaya developed proofs of the existence of seventh category, “non-existence” (), was God (which are not found in the Vaisheshika), added later to deal with certain philosophical dif- which compare quite well to those developed in ficulties of the system. Christian theology. Though Nyaya-Vaisheshika Most important in the system of Vaisheshika is has very few adherents today, it developed philo- the understanding of the atomic nature of all the sophical tools that all the other Hindu traditions elements. This philosophy was originally realist used. They were particularly useful in refuting the and nontheistic in orientation. Only later was the heterodox Jains and Buddhists. notion of God imputed to it. Nyaya was founded by Gautama (or Gotama) Further reading: Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti, Classical (c. 100 C.E.), who composed the Nyaya Sutra. Indian Philosophy: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition (Albany: Other famous philosophers of the Nyaya school State University of New York Press, 1999); S. N. Dasgupta, are Vatsyayana and Gangesha. Nyaya can be A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banar- loosely translated as “logic” or “argumentation,” sidass, 1975); Wilhelm Halbfass, On Being and What There which is indeed the central thrust of the Nyaya Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology tradition. Because it also had a strong realist bias, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 318 12/14/06 9:29:11 AM O J: AF

om Om is the most important MANTRA in Hinduism. CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD discusses the significance of om. There it is given the highest value, equiva- lent to the RIG VEDA and SAMA VEDA combined; it is said to be speech and breath combined. Om is also said to be the Sama encapsulated. In 1.8 om is variously said to be BRAHMAN or the entire world. The MAN- DUKYA UPANISHAD outlines the esoteric aspects of om. It is said to be all that is—past, present, and future—and to transcend time. Om is said to be the Self (ATMAN). Esoterically, it is said to encom- pass the four STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS: the waking, dreaming, deep-sleep, and transcendent states. For this purpose, using , the let- ter o in the word om is understood to constitute Om, the most revered syllable and mantra in San- an a and a u. A is the waking state, u the dreaming skrit, is believed to encompass all visible and invisible state, m the deep-sleep state; the fourth state has worlds. (www.shutterstock.com/Junji Takemoto) no external marker and is the non-dual reality. Later texts understand om to encompass all visible and invisible worlds, and these are enu- merated. It is seen to be the three gods: BRAHMA, using om is om tat sat: “om is that reality: all that VISHNU, and SHIVA; it is seen to be this world, the exists.” sky world, and the world of heaven; its letters are For a YOGI, to focus on the mantra om is seen to be the manifest and unmanifest world; to focus on the ultimate reality. If the yogi pro- and so on. One of the most common MANTRAS nounces om, it reaches the crown CHAKRA; if the

319

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 319 12/14/06 9:29:11 AM K 320 Omkara

yogi becomes absorbed meditationally in om, he In 1965, at the request of several Swiss intel- becomes eternal. Om, too, is understood as the lectuals, he traveled to Switzerland to teach. essence of the word brahman ( brahman) He made a second visit in 1966; at that time he and is therefore, via its transcendent sound, the founded the Omkarananda International Ashram source of all manifest reality, where reality is at Winterthur, Switzerland (near Zürich), the first known to be nothing but the congealing of sound. permanent Hindu ashram in the country. The ash- No mantra begins without om and most Vedic ram grew and purchased a number of houses in mantras end with om as well. Om is often referred Winterthur, identified by being painted blue. to as Omkara (the kara, a meaningless marker), By 1975, tension had developed in the town added to make it easier to distinguish visually in between the members of the ashram and their Sanskrit script. It is also called pranava, which neighbors. As the tension increased, some mem- literally means, “That which resounds.” bers of the ashram bombed the home of a member of the government of the canton of Zürich. Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. van Buite- The perpetrators were arrested, and the swami nen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: A was also taken into custody and charged with Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple complicity. He pleaded innocent but was con- University Press, 1978); S. Ranganath, Aum-Pranava in victed. After seven years in jail, he was released Indian Tradition (Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 2001). but banished from Switzerland. He settled in Austria, near the Swiss border, and resumed his teaching work. His followers initiated actions to Omkara See OM. have his conviction overturned and to restore his reputation, but he died in 2000 before that could be achieved. Omkarananda, Swami (1930–2000) In spite of the setback caused by the events Vedanta teacher of 1975, the ashram in Winterthur continues to Swami Omkarananda was a VEDANTA teacher who operate, as does its sister branch in Rishikesh. founded the first Hindu ASHRAM in Switzerland. Omkarananda wrote a number of books, many of As a 16-year-old in South India the person which have been placed online at the Internet site later known as Swami Omkarananda suddenly posted by the ashram. left his home and traveled north to RISHIKISH in the foothills of the HIMALAYAS. There, the next Further reading: Omkarananda Ashram Himalayas. Avail- year, he was initiated into the renounced life able online. URL: http://www.omkarananda-ashram. (sannyas) by Swami . He org/. Accessed August 16, 2005. remained at Rishikish for study and in 1954 was awarded a degree by the Yoga Vedanta Forest University. In the following years he met and om tat sat See OM. studied with several other prominent Indian teachers, but from 1962 to 1965 he entered a period of retreat. Osho See , SRI.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 320 12/14/06 9:29:11 AM P J: AF

pancha makara negative thing. The female sexual partner in tant- In Hindu TANTRISM of the “left-handed” sort, the ric sexuality is preferably of very low caste and not pancha makara or “Five M’s” (SANSKRIT words the male partner’s wife. that begin with that letter), sometimes called the “five forbidden things (pancha ),” are the Further reading: Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric elements in a special esoteric ceremony. They Tradition (New York: Grove Press, 1975); N. N. Bhat- are mamsa (meat, usually beef), matsya (fish), tacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion: A Historical, madya (wine), mudra (parched ), and mai- Ritualistic and Philosophical Study (Delhi: Manohar, thuna (sexual intercourse.) These five elements 1982); Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Gou- are meant to involve the participants (there may driaan, Hindu Tantrism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979). be one or more pairs in a tantric ritual circle) in forbidden actions that aid in realizing the divin- ity of mundane existence. By taking “forbidden” elements, they are confronted with the fact that The Pancharatra (pancha, five; ratra, nights) sect even those things beyond the pale in human terms was one of the early traditions that developed into partake in the truth of the divinity, usually charac- VAISHNAVISM, the worship of VISHNU. It probably terized as the goddess. dates to the last centuries before the Common Beef is forbidden to all caste Hindus. It is Era. The name may derive from the SHATAPATHA highly polluting, and eating it is condemned by BRAHMANA XIII.6, where the god Narayana, the society. Fish is also not taken by most BRAHMINS primordial and all-encompassing divinity, per- and is believed to have aphrodisiac qualities. forms a special “five nights” sacrifice in order Parched grain also is known to stimulate sexual to transcend and encompass all beings. In later appetite and therefore is not considered desirable. Vaishnavism Narayana became the name of the Alcohol is probably the foremost of Brahmini- highest divinity; he was said to transcend BRAHMA, cal prohibitions. In the DHARMASHASTRA of MANU SHIVA, and even VISHNU. drinking liquor is equated with killing a Brahmin. In the Pancharatra system, creation emerges Sexuality outside marriage is looked upon as a through vyuhas (arrangements) of the manifesta-

321

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 321 12/14/06 9:29:12 AM K 322 Pandavas

tions of the godhead. VASUDEVA, or KRISHNA, is the are considered Pandu’s sons, they were not his highest changeless god; Sankarshana is the Lord natural sons, since a curse had been placed upon over all life; Pradyumna predominates over mind; their father that he would die if he had sex with and Aniruddha presides over ego. From Anirud- a woman. Their mother, Kunti (also known as dha derives BRAHMA, who then creates the physical Pritha, an aunt of KRISHNA), used boons she had universe. From Vasudeva on down, each of the previously received to bear children with several phases or forms of the godhead derives from the of the gods. previous form. The doctrine in certain ways is Kunti bore YUDHISHTHIRA, the eldest, by the god reminiscent of the Christian trinity, whereby the DHARMA; BHIMA by the wind god; and ARJUNA by one god takes on different aspects. INDRA. Kunti gave her remaining boons to Madri, The Pancharatra doctrines were elaborated Pandu’s junior wife; the latter bore the youngest in several important texts. The Bhaktisutras of and least famous Pandavas, Nakula and Sahadeva, were central. The Pancharatra AGAMAS by the divine celestial twins, the . The five specified the temple cult, iconography, and ritual; Pandavas shared a secret brother, Karna, who was they are no longer extant. Important extant Pan- born to Kunti by the Sun god, before her marriage charatra texts are the Sasvatasamhita Ahirbudh- to Pandu. Karna had been put into a reed basket nya and the Ishvara Samhita, which deal and left to float away on a river. primarily with worship rituals. After Pandu died while attempting inter- Vedic sacrificial worship, the earliest known course with Madri, his brother Dhritarashtra, phase of Hinduism, did not involve permanent though blind, became regent. Pandu’s sons were structures (temples) or icons. Those features still considered the legitimate heirs, but Dhri- emerged only after a long process of development, tarashtra’s 100 sons, known as the KAURAVAS and both the Shaivite and Vaishnavite traditions (descendants of Kuru—as were the Pandavas) had to develop texts to explain and justify these and led by the eldest son, DURYODHANA, began innovations in Vedic terms. The plotting to destroy their cousins, the five Pan- were the primary agents that performed this task davas. Duryodhana, for instance, tried to poison for Vaishnavism. Bhima but failed. The story of the epic revolves around the struggle for the kingdom between Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian the Pandavas and their cousins. The conflict Philosophy, vol. 3 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); culminates in the great Bharata war, in which the Sanjukta Gupta, trans., Laksmi Tantra: A Pancaratra Pandavas are triumphant, but with frightening Text. Orientalia Rheno-Trajectina, Vol. 15 (Leiden: E. losses. J. Brill, 1972); S. Rangachar, Philosophy of Pancaratras (Mandya: Sridevi Prakashana, 1991). Further reading: Peter Brook, director, The Mahab- harata (videorecording), produced by Michael Prop- per (Chatsworth, Calif.: Image Entertainment, 2002); Pandavas William Buck, The Mahabharata (Berkeley: University The five Pandava brothers, among whom ARJUNA of California Press, 1975); J. A. B. van Buitenen, The and YUDHISHTHIRA are best known, are central Mahabharata, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago characters in the great Indian epic the MAHAB- Press, 1973–78). HARATA. Their name is a patronymic derived from their father’s name, Pandu. Through Pandu they descend from the ancient king Kuru and the Panikkar, Raimundo See CHRISTIAN-HINDU more ancient progenitor BHARATA. Although they RELATIONS.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 322 12/14/06 9:29:12 AM , Swami 323 J

papa library and was introduced to the spirituality of In the KARMA system, papa is karmic demerit, Sri RAMAKRISHNA. He visited the RAMAKRISHNA often translated as “sin.” All Hindu and Buddhist MATH AND MISSION at near Calcutta traditions used this term, which is the opposite of (Kolkata) and studied the life of the Bengali saint. or karmic merit. An accumulation of papa In 1900, only four years after the death of Ramak- over a lifetime causes a rebirth into a status that rishna, Suresh ran away from home and joined accords with the sin. The various types of papa, or the monastery. In 1902 he was initiated into the sins, are detailed in the texts on proper conduct or renounced life of sannyas by Swami VIVEKANANDA, DHARMA. MANU’S DHARMASHASTRA, for example, has student of Sri Ramakrishna and founder of the long lists of sins and transgressions. In the Indian Ramakrishna Math and Mission. context, however, there is no universal notion of Paramananda then spent four years in Madras sin. Instead, sin is determined by one’s social place (Chennai) with Swami Ramakrishnananda. While and rank. there he received a vision of a mission to the West. A BRAHMIN committing a crime, for instance, In 1906 he accompanied will not be punished in any way as strictly as a to New York and served as his assistant at the SHUDRA (person of the servant class) would be for . He succeeded Abhedananda as the same crime. On the other hand, a Brahmin director of the New York Vedanta Center and later who would use alcohol or eat beef would be seen founded Vedanta centers in Boston and Washing- to be committing a much greater sin than a Shu- ton, D.C. While in New York, he became close to dra who did. Sister Devamata (Laura Franklin Glenn) (1867– 1942), who in the 1920s published his biography. Further reading: Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith, He traveled widely and was a popular and sensi- trans., The Laws of Manu (New York: Penguin Books, tive spokesman for the message of VEDANTA. 1991); Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Karma and Rebirth As was his teacher Vivekananda, he was com- in Classical Indian Traditions (Berkeley: University of mitted to including women in the spiritual life. California Press, 1980). His first disciple, Sister Devamata, was given considerable responsibility for giving talks and spiritual guidance when he was away. Her talks Paramananda, Swami (1884–1940) pioneer were published along with those of Paramananda. teacher of Vedanta in the United States Some of the Boston students regarded her, rather was a leading teacher of than the SWAMI, as their spiritual teacher. Another Vedanta in the United States. He founded the of his students, Sister Daya (Georgina Jones Wal- ANANDA ASHRAMA AND VEDANTA CENTRE, which ton) (1882–1955), as did Sister Devamata, gave carried on his teachings, including his respect for talks and spiritual guidance when Paramananda women as spiritual leaders. was not in town. Born on February 5, 1884, to an affluent East Beginning in 1915, Paramananda began to Bengali family in the village of Banaripara in lecture and teach in Los Angeles, dividing his time what is now Bangladesh, Suresh Chandra Guhu between that city and Boston. In 1923 he opened Thakurta, the person who would later become the Ananda Ashrama at La Crescenta, California, Swami Paramananda, was cherished by his par- and in 1929 opened a second ashram at Cohasset, ents, Brahmamoyee and Ananda Mohan. His Massachusetts. mother died when Suresh was only nine years old. Swami Paramananda died on June 21, 1940, When his father’s second wife died, Suresh turned at his Cohasset, Massachusetts, center. During his to an inner search. He began to read in his father’s life, his three centers, in Boston, La Crescenta, and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 323 12/14/06 9:29:12 AM K 324 paramatman

Cohasset, were closely associated with the larger associated with the founding of the areas demar- Vedanta Society in the United States, although cated by the Indian state of Kerala. organizationally independent. Since his death, the The story goes that ARJUNA, hero of the leadership of the ASHRAM has been held by women: MAHABHARATA, seized a cow from , the Sister Devamata, Srimata Gayatri Devi, and Sister father of . When the son returned Sudha. The three centers, distrusting the attitude to his father’s hermitage, he became furious and of some swamis toward women, refused to accept went out after the great hero. In a dreadful and the new swamis sent by the Ramakrishna Math to bloody battle he eventually beheaded Arjuna. lead their community. They applied to the Rama- The sons of Arjuna, bent on revenge, went to krishna Math to be allowed to operate as a sister- the hermitage and killed Jamadagni. The furious hood, but no such permission was granted. In Parasurama determined to extirpate the war- 1953 the Sarada Math, an order of women nuns, rior race once and for all. This is when he first was founded in India, finally allowing women in launched his 22 campaigns. the Ramakrishna-Vedanta tradition to take vows In another story, Parasurama’s mother went to of renunciation. When the Paramananda com- fetch water and became enamored of a king bath- munity still refused to accept new male swamis as ing there. So enthralled was she that she forgot leaders, the parent order severed relations. to return to do her requisite sacrifices. When she The Cohasset center and Ananda Ashrama finally returned, Jamadagni ordered his sons to kill continue to conduct daily shrine worship, give their mother. When they refused, he ordered Para- public services and classes, and publish Para- shurama to kill both his brothers and his mother. mananda’s books. Knowing the power of his father, he did as ordered and received a boon in return. His wish, ironically, Further reading: Sister Devamata, Swami Paramananda was that his brothers and mother be restored to and His Work, 2 vols. (La Crescenta, Calif.: Ananda life and that he forget all that had occurred. His Ashrama, 1926 and 1941); Sara Ann Levinsky, A Bridge father agreed. Other versions of this matricidal of Dreams: The Story of Paramananda, a Modern Mystic, story are found in Indian folk tradition. and His Ideal of All-Conquering Love (West Stockbridge, Mass.: Lindisfarne Press, 1984); Swami Paramananda, Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Christ and Oriental Ideals (Boston: Vedanta Centre, Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the 1912); ———, The Path of Devotion (Boston: Vedanta Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Centre, 1907); ———, Emerson and Vedanta (Boston: Press, 1978); John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Vedanta Centre, 1918). Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, 1974); Swami Bangovind Parampanthi, Bhagawan Parshuram paramatman See VEDANTA. and Evolution of Culture in North- (Delhi: Daya Publishing House, 1987).

Parashurama avatar Parashurama was an incarnation of VISHNU who Parshvanath (c. 900 B.C.E.) Tirthankara in the fought the warrior class, who had tried to lord it Jain tradition over the Brahmins. It is said that Parasurama has Parshvanath was the 23rd TIRTHANKARA (saint) of wielded his fierce axe 22 times in different eras to our cosmic half-era, in the Jain tradition (see JAIN- destroy all the warriors on Earth—however, a few ISM). MAHAVIRA, the partly historical promulgator always managed to escape. Parashurama is also of Jain tradition, was the 24th and last for our

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 324 12/14/06 9:29:12 AM Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari, Sri 325 J

When that life ended he descended into the womb of Vama Devi, the wife of a king of the warrior caste, in the city of BENARES (Varanasi). It is said that on the night he was born the world was bright with the ascending and descending of gods and goddesses with sounds of beings inquiring what grand event was taking place. Possessed of immense knowledge and faith, at the age of 30 Parshva took up the life of a renun- ciant, giving away his massive princely wealth to indigents. Outside the city in a park under an Ashoka tree he took off his finery and pulled out his hair in five handfuls (the custom when one becomes a Jain monk). He began vows of severe fasting and joined the community of homeless monks. For 83 days, they say, he gave up the care of his body completely and bore every hardship as though it were not hardship. He adopted all the circumspect practices of the monk—careful movement, measured speech, guarded desires, restraint of his mind and physical activities—so as to leave the ego behind completely. During these 83 days he reached omniscience and pro- ceeded to terminate the bonds of KARMA. Eight major followers joined him and he created a Parshvanath, 23rd Jain Tirthankara of this era, in community of 350 monks, which grew and Benares (Varanasi) (Constance A. Jones) grew as his perfection affected more and more people. After 70 years as an omniscient being, he adopted the vow of taking food without water half-era. There are indications that Parsvanath, once a month on Mount Sammeta and became too, was a historical figure, who preached an perfected (a SIDDHA) and liberated, his soul going early version of the Jain doctrine of strict worldly to the top of the universe to dwell in effulgence renunciation and very strict noninjury to crea- forever. tures as the only means to liberation from birth and rebirth. Further reading: P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification The Kalpa Sutra of (c. 500 C.E.) (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Kastur Chand Lal- of the SHVETAMBARA Jains tells the story of the life wani, Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu Svami (Delhi: Motilal of Parshvanath. It is said that he lived as a house- Banarsidass, 1979). holder for 30 years, as a monk for 83 nights, and as an omniscient being for a little less than 70 years, for a total of 100 years. Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari, Sri In his previous life Parshvanath was a divinity (1927– ) teacher of in heaven (in the Jain tradition one cannot reach Sri Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari is the leader of liberation as a divinity, but only as a human). the SRI RAM CHANDRA MISSION.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 325 12/14/06 9:29:12 AM K 326 Parvati/Uma

Born in 1927 near Madras (Chennai) in the ignores all of Parvati’s seductions. The gods send village of Vayalur, the boy who was to become the god of love to make Shiva lustful, but Shiva Sri Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari became devoted opens his third eye and destroys him. at age 18 to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, Parvati then sets out on a quest to gain Shiva’s and experienced a spiritual awakening as he read love by doing austerities of her own. She does the ancient book. He went on to graduate from the most difficult austerities, such as standing with a B.S. and followed on one leg for many years, and gains great merit. a career as a chemical engineer and executive until The gods, noticing the tremendous power that his retirement in 1985. Parvati is accruing, ask Shiva to grant her wish to In 1964 he discovered Sri Maharaj RAM CHAN- marry him. Shiva, impressed by Parvati’s devotion DRA and became a student of sahaja (spontaneous and steadfastness, agrees to marry her. The mar- or innate) YOGA as the teaching had been handed riage is often described, depicted, and enacted in down from Sri Ram’s guru, Sri Ram Chandraji of Indian literature and tradition. All the gods take Fategarh. part in the wedding party. The stories all include Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari, referred to as a humorous interlude when Shiva’s mother-in-law, Chariji, travels widely teaching a message of spiri- Mena, is outraged at his ascetic appearance—he is tual awakening and enlightenment through sahaja smeared with ashes from the cremation ground, yoga. He conducts public seminars throughout and wears a garland made of a serpent and other the world on a regular schedule. disreputable items. Shiva and Parvati go to live in Mount KAILASA. Further reading: Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari, The Some folklore shows Parvati as dissatisfied with Principles of Sahaj Marg, vol. 8 (Shahjahanpur: Shri living in a mountain cave instead of a proper Ram Chandra Mission, 1994); ———, Revealing the house. Nevertheless, the lovemaking of Shiva and Personality (Shahjahanpur: Shri Ram Chandra Mission, Parvati is so intense that it shakes the cosmos. 1993); ———, Role of the Master in Human Evolution One story recounts that Shiva’s amorous enthrall- (Munich: Shri Ram Chandra Mission, 1986). ment with Parvati turns all the animals, insects, and plants in the pleasure grove where they make love female. A hapless king who enters the grove Parvati/Uma also turns into a woman, although he wins a In Hindu mythology Parvati (she who belongs to partial remission of this condition. (He is only the mountains) is the daughter of HIMAVAT and required to be female half of any month.) Mena, and the wife of the ascetic god SHIVA. She As fate would have it, just as Shiva is about to is considered the REINCARNATION of Shiva’s first impregnate Parvati, the gods interrupt them and wife, SATI. She also goes by the name Uma. The his semen flies off, leaping from one container to first textual mention of Parvati/Uma is in the another till it finds a safe place only in the GANGES KENA UPANISHAD (c. 600 B.C.E.). Many scholars River, which thus becomes the mother of Shiva’s believe that Parvati was a mountain goddess of the son, KARTIKKEYA. GANESHA, a second son, is born in indigenous, non-Aryan people of India who was a similarly unconventional way: Parvati rubs her absorbed into the Brahminical tradition. arms, covered with sweet powder, before her bath; Parvati is born, according to most stories, to takes the residue; and forms a child of it. Parvati lure Shiva away from asceticism so that he will then has the child guard her bath (sometimes produce a son. The gods are desperate for this to bedchamber). Unknowingly, Shiva encounters the happen, since only a son of Shiva can kill the oth- child and thinks it an intruder. He cuts its head erwise invincible demon Taraka. However, Shiva off. When Parvati emerges she chastises Shiva

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 326 12/14/06 9:29:13 AM Periya Puranam 327 J

and has him find another head immediately. In a (anjali) of either Panini himself or his mother, rush he gets a newly severed elephant head, and Gonika, or fell from her womb (anjali) (the word thus the younger son Ganesha has the head of an anjali has many meanings). Patanjali is sometimes elephant. also referred to as Gonikaputra (son of Gonika). Parvati is often said to play dice with Shiva, Iconographically, Patanjali is depicted with the and she always wins. She argues with him about lower body of a snake and a canopy of five serpent his constant smoking of marijuana (a staple of heads over his head. He is shown offering anjali Shaivite mendicants). Some stories connect Par- MUDRA with his palms joined. This clearly refers to vati with KALI, saying that she was originally dark the second element of his name. in color but because of Shiva’s teasing she changed to a light color. In other stories, Parvati is actually Further reading: Georg Feuerstein, trans., The Yoga- the left half of Shiva in his form as ARDHANARISH- Sutra of Patanjali (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions, VARA. As with other female divinities, Parvati is 1990); F. Kielhorn, and Patanjali: Their Rela- sometimes conflated with the great goddess or tion to Each Other and to Panini (Varanasi: Indological creator and protector of all the universe; she gains Book House, 1963); Baij Nath Puri, India in the Time of supremacy in some mythological contexts. Patanjali (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1957); Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsid- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van eration of Classical Yoga (Albany: State University of Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the New York Press, 1998). Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); John Stratton Hawley and Donnie Marie Wulff, eds., The Divine Consort: Radha and the Goddesses Periya Puranam of India (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986); David R. Kinsley, The Tamil Periya Puranam of SEKKILAR forms the Hindu Goddesses (Berkeley: University of California 12th and final book of the TIRUMURAI, the Tamil Press, 1988). Shaivite sacred canon. Periya Puranam means “Great Purana,” or great ancient story. It com- prises over 4,200 stanzas. See SHIVA. Composed in the 12th century, the book tells the stories of the 63 NAYANMARS or Shaivite saints. These stories were originally recorded by the Patanjali (c. second century B.C.E.) author of eighth-century poet SUNDARAR in the Tondartokai, Yoga Sutra or “compendium of the lives of the saints.” At In Indian tradition two books are ascribed to royal order the list of saints was expanded in the Patanjali: the Mahabhashya (the primary com- 10th century by Nambi Andar Nambi. Sekkilar, a mentary to the grammar of Panini) and the com- minister of the Chola empire, provides the most mentary on the YOGA SUTRA. Western scholarship, complete compendium in his Periya Puranam. It however, dates the first work to around 200 B.C.E., is said that he was inspired to create the work to and the Yoga Sutra to around 200 C.E., making it wean the Chola king Anapaya Chola away from impossible for the two Patanjalis to be the same. reading the highly erotic but heretical Jain text Tradition has it that Patanjali was an incarna- Jivaka . Sekkilar is said to have recited tion of the divine serpent ADISHESHA, upon whom this work at the Shaivite sacred shrine of CHID- VISHNU reclines between ages on the MILK OCEAN. AMBARAM. Patanjali’s name, it is said, is from this serpent, The book has 13 chapters. The longest story is which in very tiny form fell (pat) onto the palm about Sambanthar (1256 quatrains), followed by

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 327 12/14/06 9:29:13 AM K 328 pilgrimage

the account of Appar (429 verses). The writing fol- sacred mountains, and sacred groves to obtain lows a simple lively style and was probably designed spiritual benefits; others go to achieve the worldly to be sung. It contains beautiful descriptions of each benefits that can also accrue from visiting a holy saint’s village or town; the longer stories dwell on place. Women commonly vow to visit the shrine the of the saints. of a certain saint or god in order to have a child, especially a son. Some may visit a shrine and Further reading: G. Vanmikinathan, Periya Puranam, shave their heads there in order to win success at a Tamil Classic on the Great Saiva Saints of South India an exam or important business deal. (Madras: Ramakrishna Math, 1985); Kamil V. Zvelibil, All sects in Hinduism do pilgrimage. SHAIVITES, “Tamil Literature,” in Jan Gonda, ed., The History of SHAKTAS, and VAISHNAVITES alike have myriad Indian Literature, Vol. 10, Fascicle 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto important sites. Vaishnavites target the many Harrassowitz, 1974). places where RAMA or KRISHNA visited or lived, as well as the many temples where other forms of VISHNU are enshrined. Mathura, BRINDAVAN, pilgrimage and DVARAKA are particularly important for the Visiting holy sites is one of the central activities devotees of Krishna, while is visited as in Hinduism. Many pilgrims visit shrines, rivers, the birthplace of Rama. Shaivites visit the many

Religious mendicants on pilgrimage in Sonnamarg, Kashmir (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 328 12/14/06 9:29:13 AM pollution/purity 329 J

temples and shrines with SHIVA LINGAM, in addi- A solemn ceremony mimicking an actual mar- tion to many other temples to Shiva that can riage ceremony is performed, often before an be pilgrimage destinations. SHAKTAS or goddess entire village. Sometimes the tree is also invested worshippers have 53 shrines where parts of the with the sacred thread, as a BRAHMIN is. The tree goddess are said to have fallen when she was cut plays a role in certain brahminical rituals, and into pieces. sometimes in marriage ceremonies. Branches of Among important pilgrimage cities are Gaya, pipal wood were used in the VEDIC fire ritual. It BENARES (Varanasi), HARIDVAR, and . Impor- was under a pipal tree that the BUDDHA reached tant rivers are GANGES, YAMUNA, Godavari, Nar- his enlightenment. Many legends, myths, and mada, and CAUVERY. stories in Indian literature refer to events and Perhaps the most significant pilgrimage site occurrences that take place under this, the most for Hindus is Benares. The primary aim of pil- sacred of Indian trees. grims in Benares is to bathe in the holy Ganges, which is said to confer heaven upon those who Further reading: James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent bathe in her. People nearing the end of their lives Worship (Delhi: Oriental, 1971); P. Thomas, Hindu often go there, so that their ashes can be thrown Religion Customs and Manners, 3d ed. (Bombay: D. B. into the river, and they can reach liberation from Taraporevala Sons, 1956). birth and rebirth.

Further reading: Anne Feldhaus, Connected Places: pitri See ANCESTOR WORSHIP. Region, Pilgrimage and Geographical Imagination in India (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Baidyanath Saraswati, Traditions of Tirthas in India: The Anthropol- pollution/purity ogy of Hindu Pilgrimage (Varanasi: N. K. Bose Memorial Pollution and purity have been important social Foundation, 1983); Man Mohan Sharma, : Pilgrim- and religious concepts in Hinduism from ancient ages in the Western Himalayas (Noida: Trishul, 1989). times. Pollution often entails substances related to birth, death, blood, bodily processes, and leftover food. pingala See NADI. The concepts of purity and pollution are cen- tral to the notion of caste in India. People whose traditional occupations put them in contact with pipal tree leather, dead animals, toilets and sewers, and The fig or pipal tree is foremost among the sacred sweeping (leftover substances) are usually con- trees of Indian tradition. This lush tree can grow sidered outcastes or UNTOUCHABLES (Dalit). At the to a huge size with a large canopy. It has large, other social extreme are BRAHMINS, who never rather thin leaves that make a rustling sound in have contact with such substances and, ide- a breeze, which tradition compares to the sound ally, deal only with learning, books, or temple of the lute or veena. No one is allowed to cut rituals. They are considered pure. Middle castes, down, remove branches, or tear off leaves from which sometimes have contact with polluting a pipal tree. substances in their traditional work, have an Some associate the pipal tree particularly intermediate purity status. For example, barbers, with VISHNU, who is said to have been born under who have contact with bodily substances as they one. Often a pipal tree is officially “married” to cut people’s hair, are seen as lower caste, though a margosa tree when they are planted together. not untouchable.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 329 12/14/06 9:29:13 AM K 330

For Brahmins, purity is maintained by tradi- the Sun enters the sign of Capricorn. Pongal is a tion and occupation and reinforced by vegetari- celebration of the harvest, which in Tamil Nadu anism. In Vedic times Brahmins were avid meat occurs when the rainy season ends in December. eaters and even ate beef. As the traditional spe- The word Pongal is from the Tamil root pongu, cialists in ritual sacrifice, they were entitled to the which means to boil. During the festival, a pot is leftover meat from each animal offering. filled with rice, , milk, and sugar or As new ideas of purity began to develop, (palm sugar) and is heated to boiling. The pot Brahmins became the strictest vegetarians, even is supposed to boil over to show the abundance eschewing eggs in most regions of India. When of the harvest. The day before Pongal old imple- they became the measure of purity, those who ments and clothing are discarded to be replaced did eat meat were given lower status. Because by new ones. On this day cows and other cattle of their purity, Brahmins may offer cooked food are directly worshipped and are allowed to run to anyone; thus, they are often hired as cooks in free. Bullfights are staged, and young men chase restaurants. Conversely, Brahmins can accept food wild bulls, in a somewhat gentler version of the from and eat together with only a very limited running of the bulls in Pamplona, . group of people, their own subcaste of Brahmins. Commensality—eating food together—is a sign of Further reading: M. Arunachalam, Festivals of Tamil an equal level of purity. People who by tradition Nadu (Tiruchitrambalam: Gandhi Vidyalayam, 1980); have different levels of purity traditionally would Anita Ganeri, Hindu Festivals throughout the Year not eat in the same place or from the same source. (Mankato, Minn.: Smart Apple Media, 2003). Furthermore, any food that has been eaten by anyone else is highly polluting, unless that person is one’s infant child or husband; beef is always Pongala considered the most impure and reviled of foods. Pongala, which means “prosperity,” is a 10-day In villages, different castes still draw water from festival celebrated at the Amma Temple different wells. in Tiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in Kerala. In social contexts feet are considered the most It begins in the month of Kumbham (February– polluting body part and must never touch some- March). The main festival ritual, the boiling of one else. However, people do touch the feet of a rice in a pot, is connected to the Sunday ritual to mother, father, elder brother, GURU, or god out of the Sun in ancient Dravidian culture, and to the honor, respect, or worship. Any association with Tamil New Year celebration of Pongal, which has a blood or death is considered polluting. similar name because the basic ritual is the same. The Pongala ritual has become the largest gather- Further reading: G. Morris Carstairs, The Twice-Born ing of women for festival purposes in the world. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967); Brian A high point of the festival is the recitation K. Smith, Classifying the Universe: The Ancient Indian of the song of Kannaki, found in classical form System and the Origins of Caste (New York: in the ancient Tamil text Cilappatikaram. In this Oxford University Press, 1994). version, a boy is sacrificed and Kannaki tears off a breast to destroy the city of Madurai. On the ninth day, when the boy is sacrificed and Kannaki Pongal tears off her breast, the Pongala ritual fire is lit Pongal is an important festival in the Tamil region, in the temple. All the women who are gathered celebrated in the Tamil month of Tai (Janu- simultaneously light their fires to cook rice. The ary–February). Technically, the month starts when overflow of the rice pot (or, in the case of BRAH-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 330 12/14/06 9:29:14 AM Poonja, Sri Harilal 331 J

MINS, the near overflow) indicates that the woman has received the grace of the goddess. No men are directly involved. As part of the festival young boys ritually (and painlessly) pierce their skin with silver needles, to honor the goddess Attukal Amma. Unmar- ried girls under the age of 12 offer plates of rice, , areca nut, and flowers to the goddess, to ensure that they remain healthy and protected.

Further reading: Dianne Jenett, “Red Rice for Bhaga- vati: Pongala Ritual at the in Kerala,” ReVision 20, no. 3 (1998): 37–43. Vikraman Kok- kanathala, The Glory of Attukal. Translated by Kamala Bai (: Sunce Publishing Division, 1997); K. R. Vaidyanathan, Temples and Legends of Kerala (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1994).

Poonja, Sri Harilal (Poonjaji, Papaji) (1910–1997) teacher of enlightenment Sri Harilal Poonja was a prominent spiritual teacher in Lucknow who had a number of influ- Sri Harilal Poonja (Poonjaji), teacher of advaita Vedanta ential students. (Courtesy of Eli Jaxon-Bear) Born on October 13, 1910, in an area of the Punjab now a part of Pakistan, H. W. L. Poonja was part of a family of devotees. His mother was Pradesh, where he worked as a salesman and min- a devoted follower of the Lord KRISHNA, and his ing manager. He later became a revered teacher in maternal uncle was TIRTHA, a cel- Lucknow, giving daily satsangs (teachings). His ebrated saint. At age eight, the boy had his first home and a nearby community building have transcendental experience, became a devotee of been visited by hundreds of spiritual seekers and Lord Krishna, and began a MANTRA practice day students. The main characteristic of his teaching and night. was his capacity to awaken seekers to their true At age 20, he entered into an arranged mar- Self in his presence. The American teachers of riage and later had two children. He served in the enlightenment GANGAJI and Andrew COHEN are army for less than two years, leaving to pursue two of his best-known students. his spiritual quest. While living in his father’s In 1993, the Foundation was set up house with his wife and children, he received to further the teachings of Poonjaji and to archive a vision of Bhagavan Sri RAMANA MAHARSHI, and distribute audiotapes and videotapes of meet- an enlightened master, who directed him to ings with him. He died in Lucknow on September Ramana’s ashram in Tiruvannamalai in southern 6, 1997. India. During the partition of India, Poonjaji moved Further reading: David , Nothing Ever Happened: his family from the Punjab to Lucknow, Uttar Biography of H. W. L. Poonja, 3 vols. (Boulder, Colo.:

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 331 12/14/06 9:29:14 AM K 332

Avadhuta Foundation, 1993); H. W. L. Poonja, Wake Up Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadel- and Roar: Satsang with H. W. L. Poonja (Kula, Hawaii: phia: Temple University Press, 1978); John Dowson, A Pacific Center, 1992). Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, 1974). Prahlada Prahlada, son of the demon HIRANYAKASHIPU, whom VISHNU slew in his “man-lion” incarnation Prajapati (NARASIMHA), is known as one of the great devo- Prajapati, “lord of all born beings,” was a Vedic tees of Vishnu. divinity of some importance. In the period of the The story goes that Prahlada would admit, BRAHMANAS his status rose even higher, as he was upon being questioned by his demonic father ritually identified with the cosmic PURUSHA, the in his father’s court, that he was a devotee of source of all reality. Vishnu, his father’s sworn enemy. At one point, In the Rig Veda, the cosmic Purusha allowed Hiranyakashipu became enraged and ordered his himself to be dismembered to create all reality. courtiers to kill his “traitorous” son. But God This story was ritually reenacted each year in protected Prahlada, who was not harmed by the the AGNICHAYANA—the ritual building of the fire many weapons thrown at him. Further enraged, —but in the ritual Prajapati’s name is substi- Hiranyakashipu commanded serpents to fall upon tuted for Purusha’s. Prajapati retained his aggran- his disobedient son. The serpents too could not dized status in the UPANISHADS, but in later Hindu harm him. mythology he reverts to the status of “lord of all Then Prahlada was made to endure the crush- born beings.” In some cases, BRAHMA, the creator ing feet of celestial elephants and again was god, takes on his role. unharmed. Hiranyakashipu then sent ferocious fire upon his son, to no effect, followed by equally Further reading: Jan Gonda, Prajapati’s Relations with inefficacious poison and a fiery magical female Brahman, Brihaspati and Brahma (Amsterdam: North being. Summoned to the court to explain how Holland, 1989); Frits Staal, C. V. Somayajipad, and M. he had survived these ordeals, Prahlada claimed Itti Nambudri, Agni: The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar no work of magic but only the blessing of Lord (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986). Vishnu. His father resumed his efforts, having the son thrown from the top of the palace and having an enchanter put a deadly spell on him; prakriti neither attempt succeeded. Prahlada was tossed to In the list of 24 categories of reality in SAMKHYA the bottom of the ocean and covered with rocks; and YOGA, prakriti refers to nature or the phenom- he did not die. Somehow after all this the father enal universe. It is seen as an eternal reality that and son were reconciled, though the son con- always existed and always will exist. That is to say, tinued to testify that he had Vishnu “within his phenomenal reality is not a created entity but is an heart.” When Vishnu eventually killed his father, eternal real that always was and always will be. Prahlada became the head of the demons. Prakriti is seen as an unconscious force that creates and dissolves universes; when a universe Further reading: A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prab- is dissolved, prakriti becomes an inert unmanifest hupada, Transcendental Teachings of Prahlada reality, which will once again come forward to (Los Angeles: , 1991); Corne- produce a new creation. The task of Samkhya and lia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu most yogas is to learn how to dissociate the intel-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 332 12/14/06 9:29:14 AM pranayama 333 J

lect, the highest discriminatory faculty, as much scripture. The , the Indian materialists, as possible from the whirl of prakriti, phenomenal believed that only direct perception or existence. was valid and there is no point in trying to draw This task requires the devotee to develop an any conclusions by analogy or any other way. The immunity of sorts to the pulls and pushes of mani- MIMAMSA school, on the other hand, saw shruti or fest reality. Meditative practice and other yogic the Vedic scripture to be the most important pra- practices are designed to firm up the discrimina- mana. NYAYA-VAISHESHIKA, the most philosophical tive faculty against the pull of the fluctuations school, strongly relied on inference, or anumana. of reality. A yogi learns not to be influenced by either the good or the bad that comes her or his Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, The History of Indian way, but to remain calm and steady in the face of Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1971–75); R. I. all phenomena. When the highest discrimination Inagalalli, Sabda , an Epistemological Analysis () is awakened in the intellect, then the (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1988). dormant consciousness or PURUSHA becomes fully aware that it is not of the stuff of prakriti or nature but is a conscious eternal entity of its own sort. prana Then occurs release from prakriti and the cycles Prana is the vital air or life’s breath. According of birth and rebirth, though one may remain in a to older yogic theory there are five breaths or bodily state afterward. . The breathing breath is called prana; the breath that goes downward out the anus is called Further reading: Knut A. Jacobsen, Prakrti in Samkhya- apana (but sometimes apana is used to refer to Yoga: Material Principle, , Ethical the “out-breath” in contrast to the “in-breath” Implications (New York: Peter Lang, 1999); Gerald of prana); the digestive breath is called samana; Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, eds., Encyclo- the breath that is diffused throughout the whole pedia of Indian Philosophies: Samkhya a Dualist Tradition body is called vyana; and the breath that goes in Indian Philosophy, vol. 4 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton up the throat and enters into the head is called University Press, 1987); Kapila Vatsyayan, ed., Prakrti: udana. These five breaths, or pranas, resemble the The Integral Vision, 5 vols. (New Delhi: humors of earlier Western medicine. National Centre for the Arts, 1995). Further reading: Benimadhab Barua, A History of Pre- Buddhistic Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsi- pralaya See TIME IN HINDU TRADITION. dass, 1970); Swami Naranjananda Saraswati, Prana, Pranayama, Prana Vidya (Munger: Bihar School of Yoga, 1994). pramana A pramana is a criterion for valid argument in Indian philosophy. From its earliest days Indian pranayama philosophy sought to delimit the grounds upon Pranayama (lit. breath control) is one of the which valid argument could be made. Different elements in the eightfold path of YOGA found philosophical schools varied widely as to which in PATANJALI’s YOGA SUTRA and other sources. grounds they accepted, but they all had from one Watching the breath is an element of virtually to six or more explicit . every yoga that emerged in India, whether Hindu, Examples of pramanas are pratyaksha, or direct Buddhist, or Jain. The practice of PRANAYAMA is perception; ANUMANA, or inference; and SHRUTI, or one of not only focusing on the breath but learn-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 333 12/14/06 9:29:14 AM K 334 Prana Yoga Ashram

ing to control it in its three phases of inhalation (asanas) and the practice of PRANAYAMA (regulation (puraka), exhalation (recaka), and suspension of of breathing patterns). Through a prescribed pattern breath between the two (kumbhaka). Each must of breathing and bodily postures, prana or spiritual be controlled so that the three fill equal durations energy is generated and dispersed throughout the of time. One must gradually develop the ability to nervous system. The effect is cleansing, healing, prolong all three. and energizing to the entire body. The ashrams publish the periodical Prana Further reading: Swami Narayananda, The Secrets of Yoga Life through their headquarters in Berkeley, Prana, Pranayama and Yoga-Asanas, 5th rev. ed. (Gyl- California. ling, Denmark: Narayanananda Universal Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979); Swami Naranjananda Saraswati, Further reading: Prana Yoga Centers, International. Prana, Pranayama, Prana Vidya (Munger: Bihar School Available online. URL: http://www.proliberty.com/ of Yoga, 1994). pranayoga/. Accessed August 16, 2005; Swami Sival- ingam, Wings of Divine Wisdom (Berkeley, Calif.: Prana Yoga Ashrams, 1977). Prana Yoga Ashram (est. 1975) Prana Yoga Ashram is one of several centers founded by Swami Vignanananda (Who Has the prasada Bliss of Wisdom), who represents the lineage of Prasada (to sit inclined toward someone) means Swami SHIVANANDA of Rishikesh. “grace.” It derives theologically from VAISHNAVISM Swami Vignanananda (previously known as but is used in other contexts as well. In theistic Swami Sivalingam), a devotee of Swami SHIVANAN DA Hinduism the grace of God can free one from the Saraswati, was born in Thinnanore, Trichy Dis- bonds of KARMA, the cycle of birth and rebirth. trict, in Tamil Nadu on June 14, 1932. He stud- Also, grace can give one blessings in life. ied with Shivananda at his Yoga Vedanta Forest Grace can be conferred by visible means in a Academy on the banks of the GANGES River in number of ways. Most commonly food or flow- Rishikesh, beginning his spiritual journey there ers will be offered to the divinity in a temple or with four years of intense study of HATHA YOGA, shrine; once the deity has partaken of and blessed from 1959 to 1963. the offering, it is distributed to devotees and called Upon leaving the academy, he began mission prasada. Another very common way of receiving work outside India to disseminate the teaching grace is from the arati lamp or PUJA lamp that is and practice of Sivananda. In 1963, he left on a waved before the divinity. One can put one’s hands mission to Asia, establishing Cen- over the flame and then touch one’s head and/or ters in Japan and Hong Kong. After teaching in face to receive the blessing of the divinity. Things Japan for 10 years, he entered the United States in given to a person by a guru or other religious per- 1973 and founded the Prana Yoga Foundation in sonage also can confer grace. In fact, any object 1974, the Prana Yoga Ashram in Berkeley in 1975, placed before an icon in order to be blessed may the Prana Yoga Center in 1976, and the Ayodhy- be given prasada, or grace. anagar Retreat in 1977. During 1975 he traveled to Canada and established his work there. In all, Further reading: R. N. Dandekar, “God in Hindu he established nine centers in North America. Thought,” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Vignanananda has passed on the synthesis Institute 48–49 (1968), 433–625; , of yoga teachings he learned at the academy. His A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State University of New teaching centers on HATHA YOGA with its postures York Press, 1994); Richard Lannoy, The Speaking Tree:

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 334 12/14/06 9:29:14 AM PROUT 335 J

A Study of Indian Culture and Society (London and New communism, the major economic systems of the York: Oxford University Press, 1971). 20th century. Sarkar suggested that both capitalism and communism had failed to address the mental and spiritual needs of humankind. He called for See YOGA SUTRA. a balance between more abstract concerns, such as economic growth, social development, and environmental sustainability, and individual and pratyaksha See PRAMANA. collective human interests. Sarkar assumed that humanity is heading toward the experience of a higher consciousness Prayag See ALLAHABAD. as part of the essence of the race’s evolution. Mate- rial and intellectual gains lose their significance unless accompanied by spiritual progress. He Premananda, Swami See SELF-REVELATION advocated a decentralized economy with decision CHURCH OF ABSOLUTE . making in the hands of local people. The democ- ratization of economic power implied that there would be strict limits on the individual accumula- prithivi tion of wealth. Prithivi is earth, one of the five ELEMENTS (mahab- Alongside the decentralization of economic hutas) of reality. The word is also a name of the life, Sarkar saw the need for a world governance earth goddess in the Vedas. In the RIG VEDA and system, including a global bill of rights, consti- ATHARVA VEDA prithivi, or the “Earth,” is called tution, and common penal code. Such a world the mother, while the sky is considered father. government would institute many of the values Together they are frequently called parents, or he advocated, such as guaranteed necessities of even the parents of the gods; frequently the Sun life for all people, moral and principled leaders is mentioned as their child. The Earth is seen as dedicated to the service of society, individual protecting, sustaining, and nourishing but is only freedom, cultural diversity, and equal rights for rarely referred to without reference to the sky. women. In later Hindu mythology the earth goddess was The PROUT system has gained some support called Devi. from a few intellectuals, but has yet to find imple- mentation on a large scale. Further reading: Ralph R. T. Griffith, The Rig Veda (New York: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992); Marta Van- Further reading: Ravi Batra, The Downfall of Capi- nucci, Ecological Readings in the Veda (New Delhi: D. K. talism and Communism: Can Capitalism Be Saved? Print World, 1994). (Richardson, Tex.: Liberty Press, 1990); ———, Great American Deception: What Politicians Won’t Tell You about Our Economy and Your Future (New York: John PROUT (est. 1959) & Sons, 1996); , After PROUT is an acronym for PROgressive Utilization Capitalism: PROUT’s Vision for a New World (Wash- Theory, a socioeconomic philosophy developed by ington, D.C.: Proutist Universal Publications, 2003); (1923–90), better known Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar, Universal : Selected to the world as Sri Sri ANANDAMURTI, the founder Social Writings of P. R. Sarkar. Edited by Timothy G. of the YOGA SOCIETY. Sarkar saw Anderson (Washington, D.C.: Proutist Universal Pub- PROUT as an alternative to both capitalism and lications, 1983).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 335 12/14/06 9:29:15 AM K 336 puja

puja seat to the divinity; greeting of the divinity; wash- Puja, or “worship,” is perhaps the central cer- ing of the feet of the divinity; rinsing of its mouth emonial practice of Hinduism. A puja minimally and hands; offering of water or a honey mixture; entails an offering and some MANTRAS. It can take pouring of water upon it; putting of clothing upon place at any site where worship can occur, either it (if it has not been already clothed for the day); of a divinity, a GURU, or SWAMI, a being, a person giving of perfume, flowers, , lamps, or (such as a wife, husband, brother, or sister), or food; ; and taking of leave. spirit. It can take place in a home or a temple, or In temples the iconic image of the divinity at a tree, river, or any other place understood to is always treated as a person of royalty would be be sacred. treated. Therefore, a puja will be done in early Incense, , flowers, leaves, water, and morning accompanied by songs to awaken the deity. sweets are the most common offerings in the puja. The deity is then bathed, dressed, and fed, and then Also, common is the arati or waving of a lighted more fully worshipped. Pujas go on throughout the lamp. The most elaborate puja, the temple puja day to the deity, as local traditions require. before the icon, includes the following elements In the Jain tradition temple puja is actively accompanied by the appropriate mantras (usually done only among the SHVETAMBARAS, but it can in SANSKRIT): invitation to the deity, offering of a take on a different aspect. When the puja is done to the main image of the temple, a TIRTHANKARA or ARHAT (saint), no grace can be expected in exchange, as the Tirthankara is a released being only and not a god. Shvetambara Jains do other pujas to subsidiary gods and goddesses and spiri- tual personages other than the , which can confer desired results.

Further reading: John Cort, Jains in the World: and Ideology in India (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 2001); Klaus Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); Donald S. Lopez, ed., Religions of India in Prac- tice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Hillary Peter Rodrigues, Ritual Worship of the Great God- dess: The Liturgy of the with Interpretations (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003).

punya Punya is karmic merit. Its opposite is PAPA, sin or karmic demerit. This is a pervasive and important concept in Indian culture. Punya originally was accrued by sponsoring or performing sacrifices, by giving to BRAHMINS, or by giving of appropriate Brahmin priest performing puja to Lord Vishnu, in charity to others. As Hinduism developed, fast- Belur, Bengal (Constance A. Jones) ing and pilgrimages became additional means of

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 336 12/14/06 9:29:15 AM puranas 337 J

Lord Krishna’s birthplace, where his puranic tale begins, in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh (Constance A. Jones)

acquiring punya, along with general good works. puranas Generally punya was accrued in order to gain a A purana is a story about the deeds and life of a better birth in the next life, although it could also divinity. These stories supply a rich backdrop to help in the longer path to liberation. The term Hinduism, and, together with the epics, the RAMA- is used in a general sense in the Jain tradition, YANA and MAHABHARATA, form the mythological too, where the term punya-karma is used to mean infrastructure of the culture. Jains have their own “wholesome karma.” puranic literature, but it dwells on the lives of the great teachers, the TIRTHANKARAS and other holy Further reading: Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith, personages who have broken the bonds of karma, trans., The Laws of Manu (New York: Penguin Books, rather than on the gods. 1991); Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Karma and Rebirth There are 18 traditional puranas in Hindu- in Classical Indian Traditions (Berkeley: University of ism, all written in SANSKRIT. Though their names California Press, 1980). could be taken to indicate a sectarian focus (as, for example, the ), most often they contain both SHAIVITE and Vaishnavite stories. At puraka See YOGA SUTRA. times stories outline the supremacy of the GODDESS,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 337 12/14/06 9:29:15 AM K 338 Pururavas and Urvashi

such as those in the Markandeya Purana, but even merged with the ultimate self, or ATMAN, these are juxtaposed with stories from the other when they achieved liberation. In current yoga, two sects. the term purusha is just another term for atman Included in the category of purana are very or “worldly self.” important local stories, usually in Sanskrit, but sometimes in local languages. In particular, the Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- Tamil language of South India contains many sto- losophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1971–75; ries like this. These sthala puranas, or puranas of Klaus Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State “place,” tell the origin stories of the vast number of University of New York Press, 1994); Heinrich Zimmer, local divinities who populate the Indian landscape. Philosophies of India (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer- An example of this would be the Tiruvilayadal sity Press, 1974). Puranam, written in Tamil in the 16th century, which tells the story of MINAKSHI from the Brah- minical point of view, showing how she became purusharthas See ENDS OF LIFE, FIVE. subordinated to SHIVA, who became her husband.

Further reading: Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopaedia: (c. 700 B.C.E.) A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the The Purvas are 14 (a language derived from Epic and Puranic Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, SANSKRIT) language works that are understood to 2002); David Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice be the original texts of the Jain canon; they are no and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition longer extant. BHADRABAHU (c. 300 B.C.E.) is said to (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980). be the last Jain teacher to know all 14 of these texts by heart. Brief descriptions of the Purvas appear in later literature. They must have included cosmol- Pururavas and Urvashi See APSARAS. ogy, speculations on the karmic substance that holds a soul in transmigration, polemics, astrology, astronomy, and disquisitions on esoteric powers purusha and YOGAs. The Purvas were transmitted orally The term purusha has two meanings. In the and preached by MAHAVIRA, the last TIRTHANKARA ancient RIG VEDA, X. 90, the Purusha (usually (saint) of our half-era. spelled in English with a capital P) is the divine being who existed before time and was sacrificed Further reading: Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jain Path of to create both the transcendent and the material Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990). realms. The major Vedic ritual, the AGNICHAYANA, was seen as a reenactment of this primordial cre- ation, and Purusha was seen as being sacrificed once again to mirror the myth. In that context the Pushan is a Vedic divinity associated with the Sun. Purusha began to be called PRAJAPATI. He is the guardian of travelers and herd animals. The second sense of the word purusha is found He is frequently linked in the VEDAS to SOMA in the SAMKHYA and YOGA traditions, where puru- (who in addition to being a divine drink taken by sha is the individual self. In the early understand- BRAHMINS at the Vedic ritual is also the god of the ing the purushas were infinite in number and all Moon). Pushan is known to be an escort on the eternally distinct from one another. In the later path to the next world. He is often listed as one of understanding, affected by VEDANTIC thinking, the the 12 ADITYAS.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 338 12/14/06 9:29:15 AM Pushkara 339 J

Further reading: Samuel Atkins, Pusan in the Rig Veda ing all other pilgrimage sites. The current shrine (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1941); Jan appears to have been built in the 1970s. It is Gonda, Pushan and Sarasvati (Amsterdam: North-Hol- known today for its huge annual camel festival, land, 1985). held on the full Moon in the month of Karttika (October–November). Thousands of camels are taken to the site to be consecrated, displayed, Pushkara and raced. Pushkara (Blue Lotus) is the site of the only large shrine to the god BRAHMA, the creator god. (A smaller Further reading: Tarapada Bhattacharya, The Cult shrine to Brahma exists at Itar on the border of Raja- of Brahma (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series sthan and Gujarat). It is located at a blue lotus pond Office, 1969); C. Cesary, Indian Gods, Sages and Cities near Ajmer in Rajasthan in western India. The site (Delhi: Mittal, 1987); Diwan Bahadur Har Bilas and was referred to in the MAHABHARATA as a place for P. Seshadri, Ajmer: Historical and Descriptive (Ajmer: the worship of Brahma; thus, it has probably been a Fine Art Printing Press, 1941); Chandra Miu- pilgrimage site for nearly 2,000 years. puria, Erwan Shrine and Brahma Worship in Thailand: Some sources consider Pushkara a premier With Reference to India and Nepal (Bangkok: Techpress pilgrimage place, visiting which is equal to visit- Service, 1987).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 339 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 340 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM R J: AF

Radha Krishna himself. In the Bengali Vaishnavite tradi- Radha is a popular female figure in Hindu mythol- tion, which eventually extended its influence to ogy and literature. She is usually presented as the BRINDAVAN and beyond, one has the sense that primary consort of KRISHNA; their passionate love Krishna too cannot exist without the love of has served as a spiritual model and inspiration in his counterpart. The devotee becomes, in effect, Indian culture. essential to God. Sometimes the tradition goes so Radha appears in association with Krishna in far as to say (in devotional hyperbole) that it is textual fragments dated as early as the third cen- better to worship the devotee than God himself. tury C.E., although she is not mentioned by name Occasionally, in the Vaishnavite tradition, in the authoritative (c. fifth century Radha is actually portrayed as Krishna’s wife and C.E.) or in the equally important PURANA partner. This attempt to sanitize their relation- (10th century C.E.). By the 12th century, however, ship distorts it: the power of their attraction is her role as Krishna’s consort was assured, as in the theologically understood to reside in her unavail- magnificent GITAGOVINDA of . ability: she is married to someone else. Krishna The more Krishna became associated in the and Radha are eternal paramours and not spouses. devotional literature with a divine “sweetness,” It should not go unsaid that Radha is not just a the more his sweet, poignant love of the cowherd cowherd woman, but the goddess herself. Some woman Radha and her reciprocal love became the elements of the great GODDESS (Mahadevi) can be guide for devotees to the god everywhere in India. found in her literary image. As the Gitagovinda describes Radha’s shifting moods of love, anticipation, pique, disappoint- Further reading: Edward C. Dimock, The Place of the ment, and eventual union, the writer evokes a Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava Sajiya passion that seems to extend to the elements of Cult of Bengal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, nature, the trees, the wind, and the Moon. Radha 1966); Lee Siegel, Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love is love incarnate. in the Indian Traditions as Exemplified in the Gitagovinda Theologically, the Gitagovinda presents Radha of Jayadeva (London: Oxford University Press, 1978); as an energy, a SHAKTI (the Hladini Shakti), of John Stratton Hawley, The Divine Consort: Radha and

341

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 341 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM K 342 Radha, Swami Shivananda

the Goddesses of India (Berkeley: Religious Studies Series After six months in Rishikesh, Swami Radha and Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982); Donna Marie returned to Canada at the request of her guru. Wulff, “Radha, Consort and Conqueror of Krishna,” In 1956 she formed the Shivananda Ashram in in John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, eds., Vancouver, British Columbia, which was later Devi: The Goddesses of India (Berkeley: University of to become the Yasodhara Ashram in Kootenay California Press, 1996). Bay, British Columbia. The ashram has served as a major center in the West for the teaching of KUNDALINI practices and has remained inde- Radha, Swami Shivananda (1911–1995) pendent of the various branches of Shivananda’s kundalini yoga teacher Divine Life Society. The German-born Swami Shivananda Radha Swami Radha’s teachings rely on practical helped to spread KUNDALINI YOGA and other Indian techniques that make spirituality accessible to teachings in Canada. She founded the Yasodhara modern everyday life. Kundalini and other forms Ashram Society in British Columbia, an important of yogic practice are used to direct individuals spiritual center. toward holistic development and independence. Sylvia Hellman was born in Berlin, Germany. Radha taught what she learned from encounters Before World War II, she established a success- with Babaji; her methods used visualized healing ful career as a dancer and writer. She and her and divine energy. She often merged yogic teach- husband helped the persecuted escape Nazi Ger- ings with Western psychology and symbolism, many during the war. Her husband eventually effecting an understanding between the Eastern lost his life in this cause. After the war Hellman and Western mind. remarried, but misfortune struck again when her The Yasodhara Ashram Society publishes an second husband had a sudden stroke and died internationally recognized yoga magazine called in 1949. Distraught over her losses, Hellman Ascent, which Swami Radha instituted in 1969. relocated to Montreal, Quebec, in 1951 with Timeless Books publishing company was estab- the intention of starting a new life. It was dur- lished by Radha in 1978. Located today in Spo- ing this period of mourning that Hellman began kane, Washington, Timeless Books publishes questioning the and pursuing works on kundalini, MEDITATION, mantras, and a spiritual practice. In 1954, while at the SELF- dream analysis. REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP, founded by Parama- In 1992, Swami Radha oversaw the comple- hansa YOGANANDA, she experienced a vision of tion of the Temple of Divine Light Dedicated to Swami SHIVANANDA SARASWATI. Feeling compelled All Religions located in Kootenay Bay. She also by this vision, she traveled to RISHIKESH, India, in founded the Association for the Development of 1955 to meet and study with the swami. After Human Potential, dedicated to helping individu- only a few months, Swami Shivananda gave her als achieve their spiritual path. Over 100 members MANTRA initiation and gave her the name Swami have joined the Yasodhara Ashram Society with Shivananda Radha. From that moment forward, affiliated centers called Radha houses located she devoted herself completely to studying throughout Europe and North America. The Indian wisdom and introducing what she had centers serve as a continuing resource for Swami learned to the West. While in Rishikesh, she Radha’s teachings. encountered the eternal yogi BABAJI, the famous guru in Yogananda’s line of KRIYA YOGA gurus, Further reading: Julie McKay, Glimpses of a Mystical and received an intense experience of light and Affair: Spiritual Experiences of Swami Sivananda Radha expanded consciousness. (Spokane, Wash.: Timeless Books, 1996); Swami Siva-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 342 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli 343 J

nanda Radha, Hatha Yoga: The Hidden Language: Sym- Radhakrishnan represented the University of bols, Secrets and Metaphor (Spokane, Wash.: Timeless Calcutta at the Congress of the Universities of the Books, 1995); ———, Kundalini Yoga for the West: A British Empire in June 1926 and the International Foundation for Character Building, Courage, and Aware- Congress of Philosophy at . ness (Spokane, Wash.: Timeless Books, 1993); ———, In 1929, he took a post at Manchester College, Mantras: Words of Power (Spokane, Wash.: Timeless Oxford, and from 1936 to 1939 served as Spald- Books, 1994); ———, Realities of the Dreaming Mind ing Professor of and Ethics at (Spokane, Wash.: Timeless Books, 1994). Oxford. In 1939, he was elected fellow of the Brit- ish Academy. From 1939 to 1948, he was the vice chancellor of Banaras Hindu University. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1888–1975) S. Radhakrishnan later held distinguished philosopher and political figure positions in government. He was the leader of the was one of the great phi- Indian delegation to UNESCO during 1946–52 losophers and thinkers of modern India. He wrote and served as ambassador to the Soviet Union in prolifically and held distinguished academic posi- 1949–52. He was the vice from tions in both . As was the 1952 to 1962 and the president of the General case for many of his compatriots, he participated Conference of UNESCO from 1952 to 1954. He in the movement for India’s independence and held the office of the chancellor at the University held several distinguished positions in the new of Delhi from 1953 to 1962. From May 1962 to government of independent India, including the May 1967, he was the president of India. Sarve- post of president of India. palli Radhakrishnan passed away on April 17, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was born on Sep- 1975. In India, September 5 (his birthday) is cel- tember 5, 1888, at Tiruttani, near Madras (Chen- ebrated as Teacher’s Day in his honor. nai), in South India. His early years were spent Radhakrishnan devoted his life to making there and in , both famous as pilgrimage India’s philosophical and religious riches known centers. As was the custom, he married young, at to the world. As had the great of VEDANTA the age of 16; he and his wife, Sivakamuamma, before him, he translated and commented on the had five daughters and one son. He graduated UPANISHADS, VEDANTA SUTRA, and BHAGAVAD GITA; with a master’s degree in arts from Madras Chris- all of those works remain in print. tian College in 1908. In partial fulfillment of his Radhakrishnan, by training, was the rare phi- M.A. degree, Radhakrishnan wrote a thesis, The losopher who could genuinely appreciate and Ethics of the Vedanta and Its Metaphysical Presup- compare Eastern and Western philosophy. In positions, which was a reply to the charge that nearly every book he wrote he included detailed the Vedanta system had no room for ethics. This comparisons of various philosophical views, with thesis was immediately published as a book, when the understanding that all spiritual paths have cer- he was still only 20 years old. tain commonalities at their core. Part of his mis- In 1909, Radhakrishnan took a position in the sion was to assess and evaluate both traditions on Department of Philosophy at the Madras Presi- their own terms. He always remained, however, a dency College. In 1918, he was appointed profes- true student of the Vedanta and saw the limits of sor of philosophy in the University of Mysore. approaches that do not at some point transcend Three years later, he was appointed to the most the rational. important philosophy chair in India, King George As did his compatriot MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND V Chair of Mental and Moral Science in the Uni- GANDHI, Radhakrishnan believed in an India that versity of Calcutta (Kolkata). was spiritually aware and grounded in its ancient

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 343 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM K 344 Radhasoami Movement

spirituality, but not bound by inherited social The Radhasoami tradition blends progres- conventions destructive of freedom and justice. sive leadership with esoteric beliefs and spiritual As others did, he criticized Indian traditions such practices, a contradiction that gives this move- as the caste system and customs that degraded ment a unique personality. Radhasoamis practice women, and he fought to establish a pluralistic a type of yogic meditation known as surat-shabd and democratic society that would fulfill the high- (spirit-sound), which they believe is based on est ideals of Indian tradition. scientific principles alone, not faith. The experi- ence of shabd, or sound current, is an internally Further reading: Sudarshan Agarwal, ed., Sarvepalli heard vibration from God that allows for spiritual Radhakrishnan: A Commemorative Volume, 1888–1988 evolution. The movement accepts a hierarchy of (New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 1988); Anjan Kumar leadership with one major teacher in charge at Banerji, ed., Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: A Centenary all times; a Sant Sat Guru is considered to be a Tribute (Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University, 1991–92); human being who has taken birth from the high- S. S. Rama Rao Pappu, ed., New Essays in the Philosophy est spiritual plane and has reached an exalted state of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1995); by practice of surat-sabd yoga. A Sadguru is next Glyn Richards, ed., A Source-Book of Modern Hinduism in this structure, having received understanding (London: Curzon Press, 1985); Paul Arthur Schilpp, from the Sant Sat Guru and practice of surat-sabd ed., The Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (LaSalle, yoga. A is a follower who learns the Ill.: Open Court, 1991). practice of surat-sabd yoga under the direction of a Sadguru. Singh’s students were mostly members of the Radhasoami Movement (est. 1861) urban merchant caste community, both house- The Radhasoami Movement began in , India, holders and ascetics. After his death in 1878, there in the 1860s with the teachings of Swami Shiv were many splits in the movement due to the lack Dayal Singh. He himself reflected a variety of of a clearly established method for selecting a Hindu influences, including devotion to KABIR, successor. The succeeding masters gave birth to SIKHISM, NATH YOGA, and the Vaishnavite tradi- over 20 Radhasoami lineages, most of which have tion. Each of these emphasized the importance disappeared. Today the most famous branches of sacred words and the guidance of a spiritual include Radhasoami Agra, Radhasoami Dayal master in transforming the self. Bagh, and Radhasoami Beas. Singh became known as Soamiji Maharaj, Radhasoami Agra occupies the original site because he was believed to be the incarnation of at Soami Bagh in Agra, where a memorial shrine the Supreme Being Radhasoami Dayal (or Merci- for the founder, Soamiji Maharaj, has been in ful Radhasoami). In 1861, Shiv Dayal Singh began construction since 1904. Soamiji Maharaj’s fourth holding satsangs (gatherings) in Agra, preaching successor, Babuji Maharaj, died in 1949, leaving Radhasoami as the true name of God. Although the community to await the coming of the sixth Singh himself was greatly influenced by Guru Sant Sat Guru. A spacious residential colony and NANAK, the founding teacher of Sikhism, the Rad- institution are administered by the movement’s hasoami movement is not to be understood as an Central Administrative Council, which was origi- offshoot of Sikhism. It is often considered hereti- nally established in 1902 by Maharaj Saheb (sec- cal by orthodox Sikhs because it does not adhere ond successor). to the Adi Granth, the Sikh scripture, as the only The Dayal Bagh branch was founded by Kamta guru. Orthodox Hindus treat the movement with Prasad Sinha at Ghazipur in 1907. In 1913 Sinha’s suspicion because of its disregard of caste. successor, Anand Swarup, moved the organiza-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 344 12/14/06 9:29:16 AM Rajneesh, Bhagwan Sri 345 J

tion’s headquarters to Agra, directly across from rite ended with a throw of the dice; the winning Soami Bagh. The two communities have remained throw would assure the king’s good luck in the separate, each maintaining a large residential col- future. A losing throw would make him cautious ony, shops, post office, and bank. Satsangs (gath- in his rule. erings) are held every evening, drawing crowds in the hundreds. Further reading: Jan Gonda, Ancient Indian Kingship The Beas branch was created in 1892 under from a Religious Point of View (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969); Baba Jaimal Singh and is located in Punjab. Fur- J. C. Heesterman, The Ancient Royal Consecration: The ther splits in this group have produced the Ruhani Rajasuya Described According to the Yajus Texts and Satsang founded by , known as Kirpal Annotated (Gravenhage: Mouton, 1957). Light Satsang; the movement became popular in the United States under the leadership of Kirpal’s successor, Thakar Singh. The colony at Beas is a raja yoga See YOGA SUTRA. utopian city unto itself and draws thousands of attendees annually. Satsangs of this group gather near the and in Delhi and Bombay with Rajneesh, Bhagwan Sri (1931–1990) guru thousands of people in attendance. who taught a syncretic path to enlightenment The movement at large claims over 1 million Sri Bhagwan Rajneesh was a controversial guru initiates in South Asia and tens of thousands more whose syncretic teachings and antinomian phi- throughout the rest of the world. losophy attracted a wide following in India and See also MOVEMENT. the United States. Legal problems eventually led to expulsion from the United States. Further reading: Mark Juergensmeyer, Radhasoami Born Rajneesh Chandra Mohan on December Reality: The Logic of a Modern Faith (Princeton, N.J.: 11, 1931, in Kuchwara, a small village in central Princeton University Press, 1991); Om Prakash Kaushal, India, Rajneesh was the eldest of 12 children. The Movement: 1891–1997 (Jalandhar: ABS His parents, Swami Devateerth Bharti and Ma Publications, n.d.); David Christopher Lane, The Rad- Amrit Saraswati, practiced JAINISM, and Rajneesh hasoami Tradition: A Critical History of Guru Successor- remained a strict vegetarian throughout his life in ship (New York: Garland, 1992). consonance with Jain teachings. Interested since childhood in philosophical questions and the matter of death, he developed critical skills and See GUNA. studied philosophy at Jabalrur University. After receiving a master’s degree in philosophy he taught for several years at Madhya State University. rajasuya In 1966, Rajneesh received enlightenment The rajasuya was an important VEDIC ritual used and began to travel throughout India instructing for the installation of a king (raja). It proclaimed students and gaining a following. From 1969 to the sovereignty of the king and invoked the fealty 1974 he taught at Mount ABU in Rajasthan. In of his subjects. A number of SOMA offerings were 1974 he opened the Rajneesh Ashram in Poona. made that could take as long as two years to com- Here many Americans and other Western devo- plete. The king would take symbolic steps in four tees attended his satsangs (gatherings) and lived directions to assure sovereignty everywhere. He in residence. Some have estimated that 50,000 would ride a chariot about and shoot at a mock- sought enlightenment with him in Poona. In up of a rival, to show his kingly prowess. The 1981, he fled Poona because of tax evasion

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 345 12/14/06 9:29:17 AM K 346 Rakshabandhan

charges and opened an ASHRAM on the 65,000- death, Osho appointed a group of 21 individuals acre Big Muddy Ranch near Antelope, Oregon, to administer the meditation resort in Poona and in the United States, which he named Rajneesh- the organization. They now operate 20 meditation puram. Trouble dogged the ashram, including centers worldwide and publish the On Line Osho charges of poisoning, arms stockpiling, and Times newsletter. The current organization, Osho antinomian sexual practices among top aides, International, sponsors a number of Web sites and although not by Rajneesh himself. The ashram local communities. was closed and Rajneesh sought sanctuary in North Carolina but was arrested there for visa Further reading: James S. Gordon, The Golden Guru violations. He was given a suspended sentence (Lexington, Mass.: Stephen Green Press, 1987); Osho, and a fine on condition that he leave the United Autobiography of a Spiritually Incorrect Mystic (New States. He returned to Poona, where his health York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000); ———, Meditation: The continued to fail. Here he abandoned the name First and Last Freedom (New York: St. Martin’s Press, of Rajneesh and adopted Osho, a name derived 1997); Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh, Words Like Fire (San from the expression oceanic experience coined by Francisco: Harper & Row, 1976). . He died in Poona on January 19, 1990. Rajneesh was well versed in the scriptures and Rakshabandhan (Rakhibandhan) teachings of many . He created a The Raksabandhan festival, which takes place on syncretic spiritual path that combined elements the full Moon of the lunar month of Shravana of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, , Chris- (July–August), is one of the most popular in India. tianity, Greek philosophy, humanistic psychology, On this day sisters tie an amulet of red or yellow and modern forms of therapy and meditation. threads on their brother’s wrists to guard them Basically he taught the non-dualism of ADVAITA for the year. If they are more learned, they may Hinduism, believing that all reality is one in utter a well-known SANSKRIT MANTRA. The brothers essence. Consistently with advaita, he taught that then offer them presents. The observance is said souls experience REINCARNATION until they receive to have originated after INDRA, king of the gods, enlightenment and the realization of the God that was defeated in battle by the asuras, or antigods. is within each person. It is said that he was able to regain his sovereignty He was known as the “sex guru” because he when his wife, Shaci, put an amulet on his hand espoused open sex and freedom from inhibitions. after performing some austerities. He initiated his disciplines into “neo-sannyas” that did not require the total renunciation of tra- Further reading: Stanley A. Freed and Ruth S. Freed, ditional Hindu sannyas. Men were given the title Hindu Festivals in a North Indian Village, (Seattle: Swami and women were called Ma. He favored University of Washington Press, 1998); C. J. Fuller, dismantling the nuclear family and wanted it The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society replaced with alternate forms of community and in India (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, methods of child care. Prior to 1985, disciples 1992); Anita Ganeri, Hindu Festivals throughout the Year wore red robes and a mala (necklace) of 108 beads (Mankato, Minn.: Smart Apple Media, 2003). with a picture of Rajneesh attached. The movement at its peak claimed about 200,000 members and 600 centers around the Rama (Ram) world. It was targeted by anticult groups as an Rama is a god worshipped over all of India. He evil organization bent on mind control. Before his is considered to be an AVATAR or descended form

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 346 12/14/06 9:29:17 AM Rama 347 J

of Lord VISHNU. Rama’s full story is told in the defend it from beings who are trying to disrupt the RAMAYANA epic. sacred Vedic rites. There he slays the female being In that famous epic, the gods ask Vishnu to who was tormenting the sages. He receives incarnate in the world as a man, in order to kill certain celestial weapons and is obliged to kill the the demon Ravana, who was tormenting all the demons Marica and Subahu. worlds. Ravana has a boon that he cannot be Rama later wins a contest to bend the bow of killed by any god or demon, but, in his arrogance, SHIVA; as his prize he wins the hand of SITA, daughter he never imagines he can be killed by a human. of the king of VIDEHA. In Ayodhya another wife of Thus the avatar of Rama is arranged. , , plots to have her son, Bharata, Rama is born to Dasharatha, king of AYODHYA, put on the throne in place of Rama. As a result and his wife, Kaushalya. In his youth Rama is Rama is forced into exile for 14 years. His wife, Sita, sent to the sage ’s hermitage to help and his brother, Lakshmana, follow him.

Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, with his wife, Sita (right), and his brother, Lakshmana (left) (Institute for the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 347 12/14/06 9:29:17 AM K 348 Rama, Swami

During his exile Rama’s wife, Sita, is abducted Rama, Swami See HIMALAYAN INTERNATIONAL by the demon king Ravana and taken to the INSTITUTE. island of Lanka. Making friends with a group of monkeys, including the faithful HANUMAN, Rama carries out his divine duty in defeating Ravana Ramacharaka, Yogi (1862–1932) yoga and winning back his wife. When he doubts popularizer her faithfulness, Sita passes a trial by fire. She is The American-born Yogi Ramacharaka was a taken back, and the rule of Rama begins in all popular author in the movement in its perfection. Some versions of the Ramayana, the United States. He later became the first major such as the Kambaramayanam in Tamil, end at popularizer of Hindu thought in America. this point. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, to William and In other versions the story continues. New Emma Atkinson, William Walker Atkinson was an questions are raised concerning Sita’s faithful- important and influential figure in the early days ness, and Rama has his brother Lakshmana take of the New Thought movement, which included a number of religious organizations devoted to the her to the forest. He does not realize that she is application of metaphysical principles to healing. pregnant with twins. Rama’s sons and Lava He married Margaret Foster Black of Beverley, are born in the forest ASHRAM of Valmiki. Eventu- New Jersey, in 1889 and they had two children. ally, they end up in a war with Rama’s troops and He pursued a business career from 1882 onward, defeat them. and in 1894 he was admitted as an attorney to the At this point Rama realizes he has sons and Pennsylvania Bar. The pressures of his profession wants Sita to return to live with him. She goes caused a complete physical and mental breakdown before him and in disgust at her two rejections and financial disaster. He sought healing, and in asks the Earth to swallow her up. Rama continues the late 1880s, he discovered New Thought, his just rule and dies, as all avatars must, being through which he attained health, mental vigor, human forms of the divinity. Rama is worshipped and prosperity. By the early 1890s Chicago had throughout India and celebrated in regional become a major center for New Thought, mainly folklore and high culture alike. Sita is always through the work of Emma Curtis Hopkins, and included, and Hanuman and Lakshmana are Atkinson decided to move there, where he became rarely omitted in any iconographic or pictorial an active promoter of the movement as an editor presentation. and author. In 1889 Atkinson’s article “A Mental Science Further reading: Ashok K. Banker, Prince of Ayodhya Catechism” appeared in Charles Fillmore’s new (New York: Time Warner Book Group, 2004); P. Ban- periodical, Modern Thought. In 1900, he became nerjee, Rama in Indian Literature, Art and Thought, 2 editor of Suggestion, a New Thought periodical, vols. (Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1986); Stuart Black- and he continued to write for and edit another burn, Inside the Drama-House: Rama Stories and the periodical, New Thought. He founded a Psychic Shadow Puppets in South India (Berkeley: University of Club and the Atkinson School of Mental Science California Press, 1996); J. L. Brockington, Righteous and became a prominent metaphysical writer, Rama: The Evolution of an Epic (Delhi: Oxford Univer- publishing ten books on psychic, occult, and sity Press, 1985); Vidya Dehejia, ed., Legend of Rama: New Thought topics between 1901 and 1911. His Artistic Visions (Bombay: Marg, 1994); Frank Whaling, Mental Science included lessons in personal mag- The Rise of the Religious Significance of Rama (Delhi: netism, psychic influence, thought-force, concen- Motilal Banarsidass, 1980). tration, will-power, and practical Mental Science.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 348 12/14/06 9:29:17 AM Ramakrishna, Sri 349 J

While performing his New Thought editorial job, Atkinson became interested in Hinduism. He met a pupil of the late Yogi Ramacharaka, Baba BHARATI, who had become acquainted with Atkinson’s writ- ings. Atkinson and Bharati shared similar ideas. They collaborated, and with Bharati providing the material and Atkinson the writing talent, they wrote a series of books, which they attributed to Yogi Ramacharaka as a measure of their respect. Begin- ning in 1903, Atkinson eventually wrote 13 books under this pseudonym. All the titles were published by the Yogi Publication Society in Chicago; they reached a wider audience than Atkinson’s New Thought works ever had. All of his books on yoga are still in print; their continued popularity is a credit to both Baba Bharati and Atkinson. Under the name Yogi Ramacharaka, Atkinson became the first popularizer of Hindu thought and practice in the United States. He also continued his career as an attorney, being admitted to the Illinois Bar in 1903, and he continued to write well-received books on New Thought. In 1916 he began writing articles for Elizabeth Towne’s magazine The Nautilus, and from 1916 to 1919 he edited the journal Advanced Thought. For a time Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886), Bengali mystic and he was honorary president of the International famous exponent of universal religion (Courtesy Vedanta New Thought Alliance. Society, San Francisco) William Walker Atkinson died on November 22, 1932, in California. Sri Ramakrishna was born on February 18, Further reading: William Walker Atkinson [Yogi Ram- 1836, as Gadadhar Chattopadhyay to a poor acharaka], Dynamic Thought (Los Angeles: Segnogram, Bengali BRAHMIN family. He had his first spiritual 1906); ———, Hatha Yoga (Chicago: Yogi Publication experience at the age of six or seven and entered Society, 1931); ———, The Mastery of Being (Holyoke, into trancelike states throughout his childhood. Mass.: Elizabeth Towne, 1911); ———, Raja Yoga (Chi- He neglected his studies, preferring to spend his cago: Yogi Publication Society, 1905). time in solitary MEDITATION, singing, and perform- ing of Hindu stories. For much of his life he served as priest at the KALI Temple at Dakshinesh- Ramakrishna, Sri (1836–1886) influential war near Calcutta, living a life of renunciation, mystic and priest of goddess Kali but he stopped performing priestly functions Recognized as one of the greatest spiritual geniuses when the “” took over his con- of modern Hinduism, Sri Ramakrishna was influ- scious awareness. ential through his own example and through the Sri Ramakrishna married SARADA DEVI, whom work of his disciple Swami VIVEKANANDA. he viewed as the GODDESS incarnate; she looked

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 349 12/14/06 9:29:17 AM K 350 Ramakrishna Math and Mission

upon her husband as her GURU, or spiritual by Swami Nikhilananda (New York: Vedanta Society, teacher. He did not found a movement or establish 1907); Romain Rolland, The Life of Sri Ramakrishna an organization, although he was the inspiration (Calcutta: advaita Ashrama, 1944). of a generation of Indian Hindus. His influ- ence spread throughout the world through the VEDANTA SOCIETIES/RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND MIS- Ramakrishna Math and Mission See SION, founded by Swami Vivekananda. VEDANTA SOCIETIES/RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND MISSION. He remained devoted to the goddess Kali throughout his life, and he was also initiated into tantric practice (see TANTRISM). His teacher Tota Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950) advaita Puri taught him ADVAITA VEDANTA and the practice Vedanta teacher and mystic of absorption in the formless, which he quickly Ramana Maharshi was a GURU of international achieved. His whole life was an uninterrupted renown from southern India who taught the non- contemplation and union with God. His life and dual philosophy of ADVAITA VEDANTA. teaching appeal to seekers in all religions, as he Ramana was born on December 30, 1879, as taught that the revelation of God can take place Venkataraman Ayyar at Tiruchuli near Madurai at all times and that God-realization is not the monopoly of any one religion or faith. He took up various disciplines associated with other religions, specifically Christianity and Islam, and taught that all paths lead to the same God-realization. His message of the harmony of religions was based on and a fellowship of religions based on their common goal of God-conscious- ness. Sri Ramakrishna died on August 16, 1886. His famous disciple Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and Mission at Belur Math, near Calcutta (Kolkata) to propa- gate the teachings of his guru. Sarada Devi, his widow, also began to assert the leadership role that Ramakrishna had specified for her, and she became known as the mother of the movement that Ramakrishna inspired. These missions offer spiritual, medical, and educational services to the people of India. Outside India, in 18 countries on five continents, the same organization is known as the Vedanta Society and is headed by swamis initiated and trained at Belur Math.

Further reading: Swami Ghanananda, Sri Ramakrishna and His Unique Message (London: Ramakrishna Vedanta Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950), widely recognized Centre, 1937); , Ramakrishna teacher, mystic, and foremost exemplar of advaita (non- and His Disciples (Calcutta: advaita Ashrama, 1965); Sri dual) consciousness (Courtesy Sri Ramanashramam, Tiruvan- Ramakrishna, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. Translated namalai, Tamil Nadu)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 350 12/14/06 9:29:18 AM 351 J

in the state of Tamil Nadu. He was the son of insisted be used tirelessly as each student discov- Shundaram Ayyar, a scribe and country lawyer. ered deeper and deeper levels of awareness. The The family was religious, giving ritual offerings aim of this inquiry was for each person to find an to the family deity and visiting temples. As a awareness of non-duality, in which the oneness of child, Ramana was largely uninterested in school; the Self and cosmos could be perceived. He taught throughout his life he showed a marked inclina- that a person who is not attached to the results of tion toward introspection and self-analysis. action can live in the world as an actor who plays In 1896, at age 17 he entered an altered state of a role in a drama but is immune to emotional dis- consciousness that had a profound effect on him. turbance, because the person realizes that action He experienced what he understood to be his own is only play acting on the stage of life. death and return to life. Without any training by Ramana remained at Arunachala for the dura- a teacher or any personal discipline, he attained tion of his life, welcoming visitors from East and a profound experience of the true Self and real- West, while becoming a living example of non- ized that the body dies but consciousness is not dual consciousness. He died there of cancer on touched by death. He saw the real “I” as immortal April 14, 1950, sitting in a . consciousness, as a powerful living truth experi- The Ramanashramam exists today as a sanctu- enced directly. Thereafter, all attention was drawn ary that houses Ramana’s grave, his cave residence, to this “I” or Self and he remained conscious of his and accommodation for many visitors. identity with the absolute at all times. All fear of death was permanently extinguished. Further reading: Paul Brunton, A Search in Secret India Ramana ran away from home to the holy (Bombay: B. I., 1934); , Be As You Are: mountain Arunachala near Tiruvannamalai. He The Teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi (New York: Pen- spent 10 years in silent Self-absorption at the guin, 1989); Arthur Osbourne, Ramana Maharshi and temple there, at the foot of the mountain, and the Path of Self-Knowledge (New York: S. Weiser, 1970); in various caves on the mountain. Throughout Arthur Osbourne, ed., The Collected Works of Ramana these years he remained silent and maintained Maharshi (New York: Samuel Weiser, 1970); Talks with disciplines of spiritual purification and nonattach- Sri Ramana Maharshi (Turuvannamalai: Sri Ramanash- ment. Against the pleas of his family, he refused to ramam, 1984). return home. His absorption in higher conscious- ness was so deep that he neglected care of his body and was at times famished and chewed by Rama Navami insects. Disciples began to gather around him to Rama Navami is a special day of worship of Lord take care of his physical needs and to gain aware- RAMA. It takes place on the ninth day of the bright ness of his non-dual state of consciousness. His half of the lunar month Chaitra (April–May), disciples gave him sacred books, and he became considered the birthday of Lord RAMA; he was conversant with the religious traditions of South born at noon. All devotees of Rama must perform India. this worship, and others may do it optionally. It When Ramana broke his silence, he responded is accompanied by a vow of fasting beginning the to questions about Self-consciousness. His teach- previous night. If one performs the veneration ing was given largely through conversations with properly, one is said to have one’s sins destroyed guests who visited him on the mountain, where and may even acquire MOKSHA or release from birth his ASHRAM began to develop. His advice to those and rebirth. who sought SELF-REALIZATION was to direct them to Rama Navami is a popular observance. After the question “Who am I?”—a self-inquiry that he a night of fasting, the following day the devotee

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 351 12/14/06 9:29:18 AM K 352 Ramanuja

performs worship before an image of Rama and KARA, who saw the ultimate reality or BRAHMAN makes a fire offering for Rama in a small specially as completely beyond characteristics or char- created shrine; the celebration continues with a acterization. Where as Shankara’s brahman was japa, or repetition of the MANTRA to Rama, the sec- an inert, transcendental reality upon which the ond night. Once the observance is complete the world was lain as a false conception, Ramanuja’s image is given to a learned BRAHMIN. brahman was the Lord VISNHU, who was the soul Only the most orthodox perform the full ritual to the universe, which was seen as his body. these days. It is, however, observed en masse in Along with many philosophic works in San- places significant for Rama such as AYODHYA and skrit, Ramanuja wrote incisive Sanskrit commen- Rameshvaram. taries on the BRAHMA SUTRAS and the BHAGAVAD GITA in his effort to refute the earlier and well-accepted Further reading: C. J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame: Popular school of Shankara. In his work, he validated the Hinduism and Society in India (Princeton, N.J.: Princ- mystical vision of the Vaishnavite saints of Tamil eton University Press, 1992); Anita Ganeri, Hindu Festi- Nadu, the ALVARS, whose Tamil songs were later vals Throughout the Year (Mankato, Minn.: Smart Apple collected as the main text for Tamil Vaishnavites, Media, 2003); Swami Harshananda, Hindu Festivals and the Nalayiradivyaprabandham. Sacred Days (Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994). The movement in India that follows the teach- ings of Ramanuja and the Alvars is known as . It is a tradition of temple worship, Ramanuja (Ramanujacharya) (1077– in which both Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures are 1157 C.E.) (dated by his tradition from 1017 recited in the temples. The most important site to 1137) philosopher of Vedanta for this tradition is the temple to Lord Ranganatha Ramanuja was the founder of the philosophical (Vishnu) at Shrirangam in Tamil Nadu. There is a school known as Vishistadvaita or “special non- secondary shrine in the smaller community of Sri dualism.” Vaishnavites at Melkote in Karnataka. Ramanuja was born in the city of KANCHI- PURAM near present-day Chennai (Madras). His Further reading: John Carman, The Theology of father was a Vedic BRAHMIN who was known as Ramanuja: An Essay in Interreligious Understanding (New a brilliant student of the SANSKRIT scriptures. His Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974); Julius J. first GURU, Yadava Prakasha, had a system that Lipner, The Face of Truth: A Study of Mean and Metaphys- was not to the liking of this student genius. It ics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja (Houndmills, soon became clear that he would develop his own England: Macmillan, 1986); Swami Tapasyananda, system, which would challenge that of his teacher. Bhakti Schools of Vedanta (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Ramanuja’s guru is said to have arranged to have Math, n.d.); P. B. Vidyarthi, Divine Personality and him killed, while luring him on a PILGRIMAGE to Human Life in Ramanuja (New Delhi: Oriental, 1978). the holy city of BENARES (Varanasi) on the GANGES. Ramanuja was miraculously saved and eventually his guru bowed to his feet and accepted Ramunuja , Swami (1873–1906) devotee himself as his teacher. of Krishna and Vedanta philosophy Ramanuja’s system of VEDANTA combines the In his brief life, Swami Rama Tirtha managed to view of a unitary divinity found in the UPANISHADS spread the teaching of Vedanta philosophy and with the of later Hinduism. For Ramanuja spirituality in India and around the world. the divinity is endowed with innumerable auspi- Gossain Tirtha Rama was born at Murari- cious attributes, as opposed to the view of SHAN- wala, a village in the district of Gujranwala in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 352 12/14/06 9:29:18 AM Ramayana 353 J

the Punjab, to a family of Gosain BRAHMINS, On his return to India, he continued to teach distant descendants of the famous author of the in the plains, but his health grew worse. He RAMAYANA, Gosain TULSIDAS. When he was only returned to the Himalayas and took residence at a few days old his mother died and young Rama Ashram, where he died at age 33 on the was reared by his father, his aunt, and his elder banks of the Ganges River on October 17, 1906. brother, Gossain Gurudas. Throughout his child- Considered a saint of modern India, Swami hood he demonstrated unusual intelligence, a Rama taught the oneness and all-pervasive nature contemplative nature, and a love of solitude. He of God. He began as a devotee of BHAKTI YOGA, listened to recitations of scripture and discussed devoted to the image of Krishna, but he became spiritual topics with religious teachers. At age 10, more and more an ascetic and mystic who expe- Rama was put under the care of his father’s friend rienced the non-dual nature of reality consistent Bhakta Dhana Rama, a teacher who taught sim- with Vedanta. plicity and purity to the young Rama. Under the guidance of a direct disciple of A good student, Rama demonstrated a love Swami Rama, Sri R. S. Narayana Swami, the Rama of mathematics and achieved high marks at the Tirtha Publication League was established in undergraduate and master’s levels. After complet- Lucknow; it has published most of Swami Rama’s ing college, he served as professor of mathematics writings in several volumes. at Forman Christian College in and, for a short time, reader at Lahore Oriental College. Further reading: Rama Tirtha Publication League, He began to read the BHAGAVAD GITA and became Swami Rama: Various Aspects of His Life by the Eminent an ardent devotee (bhakta) of Lord KRISHNA. He Scholars of India (Lucknow: Dayal Printing Works, could read Persian, English, Hindi, Urdu, and 1939); Swami Rama Tirtha, In Woods of God-Realization: SANSKRIT literature. He studied VEDANTA with The Complete Works of Rama Tirtha, 19 vols. (Lucknow: Sri Madhava Tirtha of the Dwaraka Math. His Rama Tirtha Publication League, 1909–48). meeting with the famous Swami VIVEKANANDA in Lahore was decisive in turning Rama toward the vow of SANNYAS (renunciation) and wearing of the Ramayana ochre robe. The Ramayana, the story of the “adventures” In 1900, he went to Brahmapuri, on the banks (ayana) of RAMA, is one of the two great Hindu of the GANGES near RISHIKESH in the foothills of epics. It was composed originally in SANSKRIT in an the Himalayas, to become a forest dweller with epic of about 25,000 verses. The author, VALMIKI, his wife, his two children, and a few others. is called the “first poet” of India and the Rama- Because of ill health, his wife soon left the forest yana is considered the first long poem composed with one of the children. In the forest, he real- by humans (as opposed to the VEDAS, which are ized the all-inclusive bliss of SATCHITANANDA, or much older and are considered to be eternal and SELF-REALIZATION. Then he returned to the plains uncreated). to teach Vedanta. He traveled to Japan, America, The SANSKRIT Ramayana dates to 600 to 400 and Egypt and spent a year and a half in San B.C.E. Told in seven chapters, the story is in brief Francisco, where he founded the Hermetic Broth- as follows: the gods ask VISHNU to take a human erhood, dedicated to the study of Vedanta. In St. incarnation in order to fight the demon king Louis, he spoke at the Religious League of the RAVANA, who gained powers by extreme aus- St. Louis Exhibition. Hailed as a torch of divine terities and cannot be defeated by a god. Vishnu knowledge, he lectured in Christian churches all agrees to incarnate as RAMA. Rama is born to King over the United States. Dasharatha and his wife, Kaushalya. Dasharatha

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 353 12/14/06 9:29:18 AM K 354 Ramayana

has three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana, and In a frantic search for Sita, Rama and Lak- . shmana befriend the monkey and his While Dasharatha is joyfully preparing to friends, including the virtuous and faithful retire from the world and leave the kingdom HANUMAN. Hanuman is sent to Lanka to recon- to his virtuous oldest son Rama, a second wife noiter. He finds Sita but is caught by the demon of his, Kaikeyi, demands, as the fulfillment of Rakshasas. They put a cloth on his tail and set it a boon he had given her, that her own son, afire, but he escapes and burns Lanka by jump- Bharata, be raised to the throne and that Rama ing from building to building with his tail in be exiled in the forest for 14 years. Dasharatha, flames. true to his word, must grant her wish, but he Hanuman returns to Rama, and they make a dies soon after of a broken heart. Rama, the most plan to defeat Ravana and his demon hordes and obedient of sons, accepts his father’s request get Sita back. They are successful and Sita returns, with equanimity and prepares to go to the forest. but Rama and others question her fidelity. She Lakshmana, his younger brother, will go with offers to undergo a trial by fire, passes the test, and him. Sita, his wife, is asked to stay behind, as joins Rama on the throne. travel in the forest will involve great travail, but The last and final chapter, omitted in some she argues strongly that she wants to be at her vernacular versions, tells of the origin of the husband’s side. Rama relents and allows her to rakshasas, the demon hordes, and the history of go with him. Ravana. It also tells of Hanuman’s childhood and As they enter the forest, they are found by other diverse tales. Sita’s faithfulness, however, is Bharata. Bharata insists he has no desire for the once more questioned. kingdom and asks that Rama give him his sandals Sita is forced to flee to the forest while preg- to put on the throne during his absence, as a sign nant with Rama’s two sons. She goes to live at the that it is Rama who is king. Wandering in the ashram of none other than Valmiki himself, the forest, Rama and Lakshmana meet , author of the RAMAYANA story. Some years later, sister of the demon king Ravana. She becomes while Rama is conducting an ashva medha (HORSE smitten with Rama and changes her horrific form SACRIFICE), Valmiki arrives with his two disciples, into that of a beautiful maiden. Kusha and Lava, the sons of Rama. They recite the Rama sees through Shurpanakha’s guise, but Ramayana story for Rama and he learns of their to play a joke on his brother he tells her that existence. He calls Sita back to court, where she while he himself is married, Lakshmana is not. admonishes him and asks the Earth to swallow When she approaches Lakshmana with passion, her up rather than that she return to a husband Lakshmana enters into the joke by sending her who has wronged her. back to Rama, saying he is unworthy of her. Shur- The Ramayana story is an ocean from which a panakha then returns to Rama and jealously tries vast array of stories, myths, plays, and celebrations to kill Sita. At this Lakshmana cuts off her nose have emerged in Sanskrit and every vernacular. It and ears. is one of the central narratives of Indian culture; Eventually, Surpanakha persuades her brother every region of the country has a variety of sites Ravana to try to steal Sita away from Rama. for pilgrimage and visitation that are connected Ravana has the demon take the form of to its characters—Rama, Lakshmana, Hanuman, a golden deer. When Rama chases after the deer, and the others. by means of ruses Ravana carries off Sita in his Celebrated versions of the Ramayana have flying chariot and takes her to his island kingdom been written in nearly every Indian language, of Lanka. including the Islamic-associated Urdu. Among

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 354 12/14/06 9:29:18 AM Ram Chandra, Sri Maharaj 355 J

such notable and beloved vernacular Ram Chandra, Sri Maharaj (1899–1983) are the Krittivas Ramayana in Bengali, the Tulsidas teacher of raja yoga Ramcaritmanas in Old Hindi, the Tamil Kambara- The boy who became Sri Ram Chandra later in mayanam, the Pampa Ramayana of life was born in Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh in Kannada, Ranganatha’s Ramayana in Telugu, state on April 30, 1899, into a BRAHMIN fam- and the Vilanka Ramayana in Oriya. Numerous ily. Following in the footsteps of his scholarly Sanskrit versions of the story have also been com- father he began his education with a particular posed, including the and interest in philosophy, literature, and geography. Yogavasishtha Ramayana. Reports indicated that he was not an outstand- Tales in Sanskrit about the Rama dynasty ing scholar but could hold his own intellectu- both before and after the events in the Rama- ally. He joined the judicial services, married, yana have proliferated, such as Raghuvamsha and raised children. and Uttararamacharita. The Jains as well tell On July 3, 1922, he sought out Guru Sri Ram stories of Rama, Ravana, and other characters Chandra of Fategarh, who preserved and followed from the Ramayana in Sanskrit and other lan- an ancient form of yoga called Pranahuti (divine guages. Every year in northern India the Ram transmission), which the younger Ram Chandra Lila festival is celebrated, culminating in a grand perceived to be superior to the newer methods. He burning of the effigies of Ravana, his son, and himself had been practicing a form of PRANAYAMA his brother. or breathing technique for the previous seven The Ramayana story also traveled widely out- years, but he abandoned this and adopted the side India. Thai and Indonesian versions are still spiritual practices of his new guru, who died in popular. 1931. Sri Ram Chandra felt that he had absorbed the Further reading: S. P. Bahadur, trans., The Complete Works of Gosvami Tulsidas (Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, teachings from his spiritual leader and was quali- 1978–2005); J. L. Brockington, Righteous Rama: The fied to carry on his inspiration. He believed that Evolution of an Epic (Delhi: Oxford University Press, he and his guru had spiritually merged. In 1932, 1985); Harry M. Buck, The Figure of Rama in Buddhist he received a powerful transmission of spiritual Cultures (Bhubaneswar: Mayur, 1995); Robert Goldman, energy from his guru. In 1944, he had a vision trans. and ed., The Ramayana of Valmiki, 6 vols. (Princ- of white light that revealed Lord KRISHNA’s true eton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984–2005); nature. He knew that his mission was to carry on George L. Hart and Hank Heifetz, trans., The Forest Book the work of his master. of Kampan (Berkeley: University of California Press, Sri Ram Chandra founded the Sri Ram Chan- 1988); Phillip Lutgendorf, The Life of a Text: Perform- dra Mission in 1945 in honor of his guru and in ing the Ramcaritmanas of Tulsidas (Berkeley: University 1976 built an ashram in Shahjahanpur. Through- of California Press, 1991); Shantilal Nagar, trans., Jain out these years he taught raja yoga and gave spiri- Ramayana-Paumacariu (Delhi: B. R., 2002); Sheldon tual guidance to many. I. Pollock, Ramayana, book 2, Ayodhya by Valmiki Sri Ram Chandra Maharaj died on April 19, (New York: New York University Press, JJC Founda- 1983, after many years of service to raja yoga. The tion, 2005); Paula Richman, ed., Many Ramayanas: The lineage is preserved through his disciple Sri Par- Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia (Berkeley: thasarathi Rajagopalachari of Madras (Chennai), University of California Press, 1991); Paula Richman, who assumed the mantle at his bedside and is now ed., Questioning Ramayanas: A South Asian Tradition the president of Sri Ram Chandra Mission. He is (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). affectionately known as “Chariji.”

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 355 12/14/06 9:29:19 AM K 356 Ram Das

Further reading: Sri Ram Chandra, Complete Works the CAUVERY RIVER and offered up his old white of Ram Chandra, Vol. 1 (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Sri Ram clothes to the river. He donned the ochre robes of Chandra Mission, 1989); ———, Down Memory Lane, a SANNYASI and took the name Ramdas. He never Vol. 1 (Shahjahanpur: Sri Ram Chandra Mission, 1993); referred to himself in the first person again. ———, Truth Eternal (Shahjahanpur: Sri Ram Chandra In 1922, he met the sage of Arunachala moun- Mission, 1986). tain, RAMANA MAHARSHI, and spent 20 days near Ramana in a cave there, chanting his mantra. He emerged from the cave and saw a strange light Ram Das See SIKHISM. with a landscape completely changed: everything was Ram. In 1931, after his years of traveling in faith, Ramdas, Swami (1884–1963) devotee of Ram his devotees established Anandashram for him in and founder of Ananda Ashram Kanhangad, Kerala, where he lived with Mother The child Vittal Rao was born in 1884 at Hosdrug, KRISHNABAI, a realized saint of South India. in the South Indian state of Kerala, to a devout Together they worked to improve the living con- couple, Sri Balakrishna Rao and Srimata Lalita Bai. ditions of the local people, founded a children’s As a child, he exhibited an extraordinary luster school, established a medical clinic, and formed in his eyes and considerable wit. Largely unin- a cooperative for weavers. They toured India terested in formal schooling, he completed high together and conducted a world tour in 1954–55, school but did not pursue higher education. With with the purpose of sharing a message of universal his marriage in 1908 he became a householder, love and service. Swami Ramdas died on August and he remained so until age 36. As a young hus- 2, 1963. band and father, he vacillated between periods of Ramdas wrote many books, all currently in employment as a spinning master in a cotton mill print. and periods of unemployment and idleness. In 1920, in response to a number of trials and Further reading: Swami Ramdas, God-Experience (Bom- challenges in his worldly life, he began to inquire bay: For Anandashram by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, into the meaning of life and to chant the name 1963); ———, In Quest of God: The Saga of an Extraor- of God, RAM. An intense spiritual transforma- dinary Pilgrimage/Swami Ramdas (, Calif.: tion occurred: he realized the futility of worldly Blue Dove Press, 1994); Swami Satchidananda, The pursuits and the higher need for everlasting peace Gospel of Swami Ramdas (Bombay: For Anandashram by and happiness. He became convinced that God Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1979). alone can give eternal peace and happiness. He decided on a life of self-surrender, as attachments to family, friends, and business dropped away. At Ram Dass (1933– ) American psychologist and that time, his father gave him the Ram MANTRA, teacher of Hinduism Om Sri Ram Jai Ram Jai Jai Ram, to recite, and Ram Dass was an important figure in the Ameri- his detachment from worldly pursuits increased can counterculture of the 1970s. He drew wide as the mantra took a place in his life. He then public attention to yoga and Hindu spirituality renounced the life of the world and became a and has continued his teachings since. wandering mendicant, a SADHU. He began his life Richard Alpert was born in Boston, Massachu- of pilgrimage in December 1922, vowing to accept setts, on April 6, 1933, the son of a prominent everything that happened as proceeding from the corporate attorney who also served as president will of Ram alone. At Srirangam, he bathed in of the New York–New Haven Railroad and was a

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 356 12/14/06 9:29:19 AM Ram Dass 357 J

Ralph Metzner, he wrote The Psychedelic Experi- ence, a recapitulation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead intended to be a manual for establishing an appropriate setting for experiencing psychedelic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, mescaline, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). While at Harvard, Alpert began research into human consciousness and, with Timothy Leary, , , and others, conducted research into LSD and other psyche- delics. Because of the controversial nature of this research, Alpert and Leary were dismissed from their teaching positions at Harvard in 1963. Alpert continued his collaboration with Leary on psychedelics. He became involved with attempts to realize a utopia as presented in Island by Aldous Huxley, and the Glass Bead Game by Hermann Hesse. He participated in utopian orga- nizations, including the Zihuatanejo Project and the International Foundation for Internal Free- dom. During the mid-1960s he lived for a while at the Millbrook estate in New York, a center for psychedelic religion, together with Leary and Swami Abhayananda (Bill Haines). In 1967, he traveled to India, where he met (b. 1923) and NEEM KAROLI BABA Baba Ram Dass (b. 1933), popular American guru and (d. 1973), both noted gurus who provided dis- founder of Hanuman Foundation (Photo by Richard Alpert. ciplined study on a spiritual path. They became Courtesy of Hanuman Foundation) role models for him and he replaced his attraction for drugs with a higher spiritual calling induced through MEDITATION and yoga. Neem Karoli Baba, founder of Brandeis University. Richard grew up also called Maharaji, gave Alpert his spiritual on the New Hampshire estate of his father. name Ram Dass (servant of God) and taught him A student of psychology, Alpert received a raja yoga, a form of yoga that utilizes meditation B.A. degree in 1952 from Tufts University, an as the primary means of moving from mundane M.A. from Wesleyan University in 1954, and a reality to the invisible supersensible world of Ph.D. in 1957 from . From higher consciousness (SAMADHI). Ram Dass says 1958 to 1963, Alpert taught and conducted that Neem Karoli allowed him for the first time research at the Department of Social Relations to see his life in spiritual terms. Overall, he spent and the Graduate School of Education at Har- nearly two years with Neem Karoli before Neem vard University. In 1961, he first took psilocy- Karoli’s death in 1973. His Miracle of Love is a bin with his Harvard colleague Timothy Leary collection of stories about Neem Karoli, from (1920–96) and became an integral part in the the homely to the miraculous. Not a devotee of Harvard Psilocybin Project. With Leary and any one particular philosophy or method, Neem

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 357 12/14/06 9:29:19 AM K 358 Ram Dass

Karoli tried to inculcate in others the path of love There Is (1976), Grist for the Mill (1977), and Jour- and service. ney of Awakening (1978). Upon returning to the United States, Ram Dass Ram Dass instituted the Hanuman Temple wrote his most famous book, (1971), in Taos, New Mexico, to implement worship of which suggested that one can live only in the HANUMAN, the god of service, and to honor his present moment. The past has vanished into his- guru, Neem Karoli Baba. tory and the future is not yet here. In order to be In pursuit of the goals of KARMA YOGA, Ram fully present in one’s life, Ram Dass advocated the Dass initiated several organizations devoted to simple proposition of residing in and being aware service and community development. In 1974, of the present moment and position in the world. he organized the HANUMAN FOUNDATION inspired Ram Dass believes that all people are on a spiritual by the devoted servant of the Hindu god RAM in path to enlightenment. Each has individual needs, the RAMAYANA, which is the organizing vehicle for including GURUS (teachers) of different kinds; Ram Dass’s lectures and workshops and admin- some gurus may not be in the physical body, isters many social projects, including the Prison but meditation allows one access to the invisible Ashram Project, designed to help inmates grow world and communication with those gurus who spiritually during incarceration, and the Liv- no longer have a physical body. His book offered ing Dying Project, designed to foster conscious an alternative to psychedelics in his emphasis on dying. gurus and spiritual pathways to guide one out of He is cofounder, with (b. 1946), immersion in the drug culture. Be Here Now pro- and board member of the Foundation, an pelled Ram Dass into a role as a major teacher of international organization dedicated to relieving the New Age counterculture and remains in print suffering in the world (seva means “service” in to the present time. SANSKRIT). Seva sponsors diverse activities, includ- In the 1970s, Ram Dass took on a vigorous ing programs in India and Nepal to erase curable schedule of speaking, teaching, and traveling blindness, Guatemalan programs to restore the from his base in New Hampshire. Various orga- agricultural life of impoverished villagers, and nizations emerged around his many interests. For programs in the United States to call attention example, he and Bo Lozoff developed the Prison to the issues of homelessness and environmental Ashram Library, which distributed literature to degradation. prison populations. It particularly taught lessons On February 19, 1997, Ram Dass suffered a in meditation for inmates who wanted to live a massive cerebral hemorrhagic stroke in his left life of service while incarcerated. This service brain. The stroke left him with extensive right has grown to include halfway houses and mental side paralysis, expressive aphasia, and a number health programs. of recurring and threatening health problems. In the mid-1970s, Ram Dass had become Since this event he has returned to a limited involved with several female gurus—Hilda Charl- schedule of appearances and talks. He lives in San ton (d. 1988) and Joya Santana (now known as Anselmo, California, and Hawaii. Ma JAYA SATI BHAGAVATI of the Kashi Ashram). His Mickey Lemle’s documentary Ram Dass: Fierce interaction with them led to a spiritual crisis that Grace documents the biography of Ram Dass he discussed in a famous article, “Egg through friends’ and family members’ reminis- on My Beard.” He assumed a low profile for a cences and archival footage of his days of commu- brief period but soon reemerged as a major writer nal living. It shows the physical and psychological and speaker. Before the decade was out, he had effects of the stroke and the spiritual lessons he produced three important books: The Only Dance has learned from his disability.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 358 12/14/06 9:29:19 AM Ramsuratkumar, Yogi 359 J

Further reading: Richard Alpert, Timothy Leary, and the spot from which Rama allegedly shot his Ralph Metzner, The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual bow to destroy the bridge to Lanka after the Based upon the Tibetan Book of the Dead (New York: war. University Books, 1964); Ram Dass, Be Here Now (Albu- querque, N. Mex.: Foundation, 1971); ———, Further reading: Anne Feldhaus, Connected Places: Miracle of Love: Stories about Neem Karoli Baba (New Region, Pilgrimage and Geographical Imagination in India York: Dutton, 1979); ———, The Only Dance There (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); N. Vanamamali Is (New York: J. Aronson, 1976); ———, Still Here: Pillai, Temples of the Setu and (Delhi: Kunj, Embracing Aging, Changing, and Dying (New York: Riv- 1982); Baidyanath Saraswati, Traditions of Tirthas in erhead, 2000); Ram Dass with Mirabai Bush, Compas- India: the Anthropology of Hindu Pilgrimage (Varanasi: sion in Action: Setting Out on the Path of Service (New N. K. Bose Memorial Foundation, 1983). York: Bell Tower, 1992); Ram Dass with Paul Gorman, How Can I Help: Stories and Reflections on Service (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985); Ram Dass with Steven Ram Lila See NAVARATI. Levine, Grist for the Mill (London: Wildwood House, 1977). Ramprasad See SEN, RAMPRASAD. Rameshvaram Rameshvaram is an island off the coast of Tamil Ramsuratkumar, Yogi (1918–2001) Nadu whose name, “Rama the god,” indicates enlightened yogi from South India its sacred status. It is told in the RAMAYANA that The revered South Indian beggar saint Yogi Ramsu- Lord RAMA, wishing to purify himself after kill- ratkumar attracted a large following through his ing his enemy, the demon king RAVANA, stopped ascetic piety and God-intoxication. at Rameshvaram. He sent HANUMAN, the monkey Ramsurat Kunwar was born on December 1, god, to BENARES (Varanasi) to get a SHIVA LINGAM 1918, in a small village on the GANGES River five for him to worship. While Hanuman was gone, miles from BENARES (Varanasi) in Uttar Pradesh. Rama’s wife, SITA made a lingam out of sand and The son of a devout rural BRAHMIN family, he was began to worship it. When Hanuman returned, a natural mystic and brilliant student, who gradu- Rama ordered him to get rid of the sand lingam ated from Ewing Christian College in ALLAHABAD and install his own. Hanuman could not dislodge with a B.A. in English literature in 1939. Pres- the lingam created by Sita. The second lingam sured by his family to assume the responsibilities then was set up beside the first so that both could of family life, he was married in 1938. For some be worshipped. years he taught high school English in Bihar state, Rameshvaram is one of the most visited PIL- but he was consumed by a passionate longing for GRIMAGE sites in India and is accepted in Hindu- the divine that finally compelled him to make, ism as one of the four major sites in India to visit in 1947, the first of many trips to South India to (along with BADRINATH, Puri, and DWARAKA). The search for his GURU. main temple on the island is dedicated to Shiva Yogi Ramsuratkumar said he had three “spiri- and is said to have been established by Rama tual fathers” who initiated him into the spiritual himself. Historically, the present temple bears path: Sri AUROBINDO, RAMANA MAHARSHI, and Swami the architecture of the seventh through 13th (Papa) RAMDAS. After the deaths of the first two, centuries. There are a number of sacred places Ramsurat returned to Swami Ramdas at Anandash- on the island associated with Rama, including ram in 1952. At that time Ramdas initiated him

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 359 12/14/06 9:29:19 AM K 360 Ramsuratkumar, Yogi

food and clothing that were given to him by local people who recognized his radiance and sanctity. The sublime countenance of the beggar yogi, his spontaneous outbursts—ecstatic song, chanting of the name of God, and blessing of all who were drawn to him—began to capture the hearts of seekers. By 1980 he had become widely recog- nized by countless numbers of people, including the American spiritual teacher Lee LOZOWICK, who became an ardent disciple. In 1994 the Yogi Ramsuratkumar Ashram at Tiruvannamalai was built by his devotees. Dressed in the ragged shawls and stained dhotis of a beg- Yogi Ramsuratkumar (1918–2001), enlightened gar, with nothing but a country palm fan and beggar yogi of South India (Yogi Ramsuratkumar Ashram, coconut bowl, Yogi Ramsuratkumar gave DARSHAN Tiruvannamalai) twice a day in the temple of his ashram from 1994 through 2001. He did not teach by linear dis- into the MANTRA, Om Sri Ram Jai Ram Jai Jai Ram; course, but through transmission of divine pres- after a week of repeating the mantra, Ramsurat ence, instructing his disciples to repeat the name was permanently cast into a state of God-intoxica- of God, using his name, Yogi Ramsuratkumar, as tion. Referring to this permanent annihilation of a mantra to invoke divine blessings. His vision of his personal identity in the divine, he often said, the unity of all life was often given in his words “In 1952 Ramdas killed this beggar; this beggar is “My Father alone exists! There is nothing else, no more.” nobody else—past, present, future—here, there, Swami Ramdas sent Ramsurat Kunwar away everywhere, anywhere! from Anandashram, telling him, “You cannot live Today, darshan, chanting, Vedic rituals, and in the ashram. . . . Remember, under a big tree, celebrations are regularly observed at the Yogi another big tree cannot grow. Go and beg.” A Ramsuratkumar Ashram. The mahasamadhi divine madness similar to that of Sri CHAITANYA (tomb) of Yogi Ramsuratkumar is housed there. had taken over Ramsurat Kunwar, and at the cost Farther south, a temple complex dedicated to of great personal anguish, he was compelled to Yogi Ramsuratkumar is situated near the ocean at enter the life of a wandering mendicant beggar. Kanya Kumari in the small village of Kanimadam. For seven years (1952–59) he traveled throughout Completed in 1993, this temple conducts daily India, finally arriving in 1959 at the foot of holy BHAJANS, worship, and Vedic rituals. Mount Arunachala in Tiruvannamalai, where he Lee Lozowick has established ashrams in the lived for the remainder of his life. United States, France, and India where the name Ramsurat would often visit Ramanashram, of Yogi Ramsuratkumar is chanted. the ashram of Ramana Maharshi. One of Ramana Yogi Ramsuratkumar died on February 20, Maharshi’s senior disciples, T. K. Sundaresan 2001. Iyer, recognized the divine state of the unusual 40-year-old beggar and gave him the name Yogi Further reading: Vijayalakshmi, Waves of Love (Tiru- Ramsuratkumar. For many years Yogi Ramsurat- vannamalai: Yogi Ramsuratkumar Ashram, 2002); M. kumar was a “hidden saint,” living on the streets Young, As It Is: A Year on the Road with a Tantric of Tiruvannamalai and subsisting entirely on the Teacher (Prescott, Ariz: Hohm Press, 2000); ———,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 360 12/14/06 9:29:20 AM Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh 361 J

Yogi Ramsuratkumar: Under the Punnai Tree (Prescott, Further reading: Graham M. Schweig, trans., Dance of Ariz: Hohm Press, 2003). Divine Love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the , India’s Classic Sacred Love Story (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); B. V. Tripurari, rasa Aesthetic Vedanta: The Sacred Path of Passionate Love Rasa (taste) is an important Indian aesthetic con- (Eugene, Ore.: Mandala Publishing Group, 1998). cept applied to literature, drama, and occasionally mythology. Literally, rasa is the taste, savor, or essence of something. In aesthetics rasa is the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) essential sentiment embedded in a work of art that (est. 1925) evokes a corresponding emotion in the reader, The Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (National listener, or viewer. Volunteer Corps) was for decades the most impor- Works of art are often classified according to tant organization advocating cultural and political their predominant rasa. The literature variously . It still wields influence and lists eight to 11 of them. The most common listed has been involved in a number of violent disputes are 10: shringara (love), hasya (mirth), karuna with ethnic or religious minorities. (pity), raudra (anger), vira (heroism), bhayanaka The RSS was first formed in 1925, but the (fear), bibhatsa (disgust), and adbhuta (won- movement has its origins in the ideology of Bal der); some add shanta (tranquillity) and vatsalya Gangadhar Tilak, who was convicted of murder- (parental fondness). ing several British officials at the turn of the 20th century. Tilak had been influenced by the reform- Further reading: Hari Ram Mishra, The Theory of Rasa ist goals of the reformer Rammohun ROY, but not in Sanskrit Drama, with a Comparative Study of General by the liberal means that Roy championed. Dramatic Literature (Bhopal: Vindhyachal Prakashan, The RSS was formed as a cultural and social 1964); Tapasvi S. Nandi, The Origin and Development organization, whose goal was to transform India of the Theory of Rasa and Dhvani in Sanskrit Poetics from a secular state into a Hindu nation. Some (Ahmedabad: Gujarat University, 1973); V. Raghavan, call it “Hindu fundamentalist,” but in actuality the Abhinavagupta and His Works (Varanasi: Chaukhambha ideology of , or Hinduness, only relates Orientalia, 1980); ———, The Number of Rasas, 3d to certain aspects of Hinduism. For example, rev. ed. (Madras: Adyar Library and Research Centre, while the RSS extols many of the achievements of 1975). the Indian past, its doctrines are not based on the four VEDAS, the most ancient Hindu sacred texts. The RSS has argued that India fell under British rasa lila rule because it lacked discipline and aggressive- The rasa lila, “round of passion” or “play of ness. It promotes a hypernationalistic, militaristic passion,” is the circle dance performed by Lord agenda seeking the expulsion of Muslims and the KRISHNA with the cowherd women (GOPIS). Krishna establishment of Hindu supremacy in India. stood at the center of the circle and multiplied RSS rejects the pluralism found in traditional himself so that he could dance individually with Hinduism. Instead, it has a goal of creating a sin- each of them. Devotees of Krishna understand this gle Hindu doctrine for India. It also wants to elim- dance as a metaphor for the relationship between inate Islam and opposes . It God and the individual soul. God is complete and opposes preferences that the Indian government isolated unto himself, while also residing inti- has extended to the lower CASTES; some of its sup- mately at the center of everyone’s soul. port can be attributed to a reaction by higher-caste

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 361 12/14/06 9:29:20 AM K 362 Rati

Hindus to the government’s equalization policy. In PARISHAD (another nationalist group) led the pro- fact, its supporters generally are from the upper tests; he was recently indicted for his role in the castes. While they criticize the distortions of the affair. The RSS protesters eventually attacked and caste system (which they blame on Muslim influ- destroyed the mosque in 1992. Nationwide com- ence), critics believe they really want to return to munal riots resulted, in which 3,000 people were a time when caste was rigidly enforced. killed. RSS members conduct daily drills of martial arts wearing khaki uniforms, mimicking the - Further reading: Gwilym Beckerlegge and Anthony ian and German fascists they have long admired. Copley, eds., Saffron and Seva (Hinduism in Public and Their disciplined members are often the first to Private) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); arrive at the site of natural disasters, a practice Chetan Bhatt, Hindu Nationalism: Origins, Ideologies, that earns them support. The women’s wing of the and Modern Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, RSS is the Rashtriya Sevika Samiti; its structure is 2001); Gerrie ter Haar and James J. Busuttil, eds., The not unlike the male sections. Freedom to Do God’s Will: Religious Fundamentalism The political wing of the RSS is the BHARATIYA and Social Change (London: Routledge, 2003); Blom JANATA PARTY. It was founded in 1951 on a plat- Thomas Hanson, The Saffron Way: Democracy and form of an undivided India and aimed to unify Nationalism in Modern India (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton all Hindus under a single doctrine, whereas in University Press, 1999); Santosh C. Saha, ed., Religious the past Hindus have tolerated a wide diversity of Fundamentalism in the Contemporary World: Critical thought, and has rejected what it sees as European Social and Political Issues (Lanham, Md.: Lexington influences on modern Hindu thought and prac- Books, 2004); Santosh C. Saha and Thomas K. Carr, tice. At first it also rejected industrialization, but eds., Religious Fundamentalism in Developing Countries that orientation was eventually discarded. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001); Peter van During the 1940s M. S. Golwalker transformed der Veer, Religious Nationalism, Hindus and Muslims in the RSS into the most powerful of all the national- India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). ist movements in India. Their influence expanded over time through missionary work. In February 1983 the RSS was implicated with nationalists and Rati local police in Assam in a massacre of Muslim In Indian mythology Rati, Desire, is the wife of the immigrants. The rioters also killed local Hindus god of love KAMADEVA. Some stories say that she who coexisted with the Moslems. was created from the sweat of the RISHI DAKSHA, The RSS was also involved, along with the SHIV SHIVA’s future father-in-law. Other stories make her SENA movement and , in the the daughter of BRAHMA, who killed herself when controversy that arose around the Babri Masjid Brahma, ashamed of his own lust, killed himself. Mosque in the Uttar Pradesh city of AYODHYA. Both were revived by Vishnu and she then was This mosque was built in 1528 on a site that is given to Kamadeva, the god of love, in marriage. believed to be the birthplace of RAMA, the AVATAR Rati’s most celebrated achievement was to of VISHNU. persuade Shiva to revive her husband, after he As early as the 1940s RSS members managed had burned him to ashes with his third eye. In the to erect an image of Rama in the mosque. Later best known version of this story, Shiva restores the government sealed off the mosque to try to Kamadeva to life but makes him invisible. In other dampen the dispute. In the 1980s, the RSS started versions, Rati tries to revive her husband by feats to protest the very existence of the Babri Mosque. of asceticism but is stopped by the rishi NARADA, Lal Krishnan Advani, a leader of the HINDU who forces her to serve as a demon’s housemaid,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 362 12/14/06 9:29:20 AM Rawat, Prem 363 J

under the name Mayavati. In still other versions, Many members of the counterculture in the Rati, in the guise of Mayavati, raises Kamadeva to United States were impressed by Maharaj Ji’s mes- life and they are married once again. sage of peace during his tours in the later 1960s, when he was still a teenager. In 1971, after his Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van visits to Los Angeles and Boulder, Colorado, the Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the United States DLM was established in Denver, Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Colorado. By 1972 the movement spread across Press, 1978); John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary the country. Ashrams were established in major of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, cities and the publications Divine Times and It is and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, Divine distributed. 1974). In 1973 the DLM rented the Astro- dome for a gathering of peace coinciding with the birthday of Sri Han. The event failed to generate Ravana See RAMAYANA. large attendance and became a financial loss. Pro- grams and ASHRAMS were soon closed in order to pay off debt and many premies began to leave the Rawat, Prem (Guru Maharaj Ji) (1957– ) movement. In 1974 Guru Maharaj Ji married a head of and creator of Elan Vital Western premie named Marolyn Johnson, a mar- , or Guru Maharaj Ji, is a teacher in riage that created conflict between Maharaj Ji and the Sant Mat tradition who won a large follow- his mother. The fracture caused further troubles ing in the United States in the 1960s and early for the DLM when his mother returned to India 1970s. and reestablished the DLM under her eldest son’s Prem Rawat was born on December 10, 1957, name. near Dehra Dun in Uttaranchal state, India, the In the late 1970s the DLM reorganized and youngest son of Sri Han Maharaj Ji, an established moved its headquarters to Miami, Florida. Maha- spiritual teacher. Prem received formal education raj Ji distanced himself from the religious asso- at St. Joseph’s Academy, but his spiritual direction ciation to make his teachings more universal. was from his father. At age three, he began speak- In the 1980s he encouraged followers to leave ing to audiences about inner peace. When his the monastic life and to regard him simply as a father died in 1966 he became spiritual leader of humanitarian leader. By 1983, he had ordered all the Divine Light Mission (DLM), a foundation Sri Western ashrams to close. Han had established in the 1930s. In the mid-1980s, the DLM was renamed Under his leadership the mission continued to the Elan Vital and discarded all religious affilia- teach his father’s main techniques, derived from tion. Guru Maharaj Ji changed his name to Prem the SANT MAT tradition. The tradition teaches Rawat, believing that the divinity ascribed to him that knowledge, as the energy and source of life, obstructed his message. Elan Vital became a much is obtained through four forms of MEDITATION, smaller organization. He increased his speaking each of which focuses attention on inner life. engagements and produced video and sound Maharaj Ji presented the teaching as a cultiva- recordings to spread his ideas. tion of inner peace through maintaining silence, Elan Vital, now headquartered in Agoura Hills, watching the process of breathing, and focusing California, retains its status as a charitable organi- the senses inward. Devotees who take initiation zation, organizing events for Prem Rawat, raising into DLM are said to “gain knowledge” and are funds, producing and distributing tapes of his called “premies.” messages, and archiving the history of his work.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 363 12/14/06 9:29:20 AM K 364 rechaka

Supported largely by volunteer staff and sales of ber at 8,400,000. The Ajivika sect believed that his products, Elan Vital is active in the United these births were all inevitable and could not be States, Britain, and Australia. escaped; one could reach liberation only after they At present, Rawat continues to give talks on were all completed. knowledge throughout the world. According to Many early sects adopted extreme ascetic the Elan Vital, his teachings have spread to more practices, avoiding any taint of worldly passion, than 80 countries and its publications are avail- in order not to add to the accumulation of KARMA able in 60 languages. that had occurred from previous lives. Later Hin- Prem Rawat lives with his wife in Malibu, duism, as well as Buddhism and JAINISM, made California. the notion of reincarnation central to spiritual and religious practice, enshrining the notions Further reading: Charles Cameron, Who Is Guru Maha- of karma and SAMSARA (the round of birth and raj Ji? (New York: Bantam Books, 1973); Sophia Col- rebirth) in Indian culture and practice. lier, Soul Rush: The Odyssey of a Young Woman of the ’70s In these traditions, reincarnation results from (New York: Morrow, 1978); James V. Downton, Sacred one’s actions in one’s previous life, one’s karma. Journeys: The Conversion of Young Americans to Divine In the process of time one might endure a huge Light Mission (New York: Columbia University Press, number of highly undesirable births; samsara, or 1979); Guru Maharaj Ji, The Living Master: Quotes worldly existence, was thus a trap one tried to from Guru Maharaj Ji (Denver: Divine Light Mission, escape. 1978). Such escape of rebirth has been the primary obsession of all practice in nearly all Indian tradi- tions (except Islam) up to the present day. MOK- rechaka See PRANAYAMA. SHA or NIRVANA, the liberation or release from this cycle, became the highest goal in all the major traditions. Release could occur in several ways. reincarnation/rebirth One path was severe, world-denying asceticism; The Indian belief in the “cycle of lives” has even today there are such practitioners hidden ancient origin. Souls are believed to cycle through away in mountain caves. Meditative yoga was human or animal lives until they are liberated and seen as another way, which allowed one’s mind merge with a higher reality. On rare occasions the or consciousness to remove itself from attach- tradition refers to reincarnation into a plant or ment to worldly life and thereby pave the way to stationary object. liberation. Alternatively, a focus upon God could The concept appears to have emerged in late earn the grace of the divinity and God could Vedic times. Some argue that the idea was present help break the bonds of karma. Traditionally it in the Vedic tradition from the beginning, but little has been said in Hinduism, too, that a true GURU evidence can be found in any of the Vedic collec- can literally strip away one’s karma, and thus tions of MANTRAS, and only very occasional refer- devotion to gurus has become a strong feature ences are found in the BRAHMANAS, the explanatory of Hinduism. portions of the Vedic collections. By the time of the UPANISHADS the notion of reincarnation seems Further reading: C. F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel, to have become centrally important. Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry (Berkeley: Univer- Some sects in ancient times appear to have sity of California Press, 1983); Wendy O’Flaherty, ed., believed that every soul must travel through a Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions (Berke- fixed number of births; one text puts the num- ley: University of California Press, 1980).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 364 12/14/06 9:29:21 AM Rig Veda 365 J

Rig Veda Many of the other rishis are descendants of these The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four VEDAS major rishis. central to the Brahminical tradition. According to Book III of the Rig Veda, for instance, is said tradition it was compiled by VYASA. It is usually to be received by Vishvamitra and his descen- dated from 1500 to 1000 B.C.E., but since it is an dants. Nearly all the hymns of book VI are said anthology, some of its more than 1,000 hymns to be from . All the hymns of book might well be older. The great majority of the VII are from Vasishtha. Most of book IV is said hymns are from five to 20 lines in length; very few to have been received by the rishi , the exceed 50 lines in length. son of the rishi Gotama. All of book II is said to The Rig Veda contains hymns of praise to a have been received by the rishi Gritsmada. There pantheon of divinities. It also includes some cos- were apparently some women who received Vedic mogonic hymns—hymns that tell of the creation hymns, including Apala of the family; Gho- of the universe—that are extremely important for sha, grand-daughter of ; Romasha; the development of later Hinduism. By far the and Shashvati. The great majority of rishis were greatest number of the hymns of the Rig Veda Brahmins and Kshatriyas, the two highest castes, are devoted to INDRA, king of the gods, a deity but some verses were received by others. connected with the storms and rain who holds a Scholars believe books I and X were recorded thunderbolt, and AGNI, the god of fire. The rest of later than the others. Book X contains several the hymns are devoted to an array of gods, most cosmogonic hymns such as the , the prominently MITRA, VARUNA, SAVITRI, SOMA, and Hymn of the Divine Man (Rig Veda X. 90), which the ASHVINS. highlight the theme of cosmic unity. The hymns Less frequently mentioned in Rig Veda are were very influential in later Indian thought. Most the gods who became most important in the hymns of the Rig Veda, however, are not philo- later Hindu pantheon, VISHNU and RUDRA (one of sophical; rather, they are directed toward various whose epithets was SHIVA, the benign). A num- divinities as part of a ritual cult, which is explic- ber of goddesses are mentioned, most frequently itly detailed in the BRAHMANAS. There are very few , goddess of the dawn. (she without hymns of the Rig Veda that do not involve refer- limit) is a goddess who is said to be the mother ence to some ritual. of the gods. The Rig Veda, as the other Vedas, was passed The Rig Veda, as are the other Vedas, is under- down from mouth to ear for millennia. It was for- stood to be “composed by no man” (apaurasheya). bidden to write them, as they were the exclusive It was considered to be an eternal text that is preserve of those authorized and qualified to use rediscovered during each new cosmic era. Com- them properly. Much as in a shamanistic tradition, monly, the Rig Veda is divided into eight cycles, the Vedas were shared only among initiates who or , but in it is also traditionally learned learned from a Vedic GURU. The earliest written in 10 books. texts appeared around the 15th century C.E. The RISHIS, poet-sages, are said to be respon- sible for “seeing” or hearing the verses in their Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- divine form and recording them. Each Rig Vedic losophy, vol. I (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); J. C. hymn has a rishi’s name attached and some full Heesterman, The Broken World of Sacrifice: An Essay on books or partial books are said to have been Ancient Indian Ritual (Chicago: University of California received by a single rishi. Prominent among Press, 1993); ———, The Inner Conflict of Tradition: the rishis are Vishvamitra, Atri, Bharadvaja, Essays in Indian Ritual, Kingship and Society (Chicago: Vasishtha, Kashyapa, Jamadagni, and Gautama. University of Chicago Press, 1985); Ralph T. H. Griffith,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 365 12/14/06 9:29:21 AM K 366

trans., Sacred Writings. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan, vol. For 1,000 years Rishabha ignored his body 5, The Rig Veda (New York: Book-of-the-Month Club, in every way, enduring every hardship without 1992); Wendy O’Flaherty, The Rig Veda: An Anthology complaint or acknowledgment. He would walk (Baltimore: Penguin, 1982); J. Frits Staal, AGNI: The very slowly, talk very quietly, and move about very Altar of Fire, 2 vols. (Berkeley, Calif.: Asian Humanities lightly so as not to harm any being visible or invis- Press, 1983). ible. He saw offal and gold as the same and would accept only that which had not been prepared specially for him. Rishabha Rishabha spent 1,000 years contemplating Rishabha was the first Jain TIRTHANKARA (saint) of himself and doing penance in right conduct on our half-era (see JAINISM). He was followed by 23 the road to liberation. Finally, taking water only others, the last of whom was MAHAVIRA. once every four days, he sat under a tree and Rishabha’s life was marked by four auspicious reached the ultimate insight of full knowledge. events, which all took place when the Moon was Thereupon he became a spiritual victor, a jina, and in conjunction with the same star: he entered the became omniscient. At this time the gods and all womb after a previous life in a heavenly realm, he other beings went to listen to him preach the Jain was born into the world, he left the life of a house- doctrine in an awesome and beautiful pavilion holder, and he attained infinite knowledge. they built. In the land of Kosala, he entered the womb of It is said that the Tirthankara Rishabha had 84 , wife of , a member of a warrior disciples who were very close to him and another class family on the fourth day in the dark half of 84 who assisted him. He had a total of 84,000 the month of Ashadha (June–July). His mother, as monks and 300,000 nuns. He remained seating was customary for those who would bear a future in a lotus position, omniscient, for 100,000 years. ARHAT, an enlightened being, had had 14 auspi- Finally he met his death and his soul ascended cious dreams, such as seeing a white elephant and to the top of the universe to exist there in eternal an ox. In the eighth day of the dark half of the effulgence and bliss. month of Chaitra (March–April), he was born. Gods, goddesses, animal divinities, and others Further reading: , Rishabha Deva, the descended to greet this great birth and showered Founder of Jainism (Allahabhad: Indian Press, 1929); P. down jewels, gold, and silver. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal Rishabha lived as a prince and as a monarch Banarsidass, 1990); K. C. Lalwani, Kalpa Sutra (Delhi: for thousands of years. Even as a monarch he Motilal Banarsidass, 1979). was known for his many virtues and for his great teachings of the various arts. In his kingly life his children included the famed BHARATA and rishi . A rishi in its most ancient Vedic sense was a seer In the month of Chaitra (March–April), he and an inspired poet. The original rishis were gave away all his wealth, mounted his kingly those who saw or called forth the eternal verses palanquin for the last time, and went to his place of the VEDAS. The Vedas were not seen as writ- of renunciation to become a monk. He sat under ten by anyone; the rishis were conduits for them. a sacred tree; took off all his clothes, finery, and Most of the Vedic MANTRAS include the name ornaments; and pulled out all his hair in five tufts, of the rishi who recorded them. Seven of these as was the custom for one who was to become a ancient rishis are seen as the starting points for Jain monk. the orthodox BRAHMIN lineages: Kashyapa, Atri,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 366 12/14/06 9:29:21 AM Roy, Raja Rammohun 367 J

Vasishtha, Vishvamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni, and DESS. Rishikesh is filled at all times with swamis, Bharadvaja. SADHUS, mendicants, and peregrinating pilgrims In the later epics and Puranas, or mythical who seek this holy shrine for purification and lore, rishis inhabited ASHRAMS or retreat places in devotion. Rishikesh is not far from HARIDVAR and the wilderness, where they performed their aus- is a waystation for pilgrims going farther up the terities. These rishis were sages, not necessarily Himalayas to BADRINATH. connected with the transmission of the Vedas. Some of them were composers or compilers of Further reading: Augusthy Keemattam, The Hermits the epics, such as the rishi VALMIKI who compiled of Rishikesh: A Sociological Study (New Delhi: Inter- the RAMAYANA, and the rishi VYASA who gave us cultural, 1997); Reeta Khullar and Rupinder Khullar, the MAHABHARATA. The rishis encountered in this Gateway to the Gods: , Rishikesh, Yamunotri, later literature often are known for the frighten- Gangotri-Kedarnath-Badrinath (: Uttaranchal ing curses they imposed upon those who had not Tourism and UBS Publisher’s Distributors, 2004). treated them with due deference and respect. Rishi today is an honorific term, for instance, in the case of MAHARISHI (great rishi) Mahesh Yogi, rita who founded the TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION Rita is a VEDIC concept that means “cosmic order.” movement. Few such people today are considered VARUNA was most specifically charged with its comparable to the great rishis of the past. maintenance, but many other gods such as AGNI See also SAPTA RISHI. and INDRA were sometimes also said to maintain rita. It was understood that the Vedic rituals Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary were necessary to maintain the cosmic order. In of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and fact the greatest of the ancient Vedic rituals, the Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, 1974); AGNICHAYANA, or fire ritual, was seen to re-create John E. Mitchiner, Traditions of the Seven Rsis (Delhi: the entire cosmic order each year. The concept of Motilal Banarsidass, 1982); C. Sivaramamurti, Rishis in rita is most important as a precursor to the notion Indian Art and Literature (New Delhi: Kanak, 1981). of DHARMA, although the latter was extended into social law and social organization as well.

Rishikesh Further reading: Madhu Khanna, ed., Rita, the Cosmic Rishikesh (the RISHI’s hair, or possibly a corrup- Order (New Delhi: D. K. Printworld in association with tion of, , an epithet of ARJUNA) is an the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 2004); important Indian PILGRIMAGE center. Many SWAMIS Jeanine Miller, The Vision of the Cosmic Order in the taught or lived there, including SWAMI SHIVANANDA Vedas (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). and the MAHARISHI MAHESH YOGI, who founded the TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION movement. Rishkesh lies in northern Uttar Pradesh in the Roerich, Nicholas and Helena See AGNI foothills of the HIMALAYAS, on the GANGES. At the YOGA SOCIETY. Triveni , the steps down to the Ganges, many offerings are made and ablutions done, for the Ganges is the purest of rivers, and at Rishikesh Roy, Raja Rammohun (1772–1833) founder its water is very cold and fast. At sunset there is a of custom there of setting little lamps adrift on the Rammohun Roy was a central figure in the Ganges in worship to Devi, the river GOD- Bengal Renaissance of the late 19th century and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 367 12/14/06 9:29:21 AM K 368 Roy, Raja Rammohun the founder of the reform movement BRAHMO and to accept the common aspects of different SAMAJ. faiths, including Buddhism, JAINISM, Hinduism, He was born in Radhanagar, Bengal, on May and Christianity. 22, 1772, to a Bengali BRAHMIN, but religiously Although he read many of the world’s scrip- diverse family. His father worshipped VISHNU, tures in their original languages, he sought a while his mother was a devotee of the GODDESS. way to free his own tradition, Hinduism, from He was raised in Patna, a center of Muslim learn- superstition and prejudice. He claimed that the ing, and was influenced by Islamic teachings unifying doctrines he sought were contained in against images. Later, in Calcutta (Kolkata), he the UPANISHADS. With this renewed appreciation was exposed to Christianity. A scholar, he knew of the teachings of the Upanishads, he advocated Bengali, SANSKRIT, and other Indian languages, that Indians learn their own tradition as well as as well as Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, and science, philosophy, and modern perspectives. Latin. With his liberal education, he was inclined He adamantly rejected image worship, burning of to reject the traditional orthodoxy of Hinduism widows (SATI), and the power that the Brahminic priesthood had over the populace. These practices he considered superstitious, prejudiced, and con- trary to rationality. Once he became acquainted with Unitarianism through missionaries in India, he allied his movement with the principles of Uni- tarian philosophy. Known for his work toward the abolition of sati, the immolation of widows on their husbands’s funeral pyre; the disadvantages of polygamy; and challenges to the authority of the Hindu priest- hood, Roy became a voice of tolerance and a con- tinuing influence on traditional Indian practices. The first president of India, , called Roy a “pioneer of modern India,” and Swami VIVEKANANDA extolled Roy’s love, which extended to Muslims as well as Hindus. In 1831, he traveled to the and visited France. He died on September 27, 1833. See also UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES.

Further reading: Piyus Kanti Das, Raja Rammohun Roy and Brahmoism (Calcutta: Author, 1970); David Kopf, The Brahmo Samaj and the Shaping of the Modern Indian Mind (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979); Spencer Lavan, Unitarians and India: A Study in Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833), “Founder of Encounter and Response (Chicago: Exploration Press, Modern India” and creator of the Brahmo Samaj 1991); J. Tuckerman, “Is Rammohun Roy a Christian?” movement (Victoria and Albert Museum/London/Art The Christian Examiner 3, no. 5 (September–October Resource, NY) 1826): 361–369. Rudrananda, Swami 369 J

Rudra (Mumbai). The meeting with Nityananda was to Rudra, “the howler,” is the father of the MARUTS, change the course of his life. Nityananda was a the storm gods of the RIG VEDA, but is also known , always in a state of bliss and trance, for causing disease and for healing. The epithet who did not write or found any organization. His SHIVA, “the benign,” is given to him in the Rig teachings were his direct transmission of spiritual Veda (though he is most often fierce), and thus he force, and his utterances given in a profoundly is conflated in Indian tradition with Shiva himself. immersed state were recorded by his pupils. In scholarship the term Rudra-Shiva is commonly Nityananda transmitted the creative life force or used in the description of Shiva. The explicit iden- SHAKTI directly to disciples. Through this trans- tification of Rudra and Shiva as Lord is first made mission or shaktipat, the power of kundalini was in the of perhaps the aroused in the disciple, who could experience an fourth century B.C.E. identity with the divine. Uncharacteristically honored alone and not Albert had many extraordinary experiences in concert with other divinities, as so many Vedic with Nityananda, who even after his death appeared divinities are, Rudra causes diseases of cattle and to Rudi and transmitted Shakti to him. However, it men with his bow and arrows and is propitiated was Swami MUKTANANDA, one of the primary dis- and appeased rather than loved. In his fierceness ciples of Nityananda, who initiated him into SAN- he is associated with desolate and distant places. NYAS in 1966 and gave him the name Rudrananda (affectionately shortened to Rudi). Rudi was Muk- Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van tananda’s first Western disciple, and it was Rudi Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the who took Muktananda to the United States. In Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University 1971 Rudi broke with Muktananda, who wanted Press, 1978); Stella Kramrisch and Praful C. Patel, The him to turn over his ASHRAMS and students. Presence of Siva (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Rudi’s practice, as was that of Nityananda and Press, 1981). Muktananda, was in essence Shaivite, although he did not focus on the philosophical aspects. Instead he was concerned to extract the content from the Rudrananda, Swami (1928–1973) American container. His entire teaching was centered on teacher of Shaivism and Siddha Yoga providing spiritual nourishment to his students, Swami Rudrananda, a Brooklyn-born disciple to insist that they develop a real practice so that of the Shaivite GURU NITYANANDA, was a popular they could create their own internal spiritual spiritual teacher in the United States. mechanism and connection to higher spiritual Born Albert Rudolph in Brooklyn, New York, forces. Rudi was known for assuming his student’s Swami Rudrananda grew up in the Depression era KARMA or spiritual tension, a negative energy that without a father. He relates that as a child he dem- prohibits spiritual growth. This appropriation of onstrated psychic gifts and could go into trance and others’ karma he called spiritual cannibalism (the tell fortunes. At the age of six he saw two Tibetan title of his autobiography). Rudi was said to have materialize and prophesy that the spiritual removed cancer from one disciple by taking on gifts they were implanting in him would be realized that person’s karma. at age 31. As a young adult, he owned and operated In 1973 Rudi died in the crash of a small an Oriental art shop in New York City. plane, en route to a lecture. In 1958 at age 30, Albert traveled to India to Rudi taught from his own center in New York find a spiritual teacher. There he met his guru, City and opened his first ashram in the United Swami NITYANANDA, at Ganeshpuri, near Bombay States in Big Indian, New York. Eventually nine

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 369 12/14/06 9:29:22 AM K 370 Ruhani Satsang

Rudrananda Ashrams were established in seven Swami Rudrananda (Arlington, Mass.: Neolog, 1984); states. He directly initiated several persons to J. Mann, Rudi: 14 Years with My Teacher (Cambridge, become teachers in his practice, including Swami Mass.: Rudra Press, 1987). Khecaranatha, Swami CHETANANANDA, and Stuart Perrin. Ruhani Satsang See RADHASOAMI MOVEMENT. Further reading: Rudi, Spiritual Cannibalism (Wood- stock, N.Y.: The Overlook Press, 1978); J. Mann, ed., Behind the Cosmic Curtain: The Further Writings of Rukmini See KRISHNA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 370 12/14/06 9:29:22 AM S J: AF

sacred cow The English idiom sacred cow was coined with ref- erence to the veneration of cows that is common in India, but it reflects a degree of misunderstand- ing. Hindus do venerate and respect cows, but they do not regularly worship them; nor do they consider them in the category of icons or sacred objects. Bulls do have some sanctity, as a bull is the iconic vehicle of Lord SHIVA. The weight of academic evidence shows that in VEDIC times (c. 1500–800 B.C.E.) bulls and barren cows were sacrificed by BRAHMINS, who then ate the animals. Other Indians also regularly ate beef. It was the Jains, and to some extent the Buddhists, who impressed Indian tradition with the notion of AHIMSA, the avoidance of harm to any being. Only gradually did society, led by the orthodox Brahmins, embrace VEGETARIANISM as the ideal diet and abandon the eating of meat almost completely. The only Hindus who still regularly eat beef are the Dalit (UNTOUCHABLE) carrion gatherers. As ahimsa became the ideal the cow began to assume an iconic role and could not be killed. Since ancient times cow’s milk has been a food staple; cow’s milk and clarified butter are still used in A sadhu and a sacred cow dressed for a festival in ritual worship. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh (Gustasp Irani)

371

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 371 12/14/06 9:29:22 AM K 372 sacred thread

The mythological wish-giving cow Surabhi is across the chest and around the left side of the an indication of the magic inherent in the species. body. It consists of three strands before mar- A late Atharva Vedic hymn (c. 300 B.C.E.) does riage and six or more thereafter. This thread treat the cow as holy, proclaiming it the universe can be worn by any of the three upper castes itself—the Sun, the Moon, the rain. The imagery (jatis), BRAHMIN (priestly), KSHATRIYA (warrior), recalls the first verses of the BRIHADARANYAKA UPA- or (merchant). In practice, Brahmins (the NISHAD, which gives sacred, cosmological meaning priestly caste) commonly wear the thread, while to the HORSE SACRIFICE as an object of MEDITATION. Kshatriya (warriors) and Vaishya (merchants) No one knows exactly how the cow gained its wear it less often. special status in India, but it is believed that the For Brahmins the investiture of the thread development of ahimsa combined with the near- traditionally marks the beginning of the “student totemic status of the cow made the animal inviola- life” and is a very important ceremony. It is usu- ble. Cows are often allowed to wander the streets to ally done at a young age (eight–12 years) and is forage. Extreme consequences occur when a cow is considered a “second birth.” struck by a vehicle (the driver might be physically attacked), so cows are scrupulously given the right Further reading: Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of of way on the somewhat anarchic Indian roadways. Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, Even ownerless bulls are given similar deference. 1989); Abbé J. A. Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and India, because of its monsoon climate, pos- Ceremonies. Translated from the French and edited by sesses no pastureland to compare with that of Henry K. Beauchamp, 3d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, North America, Europe, Argentina, or Australia. 1959); V. Pandian, in Social Perspective As a result, the raising of beef is not economi- (Madras: Vijaya Vanamahdevi, 1980). cal (although many ecologists claim that feeding grain directly to people is more efficient anywhere than converting it to beef). Therefore, the preser- sadhaka vation of all cows for the dairy industry (and for A sadhaka (from the SANSKRIT root sadh, complete, their dung) has local economic logic. When cattle accomplish) is anyone who is accomplished in a die they are considered carrion and may be taken special skill, or striving to be so. For example, away and eaten by Dalits (untouchables), who one may be a “literary sadhaka.” The term is often may be desperately poor, lack other food sources used to describe a spiritual seeker. In certain and process the skin for leather. contexts the term is translated as “adept,” but “spiritual aspirant” is also a good translation. The Further reading: M. K. Gandhi, How to Serve the term is particularly used in TANTRA, where it refers Cow (Ahmedabad: Navjivan, 1954); Alan Heston, “An to someone who is devoted to the path, but other Approach to the Sacred Cow of India.” Current Anthro- traditions use it as well, for example, the tradition pology, 12 (1971): 191–210; D. N. Jha, The Myth of the of SRI AUROBINDO and THE MOTHER. Holy Cow (London: Verso, 2002); Brian K. Smith, “Eat- ers, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India,” Journal Further reading: Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradi- of the Academy of Religion 58, 2 (1990): 177–205. tion (New York: Grove Press, 1975); Rachel Fell McDer- mott, Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal (New York: sacred thread Oxford University Press, 2001); Swami Narayananda, A The sacred thread is a cord worn by upper-caste Word to Sadhaka: Spiritual Aspirant, 3d rev. ed. (Gylling, Hindu males over the right shoulder, running Denmark: N. U. Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 372 12/14/06 9:29:22 AM Sahaja Yoga Center 373 J

sadhana ker, Sadhus: India’s Mystic Holy Men (London: Thames Sadhana (from the SANSKRIT root sadh, complete, & Hudson, 1993). accomplish) is used generically for any spiritual practice but is most frequently used to refer to Hindu TANTRIC practice. Sahadeva See PANDAVAS.

Further reading: Pandit Madhav Pundalik, Bases of Tantra Sadhana (Pondicherry: Dipti, 1972); Sir John Sahaja Yoga Center (est. 1970s) Woodroffe and Swami Pratyagatmananda, Sadhana for Sahaja Yoga was founded by Sri Mataji Nirmala Self-Realization: Mantras, and Tantras (Madras: Devi (b. March 21, 1923), an Indian girl born Ganesh, 1963). to a Christian family in Chindawara, India. Her parents, Prasad and Cornelia Salve, were direct descendants of a royal household in India. She is sadhu said to have been born with complete self-real- A sadhu (from Sanskrit fisadhvi, “good”) is a ization and to have known from childhood that renunciant, most commonly a mendicant who she had a spiritual mission to help humankind. wanders in search of alms. Such people are Early in her life, she displayed great wisdom, regarded as good, pure, and religiously devoted. intelligence, and an understanding of the human The terms sadhu and SANNYASI (more rarely their nervous system and it energetic components. feminine forms sadhvi and sannyasini) are gener- Her parents were active in the Indian inde- ally used interchangeably for wandering mendi- pendence movement. Her father was a renowned cants. The name SWAMI is also sometimes used. scholar, a close associate of MOHANDAS KARAM- Customs and characteristics vary greatly CHAND GANDHI, who served on the Assembly of among sadhus and depend upon the sect to which Free India; he helped to draft India’s Constitu- they belong. They may be devoted to any divinity tion. As a child, Nirmala lived with her parents or to the BRAHMAN, the ultimate reality. Celibacy is in Gandhi’s ashram and served as a youth leader universally required. Sadhus who worship Lord in the independence movement. Gandhi rec- SHIVA may freely partake of hashish and marijuana ognized her spiritual gifts and often engaged to inspire their devotional chanting; for all others with her in conversation about the principle of such drugs are strictly forbidden. Sadhus are very Sahaja Yoga (the union with the divine innate often devoted to a particular GURU (almost always in all people). Both agreed that fundamental- a man) and follow his dictates strictly. ism and religious competition were obstacles to The sadhu or wandering mendicant is a very SELF-REALIZATION. familiar feature of the Indian landscape and a Nirmala studied medicine and psychology at distinctive aspect of Hinduism. While they are the Christian Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan. typically welcomed, there has always been some In the late 1940s she married C. P. Srivastava, a skepticism about their authenticity as well. member of the Indian Civil Service and later a diplomat. They had two daughters. Further reading: Ramesh Bedi and Rajesh Bedi, Sadhus: In May 1970, Nirmala had a transformative The Holy Men of India (New Delhi: Brijbasi Printers, experience. She felt an opening in the crown 1991); Agehananda Bharati, The Ochre Robe: An Auto- CHAKRA at the top of her head. The KUNDALINI biography, 2d ed. (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Ross-Erikson, energy coiled at the base of the spine began to 1980); Robert Lewis Gross, The Sadhus of India: A Study uncoil and to open the other energy centers along of Hindu Asceticism (: Rawat, 1992); Dolf Hartsui- the spine. Empowered with this spiritual energy,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 373 12/14/06 9:29:22 AM K 374 sahasrara chakra

she decided to assume the role of GURU and teach gration of the transcendent and the earthly takes others how to experience this divine energy. place, and the yogi can experience all of reality as She is believed to be a direct channel for divine divinity. The deity of this chakra is paramashiva. power and energy, which flow directly through The SHAKTI is mahashakti, or the highest form of her. In her teaching she offers self-realization as a the GODDESS. The 1,000 petals are said to be of beginning process of spiritual or yogic practices. every color. She is said to cause the rising of kundalini in her students when they are in her presence, triggering Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Centers the awakening of the kundalini spiritual power of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 2000); in masses of individuals simultaneously. The goal John G. Woodroffe, The Serpent Power, 7th ed. (Madras: of her personal appearances is to guide the indi- Ganesh, 1964). vidual practitioner to immediate and spontaneous enlightenment. Since 1970, Nirmala has traveled the world to Sai Baba of Shirdi (c. 1856–1918) revered teach the techniques of Sahaja Yoga meditation. ascetic She does not charge fees for her lectures or for the Sai Baba was a highly charismatic ascetic and experiences that students have in her presence. teacher of the early 20th century, whose influence The Sahaja Yoga Center has locations in the carries to the present. United States, Canada, India, and England and The early life of this Indian holy man is issues a periodical, Nirmala Yoga. Nirmala has cre- almost completely unknown. It is believed that ated a number of nongovernmental organizations, he was born to a BRAHMIN family in a village in including an international hospital in Bombay Hyderabad state, India, but the particulars of his (Mumbai), an international cancer research center family and lineage have not been discovered. He there, an international music school in Nagpur, left home when he was eight to follow a Muslim and a charity house for the poor in Delhi. teacher. When this teacher died, he associated with a Hindu guru named Venkusa. At age 16 Further reading: Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi, Meta Mod- he appeared in Shirdi, a village in Maharashtra ern Era (Delhi: Nirmala Yoga, 1992); ———, Sahaja state, where he kept to himself, remained silent Yoga (Delhi: Nirmala Yoga, 1992); “The Russians’ Love except in response to questions, and begged for for Yoga: Nirmala Devi Shares Her Adventure,” Hindu- food. ism Today 12, no. 10 (October 1990): 1, 7. After he had for some years appeared in public in Shirdi, people reported miracles and spontaneous ecstasy in his presence. He report- sahasrara chakra edly visited people in their dreams and healed The sahasrara (sahasra, thousand; ara, petaled) the sick. In 1908 he began to be worshipped as CHAKRA is not, properly speaking, a chakra (energy a god. center along the spine). This “eighth chakra” in Sai Baba’s teaching emphasized devotion to the KUNDALINI YOGA system represents the highest a guru. He advocated VEGETARIANISM, taken from transcendent state that a practitioner can reach. It Hinduism, but also used Muslim MANTRAS and is depicted as a lotus with many petals floating 12 prayers. He advised all to remain in the faith in fingers above the head. which they were born but to attend the festivals Sahasrara chakra is the meeting place of the of other religions. divine feminine in the form of the kundalini with Sai Baba’s grave in Shirdi is a shrine and place paramashiva, or highest SHIVA. Here the full inte- of pilgrimage. He is considered one of India’s

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 374 12/14/06 9:29:23 AM Saiva 375 J

Sai Baba of Shirdi (c. 1856–1918), the shrine of a holy man and miracle worker in Maharashtra (Gustasp Irani)

most famous holy men. His influence extends Saiva Siddhanta through several spiritual teachers who were Saiva Siddhanta is a form of SHAIVISM practiced in influenced by him. MEHER BABA spent time with Tamil-speaking regions, particularly Tamil Nadu both Sai Baba and one of Sai Baba’s followers, Sri and northern Sri Lanka. It is based on the 28 Upasani Baba. SATYA SAI BABA considers himself Shaivite AGAMAS, authoritative texts that interpret the reincarnation of Sai Baba of Shirdi. Both and extend Vedic knowledge, and on the teachings Meher Baba and Satya Sai Baba have worldwide of the 63 NAYANMARS, the Tamil Shaivite saints. movements. Other authorities include MANIKKAVACAKAR, who wrote the beloved TIRUVACAKAM (Sacred utter- Further reading: Arthur Osborne, The Incredible Sai ances) (c. 10th century), and Meykanda, with his Baba (New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1957); P. D. Sham Sivajnanabodham (Awareness of the knowledge of Rao, Five Contemporary Gurus in the Shirdi (Sai Baba) Siva) (c. 13th century). Tradition (Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1972); Saiva Siddhanta focuses on the three cat- Kevin R. D. Shepherd, Gurus Rediscovered: Biographies egories of pati, pashu, and pasha. Pati is SHIVA, of Sai Baba of Shirdi and Upasni Maharaj of Sakori (Cam- transcendent and pristine. Though he takes on bridge: Anthropographia, 1986). a manifest aspect to enter the world, the world

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 375 12/14/06 9:29:23 AM K 376 Saiva Siddhanta Church

is always and eternally separate from Shiva. One muniya Ashram in Alaveddy, Sri Lanka, begun in can realize one’s Shiva nature at the core of one’s 1949 by Subramuniyaswami, serves the needs of soul, but souls are eternally separate from one the Shaivite community near . another and separate from Shiva. In this sense In the first years of the church in San Fran- Saiva Siddhanta is a completely dualistic system. cisco, monastics lived in apartments near the Pashu is the individual self that strives to realize church on Sacramento Street and were self-sup- its “Shiva nature.” Pasha are the bonds of KARMA porting. Later, as the church grew, monks were that hold one. Knowing one’s Shiva nature confers able to live lives of cloistered study. liberation from birth and rebirth. Shiva can be At their inception, the temple and school in realized only by worship, knowledge, and the aid San Francisco offered Hindu education through of a GURU. classes taught by Subramuniyaswami. The church Saiva Siddhanta is characterized by its abject transcribed and printed the lectures and sermons devotion and the sense of helplessness of the indi- of their leader and disseminated these in a series vidual self in the face of a supreme that it can only of lessons, called the San Marga Master Course. understand, but with which it can never merge. As part of its mission to promote contemporary Grace plays an important role in Saiva Siddhanta. understanding of Shaivism’s scriptures and teach- There is an element of the system that speaks of ings, the church also established the Himalayan Shiva/SHAKTI, or the divine masculine/divine femi- Academy, its publishing house. Today the SAN- nine, which constitutes the totality of Shiva; this NYASIS (renunciants) of the church design, typeset, differs from the similar tantric idea, in which there and illustrate the publications of the Himalayan is a complete identity between the level of the soul Academy in Kapaa, Hawaii. and the ultimate. Temple worship is fundamental to Shaivite practice and has been central in the history of the Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian church. Worshippers are encouraged to develop Philosophy, vol. 5 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); devotion (BHAKTI) to the congregation in each T. M. P. Mahadevan, The Idea of God in Saiva-Siddhanta family’s shrine room, and in daily life. In addi- (Madras: Annamalai University, 1955); S. N. Singara- tion to the Ganesha Temple, dedicated in 1957 velu, Glimpses of Saiva Siddhanta (Madras: Saiva Sid- in San Francisco, California, Subramuniyaswami dhanta Perumanram, 1992). founded Kadavul Hindu Temple at Aad- heenam on the island of Kauai on March 12, 1973. A number of images of deities from the Shaivite Saiva Siddhanta Church (est. 1957) tradition are in the temples, and PUJA is celebrated Founded in 1957 in San Francisco, California, several times each day. All major Shaivite festival by Satguru SUBRAMUNIYASWAMI (1927–2001), the days are observed through the year. Saiva Siddhanta Church promotes temple worship Publications include a partial translation in and propagates the teachings of SHAIVITE Hindu- American English of Saint Tiruvalluvar’s Tiru- ism through a temple/school complex. kural, a book on Lord GANESHA, a progressive The church serves Shaivism worldwide by four-part series of premonastic and monastic vows initiating monks, publishing the writings of Sub- concluding with the vow of SANNYAS (total renun- ramuniyaswami and other Shaivite teachers, lead- ciation), and a catechism and creed for Shaivite ing pilgrimages to holy sites of Shaivism, and Hindus, which are Lessons One and Two of the promoting the study of Hinduism among Hindus San Marga Master Course. and non-Hindus. Since 1957, centers have been In the early years of the church, families lived established throughout the world. The Sri Subra- largely in and around the city of San Francisco,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 376 12/14/06 9:29:23 AM samadhi 377 J

but, with increasing publications and dissemina- after concentration skills (dharana) have been tion of the teaching, the church has expanded to developed and deep involvement in MEDITATION other areas, including Hawaii, Canada, and New (DHYANA) has been achieved. York. As of 1980, two Dharmasalas, formally There are two levels of samadhi: samprajnata organized groups of church families, were in exis- samadhi, in which the yogi is still aware of a tence—one in Flushing, New York, and the other degree of worldly differentiation, and asampra- in San Francisco, California. Following the pat- jnata samadhi, in which there is a full realization terns of the American church structure, members of the self, or PURUSHA, and its consciousness, and of the Dharmasala work together to strengthen there is no involvement in worldly differentiation. their lives through education, religious obser- Samprajnata samadhi is said to retain the “seeds” vance, shared culture, and economic cooperation. of awareness of the external world of differentia- Their organization is overseen by a senior group tion, while aprajnata samadhi is said to be “seed- of elders and a council on ministries. less”: it no longer engenders thoughts tied to the A core group of church members formed in external world. Neither of these states can be pre- Alaveddy, Sri Lanka, the site of Subramuniyas- cisely described, because both take consciousness wami’s first ASHRAM. The ashram serves the Sri beyond language into indescribable realms. Lankan community through its children’s school Samprajnata samadhi is seen by Patanjali to of religion, English classes, courses in Shaivite have four steps. At the savitarka step the adept can culture, and a full-fledged religious and cultural look directly into the essence of real things, but center for adults. At present, the church has mem- only at the gross level. This step is still bound by bers in many countries, including England, Mau- conventional understandings, such as that time is ritius, Canada, Sri Lanka, Thailand, India, South divided into past, present, and future. Africa, and Australia. The entire church member- The second step is nirvitarka. At this point, ship now is made up of approximately 70 percent conventional understandings, verbal and logical born Shaivites and 30 percent converts. associations, cease. One transcends the cognitive or perceptive act itself, and one’s consciousness Further reading: (1979–present); Sat- meets directly with true reality. However, this guru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, Dancing with Siva: meeting is still at a gross and not a subtle level. Hinduism’s Contemporary Catechism (Concord, Calif.: At the third or savichara level consciousness is Himalayan Academy, 1993); ———, Loving Ganesa: able to go beyond the surface of reality to its sub- Hinduism’s Endearing Elephant-Faced God (Kapaa, tle level. One is still, however, bound by a certain Hawaii: Himalayan Academy, 1996); ———, Merging residue of time and space (not as a felt experience, with Siva: Hinduism’s Contemporary (Kapaa, but as categories). Experience at this subtle level Hawaii: Himalayan Academy, 1999). engenders the fourth step in this type of sama- dhi, the nirvichara level, in which consciousness descends into the very essence of the real world, samadhi no longer mediated by “concept.” Samadhi refers to the highest state of concentra- Beyond the fourth stage of samprajnata samadhi tion and absorption in YOGA; the term in used is true asampranjata samadhi, in which concept is in various yoga traditions. In some systems it is lost completely; there is a direct realization of the accompanied by a trance, whereby the yogi is consciousness power of the self, with no limita- completely detached from any external stimuli. tion. This is sometimes also called dharma-megha- Samadhi is a technical term in the yoga of PATAN- samadhi. Here one becomes completely aware that JALI, describing the next stage for the adept the self and its power of consciousness are not the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 377 12/14/06 9:29:23 AM K 378 Sama Veda

body. All “knowledge” and all “consciousness” 1992); G. H. Tarlekar, Saman Chants, in Theory and merge into an undifferentiated awareness that is Present Practice (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1995). absorbed in being itself. This does not mean that the person cannot and does not exist and act in the world as before. It merely implies that that person’s Sambanthar (Jnanasambanthar) awareness is no longer in any way affected or per- (c. 570–670 C.E.) Tamil Shaivite poet-saint turbed by that worldly reality. The yogi is then in Sambanthar (he connected to God through divine the “isolated state” (kaivalya) and functions on a wisdom) is among the trio of most prominent level beyond ordinary categories. Tamil SHAIVITE saints whose hymns appear in the central liturgical and literary text of the Tamil Further reading: Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Yoga Shaivas, the TEVARAM. Philosophy of Patanjali: Containing His Yoga Aphorisms Born to a BRAHMIN family in Cirkali, Tamil with Vyas’s Commentary in Sanskrit and Translation with Nadu, near the famous Shaivite shrine of CHID- Annotations Including Many Suggestions for the Practice AMBARAM, Sambanthar was a child prodigy; it was of Yoga. Translated into English by P. N. Mukherji said that he began composing hymns in praise of (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983); Sri SHIVA when he was just a child. He is said to have Chinmoy, The Summits of God-life: Samadhi and mastered Vedic learning at age three and received (Jamaica, N.Y.: Agni Press, 1974); Ian Whicher, Cogni- by a miracle the ability to compose sacred poetry tive Samadhi in the Yoga Sutras (Chennai: Adyar Library from Shiva himself. and Research Centre, 1997). While still quite young Sambanthar com- pleted four great pilgrimages to shrines of the Tamil region, accompanied by other devotees. A Sama Veda minstrel who accompanied him on these jour- Sama Veda, or “VEDA of the sung chants,” is one neys set his hymns to music—or, most likely, of the three original Vedas that form the founda- simply recorded the melodies that the young tion of Hindu tradition (a fourth Veda was added saint spontaneously sang; they are still sung by sometime later). Most of its hymns are devoted devotees today. to the god SOMA. This god was invoked in many Sambanthar’s hymns frequently condemn the Vedic rituals and was particularly honored by Buddhists and Jains (see JAINISM). He is said to the preparation of a psychedelic substance that have converted the Pandyan king of Madurai from took the same name as the god: Soma. The JAINISM to Shaivism. Many miracles are associated honoring of the god and the preparation of the with his life. Legend says that when his parents, drug were the particular realm of the Sama Vedic at last, arranged his marriage, Shiva appeared as a priests. great blaze of light and invited the saint to merge Any public Vedic ritual required the recitation with him. The wedding party and bride joined the of passages from the Sama Veda. Many public rites saint in final union with God, before his marriage also required the consumption of the Soma drug. could be finalized. The priests of the Sama Veda were known for their sonorous chanting, which is considered the origin Further reading: A. Kandiah, Mystic Love in the Tevaram of Indian music. (: A. Kaniah, 1987); Indira Viswanathan Peter- son, Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints Further reading: Barend Faddegon, Studies on the (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989); P. S. (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1951); S. V. Somasundaram, Tirujnanasambandhar: Philosophy and Ganapati, trans., Sama Veda (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Religion (Madras: Vani Patippakam, 1986).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 378 12/14/06 9:29:23 AM samsara 379 J

Samkhya (Sankhya) realm of purity (). These three aspects of Samkhya is one of the six orthodox systems of nature, the GUNAS, were experienced only in com- Hinduism that were first developed in ancient bination, with one or another mode predominat- times. It is traditionally believed to have origi- ing at any one moment. nated with the sage KAPILA (c. 500 B.C.E.); its MEDITATION could help one rise above the most authoritative text is the Samkhya Karika of gunas or intertwined characteristics of nature. Ishvarakrishna (c. 200 C.E.). Today the system has Intellect, or higher mind (BUDDHI), was the pur- few adherents, and many of its ideas are preserved est aspect of the human being and so was used in YOGA traditions, including modern-day HATHA as an instrument for the of matter. YOGA. (The word samkhya means “enumerate,” But even mind needed to be left behind for total a reference to the precise categories within the release. Release occurred when the soul was freed philosophy.) from the body into its own self-reflective con- Samkhya was dualist: the everyday world of sciousness. matter and the world of the soul or self were con- Yoga soon emerged as the practical way to sidered to be two completely separate and distinct realize the ideals of Samkhya. PATANJALI’s YOGA realms. Early Samkhya was nontheistic; it did not SUTRA showed the practices that could be used include any divine being or god. and delineated the various stages of the process. In Samkhya PRAKRITI—nature or the manifest By the first century C.E. the system was practically universe—was understood to be eternal. It had combined into one, and called Samkhya-Yoga. always existed and would always exist, though it might from time to time contract into an unmani- Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- fest form, awaiting the next manifestation. The losophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); Ger- selves or souls, which were also eternal but shared ald Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, Samkhya: A nothing in common with nature, were called Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy (Princeton, N.J.: PURUSHAS. There was an infinite number of them, Princeton University Press, 1987); Heinrich Zimmer, and they were all separate and distinct from one Philosophies of India (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer- another. sity Press, 1974). Each self or soul contained an inexplicable magnetism, which drew prakriti to collect or aggregate around it and give it life, a body, and samsara birth. KARMA, the actions committed in the previ- Samsara is the round or cycle of birth and rebirth ous birth, would determine each new aggregation. that all beings are subject to in the Hindu world- In spiritual terms, this was seen as a constantly view. By extension it is often used to designate the renewed trap for the self; the purpose of Samkhya world, where birth and rebirth are the human des- was to show a way to escape the trap. tiny. The term is also used in JAINISM, Buddhism, With the right state of mind, one could move and SIKHISM. one’s point of view above the whirl of nature so The negative evaluation of samsara, so preva- that one’s consciousness could focus on the soul lent in Hindu belief, began to color the ancient itself and not be distracted by the pull of phenom- VEDIC tradition only in the era of UPANISHADS, ena. The earthly realm of elements was considered some of which begin to show attitudes that would to be characterized by inertia (tamas); the organs directly lead to the development of world-deny- of action such as hands and feet were seen to con- ing philosophies. The Vedic MANTRAS themselves stitute a realm of self-binding action (rajas); but are life-affirming and envision a peaceful, joyful the senses, mind, and intellect pointed toward the heaven as the result of merit in one’s life. There

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 379 12/14/06 9:29:24 AM K 380 samskara

is no trace in them of REINCARNATION, of the Further reading: R. B. Pandy, Hindu Samskaras: Socio- hopeless mire of birth and rebirth. Reincarnation Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (Delhi: Motilal appears in the Upanishads, the small texts that Banarsidass, 1969); Prem Sahai, Hindu Marriage Sams- were appended to the prose portions (BRAHMANAS) kara (Ahmedabad: Wheeler, 1993). of the Vedas, along with the first evidence of the sense of entrapment in a web of endless births. samyagdarshana See JAINISM. The Buddhist and Jain traditions also focus on KARMA and the hopeless trap of the world. samyagjnana See JAINISM. Further reading: Rajeshwari Vijay Pandharipande, The Eternal Self and the Cycle of Samsara: Introduction samyakcharitra See JAINISM. to Asian Mythology and Religion, 3d ed. (Needham Heights, Mass.: Simon & Schuster Custom, 1996); Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India (Princeton, N.J.: sanatana dharma Princeton University Press, 1974). Sanatana dharma (eternal way) is a term created in 19th-century India as a more meaningful syn- onym for Hinduism. The word Hindu, after all, samskara was not indigenous to the culture, but was coined Samskaras (from the Sanskrit samskri, refined, the by ancient Persians (based on their pronuncia- source of the word SANSKRIT) are ritual ceremo- tion of Sindhu, the Indus River). Indian spiritual nies that mark and purify life cycle events. Every traditions had typically described themselves as samskara requires a BRAHMIN priest to preside and “the DHARMA.” Dharma admits of many English includes prayers, oblations, offerings, and a fire translations; it refers to an essential set of rules ritual. and prescriptions that make up a given religious Rituals are performed to encourage impreg- path. Those who coined the term sanatana dharma nation and to obtain a male child. A special wanted to emphasize the Indian sense that their rite is performed at birth. The is “way” was an eternal one that had had no begin- usually performed at the sixth month after birth ning in time. to mark the feeding of the first solid food. The Because of the universality of certain Hindu investiture of the SACRED THREAD, the upanayana notions, and the acceptance of a wide diversity ceremony, is performed for twice-born (high- of spiritual paths within the Hindu fold, the term caste) Hindu males when they are between ages sanatana dharma sometimes is taken to mean the eight and 12. ancient truth behind all religions (not just those of Perhaps the two most important samskaras India), the truth that all seek in their own unique for Hindus are the wedding ceremony and the ways. In that sense, the santana dharma is not sraddha, or death ceremony. The sraddha can be merely the religions practiced by the inhabitants performed only by a male child. It ensures that a of India who look upon the VEDAS as the supreme soul does not remain as a ghost but goes on either wisdom, but the “way” of all who seek the highest to liberation or to its next birth. A yearly ritual truth, whatever their religion. is performed to feed the deceased, in particular Brahmins, lest they fall from heaven. This ancient Further reading: Balasubramania N. Aiyer, Principles ritual of feeding the ancestor seems to conflict and Practice of Hindu Religion, Sanatana Dharma Sastra: with the belief that nearly everyone is reincar- A Comparative Study of the Ancient Tradition and the nated, and that few proceed directly to heaven. (Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 380 12/14/06 9:29:24 AM Sanskrit 381 J

1999); Param Dayal Faqir, Satya Sanatan Dharam: Or, sannyasinis.) Many sects in India have sannyasis, True Religion of Humanity. Translated by B. R. Kamal men who are seen as no longer a part of the every- and Swami Yogeshwar Ananda Saraswati (Hoshiarpur: day world (only a very few allow women renun- Manavta Mandir, 1978); Swami Rama Tirtha, Sanatan ciants). The rules or vows vary in the different Dharma (Lucknow: Rama Tirtha Pratisthan, 1990). traditions, but until modern times, sannyasis were expected to shun worldly occupations, living only through alms or in a monastic environment. sannyas See SANNYASI. The vows for sannyasis all entail dietary restrictions that limit the number and size of meals, avoidance of women, prohibition on use sannyasi (f. sannyasini) of alcohol, and a focus on the divine at all times. A sannyasi is a male renunciant who has “thrown Sannyasi is the fourth stage of life or ASHRAMA FOR everything down.” (Rarely, there will be female BRAHMIN males, the point at which they ideally throw down all conventional life and take up a life of wandering as they focus on God or BRAHMAN.

Further reading: Patrick Olivelle, “Contributions to the Semantic History of Samnyasa,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981): 265–274; ———, Renun- ciation in Hinduism: A Mediaeval Debate, 2 vols. (Vienna: University of Vienna, 1986–87).

Sanskrit (Samskritam) Sanskrit (sam, complete; krita, done, i.e., that which is done completely, the perfected, the refined) is the ancient liturgical or ritual language of India. In the Sanskrit language itself the lan- guage is called Samskritam. Sanskrit is the oldest extant Indo-European language. It is linguistically related to such Euro- pean languages as English, French, and German and such Asian languages as Persian. The earli- est evidence for Sanskrit is in the ancient Indian texts, the VEDAS, the earliest of which, the RIG VEDA, dates from approximately 1500 B.C.E. The Vedas were received as divine revelation by seers called RISHIS, who recorded them. The Sanskrit of the Vedas is noticeably different from its classical form, as defined authoritatively by the grammar- ian Panini around 450 B.C.E. After Panini, virtually no changes were An ochre-robed wandering sannyasi in Benares accepted into the language. Today Sanskrit is still (Varanasi) (Constance A. Jones) spoken by (scholars) and those learned

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 381 12/14/06 9:29:24 AM K 382 Sanskrit

in Indian philosophy. There are several Sanskrit Other prolific genres emerged over the long universities today in India, where all classes are history of Sanskrit. There are hundreds of plays, conducted in that language. There are a few mil- longer poems, and other classical literary forms. lion Indians who can truly speak Sanskrit today There are works on aesthetics, erotics, medicine, in a population of over a billion or more; none of philosophy and theology, and logic; there are them speaks Sanskrit only. devotional hymns, dictionaries, works on astron- There are many theories regarding the Sanskrit omy and astrology, works on mathematics, ritual, language; the different philosophical schools and law, architecture, TANTRISM, history, music, sculp- sects in India have developed their own view- ture, and painting. Additionally, there is much points. Most of them believe that the Vedas them- panegyric literature and many inscriptions. Every selves are eternal and always existed; therefore, one of these Sanskrit genres has examples in the Sanskrit itself is similarly eternal, rather than an Jain tradition as well. All told, there are hundreds arbitrary language created by humans; it is the of thousands of texts and manuscripts, most of “language of the gods” (devavani). which have not been studied for centuries and are When JAINISM and Buddhism began to develop not edited, let alone translated. scriptures and liturgies that departed from the Sanskrit is written in the script, Vedic ritual tradition, they made use of the , which is made up of 48 to 51 letters, depending the regional vernacular languages that had begun on the precise system. The script appears to have to develop out of Sanskrit. In that era (c. 800 to been devised during the Gupta era (fourth to sixth 0 B.C.E.), Sanskrit was still the spoken language centuries C.E.). of the educated classes and the language of Vedic Most Indian languages rely on Sanskrit-derived high culture. By the turn of the millennium, how- vocabulary. Even in a Dravidian language such as ever, even Buddhists and Jains began to write their Telegu, more than 50 percent of the vocabulary is works in Sanskrit, an indication that the cultural derived from Sanskrit. force of developing Hinduism had overwhelmed At about the time of the arrival of the Muslims these heterodox traditions at least in that respect. in India in the 13th century, Sanskrit learning Sanskrit, thus, is the cultural link language began to decline. The vital and central role that of India. It has been used as the language of Sanskrit had played in Indian culture for 3,000 high culture for nearly 3,000 years. The body of years began to fade, and the vernacular languages extant writing in the language is vast. The Vedas, began to develop as literary alternatives. (In South which are basically collections of MANTRAS, are India, Tamil has long had a developed literature, accompanied by the BRAHMANAS, the , still extant, dating to before the Common Era.) and the classical UPANISHADS. Hundreds of later Even then Sanskrit did not die out. Many texts texts called “Upanishads” exist independently of continued to be written in the language through the Vedas. the 18th century; in fact, many works are still The Sanskrit epics, the RAMAYANA and the composed in Sanskrit. On Indian television and MAHABHARATA, were written somewhat later. radio one can hear Sanskrit newscasts and bulle- The Ramayana is itself about 40,000 verses in tins. There also are a few Sanskrit newspapers. length and the Mahabharata over 100,000 verses. Included alongside the epics are the 18 Puranas Further reading: K. C. Aryan, The Little Goddesses that tell the tales of the divinities. There are () (New Delhi: Rekha, 1980); T. Burrow, The also 18 minor Puranas and hundreds of Sthala- Sanskrit Language (London: Faber, 1973); Jan Gonda, puranas or local works that tell the tales of local ed., A History of Sanskrit Literature, 10 vols. (Wies- divinities. baden: Otto Harrosowitz, 1975–82); John Grimes, A

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 382 12/14/06 9:29:24 AM Sant Mat movement 383 J

Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Movements in South Asia 600–1800 (New York: Oxford Defined in English (Albany: State University of New University Press, 2004); Karine Schomer and W. H. York Press, 1989); Arthur Berriedale Keith, Classical McCleod, eds., The Sant Tradition of India (Berkeley: Sanskrit Literature (Calcutta: Y. M. C. A. Publishing Berkeley Religious Studies Series and Motilal Banarsi- House, 1947); ———, A History of Sanskrit Literature dass, 1987). (London: Oxford University Press, 1920); Diana Mor- rison, A Glossary of Sanskrit from the Spiritual Tradition of India (Petaluma, Calif.: Nilgiri Press, 1977); Sheldon Sant Mat movement (est. 1861) Pollock, ed., Literary Cultures in History: Reconstruc- The Sant Mat movement, also known as the tions from South Asia (Berkeley: University of California RADHASOAMI MOVEMENT, emerged in the middle of Press, 2003); M. N. Srinivas, The Cohesive Role of San- the 19th century in the Punjab, as one of several skritization and Other Essays (Delhi: Oxford University movements that sought to revitalize the Sikh Press, 1989); Judith M. Tyberg, The Language of the community after its government was defeated Gods: Sanskrit Keys to India’s Wisdom (Los Angeles: and replaced by the British. The new movement East-West Cultural Centre, 1970). was introduced by Shiv Dayal Singh (1818–78), generally known as Soami Ji, and was distinctive because its leader was a living master, a person Sant Mat serving as an initiating GURU (a structure previ- The Sant Mat (View of the Saints) was a het- ously foreign to SIKHISM). erogeneous group of travelling poet-saints dat- The new guru aimed to teach his followers ing from the 14th to 17th centuries who had a surat shabd (sound current) yoga, as a technique profound impact on the religion of northern and to overcome kal, the negative forces that rule this central India. These poets included KABIR, Surdas, world, and contact the divine. God had created TUKARAM, and . Their most important the world by his word; therefore, through the characteristics were a desire for social reform and repetition of MANTRAS (japa yoga), humans could a criticism of ritualism and caste. They stressed establish contact with God. Soami Ji’s teachings that the pursuit of spirituality was not limited to resonated with devotion to the name of God religion. The search for truth could be guided by (bhakti nam), which had always been important any authentic experience of the One, however in the Sikh tradition. defined. Shiv Dayal Singh introduced These teachers often ignored religious bound- in 1861 at Agra, Uttar Pradesh, in northern India. aries and mingled easily with Muslim Sufis. The He initiated some 4,000 people and then passed Sant spirit was carried forward in the Sikh tradi- leadership to Rai (1829–98). At the tion by GURU NANAK, who had gone on pilgrim- same time, he also sent Jaimal Singh (1838–1903) age and on the to show that the true God to spread the movement in the Punjab. belonged to no particular religion. The Kabir tra- The relocation of Jaimal Singh to Beas in the dition, in particular, has survived to the present, Punjab divided the movement; the Beas center although it does not have the creative vigor and became the larger of the two. Jaimal Singh’s openness it once had; it seems to have become successor, (1858–1948), built the another sect of Hinduism. Beas branch into the largest of what by then had become several segments of the original move- Further reading: Daniel Gold, The Lord as Guru: Hindi ment. He initiated over 125,000 people. However, Saints in North Indian Tradition (New York: Oxford Uni- his career was eclipsed by that of one of the 20th- versity Press, 1987); David N. Lorenzen, ed., Religious century Beas leaders, (1916–90),

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 383 12/14/06 9:29:25 AM K 384 Sant Mat movement

who was said to have initiated over a million recipient of a previously unknown tradition said disciples. to reach back into prehistory. Eckankar, Twitch- Throughout the 20th century, the Sant Mat ell’s organization, has spawned several groups. movement emerged into both an important A somewhat similar group is the Movement for minority movement in India and a global move- Spiritual Inner Awareness, formed by John-Roger ment with centers throughout the West. At the Hinkins. “JR,” as he is affectionately known, same time, it splintered into a variety of separate mixed elements of Christianity and Western eso- groups, each of which professed to have the true tericism with the Sant Mat teachings, resulting in lineage from Soami Ji. More often than not, when a new eclectic perspective. a lineage holder died, several claimants to suc- have been carried into Africa cessorship emerged and vied for the allegiance of in a similar manner by immigrants throughout his following. In some cases, those who did not the 20th century. A new branch of Sant Mat receive the official sanction as the successor have emerged in Uganda in 1957. It was founded by Dr. been able to win large followings. Such was the Jozzewaffe Kaggwa Kaguwa Kaggalanda Mugonza, case for Kirpal Singh (1896–1974), founder of the more popularly known as simply Bambi Baaba. Ruhani Satsang. While he traveled to India and met with various The Indian-based Sant Mat groups all teach Sant Mat teachers, he claims an entirely indepen- largely the same doctrine. In the West, some dent revelation of the teachings in a direct man- of the more prominent Sant Mat teachers have ner. In the 1970s, under the government of Idi been Darshan Singh (1921–89), Rajinder Singh, Amin, he was charged with introducing a foreign and Thakur Singh (b. 1929). The American religion in the country and forcing his members scholar David Christopher Lane has catalogued into a VEGETARIAN and alcohol-free diet. the dozens of Sant Mat gurus and the move- Another interesting Sant Mat teacher in the ments they led. West is Guru Maharaj Ji (PREM RAWAT) (b. 1957), Some of the most interesting developments who entered the United States in the early 1970s in the Sant Mat tradition have been created by while still a teenager. His organization, originally non-Indian leaders who have assumed the role called Divine Light Mission, now is identified as of living master and have built independent Elan Vital. He sees his teachings as independent of movements. For example, Master Wu cultures, religion, beliefs, and lifestyles. Though Shang Shih, one of the very few women leaders adopting a secular overlay, he continues to pres- in Sant Mat, learned the teachings from Thakur ent the Sant Mat teachings and to offer people Singh. She has moved on to build a Chinese Sant initiation into the secret knowledge revealed only Mat organization and changed the name of surat to initiates. shabd yoga to the Quan Yin Method of Sound and Light Meditation, in order to present the Further reading: Marvin Henry Harper, Gurus, Swamis, teaching to a Buddhist Chinese-speaking audi- and Avatars: Spiritual Masters and Their American Dis- ence; as her work has grown, it has expanded ciples (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1972); Mark to include people from a variety of backgrounds Juergensmeyer, Radhasoami Reality (Princeton, N.J.: and languages. Princeton University Press, 1991); David Christopher In the United States, a Westernized Sant Mat Lane, The Radhasoami Tradition: A Critical History of group called ECKANKAR (ECK) was started by Paul Guru Successorship (New York and London: Garland, Twitchell (1909–70), a former student of Kirpal 1992); Karine Schomer and W. H. McLeod, eds., The Singh. Twitchell ignored Kirpal Singh’s lineage Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India (Delhi: and proclaimed himself the 971st ECK Master, the Motilal Banarsidass, 1987).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 384 12/14/06 9:29:25 AM Sarada Devi, Sri 385 J

saptamatrika are offered to Brahmins alongside seven pots. This The saptamatrika (sapta, seven; matrika, mothers) observance guarantees happiness, progeny, and are a grouping of seven goddesses found in the freedom from sin and other difficulties. VEDAS, and possibly cited on seals of the ancient The second list of rishis are usually worshipped INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION. They are worshipped in in the seven days that begin on the first day of the both India and Nepal and have their own iconog- bright half of the month of Chaitra (March–April), raphy. Their names only appear in the post-Vedic the New Year’s month. Fruits, flowers, and cow’s period. Six of the seven are considered wives of milk are offered to the saptarshi. A single meal is Hindu gods, as reflected in their names: Brah- to be taken, only after sundown. mani, Maheshvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, , and are married, respectively, to BRAHMA, Further reading: Ravi Prakash Arya and Ram Narain SHIVA, Kumara (KARTTIKEYA), VISHNU, VARAHA, and Arya, Vedic Concordance of Mantras as Per Devata and INDRA. CHAMUNDA, the seventh, is most often seen Rsi (Rohtak: Indian Foundation for Vedic Science, as a form of DURGA. 2003); John E. Mitchiner, Traditions of the Seven Rishis (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982). Further reading: Shivaji K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculptures: An Iconological Interpretation of Conflicts and Resolutions in the Storied Brahmanical Icons Sarada Devi, Sri (1853–1920) incarnation of (New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 1997). Holy Mother Sri Sarada Devi, wife of the Kali priest Sri RAMA- KRISHNA, was a very popular teacher in her own sapta rishi (saptarshi) right, considered to be an incarnation of Holy The sapta rishi were a grouping of seven (sapta) Mother. She became an important activist in help- RISHIS (seers), who are said to have received some ing the poor and in advancing educational oppor- of the most important books and verses of the tunities for women. VEDAS. They are considered to be the progenitors Sarada Devi was born in the rural village of of the orthodox BRAHMIN lineages (). They Jayrambati, west of Kamarpurkur in Bengal, on are usually listed as Kashyapa, Atri, Bharadvaja, December 22, 1853. The eldest of seven children Vishvamitra, Gotama, Jamadagni, and Vasishtha. of Ram Chandra Mukhopadhyay and Shyamasun- (There is another tradition that lists the chief dari Devi, Sarada was raised in a poor BRAHMIN rishis as Marici, Atri, , Pulastya, , household where she assisted her parents in Bhrisu, and Vasishtha; in that tradition, they are household duties, worked in the fields, and cared not necessarily the source for the Brahminical for her younger siblings. She was described as a lineages.) gentle, humble, hardworking, and diligent child. Those in the first list are frequently encoun- When time permitted, she attended school and tered in the epics and PURANAS, the Indian mytho- learned to read and write. logical literature. In the month of Bhadrapada At the age of five, Sarada married Sri RAMA- (August–September) the seven rishis are honored KRISHNA, a Bengali priest of goddess KALI who was on the fifth day of the bright half of the month, 17 years her senior. By that time, Sri Ramakrishna when the Moon is waxing. The ritual in their had experienced his first vision of the divine honor can be performed by anyone. Worship is mother, the goddess KALI, and was living in an offered to images of the seven, and celibacy and ecstatic state of communication with the divine. a vegetarian diet are observed for the celebration. His mother, concerned with his strange behavior, The images of the rishis (often fashioned by hand) sought to restore him to worldly life by finding

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 385 12/14/06 9:29:25 AM K 386 Sarada Devi, Sri

Sri Ramakrishna died in 1886, leaving the 33-year old Sarada Devi as the lineage holder of the Ramakrishna Order. In addition to teach- ing and caring for her disciples, she guided the activities of the Ramakrishna Organizations, spending most of her time in service to rural communities in Bengal and the disciples of the Ramakrishna Order in Calcutta. Serving the poor and disadvantaged women of Bengal, she became committed to advancing the education of women to promote women’s independence and social awareness. From 1886 until her death, Sarada Devi touched the lives of hundreds of devotees through her simple and pure devotion to the spiritual life. As Holy Mother, she never turned away anyone in need. She valued equality and did not discrimi- nate among disciples by caste, religion, gender, Sri Sarada Devi (1853–1920), wife of Sri Ramakrishna, or nationality. Her unconditional compassion incarnation of Holy Mother, and inspiration for Sarada inspired a new spiritual movement. The core of Math/Monastery (Courtesy Vedanta Society, San Francisco, California) her teaching, as of Ramakrishna’s, was the rec- ognition of the divine in everything. She died in Calcutta on July 21, 1920, 34 years after the death of her husband. him a suitable spouse. She found Sarada Devi in The Sri Sarada Math, the world’s largest inde- a neighboring village. After the marriage, Sarada pendent women’s monastic order, was estab- Devi returned to her family and Sri Ramakrishna lished in 1954 as the women’s complement to the continued his spiritual practice and priestly VEDANTA SOCIETIES RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND MISSION, duties at Dakshineswar Temple near Calcutta to perpetuate the teachings of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri (Kolkata). Sarada Devi, and Swami VIVEKANANDA. The math is At the age of 18, hearing rumors that her located on the bank of the GANGES River near Dak- husband was suffering from mental illness, she shineswar Temple, where Sri Ramakrishna served went to him at the temple. Finding him deeply as priest. Sri Sarada Math has nuns in residence in engaged in spiritual disciplines, she became his centers throughout the world. first disciple and began her own spiritual journey See also NIVEDITA. under his direction and care. He instructed her in the spiritual life as well as the importance of Further reading: Amalaprana, Eternal Mother (Cal- household duties and their role in the meditative cutta: Kolkata Paperback, 2004); Atmaprana, Sri life. Ramakrishna considered her an embodied Sarada Devi and Sri Sarada Math (New Delhi: New representative of the Divine Mother. From this Delhi Paperbacks, 2003); Swami Gambhirananda, time forward, Sarada Devi became known as the Holy Mother Shri Sarada Devi (Mylapore: Ramakrishna Holy Mother and spent the rest of her life shar- Math, 1955); Swami Nirvedananda, The Holy Mother ing the wisdom and insight of Sri Ramakrishna’s (Calcutta: Calcutta Paperbacks, 1983); Lizelle Rey- teachings to all who went to her. mond, The Dedicated: A Biography of Nivedita (Madras:

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 386 12/14/06 9:29:25 AM Satchidananda, Swami 387 J

Samata, 1985); Swami Tapasyananda, Sri Sarada Devi: Ramaswamy was born on December 22, 1914, The Holy Mother (Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math, to a devout family in Chettipalam, near Coim- 1958). batore in Tamil Nadu state. His father, Sri Kalya- nasunderam, was the village’s unofficial headman and his mother, Sri Velammai, entertained the vis- Sarasvati iting poets, musicians, philosophers, and astrolo- The Sarasvati was one of the great rivers of RIG gers who frequented the family home. As a youth, VEDIC times and was worshipped as a divine god- Ramaswamy met SADHUS and SANNYASIS (holy men dess in the VEDAS. A handful of verses in the Vedas and penitents) in his own home, as he pursued also associate her with the stream of the dead, skills in agriculture, mechanics, electronics, and which is crossed by all who die. cinematography. The river Sarasvati dried up in ancient times. At age 28, he began a full-time spiritual quest However, it is said still to be flowing invisibly, that included meeting RAMANA Maharshi and joining the GANGES and YAMUNA at Prayag (ALLA- Sri AUROBINDO. He became a disciple of Swami HABAD), one of the sites of the KUMBHA MELA SIVANANDA of RISHIKESH and took SANNYAS initia- festival. tion from him in 1949. He taught as a professor In a stray verse or two of RIG VEDA, Sarasvati of HATHA and raja YOGA at Sivananda’s Vedanta is seen as the goddess of knowledge—all the Forest Academy in Rishikesh and made extensive arts and sciences; this later becomes the primary lecture tours throughout the world. He spread identification of the name. She is iconographically the teachings and the organization of Sivananda’s represented as holding a vina or lute in her hands. Divine Life Society in many parts of Asia, particu- larly Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, She is the wife of BRAHMA. Her vehicle is the swan or peacock. Japan, and the Philippines. In 1958 he completed a pilgrimage to in Tibet. Further reading: Kanailal Bhattacharyya, Sarasvati: A In 1966, Satchidananda made his first global tour, sponsored by an American devotee. The Study in Her Concept and Iconography (Calcutta: Saras- intended two-day visit to New York extended to Library, 1983); N. N. Godbole, Rig Vedic Sarasvati five months as he was surrounded by hundreds (Jaipur: Government of Rajasthan, 1963); Jan Gonda, of students, eager for his teachings and guidance. Pushan and Sarasvati (Amsterdam: North-Holland, The Integral Yoga Institutes were founded under 1985); David R. Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses (Berkeley: his direction, and today there are Integral Yoga University of California Press, 1988). Institutes and Centers throughout the world. In 1976, he became a U.S. citizen. Satchidananda has been named patron and sat See SAT--ANANDA. adviser to various organizations around the world, including the European Union of National Yoga Federations, the International Association of Yoga Satchidananda, Swami (1914–2002) founder Teachers, Unity in Yoga, and the Temple of of Integral Yoga Institutes and Yogaville Understanding. He received many honors for his Swami Satchidanada was a great popularizer of service, including: the Award for yoga both within India and around the world. Outstanding Service to Humanity, the Juliet Hol- His interfaith emphasis and his organizational lister Interfaith Award, the B’nai Brith Anti-Defa- efforts, especially in the United States, continue mation League’s Humanitarian Award, the Albert to bear fruit. Schweitzer Humanitarian Award, and the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 387 12/14/06 9:29:25 AM K 388 sat-chit-ananda

Peace Award. He was also the recipient of several Sati honorary doctorates and honorary titles. Sati is the first wife of SHIVA, later reincarnated as Satchidananda’s teaching centers around the PARVATI or Uma. She is the daughter of the sage principle “Truth Is One, Paths Are Many.” He DAKSHA, himself the son of BRAHMA. Brahma was sponsored many interfaith symposia, retreats, and concerned that the human universe would not worship services around the world. In 1986, he come about if Shiva did not take a wife, so he com- created a center dedicated to the light of all faiths pelled Daksha to produce a daughter, Sati, who and to world peace, called the Light of Truth Uni- was a form of the Great Goddess. He arranged to versal Shrine (LOTUS), located at Satchidananda have her marry Shiva. To seduce Shiva, who was Ashram at Yogaville in Virginia. Yogaville serves as devoted to asceticism and did not want to marry, the international headquarters of the Integral Yoga Sati practiced austerities and won his attention. Institutes and Centers. They were quickly married with Brahma serving He died on August 19, 2002, in his native as the marriage priest. Tamil Nadu, South India. Daksha was not happy to have Shiva as his son-in-law. He held a great Vedic sacrifice and Further reading: Sita Wiener, Swami Satchidananda: His pointedly did not invite his daughter and son- Biography (San Francisco: Straight Arrow, 1970). in-law. When Sati complained to her father, he upbraided her. There are two versions of the suc- ceeding events. In one, she immolated herself in a sat-chit-ananda (sacchidananda) fire. The later Hindu practice of a widow’s immo- Sat-chit-ananda is a philosophical term used in lating herself on her husband’s funeral pyre took VEDANTA and other Hindu systems; it describes on the name of sati (suttee). the ultimate reality or the ultimate character of a In the second version, Daksha had been under god or goddess. a curse, that if he were to show disrespect to his In Vedanta, words can convey only a conven- daughter, she would die; when he upbraided her tional description of the brahman or ultimate reality, she simply fell to the ground dead. Shiva rushed which is beyond any characterizing or characteris- to the site of the sacrifice, killed Daksha, and tics. Nevertheless, the combination of sat (Being as destroyed the entire ritual sacrifice ground. Both an ultimate category), chit (unlimited conscious- Daksha and the sacrifice were later restored in ness), and ananda (unlimited bliss) is often used some versions—but not Sati. Shiva lifted Sati’s to describe the ultimate. Those who achieve the body and mournfully began to carry it about highest level in YOGA, who realize oneness with India. Since a dead body is considered highly the ultimate, are believed to be capable of knowing polluting, Lord VISHNU followed Shiva, gradu- these categories beyond the words. Therefore, many ally cutting off pieces of Sati as they went along. realized SWAMIS use this appellation for themselves. Everywhere a piece of her fell, a shrine was estab- The use of these terms to identify the supreme lished to the Great Goddess. These are variously BRAHMAN began in the UPANISHADS (c. 600 B.C.E.); said to number 54, 108, or some other number. it became a common practice as later Vedanta developed. sati (suttee) widow self-immolation Further reading: Troy Wilson Organ, The One: East Sati, the practice of burning widows on their hus- and West (Lanham: University Press of America, 1991); bands’ funeral pyres (as had happened with the Swami Sachchidanand, My Experiences. Translated by P. goddess Sati), developed in post-Vedic India, as J. Soni. (Ahmedabad: Gurjar Prakashan, 1989). the rights of women, especially widows, greatly

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 388 12/14/06 9:29:26 AM Satya Sai Baba 389 J

deteriorated. Widows were almost considered to See GANDHI, MOHANDAS be dead. They had to shave their heads and dress KARAMCHAND. in white with no decoration. They were consid- ered inauspicious and were often confined to the home. Satyananda Saraswati, Swami See INTER- Because of the practice of marriage outside NATIONAL YOGA FELLOWSHIP. one’s clan in North India, spouses generally were from distant villages. As all marriages were patrilocal, a woman whose husband had died Satya Sai Baba (1926– ) popular spiritual would find herself living with unrelated in-laws, teacher and miracle worker who often did not look upon her kindly. If the Satya Sai Baba was born Satyanarayana Raju in woman had several children and particularly a the village of Puttaparthi, Andra Pradesh, to a son, she might draw comfort and status from pious KSHATRIYA family on November 23, 1926. them, but if she were newly married with no chil- At the age of 14 he quit school and disclosed to dren, she looked forward to a life of ascetic denial his parents that he was in fact the incarnation of and loneliness as remarriage was strictly forbid- SAI BABA OF SHIRDI, the revered South Indian saint den. As a result, many women succumbed to the of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He left social pressure of self-immolation on the fires of his family and stayed in the house of a BRAHMIN their husbands; it is documented that many oth- neighbor during adolescence; there he began to ers were coerced to do so. As an added incentive, receive devotees. in certain regions, the woman who became a sati In 1950, the first ashram dedicated to the was deified. work of Satya Sai Baba was established near Put- In the 19th century the British colonial admin- taparthi. Later, other ashrams were established istrators outlawed sati. Independent India also near Bangalore and Ootakamund. outlawed the practice, and it largely fell into dis- Satya Sai Baba is well known for his miracu- use after independence. However, the debate over lous healings and materializations, and some the practice never completely ceased. With the claim that he has even raised the dead. He is modern Hindu revival some have argued that this known for materializing in his right hand objects traditional practice should be encouraged; this such as rings, lockets, amulets, and fruits out of idea has spurred furious opposition from secular- season. Devotees report that his photos in their ists and women’s groups. homes in different parts of the world are repeat- edly covered with holy ash, , even when he Further reading: John Stratton Hawley, ed., Sati, the is not nearby. Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India Satya Sai Baba has built several schools, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); John S. universities, and one modern hospital in India. Hawley and Donna M. Wulff, eds., Devi: Goddesses of He is responsible for a number of social work India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); programs: colleges for both boys and girls, Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva (Princeton, N.J.: educational courses on spirituality, community Princeton University Press, 1981); Rajeswari Sunder building projects, welfare programs for the Rajan, Real and Imagined Women: Gender, Culture, and poor, and clean water projects for South Indian Postcolonialism (London/New York: Routledge, 1993). communities. Claiming to be a full incarnation of KALKI, ava- tar of the KALI YUGA, Sai Baba says that his task is sattva See GUNAS. to behave in a human way so that humankind can

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 389 12/14/06 9:29:26 AM K 390 Satyavan

feel kinship with him, yet to rise to superhuman final day approaches Savitri furiously engages in heights to protect the virtuous and destroy evil. prayers and penances to stave off the inevitable. Quoting Lord KRISHNA’s words in the BHAGAVAD On the final day she follows her husband closely GITA, Sai Baba says that whenever disharmony into the woods where he has gone to fetch wood. overwhelms the world, the Lord will incarnate in Her husband soon collapses as the frightening human form to establish peace and to reeducate figure of YAMA, god of death, appears before them the human community. with a noose in his hand. Sai Baba’s influence is considerable; active Yama removes Satyavan’s soul and heads devotees and centers organized around his work toward his domain, with Savitri in desperate pur- and message exist throughout the world. His per- suit. Yama asks her to turn back, but she insists sonal conduct, however, has been the subject of that she will follow him even to the underworld. numerous charges, including sexual misconduct Seeing her great devotion, Yama grants her any and fraud. His international headquarters are in boon but that of having her husband restored to Puttaparthi, Andra Pradesh, India. life. She takes this boon but insists on following farther. She gains two more similar boons but will Further reading: Roy Eugene Davis, The Teachings of Sri not relent. Finally, Yama offers her a boon with- Satya Sai Baba (Lakemont, Ga.: CSA Press, 1991); Satya out exception and she asks that her husband be Pal Ruhela, In Search of Sai Divine: A Comprehensive restored to life. The boon is granted and Satyavan Research Review of Writings and Researches on Sri Sathya returns to life. Sai Baba Avatar (Delhi: Print House, n.d.); T. B. Singh, SRI AUROBINDO wrote an elegant and enchant- Satya Sai Baba: Godman of India Today (Delhi: Hind ing epic poem celebrating this story, in which he Pocket Books 1976); Brian Steel, The Satya Sai Baba outlines his conception of Integral Yoga and the Compendium: A Guide to the First Seventy Years (New power of the MOTHER to effect the complete supra- York: Weiser, 1997). mental transformation of the universe.

Further reading: Sri Aurobindo, Savitri: A Legend and Satyavan See SAVITRI. a Symbol (Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1951); Aaron Shepard with Vera Rosenberry, Savitri: A Tale of Ancient India (Morton Grove, Ill.: A. Whitman, 1992). See KRITA YUGA.

Savitri Vedic divinity Savitri mythic princess Savitri is one name for the Vedic god of the Sun. The story of Savitri and Satyavan, told in the Several gods in the RIG VEDA seem to be associ- Mahabharata, is one of the most poignant in ated with the Sun, probably indicating that the Indian literature. The beautiful maiden Savitri Sun had different names at different times of falls in love with a hermit’s son, Satyavan, and the day or seasons of the year, or for different marries him. Savitri learns from his father that purposes. Savitri was often used in conjunction unbeknown to Satyavan the boy has only one with SURYA, and the two may have been inter- year to live. Savitri forebears from telling Satya- changeable. van, in order to preserve their precious days of Savitri is used in the famous GAYATRI MANTRA, happiness. recited every morning by BRAHMINS and others. The pair live in great delight as the bride tries In the Rig Veda, Savitri is connected with several to forget the curse that threatens their love. As the important rites. It is said that those who desire

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 390 12/14/06 9:29:26 AM Scandinavia 391 J

heaven should do the AGNICHAYANA, or “building of and MEDITATION. Then in 1968 he met Swami the fire altar,” ritual for Savitri. Satyananda Saraswati (b. 1923), founder of the The name is derived from the SANSKRIT su (to INTERNATIONAL YOGA FELLOWSHIP MOVEMENT, and incite or impel). Savitri thus brings to life or com- went to India to study at the Bihar School of pels thoughts and action. This seems only natural Yoga. He became a SWAMI, was given his spiritual for the Sun, who wakens the world and keeps it name, and returned to his homeland two years alive by its life-giving rays. later to found the Scandinavian Yoga and Medi- tation School in Copenhagen. Shortly thereafter Further reading: Alfred Hillebrandt, he published Yoga, Tantra and Meditation in (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); P. Pandit, Aditi and Daily Life, later translated into nine languages. Other Deities in the Veda (Pondicherry: Dipti, 1970); W. In 1977, Janakananda organized “Meditation J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic (Cal- Yoga 77,” an international yoga congress held cutta: Rupa, 1973). in Stockholm. He invited an international list of speakers, reflecting the many Indian teachers who would visit the Scandinavian school in suc- Sawan Kirpal Ruhani Mission See SANT ceeding years. He later opened a retreat center in MAT MOVEMENT. southern Sweden. As did Narayanananda’s move- ment, the school spread to the other Scandinavian countries. The first affiliated Norwegian school Scandinavia opened in 1983. In more recent years, other yoga The Scandinavian countries were preponderantly centers, such as the Ashtanga Yoga Center of Hel- Christian until the middle of the 20th century; the sinki, have opened in major Scandinavian urban Lutheran Church had been the established religion centers. for centuries. While a spectrum of Christian sects Already in the 1970s, the expansive INTERNA- appeared during the 19th century, the first break in TIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS tar- the Christian consensus appears to have occurred geted the Scandinavian countries. They opened early in the 20th century with the spread of THEOS- their first center in Sweden and eventually spread OPHY to Scandinavia and the subsequent formation to Denmark and Finland. Today they maintain a of several esoteric groups such as the Martinus large temple in Grodinge, some 25 miles south of Institute, founded in Denmark in the 1940s. Stockholm. Hinduism was introduced into Scandinavia In 1974, (b. 1931) visited Iceland in 1967 as a result of the teachings of Swami and subsequently formed the only Hindu commu- NARAYANANANDA (1902–88), a YOGA teacher from nity on the island. Chinmoy, noted for his physi- Bengal. He had been discovered by some Danes cal feats, once lifted the prime minister of Iceland who were traveling in India and they created the as part of a weightlifting demonstration. first ashram for his work in Gylling, Denmark. In the 1980s, a small number of Indians In 1969 they erected a house for Swami Naraya- began to find their way to Denmark and Sweden. nananda, who made his first trip to Europe in By the beginning of the 21st century, there were 1971. He regularly visited Europe throughout the some 1,500 Hindus in Sweden and around 3,500 rest of his life, and the Narayanananda Universal in Denmark. Wherever concentrations of immi- Yoga Ashrams spread to the other Scandinavian grants settled, temples and community orga- countries. nizations began to appear, among the first the As a youth, a Dane later known as Swami Hindu Union in Jönköping, Sweden, founded Janakananda (b. 1939) began practicing YOGA in 1974. The larger community in Stockholm

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 391 12/14/06 9:29:26 AM K 392 Sekkilar

now sponsors two temples, both of which were self-realization opened early in the new century. The VISHVA Self-realization, or living in constant awareness of HINDU PARISHAD has also formed as a coordinat- the real Self, ATMAN, is considered the goal of most ing organization for the various Hindu centers. Hindu study and practice. Hinduism recognizes The Hindu community is just completing its that individual abilities and interests vary con- first generation in Scandinavia, and forecast- siderably among people, so it acknowledges that ing its future is difficult. It may also be noted self-realization can be achieved through devotion, that Indian migration to Scandinavia has also study, faith, work in the world, or meditation. In included some Sikhs; as of 2005 five gurudwaras this way, Hinduism includes disciplines for mind, were operating, two in Norway, two in Sweden, emotions, body, and action in the world—all as and one in Denmark. valid ways to realization of ultimate reality, the atman. Further reading: Swami Narayanananda, The Ideal See also MOKSHA; SAMADHI. Life and Moksha (Freedom) (Gylling, Denmark: N. U. Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979); Swami Janakananda Saraswati, Experience : Guided Deep Relax- Self-Realization Fellowship (est. 1935) ation (Copenhagen: , 2003); ———, Yoga, The Self-Realization Fellowship (SRF) is an inter- Tantra and Meditation in Daily Life (Westminster, national religious organization founded in 1935 Md.: Ballantine Books, 1976); Margareta Skog, Det by Paramahansa YOGANANDA (1893–1952) to religiosa Sverige (Örebro, Sweden: Bokforlaget Libris, introduce people of all races, cultures, and creeds 2001). to the ancient science and philosophy of YOGA and MEDITATION. Through its worldwide service, the society seeks to foster a spirit of greater har- Sekkilar (12th century) mony and goodwill among the diverse people and Sekkilar, whose given name was probably Ramat- nations of the world, and a deeper understanding evar, is the author of PERIYA PURANAM, the 12th of the underlying unity of all religions. and final book of the Tamil Shaivite scripture, SRF traces its beginning to 1861 and the work the TIRUMURAI. He was a Vellala, a high middle- of the legendary , who is said by caste designation. He is also known as Arun- Yogananda to have revived the ancient science of molitevar, Sevaikkavalar, and Sekkilarnayanar KRIYA YOGA. According to Yogananda, Babaji chose (Sekkilar the saint). him to take the teachings to the West. In 1917, Sekkilar was born in the village of Kundratur Yogananda founded the Yogoda Satsanga Society in northeastern Tamil Nadu. He was chief min- (YSS) of India, headquartered in Dakshineswar ister of the Chola emperor Anapaya Chola. He (near Calcutta [Kolkata]). Today the YSS has is said to have recited the Periya Puranam to the more than 20 educational and medical facilities, retired Chola king at the Shaivite sacred shrine of including a college of liberal arts and business, CHIDAMBARAM. a medical college, several schools for boys and girls, and both allopathic and homeopathic hos- Further reading: G. Vanmikinathan, Periya Puranam, pitals and clinics. In 1920 Yogananda traveled a Tamil Classic on the Great Saiva Saints of South India to the United States to attend the tercentenary (Madras: Ramakrishna Math, 1985); Kamil V. Zvelibil, anniversary of the International Congress of Reli- “Tamil Literature,” in Jan Gonda, ed., The History of gious Liberals convening in Boston. One of the Indian Literature, Vol. 10, Fascicle 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto last Indians to enter America before the change in Harrassowitz, 1974). immigration laws limited Asian immigration, he

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 392 12/14/06 9:29:26 AM Self-Realization Fellowship 393 J

decided to stay in the United States. He formed During Yogananda’s years in the United States, a center of the Yogoda Satsang in Boston, Mas- he initiated thousands of men and women into sachusetts, and traveled widely in the eastern the teachings and methods of yoga and medita- United States. tion. Central to his teaching and that of SRF is a In 1924, Yogananda made his first trip across yogic way to bliss (ANANDA) or SELF-REALIZATION, the country and founded the headquarters for or God realization. The way to bliss is through his work at Mt. Washington in Los Angeles, scientific methods of concentration, including an California. He lectured in the principal cities advanced technique called kriya yoga as taught and of the United States, wrote inspirational works, passed down by the yogi Babaji. This technique is and worked on a home study course on kriya a system of awakening and energizing the psychic yoga. After the founding of SRF in 1935, other centers or CHAKRAS located along the spinal column. centers were opened in California at Encinitas, Through deep regular meditation, spiritual cosmic San Diego, Hollywood, Long Beach, and Pacific energies are focused and direct perception of the Palisades, with smaller groups in other cities in divine is experienced. The blood is decarbonized the United States. and recharged with oxygen, the atoms of which are transmuted into “life current” to rejuvenate the brain and spinal centers. The practice makes it possible to withdraw one’s energy and attention from the usual turbulence of thoughts, emotions, and sensory perceptions. In the stillness that is dis- covered, one is able to experience peace and attun- ement with God. The term “Self-realization” as used by Yogananda, signifies realization of one’s true Self, or soul—the individualized expression of the one universal spirit that animates and informs all life. SRF also emphasizes the essential unity of Eastern and Western religious teachings. Services in SRF organizations include interpretations of parallel scriptural passages from the BHAGAVAD GITA and Christian scripture, especially the New Testament. Yogananda was succeeded by Swami Rajasi Janakananda (James J. Lynn), who died in 1955 and was succeeded by Sri DAYA MATA (b. 1914), the current head of the fellowship. SRF is coordinated by members of its monastic order. These monks and nuns serve Yogananda’s vision through worldwide spiritual and humani- tarian work, including over 100 meditation cen- ters, retreats, youth programs, publishing and translating programs, temple services, and coordi- Entrance to the Self-Realization Fellowship Head- nation of the Worldwide Prayer Circle, a network quarters in Encinitas, California (Institute for the Study of of groups and individuals dedicated to praying for American Religion, Santa Barbara, California) those in need.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 393 12/14/06 9:29:27 AM K 394 Self-Revelation Church of Absolute Monism

Under the direction of Sri Daya Mata SRF 1978. The group publishes the Mystic Cross and publishes the writings, lectures, and informal the Gandhi Message periodicals. talks of Paramahansa Yogananda and of his close disciples. SRF also distributes audio and video Further reading: Swami Premananda, Light on Kriya recordings of Yogananda’s teachings. SRF has a Yoga (Washington, D.C.: Swami Premananda Foun- temple or center in 49 states in America and 49 dation, 1969); ———, The Path of the Eternal Law countries in the world. The Yogoda Satsang Soci- (Washington, D.C.: Self-Realization Fellowship, 1942); ety of India has 32 centers and operates a variety ———, Prayers of Realization (Washington, D.C.: Self- of charitable facilities. Realization Fellowship, 1943).

Further reading: Sri Daya Mata, Only Love (Los Ange- les: Self-Realization Fellowship, 1976); Paramahansa Sen, Keshab Chunder (1838–1884) social Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi (Los Angeles: reformer and philosopher Self-Realization Fellowship, 1971); ———, Descriptive Keshab Chunder Sen was a philosopher and social Outlines of Yogoda (Los Angeles: Yogoda Satsang Society, reformer, whose career reflected the variety of 1928); ———, Man’s Eternal Quest (Los Angeles: Self- responses to the modern world that emerged in Realization Fellowship, 1975); ———, Self-Realization Hindu society. Highlights (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship, Sen was born on November 19, 1838, into a 1980); ———, Whispers from (Los Angeles: wealthy family in Calcutta (Kolkata) who were Self-Realization Fellowship, 1986). very involved in both Bengali and Western cul- tural movements. He was recruited at age 19 by , father of the poet RABIN- Self-Revelation Church of Absolute DRANATH TAGORE, to the celebrated BRAHMO SAMAJ Monism (est. 1928) reform movement, which attempted to purify The Self-Realization Church of Absolute Monism Hinduism from practices such as caste, child mar- was founded by Swami Premananda (1903–95), riage, purdah (seclusion of women), ill treatment who was called in 1925 by Paramahansa YOGA- of widows, and particularly idol worship. He NANDA to move to the United States. While inde- became secretary of the movement in 1859. Sen pendent of Yogananda’s primary organization in broke away in 1865 because of personal disagree- the United States, the Self-Realization Fellowship, ments and formed the Brahmo Samaj of India. the Church of Absolute Monism has much the This organization also split after Sen married same teaching focus. Both stress ADVAITA (non- his daughter to a maharajah when she was only dualist) VEDANTA, the life and philosophy of 14 years old, an action that was seen as a major Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI, the unity of all betrayal of the movement’s principles. religions, the practice of kriya yoga, and cultural In 1878 Sen formed the Sadharan Brahmo appreciation. The name absolute monism refers to Samaj. His views had changed under the influ- the of advaita Vedanta, which ence of the teacher RAMAKRISHNA, who persuaded affirms that ultimate reality is non-dual. him to accept image worship and see the Hindu The church has linkages to the Mahatma Gan- pantheon in a new light, as a way for the ordinary dhi Memorial Foundation and has an accent on devotee to engage the divinity concretely. education and culture. The current leader of the His New Dispensation, which he announced church and of the Gandhi memorial center is Sri in 1879, has often been taken as tantamount Mata Kamalananda. She was ordained a minister to his conversion to Christianity, but it is more in the Swami Order in 1973, and a full swami in complicated. He considered his movement to be

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 394 12/14/06 9:29:27 AM Sen, Ramprasad 395 J

on a par with the Jewish and Christian traditions thoughts of the GODDESS DURGA or KALI. Legend and as a fulfillment of Christ’s prophecy. He also says that one of his employers, upon seeing his believed that his movement would lead to the beautiful verses to the goddess in his account harmonization of all religions. Though he referred books, told him to cease being an accountant and to himself as Jesudas, servant of , he empha- offered him a salary simply to continue compos- sized Christ’s Asiatic character and saw Christ in a ing devotional verse. VEDANTIC light as the one god, who is worshipped Legend also says that when Ramprasad was a under different names by all those who worship little over 60 years old, he announced that on the God. day when the goddess was going to be immersed He died on January 8, 1884. in the Ganges (either Kali or Durga Puja day), he also would be immersed with the Divine Mother. Further reading: Keshub Chunder Sen in England: Dia- It is said that he slowly descended into the river, ries, Sermons, Addresses and Epistles (Calcutta: Writers singing some of his farewell songs. He died sing- Workshop, 1980); Glyn Richards, ed., A Source Book of ing a song to the goddess Tara. Modern Hinduism (London: Curzon Press, 1985); David In one of the amazing stories associated with C. Scott, ed., Keshub Chunder Sen: A Selection (Madras: Ramprasad he accompanied the maharajah on Christian Literature, 1979). a journey on the Ganges. As usual he was sing- ing his devotional songs. The Muslim ruler of the area happened to overhear the song and was Sen, Ramprasad (c. 1718–c. 1780) Bengali enchanted by it. The ruler requested Ramprasad poet-saint and Kali devotee to sing for him so Ramprasad sang a song in Mus- Ramprasad Sen, who is often referred to by his lim style. The , the Muslim ruler, was not first name alone, was a beloved Bengali poet-saint, pleased and asked him to sing a song to Kali. The whose songs are known to every Bengali. Muslim was moved to tears and offered patron- As for many of the poet-saints of India the age and high rank to Ramprasad, who declined details of his life are intermixed with myth. Simi- them. larly, as with KABIR, his name and fame impelled Most importantly Ramprasad is a central fig- other writers to compose many beautiful verses ure in the revival of (see SHAKTA) or in homage to his works, particularly his collec- goddess worship in late 18th-century Bengal. His tion of songs known as Padabali. His other major works typically show him drunk or mad with the attributed works are Bidyasundar, Kalikirttan, and goddess, and he cannot live without her. His work Krishnakirttan. shows strong TANTRIC influence. Ramprasad was probably born to a higher- Ramprasad’s poems to the goddess see her as caste Vaidya family of traditional physicians, a daughter, as a fierce wife of SHIVA, as the Divine possibly BRAHMINS. He was educated in SANSKRIT Mother, and as his own mother. His sentiment and in Persian in addition to Bengali. He is said to in regard to her is very close to that of another have lived in the village of Kumarhatt, also known famous Bengali, RAMAKRISHNA. as Halishore, on the banks of the GANGES not far from Calcutta (Kolkata). It seems certain that he Further reading: , Mother of the Universe: was patronized by the contemporary king, Maha- Visions of the Goddess and Tantric Hymns of Enlighten- raja Krishnachandra Ray Bahadur. ment (Wheaton, Ill.: Quest Books, 1994); Malcolm Ramprasad started out as a clerk for a wealthy McLean, Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work household in or near Calcutta. It is said that of Ramprasad (Albany: State University of New York he was constantly distracted from his duties by Press, 1998); J. McDaniel, Madness of the Saints:

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 395 12/14/06 9:29:27 AM K 396

Ecstatic Religion in Bengal (Chicago: University of Chi- The first formal Shaivite text may well be a cago Press, 1989). Tamil text relating the worship of the younger son of Shiva, Murugan, another name of Karttikeya, dating from approximately the third century C.E. Shaiva Siddhanta See SAIVA SIDDHANTA. The first known Shaivite saint, a female ascetic, Karaikkalammaiyar, dates from around the fourth century. Not long after, stone temples were built Shaivism to Shiva in South India, around the sixth century. Shaivism is the formal name for the group of tradi- As later all around India the central shrine was tions that worship SHIVA as the supreme divinity. almost always a Shiva lingam. A person who Shiva will be called a In a challenge to the Jains in Tamil Nadu, a Shaiva in India or a Shaivite in academic parlance. group of great Shaivite saints began to wander This loose sect, which encompasses by far the from shrine to shrine and temple to temple sing- large majority of Hindus, probably began to form ing the praises of Lord Shiva. The three great around the fifth or fourth century B.C.E. Worship saints associated with the Tamil Shaivite scripture of Lord Shiva is mentioned in both the RAMAYANA TEVARAM date to the sixth to eighth centuries. and MAHABHARATA epics. They helped make Shaivism the most influential The first Shiva LINGAM authenticated archaeo- tradition in the region. The pattern repeated itself logically dates from about the first century C.E., farther north in later centuries, as poet-saint devo- but it is likely that this type of worship was already tees spread the word of Lord Shiva and popular- many centuries old. Scholars often point to a very ized devotional worship. ancient Indus Valley seal showing a seated fig- Shaivite puranas were first written in SANSKRIT ure with a water-buffalo-horned headdress and, around the sixth century. They told extraordinary apparently, an erect penis, both evocative of Shiva. stories of the ascetic-erotic Lord Shiva, the chaotic It is called the Pashupati figure, “Lord of the Ani- Lord, who resisted household life and children mals,” which is also a later designation of Shiva. and made trouble for the world and the gods. However, there is no other evidence to indicate These puranas form the Sanskrit backbone for the worship of a Shiva-like being in the INDUS VALLEY Shaivite cult. CIVILIZATION. Some even discern a “yogic” seating By the 12th century Shaivism (as had VAISH- posture in the figure, although Indians do tradi- NAVISM) in the Tamil country had fully assimilated tionally sit in that cross-legged pattern. the Sanskritic tradition of the north into the local The Shiva lingam is actually a sexual symbol traditions. Thus Shaivism developed a clear sense showing the coitus of the divine male with the of continuity with northern Vedic Brahminism. female. The sexual organ of the GODDESS is found Both Sanskrit and Tamil were honored as holy in the surrounding circular stone that almost languages. Shiva undoubtedly had a northern always encases the lingam. It is probably because Indian provenance. All the shrines that the south- of this primordial association of Shiva with the ern Shaivite saints frequented were originally goddess that from his first appearance in mythol- associated with local divinities, whom the saints ogy he is seen with a wife, SATI, who tragically recognized as forms of Shiva. dies. She is afterward reincarnated as PARVATI. At Farther north, the VIRASHAIVA tradition devel- times Shiva is also associated with DURGA and oped in the 12th century in Karnataka. The Viras- KALI. With Parvati the divine family develops with haivas did not accept icons and eschewed Vedic an older son, the elephant-headed GANESHA, and a worship entirely. They were devoted only to Shiva younger son, KARTTIKEYA. as a formless indefinable divinity. Each Virashaiva

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 396 12/14/06 9:29:27 AM Shakta 397 J

would simply wear a lingam around the neck to and Communication Institute, 1987); S. Shivapadasun- show devotion. Caste was outlawed and women daram, The Saiva School of Hinduism (London: George were made equals to men in the tradition. Their Allen & Unwin, 1934). path was devotional, and their desire was to real- ize the divine truth that was Shiva. Shaivite icons and temple artifacts appear Shaivite (Shaiva) See SHAIVISM. much later in the north than in the south, but Shaivism was flourishing earlier nonetheless. Smaller shrines with Shiva lingams were appar- Shakta ently the norm, places where mendicants gath- The term Shakta refers both to the practitio- ered, often to smoke hashish and sing the praises ner/devotee and to the faith, a female-centered of the Lord who was everywhere. religious tradition that evolved out of prehistoric Between the eighth and 12th centuries the Mother Goddess worship found in civilizations NATH YOGIS became prominent among the Shaivite across the globe. The word Shakta derives from wandering mendicants. Famed among these was the divine feminine power or SHAKTI and indicates the great GURU GORAKHNATH. These wild, ascetic a worshipper of the Goddess primarily. Evidence mendicants were antisocial and often frighten- of this Earth-based and female-centered tradition ing in appearance, carrying begging bowls made on the dates back perhaps of skulls and smearing themselves with human as early as the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (3500 ashes to mimic the chaotic Lord himself. They B.C.E.–1500 B.C.E.), where numerous Harrapan practiced alchemy in an attempt to achieve seals portraying female figures associated with immortality. When in the south an organized vegetative symbolism have been found. literature, liturgy, and temple culture had already The pre-Vedic Hindu tradition, with its God- emerged, North India Shaivism seemed to move dess-centered worldview, is often traced to the art along different lines. The Shaivite temple cult and archaeological remains of the Harrapan and began to develop in North India around the ninth Mohenjo-daro civilizations. Although the point or 10th century, but truly dramatic temples were is contested, many scholars believe these findings not built until some 600 years after they had definitively point to an early Earth-based, female/ appeared in the south. goddess-centered religious tradition. In the 12th century the great ABHINAVAGUPTA Evidence for this tradition is clear as early wrote his texts outlining KASHMIRI SHAIVISM, a as the fourth century, although Shakta itself is a TANTRIC tradition that relied on personal transfor- relatively late post–eighth century term applied mation and ritual to realize the total oneness of to those cults, scripture, or persons associated Shiva, rather than on a temple culture. His texts with the worship of the Goddess as Shakti. were no doubt based on traditions that had been Before this time the term used for this type of maturing for centuries. Goddess worship was kula or kaula, a word also used to refer to clans of a female lineage, as well Further reading: C. V. Narayan Ayyar, Origin and Early as to menstrual and female sexual fluids. It seems History of Saivism in South India (Madras: University of that this belief system whether called Kaula or Madras, 1936); R. G. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism, Shakta, centered on the Goddess and her YONI, and Minor Religious Systems (New York: Garland Pub- or sexual organ, as the primordial force of Earth lishing, 1980); R. Nagaswamy, Siva Bhakti (New Delhi: and cosmos. Navrang, 1989); Moti Lal Pandit, Saivism, a Religio- A Shakta views the female principle as the ani- Philosophical History (New Delhi: Theological Research mating, dynamic force behind all existence while

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 397 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM K 398 Shakta

the male principle, especially in the later medieval fruition, preservation, and inevitable destruction tantric traditions, is considered to be the quies- of existence. cent, receptive force. In the Shakta tantric world- Within the Brahminic fold, Shaktas today wor- view, the masculine principle is a complementary ship goddesses such as PARVATI, Gauri, Ganga, LAK- force to the all-pervading female power. “Shiva SHMI, SARASVATI, and Uma for their pacific natures. without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said.” At the same time the wrathful, often destructive Central to Shakta theology is recognition of goddesses such as DURGA, KALI, CHAMUNDA, and the interrelationships among the agricultural, the Matrikas and are propitiated, revered, lunar, and female reproductive cycles. All of and especially held in awe. existence is conceived as the power, wisdom, Within the Shakta worldview all women are knowledge, and action of a Great Goddess. Shak- regarded as inherently divine. The ebb and flow tas perform magical rites in order to ensure the of women’s menstrual cycles in accordance with continuation of both humans’ and Earth’s fertil- the 28-day lunar cycle are important to this tra- ity. Stones, trees, water, and iconic and aniconic dition. The potency of kula, menstrual blood or images all are worshipped as embodiments of other female fluids, plays a central role in rites and Shakti or the power of Goddess. Ritual practices practices. The blood is revered for its vibrational also focus on placating deities in order to prevent potency and is offered to deities such as Kali, natural disasters and illness. To a Shakta, the mys- Durga, and the Matrikas as a means to pacify as teries of death as well as birth are considered the well as worship. Goddess’s domain, stemming from the belief that Although in orthodox practices animal sac- we all originate from and will eventually return to rifice has in some cases apparently replaced the great Mother Goddess. menstrual blood offerings, no female animals are From earliest times Shaktas have worshipped offered to the deities. In many of the tantra texts deities in multiple as well as singular form; they relevant to this tradition, one finds descriptions believe that the collectives are ultimately just dif- of women that honor and revere their female ferent aspects or manifestations of the supreme nature; for example: “Women are divinity, women Goddess herself. These deities have strong asso- are vital breath. Women are goddess, women are ciations with the natural and human landscape: life. Be ever among women in thought.” This trees, mountains, hills, bodies of water, and is the nature of a Shakta. Contrary to the later the female body—in particular the sex organs Brahminic traditions’ immaterial conception of and sexual fluids. Yakshis and (tree and the universe as BRAHMAN, the Shakta views the nature spirits), Grahanis, Matrikas, and Yoginis divinity as both immanent and transcendent. (goddesses and semigoddesses who are always depicted with animal totems/vehicles) embody Further reading: Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, History both benevolent and malevolent qualities. These of the Shakta Religion (New Delhi: Munshiram Mano- deities are connected to the threshold experiences harial, 1996); ———, History of the Tantric Religion of women’s existence: childbirth, menstruation, (New Delhi: Manohar, 1999); Vidya Dehejia, Yogini Cult sex, illness, and death. and Temples: A Tantric Tradition (New Delhi: National Devotees share the belief in the great goddess, Museum, 1986); Jadunath Sinha, Shakta Monism: The Mahadevi, who assumes many forms to defeat Cult of Shakti (Calcutta: Sinha Publishing House, any forces that are threatening the natural equi- 1966); David Gordon White, Kiss of the Yogini (Chicago librium of the Earth and cosmos. Each of these and London: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Sir forms carries benevolent as well as malevolent John Woodroffe, Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses qualities and all have crucial roles in the birth, (Madras: Ganesh, 1965).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 398 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM Shakti 399 J

Shakti find references to Shakti’s independent omnipo- Shakti is the primordial creative, sustaining and tent nature where the complementary receptive destructive power of all existence. Although con- qualities of the masculine force as Shiva are “but a ceived as female in nature, Shakti is not an indi- corpse” without her activating power. vidual goddess, but rather a dynamic quality that In the epic RAMAYANA, Shakti does not have all goddesses (and even all women, at least within the independent cult status that we find in the the SHAKTA TANTRIC tradition) are said to possess. later epics; however, she is held in high regard. Unbridled, uncontainable, spontaneous, ecstatic, In the MAHABHARATA, Shakti once again regains blissful, and fierce, Shakti flows from manifesta- the agency and importance that are evident in tion to dissolution. She is the power to give forth the prepatriarchal traditions. Here we learn of her and to withdraw. invincible power as Durga and the Matrikas. She The concept of Shakti is an ancient one and is also referred to as Kalika, , Bhadrakali, has pre-VEDIC, prepatriarchal origins. She is often Parvati, Mahadevi, and by other names. traced to archaeological discoveries from the Shakti continues to gain importance in the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (3500–1700 B.C.E.) and puranic texts, the earliest of which, the Mar- to other prehistoric cultures throughout western kandeya Purana, with its 13 chapters called the and central Asia. In India the belief and worship Durga Saptasai and , elaborate the of her all-pervading nature were pushed under- primordial all-pervading power of Devi. Here she ground during the Vedic period. Shakti regains is philosophically conceived as pure conscious- importance in classical and medieval Hinduism, ness; the creator, preserver, and destroyer; the one in which in many cases this primordial power is and the many manifestations of supreme divinity. personified as Devi, the GODDESS, and held in even Shakti is both immanent and transcendent, illu- higher regard than the male deities. Epic texts sive and manifest, moving and unmoving. She is such as the Devi Bhagavata, Devi Purana, Kalika knowledge, will, and action behind all existence. Purana, Markandeya Purana, and Mahabhagavata Here we find Goddess as the absolute reality, Purana accept and worship Shakti as the supreme and yet she incarnates from time to time to help nature of reality. the gods to carry out her divine work. She also From earliest times the concept of Shakti appears to help her devotees conquer the bonds of appears in discussions of fertility as well as in human suffering and the limitations of the physi- reverence of the divine as mother of nature and cal realm in order to achieve liberation. cosmos. In the RIG VEDA the term Shakti is not In the Markandeya Purana, the goddess is mentioned; however, various goddess manifesta- identified with PRAKRITI, the natural sustaining tions (, USHAS, ADITI, PRITHIVI, Vac-Sarasvati, power of existence. She takes on various roles goddesses) indicate the presence and influence as mother, nurturer, warrior, lover to experience that would later develop into the central figures of the LILA (play) of her divine consciousness. In the Shakti cult (KALI, DURGA, Ambika, Uma) that the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Shakti is divided are worshipped today. into three forms or qualities of existence: sattva The later Shakta Upanishads and tantras (see (purity), rajas (passion), tamas (inertia). TANTRISM) contain philosophical references to As Mahasarasvati, Mahalakshmi, , Shakti that equate her with BRAHMAN. In these texts the Goddess takes the universe from creation the dynamic, all-pervading nature of brahman to destruction and back to creation again. The and Shakti as the fabric underlying all existence Goddess’s distinct iconographic forms are expres- cannot be separated into two. In the Shakta UPA- sions of her multiple nature. She has both benevo- NISHADS as well as in the later Shakta tantras we lent and pacific as well as wrathful and terrifying

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 399 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM K 400 shaktipat

qualities. Her benevolent manifestations include DHA YOGA, in which the GURU confers the grace of Uma, Gauri, Parvati, Lakshmi, Sarasvati; her ter- spiritual transformation upon the adept through rifying ones include Chamunda, Kali, Durga, the touching. This touch is intended to awaken and Mahavidyas, the Yoginis, and Matrikas. make the KUNDALINI force rise from the base of the In the Shakta tantras Shakti becomes Para- spine. The touching is usually done by the hand, shakti, the supreme reality who before manifest- but sometimes with a feather or other object, ing through the physical world remains in a upon the adept’s head. state of unmanifest repose. In this respect she is ineffable and indescribable. She is worshipped as Further reading: Swami Muktananda, Kundalini: The Mahamaya or Mahadevi in addition to the numer- Secret of Life South (Fallsburg, N.Y.: SYDA Foundation, ous epithets that emphasize the myriad facets of 1983); ———, Play of Consciousness: Chitshakti Vilas: her all-pervading nature. A Spiritual Autobiography, 3d ed. (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: The acknowledgment and worship of the SYDA Fdn., 2000); Swami Sivom Tirth, A Guide to Shak- nature of reality as female, as the mobilizing tipat (Thune: Devatma Shakti Society, 1985). energizing primordial force called Shakti, speaks strongly to the inherently autonomous nature of women. This concept of divinity as female ulti- shakti pithas mately lies in the biological reality of the female Shakti pithas (seats or of the SHAKTI) are body, in particular the power of the womb. Today sites sacred to the divine mother that are embed- statues, YANTRAS, and other iconic objects of Shakti ded in the Indian landscape. Legends around worship are not mere representations of Goddess these sites can be found in the puranas and tantras and her ultimate power, but rather embodiments (see TANTRISM), however, the stories and number of her Shakti. of actual pithas vary; most commonly shakti pithas are located in India, Nepal, Tibet, Pakistan, and Further reading: Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, His- Bangladesh. tory of the Shakta Religion (New Delhi: Munshiram The most popular story of how these pithas Manoharial, 1996); Pushpendra Kumar, Shakti Cult were created is found in the Puranas and tantras in Ancient India (Varanasi: Bhartiya Publishing House, (Devibhagavata, VII, ch. 30; , XVIII) 1974); Ajit Mookerjee, Kali: The Feminine Force (New and dates to the late medieval period. In this later York: Destiny Books, 1988); Jadunath Sinha, Shakta development of a much earlier legend, the god Monism: The Cult of Shakti (Calcutta: Sinha Publishing DAKSHA is hosting a YAJNA (fire sacrifice) but does House, 1966); Jagdish Narain Tiwari, Goddess Cults in not invite his daughter, SATI, because she has mar- Ancient India (with special reference to the first seven cen- ried the ascetic god SHIVA, and Daksha does not turies A.D.) (Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1985); David approve of Shiva’s antisocial qualities. Gordon White, Kiss of the Yogini (Chicago and London: When Sati learns that all the other deities have University of Chicago Press, 2003); Sir John Wood- been invited to this ceremony and only she and roffe, Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses (Madras: her husband have been excluded, she is outraged Ganesh, 1965). and confronts her father at his temple. Staying true to his socially defiant ways, Shiva shows no concern about this family insult and refuses to go shaktipat with her. Shaktipat (pat, descent, of Shakti, spiritual energy) Sati arrives alone and confronts her father. is an act found in TANTRISM and tantric-derived tra- According to this version of the myth, Daksha ditions such as that of Swami MUKTANANDA’S SID- grossly insults both his daughter and her wayward

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 400 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM shalagrama 401 J

husband. To assuage her grief, Sati throws herself giri, and her yoni or sexual organ at KAMAKHYA on the fire. She dies but her body does not burn remain two of the most frequented and revered up in the flames. Hearing of the loss of his wife, sites for contemporary pilgrims. To ancient peo- Shiva becomes mad with grief. Inconsolable, he ples the Earth itself was the divine mother, and wanders the Earth carrying his beloved on his the popularity of these sites reflects an attempt shoulder. of later cultures to integrate these earlier tradi- In order to stop Shiva’s dance of destruction tions into their worship in order to attract more and to relieve him of the burden of his grief, the followers. gods BRAHMA and VISHNU decide someone must At the pithas the Goddess is usually wor- intervene. Vishnu, the great preserver, follows shipped in an iconic form. Often she is revered as Shiva and cuts away at Sati’s body. The fallen a stone that has been painted red (red is the color pieces of her body and limbs create over 50 shakti of Shakti). Sometimes eyes and other anthropo- pithas, which today are worshipped as sites sacred morphic features are added. Originally these sites to one of the many manifestations of DEVI such as were worshipped under various names of the Kameshvari, Tara, Ambika, and Gauri. A bhairava local tribal deities that later became syncretized or fierce form of her beloved Shiva is often associ- into the Brahminic fold of goddesses. This is ated with each of these sites. These pithas have evident, in part, from the great variations in the also been associated with the 51 letters of the lists of shakti pithas and the names connected Sanskrit alphabet. with them. The earliest mythological explanation of the pithas can be found in the RIG VEDA (X.61.5–7). Further reading: K. C. Aryan, The Little Goddesses Here we find the earliest association between the (Matrikas) (New Delhi: Rekha Prakashan, 1980); D. sacrifice and desecration of body parts that later is C. Sircar, The Sakta Pithas (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass central to the Sati dismemberment myth. Publishers, 1973). Other legends tell of four important pithas that are associated with the four cardinal directions. These four sites (Kamarupa, Uddiyana, Jaland- Shakuntala See KALIDASA. hara, Purnagiri) have been important pilgrimage centers to yoginis and yogis. Some legends speak of seven pithas; others speak of as many as 108 shalagrama across the subcontinent. The shalagrama is a small stone sacred object, Clearly these sites point to local cults of wor- usually three or four inches across with several ship of the goddess in various manifestations. holes, used by devotees of VISHNU in their home Today many of these places have become pilgrim- worship. It is made of black ammonite, from age centers to the goddess as Shakti: Ambika, Mount Gandaki in Nepal. A story in the BHAGA- Parvat, Sati, Durga, Kaliet, and others. The various VATA PURANA (c. 1200 C.E.) explains why this black legends in the tantras and Puranas are later myth- stone is used for worship; another account is in ological explanations for what were originally the TULSIDAS (c. 1600 C.E.). sacred Goddess sites. In the worship, water is dripped on the stone For millennia the Goddess has been embed- and collected beneath. The water is later drunk ded in the natural landscape. Lakes, ponds, or by the worshipper. Sometimes the shalagrama is pools have been conceived as her yoni; double shown to dying persons to ensure that they go to hills or mountains, her breasts. The pitha asso- Vishnu’s heaven Vaikuntha, as it is seen to have ciated with the Goddess’s breasts at Jalandhara- sacred power.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 401 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM K 402 Shankar, Sri Sri Ravi

Further reading: Abee J. Dubois, A. Hindu Manners, ORDER) who sought the full realization of the Customs and Ceremonies. Translated and edited by brahman in a state of being, consciousness, and Henry K. Beauchamp, 3d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon bliss (SAT-CHIT-ANANDA). Shankara’s name is also Press, 1959); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and connected strongly to SHAIVISM and to the wor- Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). ship of the GODDESS, through texts that were later attributed to him. Shankara’s system of Vedanta is known as the Shankar, Sri Sri Ravi See ART OF LIVING ADVAITA, or non-dual, VEDANTA, or more properly, FOUNDATION. Kevala (absolute) advaita Vedanta.

Further reading: S. N. Dasgupts, History of Indian Shankara (seventh century C.E.) founder of Philosophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); Vedanta philosophy Swami Gambhirananda, trans., Eight Upanisads with Shankara was the great seventh-century philo- the Commentary of Sankaracarya, 2d ed. (Calcutta: sophical genius who created the first widely advaita Ashrama, 1965–66); Karl Potter, Encyclopedia known school of VEDANTA. He is also known as of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 3, Advaita Vedanta Up to Shankaracharya. Sankara and His Pupils (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Shankara was born in Kerala to a family of 1981). Nambudiri BRAHMINS, a strict Vedic group. Legend has it that when he was eight years old he wanted to become a renunciant, but his mother would not Shankaracharya Order (est. seventh hear of it. Not long afterward, he was attacked by century C.E.) a crocodile. He cried out to his mother to allow The Shankaracharya Order is an order of renun- him to renounce the world a moment before ciants said to have been founded by the great death so that he could reach liberation from birth seventh-century VEDANTA philosopher SHANKARA and rebirth. His mother consented, and Shankara (also known as Shankaracharya). It is formally was miraculously released from the mouth of the known as the Dashanami (10 Names) Order, crocodile. because its renunciants or SANNYASIS all take one He then proceeded to tour India and debate of 10 names: Aranya, Ashrama, Bharati, Giri, all those whom he encountered. Eventually he Parvata, Puru, Sarasvati, Sagara, Tirtha, and Vana. became known as the most brilliant philosopher They also add the affix ANANDA (transcendent of his time. Following the lineage of his GURU’s bliss). Examples would be Brahmananda (he who guru Gaudpada, he argued that the BRAHMAN of the has realized the bliss of BRAHMAN) Sarasvati and UPANISHADS was the only reality. He saw the world Agehananda (he who has realized bliss in home- as a mere trifle, an illusion, or MAYA, unreal from lessness) Bharati. the point of view of the ultimate. Shankaracharya’s aim was to establish a rigor- Shankara wrote commentaries on the VEDANTA ously disciplined, intellectually capable group of SUTRA, the Upanishads, and the BHAGAVAD GITA. In mendicants who could challenge and defeat the a thoroughgoing analysis he found that they all Buddhists of his time and who would debate the expressed the understanding that only the path theistic Hindus who clung to Vedic orthodoxy. of knowledge, the true knowing of the brahman, He established four centers or MATHS in four could lead to liberation. Devotion and works parts of India for this purpose: the Vimala Pitha were only secondary pursuits. He initiated a tra- at Puri in Orissa, the Jyoti Matha in BADRINATH dition of renunciant yogis (the SHANKARACHARYA in the HIMALAYAS, the Kalika Pitha in DVARAKA in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 402 12/14/06 9:29:28 AM Shanti Yoga Institute and Yoga Retreat 403 J

Gujarat, and the Sharada Pitha in Shringeri in Shanti Mandir (est. 1987) Karnataka. The Shanti Mandir (Temple of Peace) was estab- It is still said that the Dashanamis of the Shan- lished by Swami Nityananda (b. 1962), brother of karacharya Order are the most respected group Gurumayi Chidvilasananda, not to be confused of religious mendicants in India. They are highly with Swami Nityananda, the guru of Swami MUK- learned in SANSKRIT and VEDANTA philosophy and TANANDA, in 1987, to promote the Shaivite teach- often are educated in English as well. The order is ings of Swami Muktananda, head of the popular devoted to noninjury and nonviolence; however, Siddha Yoga Dham. Shanti Mandir now has centers they hired militant mendicants carrying in Atul, Gujarat, India; Kankhal, Uttarandchal, to defend them against attacks by militant Vaish- India; and Walden, New York. navite SADHUS or mendicants. Battles between Prior to his death in 1982 Muktananda had these groups are famous for their carnage. There chosen a brother and sister team—Nityananda are currently six “regiments” of Dashanami NAGAS, and Swami CHIDVILASANANDA, to coadminister special naked renunciants who defend the faith. the huge worldwide organization he had built. The heads of the four maths are all named In 1986 Nityananda withdrew from Siddha Yoga Shankaracharya. They oversee extensive organiza- Dham amid tension, controversy, disruption, and tions with schools and social outreach centers. questions about his ability to administer the These schools rely on a network of locally trained group. He renounced his vows of SANNYAS, entered Sanskrit pandits, experts who train students in private life, and set up a MEDITATION practice in the traditions of Hinduism, making these maths a California. valuable cultural resource. In July 1987, he established Shanti Mandir (Temple of Peace), over the objections of Siddha Further reading: Austin B. Creel and Vasudha Naray- Yoga Dham devotees who questioned his authen- anan, eds., Monastic Life in the Christian and Hindu ticity and authority. After two years of building Traditions: A Comparative Study (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Shanti Mandir on December 26, 1989, Nityananda Mellen Press, 1990); Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of took a quick plunge in the GANGES near HARIDVAR Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, and reaffirmed his vows of sannyas and commit- 1990). ment to Muktananda. The Mandir in all three of its locations offers courses and meditation intensives and initiates shanti students, using the chanting of MANTRAS as a pri- Shanti (peace or calm) is an oft-repeated word in mary practice. Nityananda also holds seminars, . The reference is not to world peace, retreats, and workshops in the United States, Aus- but to the spiritual peace that is understood to tralia, and Europe. accrue to an individual with MEDITATION and even more so with higher realization. Many MANTRAS Further reading: “Nityananda, One of Swami’s Muk- in SANSKRIT end with the chant om shantih shantih tananda’s Successors, Retakes Sannyasin Vows,” Hindu- shantih, or “OM, peace, peace, peace.” ism Today 12, no. 14 (April 1990): 28.

Further reading: Puran Bair, Living from the Heart: Heart Rhythm Meditation for Energy, Clarity, Peace, Joy, Shanti Yoga Institute and Yoga and Inner Power (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998); Retreat (est. 1974) Clint Willis, ed., Why Meditate? (New York: Marlowe, Shanti Yoga Institute was founded in the United 2001). States by Yogi Shanti DESAI, a younger brother

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 403 12/14/06 9:29:29 AM K 404

of Amrit DESAI, who founded the center for KRI- child’s birth. A wife must make offerings to her PALU YOGA in Lenox, Massachusetts. Both Desai after the child’s third month. Women who do not brothers were students of Swami Kripalu and have children go to her to ask for children; many accomplished in yogic disciplines as well as the other gods are also approached for this purpose. application of yogic principles to everyday life. Shanti traveled to the United States to pur- Further reading: Donald S. Lopez Jr., ed., Religions of sue graduate work at Drexel University. He was India in Practice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University awarded his M.S. in 1964 and subsequently Press, 1995); Akos Ostor, The Play of the Gods: Locality, worked as a chemist until 1972, when he realized Ideology, Structure and Time in the Festivals of a Bengali that yoga was his life’s path. He returned to India Town (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980). and accepted a SHAKTIPAT initiation from his guru. Shaktipat involves an energy transfer from the guru to the student that releases the KUNDALINI shastra believed to lie latent at the base of the spine. Shastra (from shas, to order or enjoin) is a term Shanti Desai founded his institute upon his for any authoritative scripture in the Brahminical return from India. In Ocean City, New Jersey, he or Hindu tradition. For example, the ARTHASHAS- opened the doors of the Yoga Retreat, in 1974 and TRA is an authoritative scripture on artha (worldly Prasad, a holistic health food store and restaurant action) as it relates to a king. The DHARMASHAS- in 1981. Shanti has designed his yoga teaching TRA is authoritative scripture concerning DHARMA especially to address American perspectives. His (right conduct). writings are published by the Shanti Yoga Insti- tute. Further reading: A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (Calcutta: Rupa, 1997); Klaus K. Klostermaier, Further reading: Yogi Shanti Desai, The Complete Prac- A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State University of New tice Manual of Yoga (Ocean City, N.J.: Shanti Yoga Insti- York Press, 1989). tute, 1976); ———, Meditation Practice Manual (Ocean City, N. J.: Shanti Yoga Institute, 1981). The Shatapatha Brahmana (c. 700 B.C.E.) is one Shashthi of the most important texts for the interpretation Shashthi, “the sixth,” is a GODDESS meant to repre- of late Vedic ritual (see VEDAS). Its treatment of sent the sixth day after the birth of a child, when certain ritual ideas may have strongly influenced it is understood that danger to both the child and later Hindu philosophical developments. This the mother has ended. She is believed to protect BRAHMANA is attached to the White YAJUR VEDA. children from evil and illness. Shashthi is best The most important part of the Shatapatha known in Bengal, where she is worshipped by Brahmana is its elaboration on the grandest of married women who desire children. She is rep- public Vedic rites, the AGNICHAYANA or “build- resented as a golden-complexioned woman with a ing of the fire altar.” It explains this ritual as a child in her arms, riding on a cat. reenactment of the sacrifice of the primordial There is a Bengali belief that women should man or PURUSHA, which created the universe. The never harm a cat because doing so will incur the ritual thus becomes a cosmic process transcend- anger of Shashthi. Festivals are held several times ing every mundane action. The various BRAHMINS a year to honor this goddess. The husband of a performing the ritual identify themselves in turn family must worship her on the sixth day after a with various aspects of the universe; one Brah-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 404 12/14/06 9:29:29 AM Shitala 405 J

min is water, another the Sun, another the wind, ally rejects them in favor of the self or soul within and so on. the heart. Another, more holistic view, sees the This was the first Brahmana in the Vedas to spiritual effort as a process of full realization of make explicit the central notion that the ritual these sheaths, and their integration with the real- itself could represent all of reality, both seen and ized self, the secret foundation of the sheath that unseen. Over the centuries, as the ritual actors consists of bliss. identified more and more with the ritual itself, an esoteric or highly secret form of ritual emerged, Further reading: Swami Nikhilananda, trans., Self- carried out within the body of the Brahmin rather knowledge (Atmabodha): An English Translation of than on a public ground. The priest (a highly Sankaracharya’s Atmabodha (New York: Ramakrishna- initiated Brahmin) began to identify himself not Vivekananda Center, 1946); S. Radhakrishnan, The only with the ritual, but with all reality. Thus was Principal Upanisads (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humani- created the background for the philosophy of the ties Press, 1992). UPANISHADS, in which the identity of the individual self merged with the ultimate reality, the BRAHMAN. See ADISHESHA. Further reading: G. V. Devasthali, Religion and Mythol- ogy of the Brahmanas: With Particular Reference to the Satapatha-Brahmana (Poona: University of Poona, Shitala 1965); Naama Drury, The Sacrificial Ritual in the Sata- Shitala is the GODDESS of smallpox. Her name patha Brahmana (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981); in Sanskrit means “cold” and refers to chill Julius Eggeling, trans., The Satapatha-Brahmana: Accord- that accompanies the fever of smallpox. Though ing to the Text of the Madhyandina School, 5 vols. (Delhi: smallpox has been eradicated, Shitala is still wor- Motilal Banarsidass, 1963). shipped in India to prevent or allay any serious disease. Shitala is understood both to cause disease and sheaths, five to cure it. Sometimes her worshippers paint marks The five sheaths, also called the pancha , on their faces to mimic the pox. In a way that is are five coverings of the soul or self enumer- not completely clear, the disease itself is seen as ated in the TAITTIRIYA UPANISHAD. The outermost grace of the goddess—and her grace removes the sheath, which coincides with the human body, is disease as well. the “food” sheath, the grossest aspect of being. Shitala is worshipped all over northern India. Within that in the body at a subtler level is the In South India the same goddess is called MARI- “breath” or “life” sheath, which assures bodily YAMMAN. Shitala’s shrines are mainly found in the sustenance, along with food. Within that in the countryside. Her iconography is a golden-com- body at another level is the “mind” sheath, which plexioned female sitting on a lotus or riding on an guides grosser instinctual functions and the sur- ass. She is dressed in red clothes. When Shitala is face aspects of nervous activity. Within this sheath worshipped, presents are made to her to gain her is the sheath of “understanding,” which overlooks favor. If a person is cured, a larger gift is given. higher and more refined mental functioning. Her flower offerings are sometimes put in the hair Finally, there is the “bliss” sheath, which is the of children after worship, to protect them against covering for the soul itself. disease. A seriously ill individual might be placed Some VEDANTA philosophies see these sheaths directly in front of the image of Shitala to aid in as simply “not-soul”; the spiritual process gradu- the cure.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 405 12/14/06 9:29:29 AM K 406 Shiva

Further reading: Ruth S. Freed and Stanley A. Freed, The Two Mother Goddess Ceremonies of Delhi State in the Great and Little Traditions (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1962); Donald S. Lopez Jr., ed., Religions of India in Practice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Subrata Kumar Mukhopad- hyay, Cult of Goddess Sitala in Bengal: An Enquiry into Folk Culture (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1994).

Shiva Shiva, “the beneficent one,” is the divinity at the center of the largest Hindu religious sect. The tra- dition identifies Shiva with the Vedic god RUDRA, a fierce divinity who caused diseases of cattle and men and was propitiated out of fear. Rudra was known by the epithet shiva (as he was known to relent). Shiva as a separate divinity first appears in the RAMAYANA (c. 600–300 B.C.E.) and MAHABHARATA The major deity Shiva as Nataraja, Lord of the Dance (c. 700 B.C.E.–100 C.E.) epics; he is cited in the (HIP/Art Resource, NY) SHVETASHVATARA UPANISHAD (c. 300 B.C.E.) as the highest divinity. Clearly Shiva has ancient roots in North India. Some see his form in a seal from the The basic Shiva myth depicts him in his youth INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (c. 2600 B.C.E.) showing as a fierce, ascetic naked wanderer with matted a seated figure with a buffalo-horned headdress locks and smeared with ashes from human crema- and an erect penis. tion grounds. He gads about willfully, not observ- It is clear that the worship of Shiva is quite ing any social convention. ancient, many centuries more ancient than the This all changes after the gods learn that only first extant SHIVA LINGAM, which dates to the first a son of Shiva can defeat the demon that is trying century C.E. The LINGAM is an erect penis; it is the to usurp their power. They send Parvati to seduce aniconic form that represents Shiva in the inner him and then send the god of love to induce him sanctum of virtually all temples dedicated to him. to succumb. The uncooperative Shiva simply The lingam is nearly always shown surrounded burns the god of love to ashes. by a circular stone rim that represents the YONI, Eventually, however, Shiva does take to Par- or sexual organ, of the goddess, indicating his vati, and their lovemaking is famous in the lit- association with the divine feminine from a very erature. As they make love in a beautiful pleasure early time. grove, his passion is so strong that everything in In the stories of Shiva he is found first with the grove becomes female—including an unfor- his wife, SATI, who tragically dies, and then with tunate king who happens into the grove. Shiva’s Sati’s reincarnated form PARVATI. His divine family son was actually born by accident when he spilled includes the amusing elephant-headed god GANE- his semen into fire. The fire could not contain the SHA, Shiva and Parvati’s elder son, and KARTTIKEYA, energy and so gave the seed to the GANGES. She, the eternal youth with his peacock vehicle. with all her coolness, could not contain it either,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 406 12/14/06 9:29:29 AM Shivananda Saraswati, Swami 407 J

so she abandoned it in a bank of reeds. There devoted himself to MEDITATION, study, and giving Karttikeya was born, so named because he was of spiritual guidance to a growing group of disci- weaned and raised as a child by a group of female ples. He emphasized BHAKTI YOGA and KARMA YOGA stars called the Krittikas. The demon was eventu- and opened a dispensary to serve the residents of ally defeated. the ASHRAM. Shiva is famed as Lord of the Dance; as such In 1934 he established his own ashram, his NATARAJA form is known to all India and found Ananda Kutir (Abode of Bliss), across the river in grand representation in many temples. He is in Rishikesh. It had a dispensary and meditation also the Lord of chaos, who destroys all the uni- rooms for silent retreats. In 1936 he founded the verse with his final dance. But of course he may Divine Life Trust with the goal of spiritualizing dance that same universe into existence again, if all of India. The Divine Life Society was begun as he so chooses. an auxiliary to the trust, and a monthly periodi- cal was begun. Swami Shivananda also began the Further reading: Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Shiva Forest Academy to train students in his teaching. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981); He died on July 14, 1963. Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva: The Erotic Ascetic Although Swami Shivananda’s health pre- (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). vented him from visiting the West, he became one of the most influential forces in the dis- semination of Hinduism and yoga throughout Shivananda Saraswati, Swami (1887– the world through his students and disciples. His 1963) founder of Divine Life Society student Swami Shivananda RADHA (Sylvia Hill- Swami Shivananda Saraswati was an Indian saint, man) founded the YASODHARA ASHRAM SOCIETY in YOGA teacher, and author of more than 200 books Vancouver. Another student, Swami Vishnude- on spirituality. Through his disciples, he played vananda, founded a chain of SHIVANANDA YOGA a major role in spreading Hinduism and YOGA VEDANTA CENTERS in the United States and Can- throughout the world. ada. In 1959, Swami Chidananda, Shivananda’s Kuppuswami Iyer was born on September 8, successor as head of the Divine Life Society, orga- 1887. His father was a pious Hindu government nized the society in the United States. Another official who sent him to college and to medical student, Swami JYOTIRMAYANANDA, founded the school. His father died before he finished medi- Yoga Research Society in 1962, and SWAMI SAT- cal training and Kuppuswami was forced to leave CHIDANANDA created the Integral Yoga Institute school. Nevertheless, he maintained his interest in 1966. His disciple and secretary of the Divine in medicine and began a medical journal that Life Society, Swami KRISHNANANDA, although he specialized in preventive medicine and the Indian did not travel to the West, wrote extensively and AYURVEDIC system of health. He administered a welcomed seekers from the West to the ashram hospital in Malaya, where his meeting with a in Rishikesh. wandering holy man inspired his own spiritual search. Further reading: Wami Krishnananda, Swami Shiva- Returning to India he began a pilgrimage nanda and the Spiritual Renaissance (Shivanandanagar: around the country. He settled in the holy city Divine Life Society, 1959); Shiva Shivananda, Sadhana of RISHIKESH, where he was initiated into SANNYAS (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life Society, 1958); ———, (renunciation) by Swami Viswananda Saraswati , 18 vols. (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life and given the name Swami Shivananda Saraswati. Society, 1977); ———, Yoga Asanas (Shivanandanagar: Living at Swargashram on the GANGES River, he Divine Life Society, 1969); Swami Venkateshananda,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 407 12/14/06 9:29:30 AM K 408 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers

Gurudev Shivananda (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life United States. Over 10,000 teachers have been Society, 1961). trained. The Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers have earned the reputation of preserving the qual- ity and tradition of yoga. Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers have pub- (est. 1958) lished several books including Vishnudevananda’s Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers were founded The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga, which has by Swami Vishnudevananda (1927–93), based sold millions of copies. The center also produces a on the teachings of his GURU Swami Shivananda periodical, Yoga Life, that is available free through SARASWATI (1887–1963) of RISHIKESH. Shivananda the organization’s Web site, www.sivananda.org. developed an integral system of YOGA, joining the four traditional paths (BHAKTI, KARMA, JNANA, Further reading: Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centers, The and raja) with the addition of japa (repetition of Sivananda Companion to Yoga (New York: Simon & a mantra). He established an ASHRAM and dispen- Schuster, 2000); ———, The Yoga Cookbook: Vegetarian sary in Rishikesh, India, and later established the Food for Body and Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, Divine Life Society there. 1999); ———, Yoga Mind and Body (New York: D.K., Swami Vishnudevananda became a disciple of 1996); Vishnudevananda, Swami, The Complete Illus- Swami Shivananda in 1947 after reading Sivana- trated Book of Yoga (New York: Harmony Books, 1988); nda’s books. Over the course of a decade Vishnu- ———, Meditation and Mantras (New York: OM Lotus, devananda was personally trained by Shivananda 1978); ———, The Sivananda Companion to Yoga (New and became one of his most accomplished yoga York: Simon & Schuster, 2000). students, adept at hatha yoga and raja yoga. In 1957 Shivananda instructed Vishnudevananda to spread his teachings in North America. Vish- Shivaratri See MAHASHIVARATRI. nudevananda established headquarters the fol- lowing year in Montreal, Quebec, and continued to found centers across the United States. In 1962 Shiv Sena (est. 1966) the Shivananda Ashram Yoga Camp in Quebec Shiv Sena is a Maharastrian nationalist group was formed and in 1967 Vishnudevananda estab- founded in 1966 as a response to a wave of immi- lished the Sivananda Ashram Yoga Retreat in the grants to the state and the city of Bombay (Mum- Bahamas. He also founded the True World Order, bai) from Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Punjab. The a peace mission that began in 1969 to organize movement tries to protect the interests of middle- demonstrations for nonviolent struggle. The orga- class Maharashtrians in the conflict for resources nization is known for conducting air drops of and power. Shiv Sena is primarily a political and leaflets and flowers over conflict-filled areas in ethnic movement, not a religious movement. the world. The most notable mission occurred in However, it uses some religious doctrines to sup- Belfast in 1970. port its political and ideological claims. Although Shivananda never traveled to North The founder of the movement is Balasaheb America, Vishnudevananda assured the spread (Bal) Thackeray (he currently uses the name of his message. Sivananda’s system of yoga con- Don Balasaheb), who is also editor of the Marathi tinues to be a central teaching at the Vedanta newsletter Marmik, which promotes the group’s centers, with an emphasis on hatha yoga and raja ideology. By 1968, Shiv Sena turned their struggle yoga. There are currently about 80 ashrams and against communists and Muslims. Their tactics centers around the world, including 14 in the are largely political, but they have not eschewed

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 408 12/14/06 9:29:30 AM Shudra 409 J

armed conflict. More recently Shiv Sena has begun Further reading: V. N. Hari Rao, History of the Sri- to recruit members of the lower castes, particu- rangam Temple (Tirupati: Sri University, larly Dalits. 1976); M. Somasundaram, The Island Shrine of Sri Ran- In 1992 Shiv Sena boasted that it played a ganatha (Tiruchirappalli: St. Joseph’s Industrial School central role in the destruction of the Babri Masjid Press, 1965). Mosque in AYODHYA. In fact, Shiv Sena activ- ists arrived after the demolition, but they were heavily involved in the riots that followed in shruti Mumbai. Shruti (from shru, to hear) refers to sacred texts More recently Shiv Sena has formed an alli- that are received through a kind of revelation, ance with the BHARATIYA JANATA PARTY (BJP). Since rather than written by humans. Shruti texts are the BJP losses in the 2004 election the alliance the primary authority in Hinduism; they are appears to be collapsing. As Bal Thackeray ages, complemented, but never superseded, by smriti, much of the leadership has fallen to his sons, a or human-made texts. condition that has weakened the group as a politi- Shruti texts are understood to be heard from a cal force. transcendent source. The VEDIC MANTRA texts and their adjuncts, the BRAHMANAS, which include in Further reading: Sikata Banerjee, Warriors in Politics: them the ARANYAKAS and UPANISHADS, are accepted Hindu Nationalism, Violence and the Shiv Sena in India by all as being shruti. These texts are considered (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000); Julia M. Eck- to have been “heard” or “seen” by the Vedic RISHIS ert, The Charisma of Direct Action: Power Politics and (seers). Other texts are sometimes given the status the Shiv Sena (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); of shruti by certain groups or regional traditions, Dipankar Gupta, Nativism in the Metropolis: The Shiv such as the BHAGAVAD GITA, the Tamil TEVARAM, or Sena in Bombay (New Delhi: Manohar, 1982); Mary the TANTRIC AGAMAS. Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality: The Shiv Sena Party and Preferential Politics in Bombay (Ithaca, Further reading: Kalus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1979). Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989); M. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature. Translated by S. Ketkar (New York: Russell & Russell, shraddha See FUNERAL RITES. 1971).

shrauta sutra See VEDAS. Shudra The term Shudra originates in the ancient RIG VEDA; it refers to the servant class, as the lowest Shrirangam group in a four-part division (VARNA) of human Shrirangam is an island in the CAUVERY River in society. It is used in present-day India for castes Tamil Nadu, near Trichinopoly (Tirucchirappalli), that are low in the social hierarchy, such as bar- where Lord Ranganatha, a form of VISHNU, resides. bers, washermen, and others who perform per- The Vaishnavite saint RAMANUJA taught and over- sonal services. saw the temple here, as did the saint Periyalvar, Each region of India has its own notions of whose daughter ANDAL reached sainthood here. what constitutes a Shudra. Below the in The site has a long tradition and is a popular PIL- the informal caste hierarchy (the caste system GRIMAGE center. was legally abolished after independence) are the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 409 12/14/06 9:29:30 AM K 410 Shurpanakha

Dalits, untouchables, who are sometimes referred festivals or sacred events. The Shvetambaras cel- to as the “fifth” and “unclean” stratum of society. ebrate their major festival Paryushan around the Many of them are employed as sweepers, refuse re- recitation of the Kalpa Sutra. In the past, the two movers, and leather workers (See UNTOUCHABILITY). communities have fought bitterly over control of certain shrines, but in general they live in comity Further reading: Maurice Carstairs, The Twice Born in places where they overlap. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967); R. S. Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India, 2d ed. (Delhi: Motilal Further reading: Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Rout- Banarsidass, 1980). ledge, 1992); Uttam Kamal Jain, Jaina Sects and Schools (Delhi: Concept, 1975); P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990). Shurpanakha See RAMAYANA. Shvetashvatara Upanishad Shvetambara The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is generally dated Shvetambara is one of the two branches of JAINISM. around the third century B.C.E., making it one The name, which means “one who wears white gar- of the later UPANISHADS. It is the only orthodox ments,” refers to the fact that its monks may wear Upanishad that refers to a sectarian divinity, in clothing, as opposed to the DIGAMBARA monks, who this case RUDRA-SHIVA. It understands Shiva to be are required to be nude. The Shvetambaras prevail the same as the BRAHMAN, the ultimate reality, who among the Jains of northern and western India. had not previously been characterized in purely There is little doubt that MAHAVIRA, the great theistic terms. The text equates the terms PURUSHA, leader and promulgator of the Jain tradition, was a which is the person from whom the world evolved naked ascetic, as were his early followers, but the in the Vedas, ATMAN (soul or self), BRAHMAN, and scriptures that are recognized by the Shvetambaras God, so as to make clear the identity of all des- do not require nudity. The Shvetambaras accept ignations for the highest. The theistic quality of the extant version of the early Jain scriptures, this text is developed in later Hindu theism and the ANGAS, and they follow, study, and preach its in theistic or God-oriented VEDANTA. teachings. The Digambaras believe the authentic versions have been lost. The only text mutually Further reading: , trans., Svet- accepted by both Shvetambaras and Digambaras asvatara Upanisad (Calcutta: is the . Institute of Culture, 1994); Swami Nikhilananda, The Shvetambaras also believe that women may Upanishads: Katha, Isá, Kena, Mundaka, Sv’etasv’atara, attain liberation. Because women are not allowed Prasña, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Taittiriya, to be naked ascetics, Digambaras believe that they and Chhandogya, 4 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, cannot reach the level of detachment needed to 1964); Patrick Olivelle, trans., The Early Upanisads become liberated; a woman must be reborn in (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). a male body to reach liberation. Shvetambaras believe that Mallinatha, one of the 24 TIRTHANKARAS (saints) of our half-era (avasarpini), was a woman. Siddha In general Digambaras (who predominate in Siddha ([The] Perfected) refers to a historic group southern India) and Shvetambaras are in nearly of YOGIS who achieved all of the , or occult complete doctrinal agreement, but their com- powers, and attained liberation from the cycle of munities developed separately and do not share birth and rebirth in the body (JIVANMUKTA).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 410 12/14/06 9:29:30 AM Siddhaswarupananda, Jagad Guru 411 J

The tradition of the preserves a list SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON) of 84 masters of the lineage. Several of the names before forming his own offshoot organization. are shared in a corresponding Tibetan Buddhist Chris Butler was born in 1948 in New Orleans, Siddha tradition. The most famous Siddha master Louisiana, but moved to Hawaii as an infant and was GORAKHNATH (Gorakshanatha); his name is grew up in the islands. His interest in religion in included in both Tibetan and Indian lists. In India general and YOGA in particular emerged during his he is supposed to have been born between 900 last years of high school. He studied with the YOGA and 1200 C.E. teachers available to him and experienced SAMA- The Siddhas practiced alchemy, ingesting poi- DHI sublime consciousness. As a young man, he sonous oxides of mercury to achieve bodily founded the Haiku School of Nirvana Yoga (also immortality. They were known for their extreme known as the Haiku Meditation Center) on the asceticism, antisocial behavior, frightening appear- island of Maui, where he taught ASHTANGA YOGA ance, and supernatural powers. They were often and KUNDALINI YOGA. also associated with magical healing. The Siddhas Around 1970 he met Srila BHAKTIVEDANTA were tantric and accepted membership from any SWAMI PRABHUPADA, the founder of ISKCON. Butler caste. The modern tradition of SWAMI MUKTANANDA accepted Bhaktivedanta’s teaching of devotional or refers to itself as Siddha Yoga; it reveres a lineage BHAKTI yoga and his emphasis on a personal deity, of Siddha masters who have characteristics in as opposed to Butler’s previous belief in an imper- common with Siddhas elsewhere, but of course sonal divinity. Butler closed his work in Hawaii also the 84 Siddhas of tradition. and accepted an initiation from Bhaktivedanta to The Tamil Shaivite tradition has a body of litera- join his movement. He remained with ISKCON ture dating from as early as 600 C.E. tracing what is until after Prabhupada died in 1977. called a Sittar tradition (the word is from the same In the year after Bhaktivedanta died, Butler Sanskrit root), which resembles the larger Siddha concluded that his GURU had emerged as a non- cult. The first of these Sittars was considered to appointed pure devotee who held his status by be , who wrote , perhaps virtue of his own spiritual attainment, not via his the first important tantric text, outlining KUNDALINI relationship to the center. Shortly YOGA and describing other tantric practices. before his death Bhaktivedanta, following the example of his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta, appointed Further reading: George Weston Briggs, Gorakhnath 12 men to manage the math. Similarly, Bhaktive- and the Kanphata Yogis (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, danta appointed 12 men to manage ISKCON. 1982); John Campbell Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics and None of these appointees was a guru by virtue of Saints of India (Delhi: Oriental, 1983); David Gordon this appointment; each could be a guru only as an White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medi- unappointed, but accomplished, devotee. eval India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Butler assumed that he was such an unap- Kamil V. Zvelebil, The Poets of the Powers (London: pointed guru, and, in 1978, as Jagad Guru Sid- Rider, 1973); ———, The Siddha Quest for Immortality dhaswarupananda, he began to initiate disciples. (Oxford: Mandrake, 1996). He founded the Science of Identity Foundation as a vehicle to facilitate his teachings. He has led a rather low-key existence, traveling constantly and Siddhaswarupananda, Jagad Guru staying in various locations for relatively short (1948– ) independent bhakti yogi periods as he is invited by his initiates. He has The American-born yogi Jagad Guru Siddhaswa- written several short books and produced a vari- rupananda was a teacher in the INTERNATIONAL ety of video and audio materials for his followers.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 411 12/14/06 9:29:31 AM K 412 Siddha Yoga Dham

The Science of Identity Foundation (originally H. C. Mathur, Siddhi: The Science of Supernatural Powers the Hari Nama or Holy Name Society) is located in (New Delhi: Shree, 1998). Honolulu, Hawaii. Siddhaswarupananda became a founding member of the WORLD VAISHNAVITE ASSO- CIATION. Sikhism The Sikh religion emerged at the beginning of Further reading: Jagad Guru Siddhaswarupananda, 16th century C.E. in the Punjab, a territory hotly God: Supremely Lovable (Honolulu: Science of Identity contested by Hindus and Muslims at the time. It Foundation, 1989); ———, The Holy Name Real Protec- aimed to find the truths common to both faiths, tion (Honolulu: Science of Identity Foundation, n.d.); placing less emphasis on laws and rituals and ———, Reincarnation Explained (Honolulu: Science of soon emerged as a third, well-organized, Indian Identity Foundation, 1987). religious community. Though raised as a Hindu, Sikhism’s founder, NANAK (1469–1539), began his adult life in the Siddha Yoga Dham See CHIDVILASANANDA, employ of a Muslim, as was his father. A thought- SWAMI. ful and inwardly oriented youth, he spent periods each morning and evening as a young man in MEDITATION. In his 30th year, his communion with siddhi the divine led to an intense experience of God in Siddhi (attainment) is a special power attained which he experienced God as the one creator. As through YOGA or refined practice. Tradition- a result of the encounter, he quit his job and gave ally, there are eight siddhis: (1) the ability to away all his possessions. He began to proclaim grow extremely small, (2) the ability to become his unique message that there is no Hindu and extremely light, (3) the ability to become extremely no Muslim. Sikhism would emerge as he began heavy, (4) the ability to touch any object however to articulate his message, drawing together what distant, (5) irresistible will, (6) supremacy over he saw as the best from both faiths. He shared the body and mind, (7) dominion over the elements, message in a set of hymns. (8) ability to fulfill all desires. Numerous other His message sought to discover what he powers are also listed in the tradition, such as the saw to be the essence of the religious teach- ability to fly, physical immortality, the ability to ings around him. In the place of many religious enter another’s body, and knowledge of the past, acts, from praying on a prayer mat or living as a present, and future. renunciant, he called upon people to cultivate the PATANJALI’s system and certain other yoga virtues these actions symbolized. For example, systems such as that of the Buddhists he suggested that the essence of asceticism was downplay siddhis as distractions from the path to remain pure amid impurities. He also called of liberation; adepts are warned not to indulge for a casteless society without distinctions based themselves in these powers, lest they be sidelined on the family into which one is born. He traveled in their spiritual progress. Certain systems such from Sri Lanka to Tibet spreading his message, as the TANTRA, though, encourage the attainment although Kashmir and the Punjab proved most of siddhi and allow its usage to a greater or lesser receptive. degree, depending upon the particular sect. Before his death in 1539, Nanak selected a disciple whom he had named Angad (1504– Further reading: Sri Chinmoy, The Summits of God-life: 52) as his successor. Angad would be followed Samadhi and Siddhi (Jamaica, N.Y.: Agni Press, 1974); by eight additional GURUS who were selected

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 412 12/14/06 9:29:31 AM Sikhism 413 J

to lead the Sikh community: into the Khalsa by sprinkling with sweetened (1479–1574), (1534–81), Guru water stirred with a sword. At the time, each male Arjan Dev (1563–1606), (1595– adopted the name Singh (lion) as his family name. 1644), (1630–61), Guru Harkrishan As a visible sign of membership in the community, (1656–64), (1621–75), and each male also began to wear the five K’s: (1) , (1666–1708). long hair; (2) kangh, a comb; (3) kach, short pants Each of the 10 gurus made his contribution (for quick movement); (4) kara, a steel bracelet; to the development of the faith. For example, the and (5) , a knife. fourth guru began construction on what would Through the years, the writing of the gurus become the in , the phys- were compiled in a book, the Adi Granth. The ical center of the Sikh community. The formation fifth guru, upon the completion of the Golden of the Sikh community, the Khalsa (the pure Temple, formally installed the volume in the ones), was completed by the 10th guru, Gobind temple, much as Hindus installed statues of dei- Singh. He saw to the baptism of new members ties in their temples. After the death of Gobind

Sikh Gurudwara (temple) in Hong Kong (Institute for the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 413 12/14/06 9:29:31 AM K 414 Sikhism

Singh, his contributions were added to the Adi some of the new movements of the Hindu renais- Granth, and then the book was declared to be sance, such as the BRAHMO SAMAJ, which shared the new guru for the community. Since that time, many affirmations (such as the idea of one God) while there are teachers of Sikhism who convey with the Sikhs. Many Hindus looked upon the the faith to each new generation, there is no Sikhs as just another sect of Hinduism, a position human to whom the status of GURU (teacher) is not accepted by most Sikhs. Several revitalization formerly ascribed. efforts appeared, including the NIRANKARI and Wherever Nanak traveled, he established local SANT MAT movements, but with limited appeal. groups called manjis. Over the years, these would However, it was the Singh Sabha, the govern- mature as gurudwaras, seats of the guru or Adi ing body that oversees Sikh communities, that Granth, the worship centers in which Sikh com- seemed to have the greatest effect with its calling munities gather on a weekly basis. the entire community to a new understanding While it had been Nanak’s goal to create a of itself and its heritage. It called for a new alle- synthesis that would dissolve the differences giance to the writings of the gurus and an end to between Muslim and Hindu, both faiths contin- encroachments by Christianity and Hinduism into ued and Nanak’s work had the effect of creating the gurudwaras. a new religion. A minority community, Sikhs The reemergence of the Sikh community was were frequently forced to defend themselves and viewed with alarm in some quarters. Some saw it emerged with a reputation as great warriors. At as a challenge to government authority (i.e., Brit- times aligned with the British, they served with ish rule). The growing popularity of Sikhism set distinction in battles throughout the 19th century, the stage for the development of Sikh national- in both India and abroad. ism, with its demands that the Punjab, territory Since the death of the last guru, temporal in which the Sikhs predominated, be separated authority in the community passed to the Sri from Hindu India. In the decades since World War TAKHT Sahib, a name used to refer to both I, the tension between the Sikhs and the British, a building close to the Golden Temple and the and later the Indian, government has waxed and Sikh leader who operates from the building. All waned. More extreme elements among the Sikhs the issues of import to Sikhs are debated there, responded to government attempts to suppress and the decrees issued from it are considered nationalist aspirations with violence, followed by binding on the entire community internationally. retaliation by the Indian government. Another important structure in the community is The most significant event in the ongoing bat- the Shromani Parbandhak Committee tles between the government and the Sikh com- (S.G.P.C.). It oversees the administration of the munity occurred in June 1984. Sant Jarnail Singh worship centers (gurudwaras) in India and car- Bhindranwale, a militant Sikh leader, and his fol- ries on an extensive publication and education lowers took refuge in the Golden Temple. Unable program. In the 1930s, the S.G.P.C. assembled to persuade him to surrender, under orders from the most noted Sikh scholars and theologians to Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the Indian army produce a consensus statement on the standards invaded the temple, with significant damage to of Sikh belief and conduct. The result was the the sacred property and loss of life. The event was Reht Maryada, a defining document of Sikhism, a call to arms for the community. Among other which offers guidelines for conduct both inside consequences, Sikhs living outside India formed the gurudwaras and in the daily life of Sikhs. the World Sikh Organization. Then in October, The Sikh community declined in the 19th Sikhs who served as Indira Gandhi’s bodyguards century, in part because of the attractiveness of turned on her and assassinated her. Though the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 414 12/14/06 9:29:31 AM Singapore 415 J

assassins were later executed, they became heroes Further reading: W. Owen Cole, Teach Yourself Sikhism to Sikhs. (Chicago: NTC Publishing Group, 1994); K. S. Dug- Sikhs had largely been confined to India until gal, The Sikh People Yesterday and Today (New Delhi: the 20th century. Their migration outward was in UBSPD, 1993); Max Arthur Macauliffe, The Sikh Reli- part motivated by the same factors that sent other gion, Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors, vols. 1–6 groups to the West, but was also stimulated by the (New Delhi: S. Chand, 1985); Nikky-Guninder Kaur tensions created in the Punjab as the community Singh, Sikhism (New York: Facts On File, 1993); H. S. revived. Many Sikhs targeted by the government Singha and Satwant Kaur, Sikhism: A Complete Introduc- for their activity as Sikh nationalists migrated tion (New Delhi: Hemkunt Press, 1994). to continue their efforts from a base outside India. Before immigration was curtailed, several thousand Sikhs immigrated to western Canada Singapore and the United States. Others took advantage of Indian migrants began to arrive in what was Brit- regulations that allowed free movement through ish Malaya during the 19th century, primarily the British Commonwealth to settle in the United with the intent of finding employment on the sug- Kingdom. arcane and rubber plantations that British entre- Migration by Sikhs into the United States preneurs had established. The Crown Colony of increased considerably after anti-Asian immigra- Singapore served as an initial point of arrival for tion laws were rescinded in 1965. Today, several Indian migrants, most of whom quickly moved hundred thousand Sikhs reside in North America. north. However, many chose to stay on the island. American Sikhs hosted Sikh leaders in 1984 for Most were from lower-caste families, and more the founding of the World Sikh Organization, than 60 percent from Tamil Nadu state. By 1900 which took place in New York City. As the Ameri- some 16,000 had arrived. can Sikh community grew, it organized the Sikh By the beginning of the 20th century, four Foundation in the 1970s, which has more recently Hindu temples had been established in Singapore. been succeeded by the Sikh Council of North The oldest of these, Sri Mariammam, was started America. The council seeks to coordinate and pro- in 1827; the present structure was erected in vide communication among the many gurudwaras 1843 and dedicated to the goddess MARIYAMMAN, across the continent. revered for her healing powers. In 1905, after As the Sikh community expanded in the complaints of mismanagement affecting a variety 1970s, it was faced with a new and different phe- of religious institutions, administration of the nomenon. A man popularly known as Yogi temples was turned over to the Mohammedan arrived in Los Angeles and claimed to be a Sikh and Hindu Charitable Endowments Board. That teacher, but also a teacher of HATHA and KUNDALINI board continued to exist until 1969, when it was and TANTRIC yoga. He organized a movement of split into two boards, one for each religion. In mostly young adult men and women, which he 1915, a second structure, the Hindu Advisory called the Sikh Dharma, though it was better Board, was established to advise the government known through its educational arm, the HEALTHY, on Hinduism. Both boards continue to the pres- HAPPY, HOLY ORGANIZATION (3HO). After a period ent. In the meantime the number of temples had of controversy, the Sikh Dharma was recognized grown to around 30 and the number of Hindus as a valid expression of Sikhism, but because of of Indian extraction had risen to about 225,000. its growth through conversion of individual mem- The Indian community is now the third largest bers, rather than growth through heredity, it has ethnic group in Singapore behind the Chinese remained a separate organization. and Malays.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 415 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM K 416 Singh

Hindu activity in Singapore is dominated by Singh See SIKHISM. the majority Tamil-speaking community. Local temples tend to be home to devotees of both SHAIVISM and VAISHNAVISM and the major deities Singh, Charan See SANT MAT MOVEMENT. each reveres. It is also not uncommon to see Bud- dhist and even Christian images in the temples. This is promoted in line with official Singh, Guru Gobind (1666–1708) 10th Sikh government policies focused on building religious guru harmony in the very diverse religious community Guru Gobind Singh was the 10th and final Sikh of Singapore. In 1978, the community established GURU in the lineage of Guru NANAK, the founder the Hindu Center to facilitate the transmission of of SIKHISM. He established the beliefs and prac- Hinduism to the younger generation. tices that the community follows to this day, The annual life of the community in Singapore including the devotion to scripture as the only is punctuated by several festivals, all of which GURU. have become public events attended by many Gobind Rai was born on December 22, 1666, non-Hindus. Especially notable is the annual to Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, and festival, a Shaivite festival celebrating Mata Gujari in Patna in Bihar state. The young the birthday of Lord Subramaniam, the younger boy was taught the language of Bihari and Guru- son of Lord SHIVA, which occurs toward the end mukhi script as a child and was schooled in the of January each year. Interestingly, this festival life and deeds of the previous gurus. He was was outlawed in India for many years because of given a comprehensive education of India: the bloody hook swinging and body piercing and Sin- historical, social, religious, and political context. gapore is one of the few places where it survives. In keeping with the Sikh tradition he was also The week-long festival culminates in an all-day trained in music, prayers, and the use of weapons. procession in which young men carry a heavy He was raised in a family who held close relations structure honoring the deity from one temple to with both Hindus and Muslims. He spent much of another through Singapore. his childhood playing on the banks of the GANGES Since the 1930s, the Hindu community in River and was said to be bold, with all the mak- Singapore has witnessed impulses for reform, ings of a leader. including resistance to BRAHMIN domination of the Guru Gobind’s father met a violent death temples, elevation of the status of women, and the when the boy was less than 10 years old; Sikhs social equity of different castes. claim he was executed by Emperor Aurangzeb, Mughal ruler of India, as part of a campaign to Further reading: Jean Pierre Mialaret, Hinduism in convert India to Islam. Controversy surrounds the Singapore: A Guide to the Hindu Temples of Singapore details, but the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur (Singapore: Asia Pacific Press, 1969); Jagat K. Motwani remains part of the Sikh belief system. et al., eds., Global Indian Diaspora: Yesterday, Today and In 1675, the family made a long journey to Tomorrow (New York: Global Organisation of People Punjab, and in November of that year Gobind of Indian Origin, 1993); K. S. Sandhu and A. Mani, Rai was initiated as the 10th Sikh guru. Although eds., Indian Communities in South East Asia (Singapore: still a child, he was said to be very self-aware. He Times Academic Press, 1993); Vineeta Sinha, A New continued to train in philosophy, politics, and God in the Diaspora? Muneeswaran Worship in Con- weaponry. The popularity of the Sikh tradition temporary Singapore (Honolulu: University of Hawaii continued to spread across India, drawing both Press, 2005). Muslim and Hindu disciples.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 416 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM Singh, Kirpal Maharaj 417 J

Guru Gobind Singh had three wives. His first Singh, Kirpal Maharaj (1894–1974) teacher marriage was to Mata Jeeto of Lahore, who gave of Sant Mat and Radhasoami birth to three sons, Jujhar, Zoravar, and Fateh. Kirpal Maharaj Singh was a dynamic and influen- He later married Mata Sundari of Lahore, who tial reformer and international champion of inter- gave birth to another son, Ajit. She survived faith cooperation. He helped disseminate the Sant Singh and was revered as a great teacher by Sikhs Mat teachings in India and around the world. after her husband’s death. His last wife, Mata Kirpal Singh was born on Februrary 6, 1894, Sahib Devi of the Jehlam District, went to Guru in Sayyad Kasran in the Rawalpindi District of Gobind after vowing to marry no one else. He the Punjab in what is now Pakistan. He was did not wish to marry but agreed to a platonic educated at the Edwards Church Mission High relationship in which she could share her life School in . In January 1912 he signed up with him. for government service in the Military Accounts Singh taught the oneness of humankind, Department, an occupation that he pursued until love and worship of God, self-awakening, and retirement in 1947 as deputy assistant control- social justice, all part of the Sikh heritage. His ler of military accounts. Throughout his early unique contribution, however, was to organize life he studied the basic scriptures of the Sikhs, the Khalsa (pure ones) order in 1699, probably Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, and Zoroastri- in response to his father’s martyrdom decades ans and began to believe that various religious before. The purpose of the Khalsa was to pro- philosophies communicate the same basic truth, mote sacrifice for DHARMA, the right way of liv- which is the need for each person to attain both ing. Members were enjoined to resist any form self-knowledge and God-knowledge. of slavery based on class, caste, or religion and In 1917 he first had contact with his teacher, to prioritize their commitment to social justice. Baba Sawan Singh of the Beas lineage of RADHA- Guru Gobind even advocated the use of arms SOAMI teachers. He was later married and became when in resistance to oppression. He also insti- the father of two sons. In February 1924 he tuted the five K’s, observed by male Sikhs to was formally initiated by Baba Sawan Singh and the present day: (1) kesh, long hair; (2) kangh, given the name Naam, “the word.” It is said that a comb; (3) kach, short pants (for quick move- his teacher Sawan Singh passed all his spiritual ment); (4) kara, a steel bracelet; and (5) kirpan, knowledge onto his disciple through one look in a knife. the eyes. In 1935 he began writing and composing Guru Gobind Singh declared that upon his his text, Gurmat Sidhant. On April 2, 1948, after death the line of individual gurus would end and the death of his teacher, he began his ministry in the authority of the guru would rest solely in the Radhasoami lineage. At the end of that year the scripture—the Adi Granth (called the Guru he started his mission and began giving regular Granth Sahib)—and in the Khalsa, the fellowship . of pure followers. Guru Gobind Singh died on In June of 1951 he founded the Sawan Ashram October 7, 1708. in Shakti Nagar, Delhi. Four years later he went on his first world tour. In 1956 in Delhi, he gave Further reading: Surinder Singh Johar, Guru Gobind the inaugural address to the Ninth General Ses- Singh (New Delhi: Enkay, 1987). sion of UNESCO. In 1957 he became the founding president of the World Fellowship of Religions; he later presided over four World Religious Confer- Singh, Jaimal See RADHASOAMI MOVEMENT; ences over a period of 14 years. In 1962 he was SANT MAT MOVEMENT the first non-Christian to be honored with the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 417 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM K 418 Singh, Sawan

Order of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of Malta. her freedom. However, he doubted that she had His interfaith efforts reached a climax when he remained faithful and cruelly rejected her, saying convened the first World Conference on Unity of he had only fought against Ravana to clear his Man in Delhi in February 1974, which inspired name. the Unity of Man movement. To clear her name, Sita underwent a “trial His extensive knowledge of major religious by fire” (agnipravesha), which she survived faiths along with his dedication to teaching led unscathed. Several vernacular versions of the to Kirpal Singh’s wide acceptance in the West. He Ramayana indicate that the real Sita never actually popularized Sant Mat teachings in India and the went into the fire, sending a substitute instead; West and became one of the most well known in fact, in these versions she was not even really teachers of Radhasoami. He died on August 21, kidnapped, but had only been in hiding. These 1974. versions seem to show a later discomfort with the See also SANT MAT MOVEMENT. original SANSKRIT story. After her trial by fire, Sita was then accepted Further reading: David Christopher Lane, The Radhaso- by Rama, until people once more began to chal- ami Tradition: A Critical History of the Guru Successorship lenge her faithfulness and Rama asked Lakshmana (New York: Garland, 1992); Sena, ed., Ocean of to take her away to the forest, in exile once more. Grace Divine (Bowling Green, Va.: Sawan Kirpal, 1976); He did not know that she was pregnant with his Kirpal Singh, The Crown of Life (Delhi: Ruhani Satsang, two sons, Kusha and Lava. She gave birth to her 1967); ———, Surat Shabd Yoga: The Yoga of the Celes- sons in the ASHRAM of the very VALMIKI who is tial Sound (Berkeley: Images Press, 1975). cited as the author of the epic. On one occasion Rama initiated a HORSE SAC- RIFICE; in that ritual, a horse is allowed to roam Singh, Sawan See SANT MAT MOVEMENT. at will for a year, followed by the king’s soldiers. Whatever land the horse covers becomes part of the ruler’s kingdom. Kusha and Lava as it hap- Singh, Shiv Dayal See RADHASOAMI MOVEMENT; pens captured the king’s horse and defeated the SANT MAT MOVEMENT. king’s army when it arrived, thus defeating, in an act of poetic justice, their father. When Rama heard from VALMIKI that these were his own sons Sita he asked that they be taken to court, where they In the RAMAYANA Sita is the wife of RAMA. Sita sang the Ramayana story. He then called for Sita to means “furrow,” and it is said that she was not return and declared her innocence in open court. born to her father , but was ploughed up Sita, however, refused to return and asked Mother by him during a sacrificial rite to gain progeny. Earth, from which she had been born, to take her Sita was won by Rama in a contest by bending back, whereupon she disappeared. SHIVA’s bow. Sita is considered the model for wifely fidel- Further reading: Jacqueline Suthren Hirst and Lyn ity and purity in India (though modern Indian Thomas, eds., Playing for Real: Hindu Role Models, women have begun to rebel against this model). Religion and Gender (New Delhi: Oxford University In the epic, she was kidnapped by the demon king Press, 2004); C. Rajagopalachari, Ramayana (Bombay: Ravana and taken to Lanka. Because of a curse Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1972); Paula Richman, ed., he was unable to violate her, and she refused his Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of Narrative Tradition advances. Her husband fought successfully for in South Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 418 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM Soma 419 J

1991); Paula Richman, ed., Questioning Ramayanas: A include the wisdom originally found in the VEDAS South Asian Tradition (Berkeley: University of California and codified in the 19th century as the SANATANA Press, 2001). DHARMA, and Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism, as devel- oped during ’s T’ang dynasty. Following the knowledge imparted by Ramana Maharshi, Skanda See KARTTIKEYA. the society emphasizes self-inquiry and self- knowledge to further the realization that no difference exists between one’s nature and the smriti absolute. The teachings proclaim that the true Smriti (from smri, to remember) is a term in identity of self resides in God. The society does the Hindu tradition used to refer to revered tex- not observe any religious ritual, formal medita- tual sources that were composed by humans, as tive technique, or code of conduct. Rather, SAT opposed to those that are eternal and appeared relies on developing skills of self-observation so through revelation (SHRUTI). that one can experience the unity of self and the These texts were composed by men but usu- highest divinity. SAT holds that in awakening to ally memorized rather than committed to writ- true formless nature one will find peace, happi- ing. They were considered authoritative, but less ness, and freedom. so than the shruti, or “heard,” texts such as the Nome and Russell Smith, who have back- VEDAS, which had been received by RISHIS (seers) grounds in advaita Vedanta and Zen Buddhism, during divine trances. respectively, offer spiritual leadership, weekly Because of the diverse nature of Hindu tra- teaching sessions, and satsangs (meetings) in dition there have been disagreements between Santa Cruz, California. SAT publishes translations sects as to what texts can be considered smriti. of ancient SANSKRIT texts and books relating to Some hold, for instance, that the BHAGAVAD GITA Ramana Maharshi’s life. Membership is primar- is shruti, divinely received, whereas others hold ily concentrated in Santa Cruz, but devotees are that it is smriti. present throughout the world. SAT welcomes the general public to participate in its events. Further reading: A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (Calcutta: Rupa, 1997); Ram Kishore Gupta, Further reading: The Journey Home (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Political Thought in the Smrti Literature (Allahabad: Avadhut, 1986); Ramana Maharshi, Be As You Are: The , 1968); Klaus K. Klostermaier, Teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi (Boston: Arkana, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State University of New 1975); ———, The Spiritual Teaching of Ramana York Press, 1989); L. Sternback, Hindu Legends of Jus- Maharshi (Berkeley: Shambala, 1972); ———, Teach- tice: Pancatantra and Smrti (Delhi: Global Vision Pub- ings of Ramana Maharshi (Madras: Affiliated East-West lishing House, 2002). Press, 1990).

Society of Abidance in Truth Soma The Society of Abidance in Truth (SAT) was Soma was a divine, intoxicating drink favored by formed in 1974 by devotees of RAMANA Maharshi INDRA, king of the gods, according to the Vedas. (1879–1950). The purpose of the nonprofit soci- It was made from a celestial plant taken to Earth ety is to disseminate the teachings of ADVAITA by an eagle and was said to confer immortality on (non-dual) VEDANTA. SAT follows two ancient gods and humans. BRAHMIN priests in Vedic times traditions with roots in India and China. These oversaw its preparation, offered it to the gods,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 419 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM K 420 Sri

and drank it themselves at their rituals. The drink carry on the teachings of his god-brother Swami was used in such quantities that the YAJUR VEDA A. C. Prabhupada BHAKTIVEDANTA (1896–1977), includes a chant to alleviate the effects of exces- founder of ISKCON. sive Soma drinking. Before he died Prabupada is said to have told Soma was most used by the priests of the SAMA his disciples that if dissention occurred in the VEDA. A majority of hymns in the Sama Veda itself movement, it should be resolved by Sridhara; they praise the Soma, personified as a god. In fact, were “god-brothers,” as both received their ini- Soma is said to have inspired the composition tiation from Bhaktisiddanthanta Sarawati Takir in of Vedic hymns. The drink is said to be sweet the GAUDIYA MATH in India. This group had been and milky. Various attempts have been made to the central Krishna Consciousness organization identify the Soma plant. Today it is the name of in Bengal. a vine that does not appear to have intoxicating Prabhupada’s death was in fact followed by properties. intense infighting and theological unrest. Dis- The Vedic god Soma acts as the husband of the putes were frequent and solutions hard to obtain. dawns, supports the Earth and sky, and makes the When some members of the upper ranks turned Sun light up. In late Vedic times Soma was con- to Sridhara, as they had been advised to do, the nected to the Moon. In modern Hindu mythology eventual solution was the founding of a new Soma is the Moon god and the lord of all plants. order. The Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Mandal was Scholars identify the beverage Soma with the formed as the branch that would serve the mission Haoma, which was also offered to the gods in the in the United States while remaining affiliated Avesta, the scripture of the ancient Persians. with the Gaudiya Math. Since its founding the mandal has flourished Further reading: Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology. and has engaged in an expansive publishing pro- Translated from the German by Sreeramula Rajeswara gram. Guardian of Devotion Press has published a Sarma. Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); J. variety of Sridhara’s literature in the field of religion Stevenson, trans., Translation of the Samhita of the Sama and spirituality. There are affiliated centers in Mex- Veda (Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1961); David ico, , England, Venezuela, South Africa, Italy, Stophlet and Martin Schwartz, Haoma and Harmaline: the Netherlands, Australia, Austria, and Hungary. The Botanical Identity of the Indo-Iranian Sacred Hal- lucinogen “Soma” and Its Legacy in Religion, Language, Further reading: Sridhara Deva Goswami (Bhakti Rak- and Middle-Eastern Folklore (Berkeley: University of saka), Bhakti Parpanna Jivanmarta: Lifenectar of the California Press, 1989). Surrended Souls: Nabadwip Dham (West Bengal: Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Math, 1988); ———, The Search for Sri Krsna, Reality the Beautiful (San Jose, Calif.: Guard- Sri See LAKSHMI. ian of Devotion Press, 1983).

Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Mandal (est. 1980) Sri Krishna Chaitanya See CHAITANYA. The Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Mandal is an off- shoot of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON), popularly known in Sri Lalita See SRI VIDYA. North America as the Hare Krishna movement. The Mandal was founded in 1980 by Bhakti Rakasa Sridhara Deva Goswami (1895–1988) to Sri Lanka See RAMAYANA.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 420 12/14/06 9:29:32 AM Sri Sri Nathji 421 J

Sri Ram Chandra Mission (est. 1945) 2 (Shahjahanpur: Shri Ram Chandra Mission, 1992); Sri Ram Chandra Mission in India was founded by ———, Letters of the Master, vol. 3 (Shahjahanpur: Shri His Holiness Sri Maharaj RAM CHANDRAJI of - Ram Chandra Mission, 1996). jahanpur, in 1945. He was popularly known as “Babuji.” The mission was in memory, honor, and testimony to his teacher, Samarth Guru Mahatma Sri Rama Foundation (est. 1971) See NARI Sri Ram Chandriji Maharaj of Fatehgar, Uttar DASS, BABA. Pradesh, who is devotedly referred to as “Lalaji.” Today, the work is being carried forward by Sri PARTHASARATHI RAJAGOPALACHARI (b. 1927). Sri Sri Nathji The mission’s objectives are to educate and Sri Sri Nathji (the Lord of Sri) is a form of KRISHNA ATHDWARA teach the masses in the art and science of YOGA, worshipped at N near Udaipur in Rajas- tailored for the modern world, and to encourage than. Nathdwara is one of the main shrines of the feelings of unconditional love to everyone inclu- cult of the Hindu saint VALLABHA. The image has sive of all castes, creeds, and colors. In addition, different forms, one of which shows Sri Sri Nathji the mission seeks to establish research centers whose focus is the study of YOGA, helping those who wish to carry forth the mission. Practice and life in the mission include rising before dawn for daily PUJA (worship to divin- ity through offerings such as incense or rice) or spiritual MANTRAS (chants). The honor code of devotees includes being truthful and harmless to others and being free from resentful motives. Typically, members assume a peaceful lifestyle that gives harmony and serenity to their surroundings. The disciples try to live a plain and simple lifestyle devoted to spirituality. The mission has several hundred centers around the world. The president of each center is responsible for the transmission of divine wisdom. More than 1,000 people have been trained to assist these presidents with the authenticity of the raja path or the royal road to divine wisdom. The international headquarters of the mission is in Madras (Chennai), India, and the United States headquarters is in Molena, Georgia. Sahaj Sandesh is a service that periodically broadcasts news via e-mail about SRCM activities world- wide.

Further reading: Ram Chandra Maharaj, Shri, Heart to Heart, vol. 3 (Shahjahanpur: Shri Ram Chandra Mis- Sri Sri Nathji, a special icon of Lord Krishna revered by sion, 1993); ———, Letters of the Master. Vols. 1 and the Vallabha sect of Krishna devotees (calendar print)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 421 12/14/06 9:29:33 AM K 422 Sri Vidya

lifting up the Govardhana mountain, which is part South India has a particularly strong cult of of the Krishna mythology. Sri Lalita, where the initiates tend to be BRAHMINS. The image here is treated as Krishna himself Thus, though there are tantric aspects to this rit- and the worship follows a cycle of the events of ual, there is no consumption of forbidden things Krishna’s life. The image was taken from Mathura such as beef or alcohol, as in the left-handed rites. in 1669 to preserve it from destruction by the Substitutes are used to make the rites palatable to iconoclastic Muslim Mughal king Aurangzeb. Brahmin practitioners. The philosophical system involved is a tantric ADVAITA non-dual system, Further reading: Amit Ambalal, Krishna as Shrinathji: understanding that the manifest world is real and Rajasthani Paintings from Nathdvara (Ahmedabad: an aspect of the supreme Goddess. Mapin, 1987); Anne-Marie Gaston, Krishna’s Musicians: Musicians and Music Making in the Temples of Nathdvara, Further reading: Douglas Renfrew Brooks, Auspicious Rajasthan (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997). Wisdom (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); ———, The Secret of the Three Cities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990). Sri Vidya Sri Vidya is an all-India cult of the worship of the GODDESS Sri Lalita or Tripurasundari. It initiates in Sri Yantra See YANTRA, SRI. the right-handed tantric tradition (see TANTRISM), which emphasizes Sri Lalita as the Great GODDESS. Iconographically, she is seen as a beautiful 16-year states of consciousness old with a parrot on her shoulder; however, this There are four states of consciousness outlined is just her gross form. Her subtle form is the Sri in the MANDUKYA UPANISHAD, one of the classi- YANTRA or Sri CHAKRA, which is a geometric design cal Vedic UPANISHADS often cited in VEDANTA and around a basic point, showing four entranceways other Indian traditions. The four states are jag- at its outer portion that are representative of arita (jagrat), the waking state; svapna, the dream- temple entranceways. ing state; sushupti, the deep sleep state; and , The highest form of Sri Lalita is the 16-syl- the transcendent state beyond conventional con- lable MANTRA that is chanted in worship of her. sciousness, in which one realizes the BRAHMAN or As is the tantric norm, she is the mantra and one ultimate reality. Some early Upanishads conflate who chants the mantra becomes the goddess. She the last two states. in effect enters that person and becomes that per- son. The Sri Vidya PUJA (worship and offering) is Further reading: Swami Krishnananda, The Mandukya done at homes and not publicly. The devotee first Upanishad: An Exposition (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life burns his or her self up symbolically, readying for Society, 1977); Swami Nikhilananda, trans., Self-Knowl- the transformation into the goddess. “One must edge (Atmabodha): An English Translation of Sankaracha- become the Goddess to worship the Goddess” is rya’s Atmabodha (New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda the operative phrase. Doing ritual worship to the Center, 1946); S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanisads diagram of the Sri Yantra, one places mantras on (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1992). one’s body to transform it into the body of the goddess. The reverse is done when the puja is coming to a close. At the end of the ritual proper Sthanakavasi the 1,000 names of goddess Sri Lalita are usually The Sthanakavasis are a minority sect within the chanted. Jain community founded by a Jain layperson from

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 422 12/14/06 9:29:33 AM 423 J

His community, which still exists today, adopted the practice of meeting only in halls (sthanaka) and not in temples, hence the name Sthanakavasi (inhabit- ers of halls). Lonka Shaha’s fanatical opposition to the worship of icons may have been influenced by the iconoclastic Islam of his era. As a distinguishing feature, Stanakavasi monks wear a mouth covering to prevent injury to invisible beings that might be breathed in and killed.

Further reading: John E. Cort, Jains in the World: Reli- gious Values and Ideology in India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Paul Dundas, The Jains (Lon- don: Routledge, 1992); A. K. Roy, History of the Jainas (Colombia, Mo.: South Asia Books, 1984).

stotra (from stu, to praise) are shorter or longer chants in praise of various divinities, gurus, and personages. They have been a timeless feature in all native Indian traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, JAINISM, and SIKHISM. There are stotras of 1,000 verses, such as Vishnu Sahasranama (in praise of Vishnu) and (in Sthanakavasi, a Jain monk with mouth covering to praise of Sri Lalita), that consist of 1,000 verses; practice ahimsa, in Gujarat (Constance A. Jones) many others consist of 108 verses, but verses of almost any length can be found. From very early times Hindus believed that Gujarat, Lonka Shaha, who in 1451 C.E. decided chanting stotras could induce the gods to grant to form a new community based on a return to benefits in this world and, if done with sufficient traditional values. He is said to have gained access devotion and frequency, lead to liberation from to the basic texts of the Shvetambaras, which tra- birth and death. By contrast, in JAINISM and early ditionally only the monks could read. In reading Buddhism stotras could not gain benefit from spiri- the texts he was stunned at the laxity shown by tual teachers such as MAHAVIRA or BUDDHA, because the monks of his day. He was convinced that the such yogis (unlike gods) did not confer grace; sto- rituals performed by monks in the Jain temples tras were merely capable of calming the mind. had nothing to do with the Jain ideals; he felt that even the act of digging in the ground to establish Further reading: Jan Gonda, Medieval Religious Litera- temples and images involved such injury to Earth ture in Sanskrit. Vol. 2, Fascicle 1, History of Indian Liter- beings that it was in and of itself a violation of the ature (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1977); Nancy Ann Jain sacred principle of ahimsa or noninjury. Nayar, Poetry as Theology: The Srivaisnava Stotra in the Shaha started a movement assisted by influential Age of Ramanuja (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1992); Jains to reexamine Jain life in view of the scriptures. Nancy Ann Nayar, trans., Praise-Poems to Visnu and Sri:

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 423 12/14/06 9:29:33 AM K 424 Subramaniya

The Stotras of Ramanuja’s Immediate Disciples (Bombay: this Sri Lankan lineage known as the Nandinatha Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1994). Sampradaya, a tradition that has its roots in the 2,200-year-old sacred text Tirumantiram, by the saint TIRUMULAR. He followed his initiation with Subramaniya See KARTTIKEYA. years of spiritual practice (SADHANA) and began to be referred to as Satguru, or “one who has attained God-realization and assumes responsibility for the Subramuniyaswami, Satguru (1927–2001) spiritual life of his disciples.” Upon the passing American founder of the Saiva Siddhanta Church in 1964 of Shiva , Subramuniya (or The American-born Satguru Subramuniyaswami Gurudeva, as he was affectionately known) became was an important teacher in the Saiva SIDDHANTA the spiritual successor of the lineage. tradition. Through his organizational work, fund- In 1950, he returned to the United States and raising, and many books he helped spread Hindu continued his spiritual path, developing various teaching in America and around the world. psychic powers, including and clair- Born in Oakland, California, on January 5, audience. In 1957, at age 30, he began his pub- 1927, and orphaned in 1938 at age 11, Robert lic ministry by founding the Subramuniya Yoga Hansen spent his childhood and youth in the San Order and the Christian Yoga Church, both in and was, before he renounced Francisco, California. During the 1960s, the latter the world, a lead dancer in the San Francisco Ballet was disbanded; in 1970 the Subramuniya Yoga Company. He was raised by a family friend who, Order moved to Hawaii, where it was renamed as a student of Indian art, dance, and culture, had the Wailua University of the Contemplative Arts. lived as a guest of the maharaja of Mysore, India. In 1973, the organization became the Saiva Sid- As a child, he wore Indian clothing and learned to dhanta Yoga Order, and later the Saiva Siddhanta appreciate many elements of Indian culture. As a Church. Subramuniya called the Church the teenager, he was exposed to Swami VIVEKANANDA’s “first Hindu church, organized according to the writings and the lectures of other SWAMIS. He American church system.” In an attempt to sus- relates that he studied MEDITATION and classical tain Shaivite orthodoxy, the church recognizes the YOGA disciplines with several teachers. celibate monk as the ideal spiritual practitioner At age 21 Hansen traveled to India and Sri and requires at least 12 years of adherence for a Lanka, searching for a spiritual teacher. In Sri man to become a SANNYASI. Women may follow the Lanka he studied with Shaivite elders and pun- celibate life of the BRAHMACHARINI, but they are not, dits (see SHAIVISM), one of whom, a member of strictly speaking, monastics in this church. the Chettiar caste, adopted him into his extended In addition to the church, Gurudeva created family and introduced him to temple worship. He the Himalayan Academy, an educational publica- meditated in the jungle caves at Jalani and attained tion house, and Hindu Heritage Endowment, a SELF-REALIZATION by experiencing the absolute real- public service trust begun in 1995 to establish ity of SHIVA, which transcended all time, space, and and maintain permanent sources of income for form. This experience of Self-Realization became Hindu institutions worldwide. These organiza- the cornerstone of his mystical teachings. Also in tions serve the growing Hindu DIASPORA. Local Sri Lanka, he met his GURU, Jnanaguru Yoganathan, missions are on five continents. Subramuniya was also known as Shiva Yogaswami (1872–1964) who instrumental in founding and building 37 Hindu initiated him into the Shaivite tradition of siddha temples around the world, including his own Irai- yoga and named him Subramuniya. Yogaswami van Sivalingam temple on the island of Kauai, the was a direct descendent of the original gurus of first all-granite Agamic (built to Shaivite canoni-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 424 12/14/06 9:29:33 AM Sukul, Deva Ram 425 J

cal specifications) temple ever built in the West- lessons on Shaivism are designed to preserve the ern world. He founded Kauai’s Hindu Monastery, teachings among youth, and his illustrated Master known officially as Kauai Aadheenam, the first Course trilogy—three inspired 1,000-page texts— orthodox Shaivite monastery in the West. summarize the religion, culture, and metaphysics Throughout his years of teaching, Subramuni- of Hinduism. yaswami traveled widely and met leaders of many The academy’s quarterly magazine, Hinduism faiths and heads of state. He participated in the Today, originally begun as a newsletter in 1979, World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1993. seeks to promote Hindu solidarity in the face of In 1995, he named three of his longtime initiated global pluralism and educate Hindus around the swamis as his consecutive successors, beginning world about their heritage. It covers the practices with the present satguru, . and beliefs of all lineages and traditions within the Subramuniya wrote over 30 books explaining Hindu fold, and addresses the issues of the day in Hindu philosophy to adherents and others. His light of orthodox Hindu teaching. The Web site Hindu Resources Online, a public service inspired by the message of Subramuniyaswami, is another vehicle for dissemination of Shaivite teachings. According to the teachings of Subramuniyas- wami, Shaivism is ageless, the SANATANA DHARMA or eternal faith. An enduring spirituality innate in every man and woman, it is the source of all religions on Earth. Subramuniya died on November 12, 2001, at age 74.

Further reading: Sivaya Subramuniya, Dancing with Siva, 4th ed. (San Francisco: Himalayan Academy, 1993); ———, Hindu Catechism (San Francisco: Hima- layan Academy, 1987); ———, Merging with Siva: Hinduism’s Contemporary Metaphysics (Kapaa, Hawaii: Himalayan Academy, 1999); ———, Raja Yoga (San Francisco: Himalayan Academy, 1973).

Sufism Reoriented See DUCE, IVY O.

Sugriva See RAMAYANA.

Sukul, Deva Ram (fl. 1920s–1940s) teacher of raja yoga in the United States Satguru Subramuniyaswami (1927–2001), founder of Deva Ram Sukul, founder of Saiva Siddhanta Church and Hinduism Today (Siva Sid- of America, was one of a handful of independent dhanta Church, Kapaa, Kauai, Hawaii) Hindu teachers active in the United States during

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 425 12/14/06 9:29:34 AM K 426 Sundarar

the years when the Asian Exclusion Act was in inent Tamil Shaivite saints (NAYANMARS) whose effect (1924–65). hymns appear in the central liturgical and liter- Little is known of Deva Ram Sukul’s early ary text of the Tamil Shaivites, the TEVARAM. years, the work of his institute, or even his death. Sundarar, “the Handsome One,” was born a He emerges out of obscurity only as the author of Shaivite BRAHMIN in Tirunavalur. SHIVA claimed a few books (Yoga and Self-Culture and Yoga Nava- Sundarar as his devotee, it is said, on Sundarar’s jivan) and as a teacher of the American actress wedding day, before his marriage could be com- Mae West. pleted. However, Sundarar later married a temple As director of the Yoga Institute, Sukul had dancer, Paravai, whom he often mentions in his become an acquaintance of the lawyer James A. hymns, and a non-BRAHMIN, upper-caste woman, Timony. At one point in the late 1920s, West Cankili. became ill in reaction to the stress of several law- Sundarar lived in the Shaivite city of Tiru- suits against her. Timony introduced her to Sukul, varur, although as the other saints of the Tevaram who was able to heal her at their first meeting. did, he often traveled to other shrines to sing Sukul subsequently joined her entourage and his devotion of Shiva. He also sang the praises traveled with her through the next decade. West of kings and local chieftains who were his bene- would later credit him with assisting her in devel- factors. Sundarar, they say, went to heaven on a oping a philosophy of life, although she was also white elephant (perhaps the white elephant of interested in astrology and . Indra), accompanied by a Chera king. Sundarar In later years, Sukul lectured on raja yoga and is depicted in iconography with his two wives. taught the GAYATRI MANTRA. He also knew the His courtly life contrasted with the more austere pioneer San Francisco HATHA YOGA teacher Walt life of his contemporaries APPAR and SAMBANTHAR, Baptiste (1917–2001) and he taught raja yoga in the others of the sacred trio of saints in Tamil Baptiste’s center in the 1940s. Shaivism.

Further reading: Deva Ram Sukul, India and Tibet: Pil- Further reading: Indira Viswanathan Peterson, Poems grimage Lessons (New York: Yoga Institute of America, to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints (Princeton, N.J.: 1941); ———, Yoga and Self-Culture: Higher Laws of Princeton University Press, 1989); M. A. Dorai Ran- Spiritual Dynamics Including Outline of Philosophy of the gaswamy, The Religion and Philosophy of Tevaram, with Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and the Six Systems of Special Reference to Nampi Arurar (Sundarar) (Madras: Hindu Philosophy (New York: Yoga Institute of America, University of Madras, 1990). 1947); ———, Yoga Navajivan (Path to New Life and Divine Realization): Introduction to Raja Yoga System of Self-Culture as Taught by Deva Ram Sukul (New York: Yoga Institute of America, 1947); Jill Watts, Mae West: Sun Temple See KONARAK. An Icon in Black and White (New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2001); Mae West, Mae West on Sex, Health and ESP (London: W. H. Allen, 1975). Sunyata (Alfred Julius Emanuel Sorensen) (1890–1984) Danish-born sadhu and teacher The youngest of three children on a small farm Sundarar (c. end of seventh and beginning of in northern Denmark, Emmanuel (indwelling eighth centuries C.E.) Tamil Shaivite poet-saint God, the name he favored for himself) Sorensen Sundarar (also known as Nambi Arur and Sun- worked during his childhood on his family’s farm tharamurtti) is among the trio of the most prom- and attended school only to the eighth grade.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 426 12/14/06 9:29:34 AM Sunyata 427 J

When he was 14, the family farm was sold and he entered four years of apprenticeship in horticul- ture. He had jobs in France and Italy and settled in England in 1911 and took up gardening on large estates. At one of those estates he met Rabindra- nath TAGORE, who was impressed with the quality of Emmanuel’s silence. Tagore invited the young Dane to visit Shanti Niketan, Tagore’s school in India, to “teach silence.” Sorensen arrived in India in 1930 at the age of 40 and began to teach. Immediately he was given the titles of BABA, saint, and GURU, but his gift to the people he met was not captured by these titles. In the four decades he spent in India, he traveled widely and offered his gift of “being” to those who went to him. In 1936 he met RAMANA MAHARSHI (1879–1950) at Arunach- ala and noted Ramana’s quality of self-radiance, which nourished all around him. Ramana later called Sorensen a “rare-born mystic.” On his third visit, Sorensen received a telepathic mes- sage from Ramana, “We are always aware SUN- YATA.” Sorenson wrote that he experienced the words as a “recognition, initiation, MANTRA, and name.” Sorensen thereafter referred to himself and his hut as sunyata (a Buddhist term for void Sunyata (1890–1984), Danish sadhu and teacher or emptiness). He acquired Indian citizenship in (Courtesy Sunyata Society) 1953. Sunyata first lived in Haridvar, on a small island in the GANGES River, but eventually built and the divine in the words Tat tvam asi—thou himself a stone hut in the foothills of the HIMA- are That. LAYAS near Almora. He accepted a small sum Sunyata’s dog Sri Wuji (Chinese for “a full from the Birla Foundation in New Delhi, whose emptiness”) was his constant companion. The purpose is to assist saints and SADHUS (spiritual saint accepted the dog along with aspirants). He knew many teachers and saints of Sunyata into her ashram with the words “Wuji is his day, including Lama Anagarika Govinda, Wal- not a dog.” ter Evans-Wentz, Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI, In 1973, a group of Americans from the Alan Jawaharlal Nehru, Yashoda Ma, KRISHNA PREM, Sri Watts Society invited Sunyata to California. At , J. KRISHNAMURTI, ANANDAMAYI MA, and age 84, he arrived in California, where he gave NEEM KAROLI BABA. He remained uninterested in DARSHAN (blessings) at Esalen and Palm Springs. In power, fame, or money, preferring nature, his own 1978 he moved to California permanently at age company, and silence. He did not heal, was not 88 and spent the last six years of his life there. At psychic, and did not perform miracles. He simply age 93, in 1984, he was struck by a car in Fairfax, reminded all he met of the identity of each person California, and died soon afterward on August

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 427 12/14/06 9:29:34 AM K 428 Surdas

13, 1984. The Sunyata Society of San Anselmo, Further reading: Kenneth E. Bryant, Poems to the Child- California, publishes articles and books about his God: Structures and Strategies in the Poetry of Surdas life and teaching. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); John Stratton Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas, Further reading: Betty Camhi and Elliott Isenberg, and Kabir in Their Time and Ours (New Delhi: Oxford eds., Sunyata: The Life and Sayings of a Rare-Born Mystic University Press, 2005); Usha Nilsson, trans. and ed., (Berkeley, Calif.: North Atlantic Books, 1990); Sunyata Surdas: Poems (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1982). Society, eds., Sri Wuji, vols. 1 and 2 (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1990). Surya Surya is the most common of the names for the Surdas (Late 15th to late 16th century) Hindi Sun in the VEDAS, which all seem to refer to differ- poet-saint ent aspects of this divine body. (SAVITRI is the next Surdas was a poetic of mythic status in North most frequent Vedic Sun name.) The Sun is seen India born in a village called Sihi, which was prob- as crossing the sky each day on a chariot pulled by ably near BRINDAVAN, judging from the Braj dialect horses. In the Vedas Surya is sometimes said to be of his poems. Most of the biographical details of the son of ADITI and sometimes that of (the Surdas’s life are in question. heavens). Sometimes he is said to be the son or Surdas is credited with writing Sursagar (The the husband of USHAS, the dawn. In the era of the Ocean of Sur), a song of about 5,000 verses. As PURANAS, Surya is seen as the son of Aditi and the with many poet-saints in India, most of his poetry sage Kashyapa. The Sun (under the name Savitri) was written to be sung at public events; it is likely is the object of worship each morning by twice- that these “songs” changed for each performance. born (confirmed), upper-caste Hindu males who His extant work is probably the careful textual chant the GAYATRI MANTRA. recording of students and admirers. As is also the case in Indian tradition, his work may well Further reading: Shakti M. Gupta, Surya, the Sun God include compositions of genius written by other (Bombay: Somaiya, 1977); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic authors that seemed worthy of inclusion among Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); P. Pan- his. In the end this lack of clear biographical detail dit, Aditi and Other Deities in the Veda (Pondicherry: matters little in the perspective of the brilliant Dipti, 1970); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and work represented under the name of Sur. Puranic (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). All the stories of his life agree that Surdas was blind, but there they part company. One story puts him at the court of the great Muslim king Akbar. sushumna See KUNDALINI. In the other he was a follower of VALLABHA, the great devotee of KRISHNA, of Brindavan. It is said that Vallabha encouraged Sur to write about the sushupti See STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS. child Krishna’s divine play. Sur’s poetry is one of pure devotion. Millions of people in North India know his songs. His sutra poetry is used for the temple liturgy of the Vallab- A sutra (line, thread, or string) is a text (on any hites. Classical vocalists always include his works subject) composed of short, aphoristic verses, in their repertoire, as do village singers. Many oth- usually only of a few words. Most often the sutra ers read, recite, or sing his verses. form was used to facilitate easy memorization, as

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 428 12/14/06 9:29:34 AM movement 429 J

knowledge in India was most frequently commu- Further reading: Pagal Baba, Temple of the Phallic Kin: nicated from memory. Because of the extreme con- The Mind of India, Yogis, Swamis, and Avataras (New ciseness of the lines of text, most verses are not York: Simon & Schuster, 1973); Swami Agehananda comprehensible without reference to some sort Bharat, The Ochre Robe (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, of commentary. Buddhist and Jain traditions (see 1970); Marvin H. Harper, Gurus, Swamis and Avataras: JAINISM) also frequently used this method in their Spiritual Masters and Their American Disciples (Philadel- texts (e.g., of the Jains). Among phia: Westminster Press, 1972). the many such texts are the Dharma Sutra, YOGA SUTRA, and Vedanta Sutra. Yoga Foundation Further reading: M. Winternitz, History of Sanskrit Lit- (est. 1972) erature, 3 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1963). The Swami Kuvalayananda Foundation (SKY) of Philadelphia is devoted to the study and practice of HATHA YOGA. It was founded in 1972 as a nonre- suttee See SATI. ligious organization by Dr. Vijayendra Pratap, who received a Ph.D. in applied psychology from Bom- bay University. Dr. Pratap studied YOGA as a stu- svadhishthana chakra dent of Swami Kuvalayananda (1883–1966), who The svadhishthana CHAKRA is the second chakra founded the noted yoga center Kaivalyadhama (energy center) in KUNDALINI YOGA systems. It is situ- in Bombay, where Pratap was assistant director ated on the spine in the genital region. It governs before moving to America. sexuality, excitement, and more refined physical The SKY Foundation holds HATHA YOGA sensation. It is associated with the element water. Its classes, from basic to the most advanced levels; trains teachers; and focuses on teachings from deity is VISHNU. Its SHAKTI is Rakini. All chakras are considered lotuses; svadhisthana has six red petals. the ASHTANGA YOGA system of PATANJALI. One of the significant objectives of the foundation is to investigate the ancient as well as the more recent Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Cen- developments of yoga as they interface with ters of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, contemporary times. Dr. Pratap’s foundation has 2000). sponsored academic conferences to review what is known about science and yoga. At this point, he and his supporters consider the foundation an See STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS. svapna academic and research organization seeking ways that science and yogic practice can work together for the good of all humanity. The headquarters are swami in Philadelphia over the Garland of Letters book- A swami (one who has his own) is anyone who store, which is sponsored by the foundation. has proprietary rights, an owner, a lord, or a master. By extension, a person who is master Further reading: Vijayendra Pratap, Beginning Yoga of himself or herself, who has developed per- (Rutland, Vt.: Chares E. Tuttle, 1997). fect yogic self-control, is a spiritual swami. Any religious or spiritual being of the highest order is called a swami. The word is usually added to Swaminarayan movement proper names, for example, Swami MUKTANANDA The Swaminarayan movement is a major world- or Swami SACCIDANANDA. wide Hindu movement. It is the contemporary

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 429 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM K 430 Swaminarayan movement

expression of a religious revival started by Sri Eventually Sahajanand assumed leadership of the Sahajanand Swami (1781–1830), a monk generally devotees of . known to his followers as Lord Swaminarayan. Sahajanand began to reform the movement Sahajanand was born at Chhapaiya, near by recruiting a group of young SANNYASIS (renun- AYODHYA in northern India. A precocious child, he ciants) who were dedicated to his vision of showed an early inclination to the religious life. uplifting humankind and involved themselves in Upon his parents’ deaths, when he was 11 years various social service activities. He imposed five old, he adopted the life of a renunciant and pur- rules on the sannyasis: they were to avoid greed, sued his spiritual quest. His seven-year PILGRIMAGE worldly desires, attachments, and ego and live around India ended at Gujarat, where he spent a life of celibacy. He also started holding large a year with Muktanand Swami, who confirmed ceremonies called Vishnu Yajna with the goal of that Sahajanand was an incarnation of KRISHNA. abolishing the popular sacrifice of animals. His actions attracted a large following throughout Gujarat. The non-sannyasi (householder) mem- bers were asked to avoid alcohol and intoxicating drugs, meat, food from improper sources, stealing, and debauchery. Sahahanand authored the , a work summarizing a code of conduct for his followers. As the movement expanded, followers began to affirm that Sahajanand was the incarnation of Lord Purushottama Narayana (i.e., Krishna). Swaminarayan promoted a form of BHAKTI YOGA, the devotional path to God. He and the movement he founded believe God to be a person and focus their primary attention on Vishnu/ Krishna. Nevertheless, they fall within the larger scope of traditional Hinduism by affirming a phi- losophy of unity in diversity and acknowledging the common history and language of Hinduism. Swaminarayan has been followed as head of the movement by a succession of leaders: Guna- titanand Swami (1785–1867), Bhagatji Maharaj (1829–97), (1865–1951), Yogiji Maharaj (1892–1971), and Pramukh Maharaj (b. 1921). In 1907 Shastriji Maharaj founded the Bochsanwasi Shri Akshar Purusottam Sanstha, which gave the movement its present corporate structure. He also exported the movement outside India, to East Africa. Later, in the 20th century, Swaminarayan (1781–1830), monk and founder of carried the movement to Swaminarayan movement, pointing to Lord Vishnu the West, establishing the first center in England (Courtesy Swaminarayan Headquarters, Bombay [Mumbai]) and subsequently overseeing the vast international

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 430 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM SYDA Foundation 431 J

spread of the movement through the post–World Internationally the movement has a following War II Indian DIASPORA. in Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Australia, At the beginning of the 1970s, Yogiji Maha- , Germany, England, Canada, the United raj sent four monks to America in response to States, Singapore, and Thailand. Worldwide there a request from some immigrants from Gujarat. are more than 3,000 centers. In 1972 the group who assembled in response to their visit established a center and purchased Further reading: H. T. Dave, Life and Philosophy of Shree a temple on Long Island, New York. Pramukh Swaminarayan (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1974); Swami Maharaj in 1974 made the first of what Sadhu Shantipriyadas, Mandir Traditions and Belief were to be many journeys to the United States. He (Amdavad, India: Swaminarayan Aksaharpith, 1998); installed a group of deities for the community and Sadhu Vivekjivandas and Sadhu Amrutvijaydas, Basic has held similar ceremonies across North America Concepts of Swaminarayan Satsang (Amdavad: Swami- in subsequent visits. narayan Aksaharpith, 2002); Raymond Brady Williams, Today, international headquarters for the A New Face of Hinduism: The Swaminarayan Religion movement is in Ahmedabad, India. The group (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). supports several institutions of higher learning such as the Pramuch Swami Medical College, the School of Architecture at S. P. University, and the SYDA Foundation See CHIDVILASANANDA, Pramukh Swami Science College, all in Gujurat. SWAMI.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 431 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 432 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM T J: AF

Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941) poet degree. In 1883, he married Mrinalini Devi, and and writer the couple had two sons and three daughters. By , one of the great literary fig- this time he had begun to develop a literary repu- ures of the world and a fighter for social reform, tation based on several Bengali works, including was the first modern Indian writer to win a repu- a long poem in the Maithili regional linguistic tation around the world. He was the first Asian to style originated by , the authorship of win the Nobel Prize in literature. which he initially attempted to hide, and the Tagore was born May 7, 1861, in the Jorasanko poetry anthology, Sandhya Sangit (Twilight song), District in Calcutta (Kolkata) in the state of Ben- which he wrote in 1882. This work includes the gal, to the celebrated Hindu reformer Debendra- famous poem Nirjharer Svapnabhanga (The Cry of nath Tagore and Sarada Devi. His father’s father the Waterfall). had been a prominent, highly educated business- In 1890, Tagore began to manage the family man and a supporter of the BRAHMO SAMAJ, the estates at Shelaidaha, a riverine region in what Hindu reform sect founded by RAMMOHUN ROY. is now Bangladesh. There he lived modestly on His father had maintained this affiliation. a houseboat on a tributary of the Padma River. Rabindranath was the youngest of 14 children, Works of poetry from this period include Sonar all of whom were well educated, including the Tari (1894), Chitra (1896), and Katha O Kahini girls, in keeping with the newly emerging Bengali (1900). He also began to be known for his essays, progressive tradition. Most of the children were plays, and short stories, often set in the local vil- educated in both Bengali and English and used lage and river life. their knowledge to publish magazines, write In 1901, Tagore moved to Shantiniketan, in plays, and sponsor the arts; young Rabindranath west Bengal, where he started a pioneering edu- had rich surroundings to allow his talent to grow. cational experiment championing the outdoor In 1878, at the age of 17, Rabindranath went classroom run in the ancient Indian way with one to England for a year to study in an elite public teacher and a very few students. Today this school school in Brighton, and then at University Col- is run by the under the name lege, London. He did not, however, complete his Vishva Bharati. There he wrote Naivedya (1901)

433

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 433 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM K 434 Tagore, Rabindranath

Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), Bengali poet, educator, and Nobel Prize laureate (Courtesy Library of Congress)

and other works. Here, his wife died young and In November 1913 Tagore was awarded the Nobel he lost a son and a daughter. His profound grief Prize in literature, based on the attention that this affected the tone of his work. translation had drawn. Tagore had developed a large following among His literary fame established at the age of 60, Bengali readers; some English translations of his Tagore began to paint and exhibit his paintings in work had been made, but they were not of high India and Europe. He painted in a wistful mod- quality. At the urging of some of his English admir- ernist style that was as impressive as his literary ers he started translating some of his own poems work. Deeply beloved in his home of Bengal, in free verse. In 1912, he went to England to read Tagore is the only person in the world to have some of these. It was his fortune to be heard at composed two national anthems, India’s and these readings by the celebrated Irish poet Wil- Bangladesh’s. His love for his country, India, was liam Butler Yeats. The English version of Gitanjali well known and he joined others of his generation (Song Offerings) (1915) was later published by the in doing what he could to contribute to the great India Society with an admiring preface by Yeats. struggle for independence. He carried on a cor-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 434 12/14/06 9:29:35 AM tanmatra 435 J

respondence, too, with Mohandas Karamchand The second section is named for its description GANDHI and they were mutual admirers. of the ANANDA (infinite bliss) of the BRAHMAN As a result of his refined aesthetic sensibili- (ultimate reality). While in passing, defining the ties, his love of nature, and his extensive travels terms self and ultimate reality, it introduces the in Europe, America, the Middle East, and the Far five SHEATHS that make up a human being. These East, Tagore developed a philosophy of universal are the sheath of food, the sheath of breath, the brotherhood and cultural exchange. Above all he sheath of mind, the sheath of understanding, and believed in the immanence of the divinity and the the sheath of bliss. reflection of that divinity in human beings. As a In the final section, named after the teacher result he is known and read as a philosopher as , these five levels of being are fully described: well as a literary figure. Perhaps because of his the sheath of food describes the external body and openness of spirit, Tagore’s literature and philoso- the sheath of bliss lies in the core of the heart, as phy have found an audience in realms far away the ultimate Self or brahman. The Upanishad con- from the quiet beauty of the Bengal of his time of cludes with a memorable chant, the vision of the which he so passionately wrote. sage who realizes brahman: “I am food; I am food; I am food. I am the food-eater; I am the food-eater; I Further reading: Mohit Cakrabarti, The Philosophy of am the food-eater. . . . Earlier than the gods; at the Education of Rabindranath Tagore: A Critical Evalua- navel of immortality . . . [I see] the golden light!” tion (New Delhi: Atlantic and Distributors, 1988); Jose The food is the manifest universe. The food-eater Chunkapura, The God of Rabindranath Tagore: A Study is the transcendent reality. The sage understands of the Evolution of His Understanding of God (Kolkata: that in SELF-REALIZATION he encompasses all the Visva-Bharati, 2002); Vijay Dharwadkar and A. K. manifest and unmanifest world. Ramanujan, eds., Oxford Anthology of Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Further reading: Swami Chinmayananda, Discourses Krishna Dutta and Mary Lago, eds., Selected Short on Taittiriya Upanishad (Madras: Chinmaya Publication Stories of Rabindranath Tagore (London: Macmillan, Trust, 1962); Swami Gambhirananda, trans., Eight Upa- 1991); Kalyan Sen Gupta, The Philosophy of Rabindra- nishads with the Commentary of Sankaracarya (Calcutta: nath Tagore (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2005); Uma Das advaita Ashrama, 1972–73); Patrick Olivelle, trans., Gupta, Rabindranath Tagore: A Biography (New Delhi: The Early Upanishads (New York: Oxford University Oxford University Press, 2004); Vishvanath Naravane, Press, 1998); S. Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upa- An Introduction to Rabindranath Tagore (Delhi: Macmil- nishads (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, lan Company of India, 1977); Rabindranath Tagore, 1994). Collected Poems and Plays of Rabindranath Tagore (New York: Macmillan, 1949); ———, Gitanjali (Song Offer- ings) (London: Macmillan, 1926); ———, The Religions tamas See GUNAS. of Man (London: Unwin Books, 1970).

tanmatra Taittiriya Upanishad The (subtle elements) are categories in The Taittiriya Upanishad is an UPANISHAD of the the SAMKHYA and YOGA list of 24 categories; they Black YAJUR VEDA. It is considered one of the old- mediate between the five ELEMENTS (panchabhuta) est Upanishads. It consists of three sections. and the five powers of knowing. The subtle ele- The first section is devoted to teaching; it out- ments are sound, touch, form, taste, and smell. lines elements of the sacred study of the VEDAS. Among the elements sound is connected to ether

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 435 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM K 436 tantra

(), contact is connected to air (vayu), form For instance, a tantric devotee might ritually eat is connected to fire (tejas or agni), taste is con- beef, forbidden in normative Hinduism, in order nected to water ( or jalam) and smell is con- to facilitate realization. nected to earth (prithivi). To be sure, many “tantric” elements infuse ordinary ritualistic, temple-oriented Hinduism. Further reading: Lallanji Gopal, Retrieving Samkhya But the key to identifying tantrism are the distinc- History: An Ascent from Dawn to Meridian (New Delhi: tive rituals and practices that form a complex, D. K. Printworld, 2000); Gerald Larson, Classical Sam- usually taught to small groups of adepts by a spe- khya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning (Delhi: cial GURU. These rituals and practices are almost Motilal Banarsidass, 1969); Jonn Mumford, Magical always practiced in secret, away from mainstream Tattwas: A Complete System for Self-Development (St. society. Thus tantrism as a fuller, secret complex Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn Publications, 1997). contains an element, more or less obvious, that runs counter to the overt “sanctioned” philo- sophical streams. tantra See TANTRISM. Hindu tantrism seeks both supernatural pow- ers (most often considered a distraction from the goal of liberation) and liberation, worldly enjoy- tantric See TANTRISM. ment and release from the bonds of birth and rebirth. It does this by embracing what is usually eschewed. It takes the world, which is seen to be tantric ritual sex See TANTRISM. nothing but a barrier to liberation, as divine and by fully realizing its divinity learns to be its mas- ter, living in it in the full presence of the divine. tantrism For the purposes of transformation, the tran- Tantrism is a philosophical and religious stream scendent is often seen as a passive masculine that can be found in Buddhism, JAINISM, and Hin- reality, and the feminine is seen as the same tran- duism. scendent power in action. Using the polarity of Tantrism derives from the term tantra, which masculine and feminine tantrics seek to realize in certain usages defines systems and texts that both poles, finally embracing a totality that fuses, contrast themselves with the Vaidika or VEDIC so to speak, that which is beyond with that which tradition. While elements common to the tantric is here, or, more accurately, realizes that the two traditions can easily be enumerated and analyzed, are already fused. the boundary between a system that is tantric and Once one understands the unity of the mani- one that is not is not so easily defined. fest and unmanifest, one also understands that Philosophically, most Hindu tantric systems the human is the microcosm of the macrocosm; focus on “desire” as a path of liberation. This the human is the universal. The tantric sexual involves a sophisticated reversal process that ritual, maithuna, is based on these understand- transforms what is commonly understood in ings. Sexual intercourse ritually replicates the Hinduism as a barrier to liberation, that is, desire, truth of existence, that the masculine is the tran- into an instrument for liberation. This method scendent divinity and the feminine the immanent can be applied to numerous aspects of normative divinity, with two human bodies. But this ritual life and tradition that are purposely inverted or need not be practiced directly; many forms of tan- ignored in order to harness the “lower” aspects of trism practice maithuna metaphorically or simply existence and make them servants of liberation. understand it at a philosophical level.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 436 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM tantrism 437 J

Hindu tantrism can be understood as a mar- is probably a substratum tribal value taken up riage of practices and beliefs from the pre-ARYAN into the main complex, as mainstream Hinduism Goddess-oriented cults with the larger and more itself is highly oriented toward social stratifica- philosophically encompassing Aryan Vedic (but tion. Because the combination of pre-Aryan and more directly UPANISHADIC) traditions. Tantrism Vedic needed philosophical interpretation, certain as a distinct tradition has its beginnings with the tantric practices such as the eating of beef can settlement of the in fringe areas of India be derived only through philosophical reversal. (e.g., Kashmir, Bengal, Tamil Nadu). As the two Non-Hindu tribal people are not beef eaters, but cultural complexes began to merge in the centu- they do eat and ritually use buffalo meat. Beef, of ries before and after the start of the Common Era course, became the most forbidden substance for (with the Aryan Vedic always retaining its cultural all Hindus. Therefore, the ritual eating of beef in supremacy), the forms of tantric practice began to tantric ritual is neither Aryan nor non-Aryan, but become formalized. a philosophically constructed practice. Because of their derivation tantric practices Perhaps ironically, tantrism as a system only are neither purely Vedic nor purely indigenous, became consolidated after BRAHMIN practitioners but a fusion of the two. It is well known, for had written numerous texts in SANSKRIT to give it instance, that some contemporary non-Hindu a certain orthodox sanction. Because Hinduism tribal people of India still practice sexual rituals itself is a mixture of the same elements as tant- and even orgies in fields to promote agricultural rism, even some of its normative aspects can be (and human) fertility. This is a very ancient ritual, said to have tantric roots. found all over the world in conjunction with early Vedic tradition was not associated with place, agriculture. It is based on the understanding that probably because of the pastoral nature of society the female is the Earth and the male is the sky in the era of the Vedas. It was also quite clearly (and its rain). The two join in sexual embrace to aniconic—not using visible, external forms of the create the fundaments of life. The use of sexual divinities. Temple Hinduism, however, is place- ritual in tantrism most surely derives from this based and uses ICONS. It is quite likely that the precise process, but it is philosophically aggran- notions of a specific place that divinities inhabit dized or at least explicitly philosophized (as it is a non-Aryan notion. It is undoubtedly the may not have been before), as the union of God case also that stone or wood images or symbols and Goddess. of divinities are also non-Aryan. It is thus no Likewise it is well known that many subgroups coincidence that the ritual texts that lay out the in India, both Hindu castes and non-Hindu tribal principles for temple design, the AGAMAS, are tan- people, worship the Goddess with alcohol, which tric in character and form part of the large tantric is a most despised substance in Brahminical Hin- tradition. duism. Vedic tradition does record the usage of The three most important tantric sects are the very small quantities of alcohol in certain obscure Vaishnavite tantrics, who have VISHNU as tran- rituals, but the drink is in general condemned. It scendent divinity; the Shaivite tantrics, who have is obvious again that the use of alcohol in certain Shiva as transcendent divinity; and the SHAKTA tantric rituals, in which it is in fact ritually given tantrics, who have the Goddess as the transcen- to the female (the Goddess or SHAKTI) before dent divinity. The last two are often difficult to sexual intercourse, is a remanent of the pre-Aryan distinguish as they use similar terminology and traditions. frameworks. The (worshippers of The ritual egalitarianism of tantrism, which GANESHA) constitute another, small tantric sect. does not observe caste divisions in ritual, also Historically, there was a group of tantrics called

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 437 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM K 438 tantrism

Sauras or Sun (SURYA) worshippers, but these do Vaishnavite “quasi-non-dualistic” aspect, repre- not appear to have an active sectarian presence senting a third philosophical stream. in India. Tantric systems are divided into two tenden- There are numerous textual classifications and cies that are referred to as left-handed and right- subclassifications of tantric groups and practice, handed. The left-handed is most probably the but these seem to be more descriptive than prac- original practice. It can be shockingly antinomian tical. Any regional differences that once existed or antisocial. The are an example of this. have by now disappeared. These wanderers eat excrement and in other ways The most important tantric system may be try to outrage people in public arenas in order to that of Kasmiri Shaivism, which has received the use the “reversed” energy to gain supernatural most study and has reached the West through powers. teachers such as Swami MUKTANANDA. Gener- The extreme left-handed practices dating ally, there is a tremendous amount of intentional from very early in the history of tantrism have obscuration and abstruseness in tantric texts to made the word tantric as despised in India as protect them from noninitiates. The Kashmiri in the normative West. Formalized left-handed Shaivite tradition, however, led by exemplars practice uses the PANCHA MAKARA, or five forbid- such as ABHINAVAGUPTA, seemed to make an effort den substances: meat, wine, sexual intercourse, to create philosophical systems that could vie parched grain, and fish. These are combined in a with more orthodox or normative systems in ritual context. the philosophical arena. Therefore, the Kashmiri Right-handed practice could be considered a Shaivite systems seem to be more clear and open Brahminization of the left-handed stream. There, than many others. accepted entities or practices are substituted for A second important subsystem is the SRI VIDYA the “forbidden” ones to align the practice more Goddess-oriented tradition. This is, in fact, a closely with social norms. This substitution modified and highly Brahminized tradition whose might be a mental visualization of the practice textual history has begun to attract significant rather than the practice itself; physical substitu- scholarship. tion, for instance, eating a particular Mention must also be made of SAIVA SID- instead of beef; or complete avoidance of any of DHANTA, a South Indian and Sri Lankan tantric the elements in favor of a purely philosophical system. Here, there is a significant body of litera- approach. ture not only in Sanskrit but also in Tamil. In fact, Some important notions used in Hindu tan- some of the texts originated around 600 C.E. tric practice include SADHANA, or adept practice; The various systems, while they share a com- DIKSHA, the necessary initiation (distinct from mon sexual paradigm to portray the relationship the Vedic initiation); MANTRA, a distinctive usage between the manifest and unmanifest worlds, are of mantra practice; YANTRA, abstract designs used not philosophically uniform. Kashmiri Shaivism, for ritual worship and MEDITATION; and MUDRAS, for instance, is completely non-dual (ADVAITA), or special hand gestures used in conjunction with monistic, whereas Shaivite Siddhanta is purely meditation and ritual. KUNDALINI yoga is by dualistic; one can realize oneself as a “small definition a tantric practice and is a central part Shiva,” but Paramashiva, or transcendent Shiva, of many tantric systems. SHAKTIPAT (Shakti ini- is beyond the reach of the soul in transforma- tiation) is also a practice done by some tantric tional terms. That is, the highest Shiva is eternally gurus, who can transform an adept, or initiate distinct from the souls. The system of Bengali him or her, by merely a touch that transfers the Vaishnavite Sahajiya, alternatively, retains the guru’s Shakti, or grace, to the adept. Most tantric

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 438 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM Tattvartha Sutra 439 J

sects also develop a range of divinities or special tapas (tapasya) powers that are worshipped only in the context of Tapas (heat) or tapasya is a concept of great their particular cult. importance in Hindu practices of austerity. The There is some evidence of tantrism in Jain word refers to the sacred heat that is generated tradition, mostly limited to the use of tantric style by bodily mortifications and ascetic denial. Tapas mantras and certain hints of tantric sexuality. No confers wondrous powers and abilities upon the full tantric practice is known to have emerged in YOGI and makes it easier for the adept to break the JAINISM. This was primarily due to the severity of bonds of attachment to worldly life. Jain asceticism, and the nature of reality accord- In a very literal example of tapas, ancient ing to Jainism, which left no room for pursuit of orthodox yogis used to sit surrounded by five fires enlightenment through desire. under the noonday Sun in order to absorb the heat and gain spiritual power. Other ascetics doing Further reading: Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric tapasya would endure lengthy fasts or extreme Tradition (New York: Grove Press, 1975); N. N. Bhat- bodily mortifications. There is some indication tacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion: A Historical, that the notion of tapasya developed within the Ritualistic and Philosophical Study (Delhi: Manohar, Brahminical tradition as a result of association 1982); Douglas Renfrew Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom: with the fires of the Vedic sacrifice. The Texts and Traditions of Sri Vidya Sakta Tantrism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); Further reading: Walter O. Kaelber, Tapta Marga: John Cort, “Worship of Bell-Ears the Great Hero, a Jain Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India (Albany: State Tantric Deity,” in David Gordon White, ed., Tantra in University of New York Press, 1989); Klaus K. Klos- Practice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, termaier, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State University 2000); Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults of New York Press, 1990); David M. Knipe, In the Image (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1995); Edward C. Dimock, of Fire: Vedic Experiences of Heat (Delhi: Motilal Banar- The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the sidass, 1975). Vaisnavasahajiya Cult of Bengal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966); Michael Dyczkowski, The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and tat tvam asi See VEDANTA. Practices of Kashmir Shaivism (Delhi: Motilal Banar- sidass, 1975); Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, Tattvartha Sutra (c. 200 C.E.) 1979); Bhagwandas Jhavery, Comparative The Tattvartha Sutra was composed by the great and Critical Study of Mantrasastra (with Special Treat- Jain Acarya (Saint) Umasvami (or Umasvati). It is ment of the Jain Mantravada) (Ahmedabad: Sarabhai the first text of JAINISM written in SANSKRIT (the ear- Manilal Nawab, 1944); Paul Muller-Ortega, The Triadic lier ones, which are no longer extant, were written Heart of Siva (Albany: State University of New York in Prakrit, the vernacular tongue that developed Press, 1969); Lilian Silburn, Kundalini, the Energy of the from Sanskrit). The Tattvartha Sutra is the first Depths: A Comprehensive Study Based on the Scriptures extant text of the Jains, and it systematizes the of Nondualistic Kasmir Saivism. Translated by Jacques canonical teachings into an integrated philosophi- Gontier (Albany: State University of New York Press, cal school. It is written in the concise aphoristic 1988); Sir John Woodruffe (Arthur Avalon), Introduc- style typical of Indian texts designated as SUTRAS. tion to Tantra Shastra, 2d ed. (Madras: Ganesh, 1952); The Tattvartha Sutra plays a similar authorita- ———, Sakti and Sakta, 6th ed. (Madras: Ganesh, tive role in Jain tradition as the VEDANTA SUTRA 1965). of or the YOGA SUTRA of PATANJALI in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 439 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM K 440 Tegh Bahadur

orthodox Hindu culture. In approximately 350 unimportant. As Hinduism developed, it bor- short verses, Umasvami surveys basic Jain doc- rowed from other modes of worship, and both trine. He discusses salvation; states of the soul; the location and iconography became central features. human, celestial, and infernal realms; insentient Often geography determined temple location: high reality; the nature of KARMA, karmic bondage, and places that jut out from the countryside would the acquisition and removal of karma. The Tat- usually have at least small temples at their sum- tvartha Sutra is the only Jain text that is accepted mits, as would river junctions. In addition, places by both of the two main sects, the SHVETAMBARA traditionally associated with events in the lives of and the DIGAMBARA. a deity would often be marked with temples. The temple at RAMESHVARAM, for example, marks the Further reading: P. S. Jaini, Jaina Path of Purification place where RAMA had his monkey armies build (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Nathmal Tatia, a bridge to cross over and fight the demon king trans., That Which Is: Tattvartha Sutra by Umasvami: Ravana, according to the RAMAYANA. With the Combined Commentaries of Umasvami, Pujya- Today, ICON worship is central to Indian tem- pada and Siddhasenagani (San Francisco: HarperCollins, ple worship. The stone itself is not worshipped. 1994). The icon is merely the place the divinity inhabits. A complex ritual must first be performed to install the divinity in the image. Thereafter, the image is Tegh Bahadur See SIKHISM. treated as the divinity itself would be: it is bathed, dressed, sung to, fed, and feted each day. For SHAIVITES, most often the icon is the SHIVA LINGAM, tejas (Agni) See ELEMENTS, FIVE.

temple The temple is the center of Hindu worship. It can vary in size from a small shrine with a simple thatched roof to vast complexes of stone and masonry. During most times of the year the temple is devoted to individual or family worship or to greeting of the divinity. Since many houses in India have their own shrines set up for worship, the temple is reserved for special worship or for requests to the divinity, often by people who have made PILGRIMAGES. At festival times temples are given over to group worship, as devotees sing BHAJANS or KIRTANS, or to various rituals that com- memorate special events in the life of the divin- ity, for example, the marriage of MINAKSHI at the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai. The early worship of the VEDAS took the form A typical Hindu temple tower. Shown here is the of a ceremony around a fire or fires, without any Krishna temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. permanent structures or icons. Location was (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 440 12/14/06 9:29:36 AM temple 441 J

the erect phallus symbol of Shiva surrounded by shrines all over the country, however, who have the round YONI representing the goddess’s sexual non-Brahmin and even SHUDRA (low-caste) priests. organ. For Vaishnavites the icon is a full represen- These are usually temples serving a smaller local tation of VISHNU in one of his forms; for SHAKTAS it community. By law, any member of any caste is an image of the great GODDESS. may enter any temple in India. Nevertheless, in Often the inner sanctum of the temple, its practice Dalits (UNTOUCHABLES) are often barred. most holy spot, holds a small, typically modest Certain temples admit only Hindus; Muslims and icon. The more elaborate statues and images are Christians will be excluded if they are identified. A usually located in the larger temple precincts. famous case of temple exclusion took place when Large temples often boast a huge array of images of Indira Gandhi, , visited gods and goddesses, usually depicting a particular the temple at Puri. She was excluded event in their story. One might see, for instance, because she was married to a non-Hindu. NARASIMHA, the man-lion AVATAR of Vishnu, rip- Many great Hindu temples deserve mention: ping apart his demon foe HIRANYAKASHIPU, or see the VISHVANATHA TEMPLE to Shiva in the holy city Shiva in his pose as the divine dancer, NATARAJA. BENARES (Varanasi); the famous KALI temple at PUJA, the regular worship service including Kali Ghat in Calcutta (Kolkata); the JAGANNATH offerings and rites, is usually performed before TEMPLE to KRISHNA in Puri; the temple for the god- the central icon at fixed times during the day. dess Kamakshi at KANCHIPURAM; the BRIHADISHVARA For a donation, devotees can dedicate certain temple to Shiva in Tanjore; the MEENAKSHI TEMPLE features of a regular puja, such as the recitation to the goddess Minakshi and the Shrirangam of a particular MANTRA. They may also pay for temple to VISHNU, both in Tamil Nadu. pujas to be conducted by BRAHMIN priests at other Most Jains also worship at temples. These times, simple or elaborate at their discretion, in can be quite elaborate, as at MT. ABU, or smaller support of certain prayers or pleas to the divinity. buildings. The puja is similar to the Hindu puja in A woman might want to have a son, a man might these Jain contexts, but since the TIRTHANKARAS, want to gain success in business, or a student the exalted personages who are worshipped, are might seek success in exams. All worldly and sal- not gods, but human beings, there is no PRASADA or vational requests are taken to the divinity of the “blessed food” given, and technically no blessing temple; popular temples are thronged with people can be given by the image or personage. Instead, year round. worship is aimed largely at instilling values that The puja consists, at the minimum, of fruit, will lead devotees toward the yogic perfection of water, and flower offerings to the divinity, accom- the Tirthankara being worshipped. panied by the appropriate mantras. No puja is Sikhs have only the Golden Temple at AMRIT- done without the ARATI, or waving of a lighted SAR, where the holy book of the Sikhs, Granth lamp before the divinity. At the end of the ritual Sahib, is enshrined. Sikhs also have gurudwaras, people may step forward and waft the smoke or “entranceways to the guru,” all over the world. from the lamp over their head or face to receive These meeting places welcome anyone, but there the blessing of the divinity. In certain temples is no iconic worship or puja there. one may receive a little of the food that had been Recently many Hindu temples, Jain temples, offered to the divinity, called PRASADA, which will and Sikh gurudwaras have been established in the confer blessing when eaten. West. They often have unusual features, as at the Most temples in India, including all of the Shiva-Vishnu Temple in Livermore, California, well-known temples, allow only Brahmins to where both Shiva and Vishnu are worshipped side perform the rituals. There are smaller and larger by side. The Western temples are usually built in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 441 12/14/06 9:29:37 AM K 442 Temple of Cosmic Religion

very traditional fashion, under the guidance of Keshavadas had a primary goal of introducing Brahmins and temple experts and artisans from the wisdom of Hinduism to the West. He wanted to India. However, each has its own unique style. usher in a cosmic religion founded on the princi- ples that truth is one and that all paths lead to God. Further reading: Vasudeva S. Agrawala, Evolution of Keshavadas taught YOGA and MEDITATION as a way to the Hindu Temple and Other Essays (Varanasi: Prithivi know God and encouraged his followers to dance, Prakashan, 1979); R. Champakalakshmi and Usha Kris, sing, and chant. Central to Keshavadas’s beliefs are The Hindu Temple (New Delhi: Roli Books, 2001); Stella the precepts of KARMA and REINCARNATION. Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier, The Hindu Temple The world headquarters of the Temple of Cos- (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976); George Mitchell, The mic Religion is now located in Bangalore, India; Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms there are five other centers in India. The U.S. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Malory headquarters is currently in Oakland, California. Nye, Place for Our Gods: The Construction of an Edinburgh Since the death of Keshavadas in 1997, the temple Hindu Temple Community (Richmond, England: Curzon has been led by his widow, Guru Mata Kesha- Press, 1995); Paul Younger, The Home of Dancing Shiva: vadas. The temple also has centers in Trinidad The Traditions of the Hindu Temple in Citamparam (New and England. York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Further reading: Sant Keshavadasji, The Doctrine of Reincarnation and Liberation (Bangalore: Dasashrama Temple of Cosmic Religion Research, 1970); ———, The Purpose of Life (New In 1966, while attending the KUMBHA MELA, a York: Vantage Press, 1978); ———, Satguru Speaks much-celebrated festival of ritual bathing at the (Washington, D.C.: Temple of Cosmic Religion, 1975); confluence of the YAMUNA and GANGES rivers in Mukundadas (Michael Allen Makosky), Minstrel of Love ALLAHABAD, Lord Panduranga Vittala, an incarna- (Nevada City, Calif.: Hansa, 1980). tion of KRISHNA, approached Satguru Sant KES- HAVADAS (1934–97), an independent teacher of various paths of Indian philosophy, and told him, Temple of Kriya Yoga “Go to the West: spread the cosmic religion.” The Temple of Kriya Yoga was established on the Later, after returning home to Delhi, Keshavadas North Side in Chicago in the 1960s by the Ameri- experienced a vision in which he understood can Goswami Kriyananda (b. 1930), who had the spiritual reason for such a journey. The key been teaching yoga since the 1940s. The head- VEDANTA principle that there is only one truth, he quarters of the temple is still located in Chicago. realized, should be used to include, not exclude, Goswami was born Melvin Higgins; he is not to be others. Religion could be a force to gather together confused with his compatriot Swami KRIYANANDA the sacred bonds that unite humanity. of the ANANDA MOVEMENT. The next year, 1967, Keshavadas toured Kriyananda studied YOGA and was initiated by Europe, the Middle East, and the United States. his first GURU, Sri Shelliji, a disciple of Paramah- In 1968 he founded a small center in Washington, ansa YOGANANDA, founder of the SELF-REALIZATION D.C., that would become the American head- FELLOWSHIP. Kriyananda, an excellent astrologer, quarters of the Dasashram International Center, also opened the College of Occult Sciences, which as it was known in India. In the mid-1970s he offered many courses in esoteric traditions. relocated the center to Southfield, Michigan, near During the 1970s Kriyananda established a Detroit, and changed its name to the Temple of retreat in South Haven, Michigan, and in 1977 Cosmic Religion. founded the Kriyananda Healing Center as a

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 442 12/14/06 9:29:37 AM Thailand 443 J

holistic health facility. The center teaches nontra- Princeton University Press, 1989); R. Vijayalakshmy, An ditional methods of healing, including biofeed- Introduction to Religion and Philosophy—Tevaram and back, MEDITATION, yoga, fasting, nutrition, and Tivviyappirapantam (Chennai: International Institute of massage. Tamil Studies, 2001); Kamil V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature Kriyananda instructs students in Yogananda’s (Leiden: Brill, 1975). KRIYA YOGA path of supreme bliss (samadhi); he teaches the oneness of God and a non-dual VEN- DANTIC cosmology. He has written several books Thailand about kriya yoga, astrology, and meditation. Contemporary Thailand is a predominantly Ther- The temple publishes a periodical, The Flame avada Buddhist country, where Hinduism, ani- of Kriya, and maintains a Web site. mism, Islam, and Christianity are also practiced. The Hindu minority constitutes only about 1 Further reading: Goswami Kriyananda, The Bhagavad- percent of the population. Nevertheless, the his- Gita: The Song of God (Chicago: Temple of Kriya Yoga, toric influence of Hinduism is still apparent. The n.d.); ———, Pathway to God-Consciousness (Chicago: king of Thailand is always referred to as RAMA, Temple of Kriya Yoga, 1970); ———, Yoga, Text for the name of the title character of the Teachers and Advanced Students (Chicago: Temple of (the local version of the SANSKRIT RAMAYANA), and Kriya Yoga, 1976). he is considered an AVATAR of VISHNU. Though the Thai monarchies date to the formation of the kingdom of Sukothai, the first king to take the Tevaram title of Rama was Phraphutthayotfa Chulalok, The Tevaram is the collected hymns of the three who was named Rama I during the 18th century. most prominent NAYANMARS or Tamil SHAIVITE The most famous Thai king was Rama V, also saints, APPAR, Jnanasambanthar (also known as known as King Chulalongkorn, who defended SAMBANTHAR or Tirujnanasambanthar), and SUN- Thailand’s independence from European coloniz- DARAR (Suntharamurtti), whose lives spanned ers and introduced democracy. The West knows the sixth through eighth centuries C.E. These of him primarily as the child prince of King Mon- hymns, in the Tamil language, are considered gkut (Rama IV) in the book Anna and the King by Tamil Shaivites to be equal in sanctity to of Siam. The current king, Adulyadej the Great, the SANSKRIT VEDAS as scripture and MANTRA; who rose to power in 1946, is called Rama IX. in a sense, the Tevaram is a Veda. The text is The Ramakien is a central part of Thai cul- memorized and sung by a hereditary community ture. The epic is illustrated in the artwork of called Otuvars during daily temple rituals and many temples and is often performed in dance ceremonials. and puppet plays. The best known image is a The hymns of the Tevaram celebrate SHIVA massive fresco painted on the wall of the Royal with passionate devotion, dwelling on the many Temple (Temple of the Jade Buddha). Other tales of Shiva; his wives, SATI and PARVATI; and his Hindu imagery, such as YAKSHAS, who act as two sons, GANESHA and KARTTIKEYA. They lovingly guardians of the doors, can be found within many describe the deity’s physical attributes and recount Buddhist temples. his visitations to famous devotees at the sites of Monuments to the Hindu gods SHIVA and many important Shaivite shrines in Tamil Nadu. Vishnu are found in Thai Buddhist temples. The Royal Temple has a small group of BRAHMINS to Further reading: Indira Viswanathan Peterson, Poems conduct royal rituals, as Buddhist monks cannot to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints (Princeton, N.J.: preside over these rites. Thai Buddhism shares

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 443 12/14/06 9:29:37 AM K 444 Theosophical Society

many beliefs with its parent religion Hinduism, particularly in Tibet. Their perennial philosophy most particularly the belief in liberation from the became the basis of her writings. cycle of births, the cosmology of Hinduism, and Although Theosophy has no official , the four major eras or YUGAs. Many of the laity it sees itself as a body of truths that are the basis fuse Hindu belief and ritual with Buddhist reli- of all valid religions. It is not a religion per se, gion. Several Hindu temples exist in Thailand and but rather a restatement of the essence of religion most of the major deities are recognized. There itself. The three stated objectives of the society are even temples and PUJAS (worship services) are (1) to form a nucleus of the Universal Broth- dedicated to the creator god BRAHMA alone, a rarity erhood of Humanity without distinction of race, in India itself. creed, sex, caste, or color; (2) to encourage the study of , philosophy, and Further reading: Eliezer B. Ayal, ed., The Study of Thai- science; and (3) to investigate unexplained laws of land: Analysis of Knowledge, Approaches, and Prospects nature and the powers latent in humans. in Anthropology, Art History, Economics, History, and To Theosophists, the universe is a manifesta- Political Science (Athens: Ohio Center for International tion of one eternal, infinite reality, the divine, Studies, South East Asia Program, 1978); John M. which underlies and pervades everything. Each Cadet, The Ramakien: The Thai Epic: Illustrated with the person is a spark of the divine, a microcosm of Bas-Reliefs of Wat Phra Jetubon (Tokyo: Kodansha Inter- the macrocosm, born in order to evolve from national, 1971); Georges Coedès, The Indianized States latent divinity to perfection. Through many incar- of Southeast Asia. Edited by Walter F. Vella translated nations, a soul entity or monad of the divine by Susan Brown Cowing (Honolulu: East-West Center becomes perfect enough to be free from the cycle Press, 1968); Rajiv Malik, “Thailand Hinduism,” Hin- of birth and death. duism Today (July–August–September 2003); Stanley Blavatsky expounded a cosmological scheme J. O’Conner, Hindu Gods of Peninsular Siam (Ascona, and description of the human body and soul, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae, 1972). involving levels and hierarchies that express rela- tionships among humanity, the angelic realms, and ultimately, the divine. Theosophical ideas are Theosophical Society (est. 1875) largely drawn from the cosmological and psycho- The Theosophical Society was founded in 1875 logical teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism and in New York City by Helena Petrovna BLAVATSKY, are portrayed in an amalgam of Hindu and Bud- , and William Q. Judge. The dhist terminology. founders sought to promote the study of insights In 1879 Blavatsky and Olcott settled in India; from various world religions, investigate spiritu- in 1882 they established Theosophical Society alist and other occult phenomena, and foster the headquarters at Adyar, near Madras (Chennai). brotherhood of all humankind. Olcott became In 1895, Judge, who headed the American sec- the first president (1875–1907), although the tion, severed its relations with the British and writings and teachings of Blavatsky became syn- Indian branches. In 1896 Judge died and was suc- onymous with the teachings of the society. The ceeded by Katherine A. TINGLEY, who moved the society accepted her self-description as a disciple American section’s headquarters to Point Loma of highly evolved beings, mahatmas, who had (San Diego), California. Further of the instructed her in , the secret Theosophical Society in America produced the doctrine, the wisdom religion, or Theosophy. She Temple of the People (from the Syracuse, New claimed to have contacted an occult brotherhood York, branch) and the Theosophical Society of of these mahatmas in her travels in the Far East, New York.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 444 12/14/06 9:29:37 AM Therapanthi 445 J

After Blavatsky’s death in 1891, the Theosoph- Society in America, part of the larger International ical movement experienced a decade of internal Theosophical Society in India, is headquartered in dissent. Annie BESANT, an Englishwoman who Wheaton, Illinois. This organization sponsors the joined the society after reading Blavatsky’s work, Theosophical Publishing House and Quest Books, succeeded her as head of the Esoteric Section, a publishes the American Theosophist and Discovery, small group who experimented with occult prin- and operates the Olcott Library at Wheaton. The ciples. When Olcott died in 1907 Besant became Theosophist, founded in 1979, is still published at the new president of the society. Adyar, India. The first decades of the movement saw wide- The United Lodge of Theosophy, founded in spread interest in Theosophical principles in 1909 by , former member of the America, Europe, and India. The synthesis of East Point Loma community, is headquartered in Los and West, religion and science, and esoteric and Angeles and sponsors Theosophy Company, its exoteric understanding made Theosophy compel- publishing house. This organization publishes The- ling to cosmopolitan, liberal people, regardless osophy, a monthly periodical. All of the Theosophi- of nationality, who had been disappointed by cal organizations cited here maintain Web sites. the dogmatism of both religion and science and Although current membership statistics are sought to unite the diverse peoples of the world in not available, adherents to the formal structure a peaceful brotherhood. of Theosophy are becoming fewer. Yet its historic Around the turn of the 20th century the role in introducing Eastern thought and philoso- movement had begun to decline, but under phy to the West remains secure. Besant’s leadership many lodges in Europe, Amer- ica, and India revived. In the Netherlands in Further reading: Bruce F. Campbell, Ancient Wisdom 1926 Besant announced to the world gathering Revisited (Berkeley: University of California Press, of Theosophists that the world teacher whom the 1980); Emmett A. Greenwalt, California Utopia: Point society had anticipated since Blavatsky’s time had Loma, 1897–1942 (San Diego: Point Loma, 1978); been located. This teacher was the young Jiddu Howard Murphet, When Daylight Comes: A Biography of KRISHNAMURTI. Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical The occult formulations and esoteric teach- Publishing House, 1975); Josephine Ransom, A Short ings of the society have influenced many Western History of the Theosophical Society 1875–1937 (Adyar: teachers and movements that do not use the Theosophical Publishing House, 1938); Charles J. Ryan, name Theosophy, including and the H. P. Blavatsky and the Theosophical Movement (Pasa- Lucis Trust; Guy Ballard and the “I AM move- dena, Calif.: Theosophical University Press, 1975); The ment”; Elizabeth Clare Prophet and the Church Theosophical Movement, 1875–1950 (Los Angeles: Cun- Universal and Triumphant; and Rudolph Steiner ningham Press, 1951). and . Theosophical publishing houses are responsible for making available to the general public many texts and writings of Therapanthi Hinduism. The Therapanthis are a schismatic movement Today the Theosophical movement includes within the the STHANAKAVASI sect of Jains (see the Judge-Tingley-dePurucker branch called the JAINISM). It emerged from the attempt by the 18th- Theosophical Society, headquartered in Altadena, century monk Bhikanji to deal with the peren- California. This organization sponsors the Theo- nial conflict faced by Jain monks: to eschew all sophical Press, which publishes the periodical Sun- worldliness or to work actively for the welfare and rise and operates a large library. The Theosophical salvation of all beings.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 445 12/14/06 9:29:38 AM K 446 Thind, Bhagat Singh

Bhikanji’s solution, radical for Jains, was that After the final approval of Thind’s citizenship, renunciation was more important than saving of a naturalization examiner challenged the court’s an animal’s life. He argued that if one were, for decision. That challenge initiated a three-year instance, to save the life of a dog, one would then court process that rested on a provision of an be responsible for the violent KARMA of that animal earlier 1790 law, which had opened citizenship in the rest of its life. Other Jains, shocked at this to any “free white person” not otherwise encum- conclusion because of its apparent rejection of the bered. Thind argued that he was a “Caucasian” Jain notion of AHIMSA or noninjury, predicted that and hence a “white person.” The case went to Bhikanji would never have even 12 disciplines. the United States Supreme Court, which in 1923, Therefore, when the sect did in fact take hold, it in an opinion written by Justice George Suther- became known as the Therapantha (the way of land, ruled that not all Caucasians were white the 13). in the common understanding of that term and revoked Thind’s citizenship. That ruling also led Further reading: V. G. Nair, Jainism and Therapanthism to the withdrawal of a number of other previous (Bangalore: Adinatha Jaina Shvetambara Temple, 1970); grants of citizenship to . The Muni Nathmal, Acarya Bhiksu: The Man and His Philoso- ruling in the Thind case stood as federal policy phy (Churu: Adarsa Sahitya , 1968). until changes were enacted in immigration law in 1965. In the meantime, Thind remained in the United Thind, Bhagat Singh (1892–1967) teacher States and maintained his vocation as a Sant Mat of Sant Mat in the United States teacher, though generally describing himself as a Bhagat Singh Thind, an Indian-American disciple Sikh (see SIKHISM). He lectured widely across the of the reformist SANT MAT movement, became the United States, primarily to non-Indian audiences, subject of a court case in the 1920s that had far- and authored a number of books and booklets. He reaching consequences for the American Indian educated himself on American religion and argued community. for his faith, comparing it to Thind, born in AMRITSAR, Punjab, and initi- and Christianity. In his mature years, cut off from ated by Sant Mat Satguru Sawan Singh (1858– the Sant Mat community, he developed his own 1948), migrated to the UNITED STATES in 1913. He unique, eclectic spiritual system. attended the University of California and earned He later married a French American, Vivian his living, as did many , working in the Davies, who worked for many years to introduce lumber mills in Oregon. During World War I he Indian culture into the United States. They had served in the U.S. Army. In 1920 he applied for one son, David, who keeps his father’s writings and was granted citizenship. in print. Thind’s move to become a naturalized citizen occurred in the wake of the passage of the Asian Further reading: David Christopher Lane, The Radha- Exclusion Act of 1917, which included provisions soami Tradition: A Critical History of Guru Successorship that blocked further immigration from India. (New York and London: Garland, 1992); Bhagat Singh India’s inclusion in the definition of “Asians” to Thind, The Bible of Humanity for Supreme Wisdom (New be excluded had in part been prompted by the so- York: Author, n.d.); ———, Divine Wisdom, 2 vols. called “Hindoo riots” that occurred in Washing- (New York: Author, n.d.); ———, Radiant Road to Real- ton, Oregon, and protesting ity (New York: Author, 1939); “United States vs. Bhagat the many jobs that were given to Punjabi men in Singh Thind, Decided February 19, 1923,” Supreme the lumbering industry. Court Reporter 43, no. 10 (April 1, 1923).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 446 12/14/06 9:29:38 AM Tingley, Katherine 447 J

time in Hindu tradition flood. Finally all the elements return to the seed Time in Hinduism is a cyclical concept. The uni- of primordial nature, or prakriti, and time itself verse arises and disappears in an infinite series of ends, only to reemerge when the cosmic night cycles. has ended. In this time scheme, every “Great Age” (MAHA- Within these cycles is another classification YUGA) encompasses four successive Ages (YUGAS), of time called the MANVANTARA, each of which is beginning with an Age of Truth (KRITA, or Satya, ruled by a MANU, or “first man,” the progenitor YUGA) and progressively declining until an Age of of the human race in that period. Because the Corruption (Kali Yuga, which has no relation to universe dissolves and reappears again and again, the goddess Kali, spelled differently in SANSKRIT). there are an infinite number of such figures. Each A long series of such oscillating Great Ages even- kalpa sees 14 Manus reign in succession. This tually plays out, until the universe dissolves and means that a manvantara takes up approximately remains absent for a time equal to its previous 71 Yugas. One manvantara thus lasts 367,020,000 presence. Then, it once again emerges into a new years. Each manvantara has seven RISHIS (VEDIC round of Great Ages. The Jain tradition shares this seers), certain deities, an INDRA, and a Manu. The notion of cycles, defined somewhat differently. Manu of our era is known as Vaivasvata. He is the Buddhism has its own version of endless time, seventh Manu of our kalpa, or eon. stretching in both directions, past and future. We are currently in the Kali Yuga, but there is Different traditions or puranas describe the no agreement among the sources as to precisely story of time in varying ways. In one version, after where we are in this 432,000-year cycle and when the long night of BRAHMA, equal to 4,320,000,000 this age will end. years, when the universe is in dissolution, the Supreme Being, VISHNU, stimulates the ever-present Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van nature, or PRAKRITI (who exists in potential form Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the while the universe is gone), to reemerge as the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University universe. The universe then begins a new Krita, Press, 1978); F. B. J. Kuiper, “Cosmogony and Concep- or Satya, Yuga, now seen as a Golden Age, fol- tion: A Query,” History of Religions 10 (1970): 91–138; lowed by a Treta (Silver) Age, a Dvapara (Bronze) W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d Age, and finally a Kali (Iron) Age, the final Age ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). of Corruption. We are currently in one such final age. Each Mahayuga, or Great Age, equals 12,000 god-years, each of which lasts 360 human years, Tingley, Katherine (Augusta Westcott) for a total of 4,320,000,000 human years. (1847–1929) American Theosophical leader The Yugas decrease in duration: a Satya Yuga is Katherine Augusta Westcott served as the head of 1,728,000 years, Treta is 1,296,000 years, Dvapara the American Theosophical Society after it broke is 864,000 years, and Kali is 432,000 years. Dur- with Annie Wood BESANT (1847–1933). ing this decline human stature, longevity, and Westcott was born in Newburyport, Massa- morality also progressively decline. chusetts. Privately educated, she became inter- One thousand Mahayugas, or cycles of four ested in social work and founded the Society of Yugas, make up a kalpa (eon), a day in the life of Mercy, a relief organization on New York City’s Lord BRAHMA, 4,320,000,000 years. Each kalpa is impoverished East Side. followed by a time of calamity and disaster, on the Through her social work, she met William Q. Earth and in all the worlds. All beings perish. Fire Judge (1851–96), cofounder of the Theosophi- overtakes all of the worlds, followed by a massive cal Society. In 1891, another cofounder, Helena

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 447 12/14/06 9:29:38 AM K 448 Tirthankara

Petrovna BLAVATSKY (1831–91) died. Previously, The Tingley-led Theosophical Society opposed she and the third co-founder, Henry Steel Olcott the emphasis placed on the role of Jiddu KRISH- (1832–1907), had moved to India, where each NAMURTI (1895–1986). Besant’s designation of had absorbed elements of the Indian spiritual Krishnamurti as the vehicle of the World Savior environment. Through the early 1890s, Judge in the 1920s attracted many new supporters to the challenged the role of Besant, a relatively new international Theosophical Society, though most member of the society who emerged as head left when in 1929 Krishnamurti rejected his con- of its important Esoteric Section, in which Bla- nection with Theosophy. Tingley’s organization vatsky had taught psychic development and was crippled by Tingley’s death in July 1929 in an occult practices. automobile accident in Germany, and by the col- Judge’s challenge of Besant led the majority of lapse of the stock market in October that year that the American section to break with the interna- plunged the world into an economic depression. tional society. Before he died in 1896 Judge desig- Tingley led every activity at Point Loma, and nated Tingley, whom he had seen as a capable and during her life the society flourished, though her dedicated leader, as his successor. Tingley stepped inability to delegate authority and her neglect into her role immediately and traveled the globe of the organization’s other centers became evi- on a World Crusade for Theosophy. When she dent after her death. The society remained vital returned to America, she set up headquarters at through the 1930s but lost the land at Point Loma Point Loma at San Diego, California, where she during World War II. In the later half of the 20th founded the School for the Revival of the Lost century, the International Theosophical Society Mysteries of Antiquity. recovered the support of the majority of American Tingley led the Theosophical Society in an Theosophists. interesting direction, mixing esoteric teach- ings with an experiment in communal living at Further reading: Bruce F. Campbell, A History of the Point Loma and developing a variety of outward- Theosophical Movement (Berkeley: University of Cali- directed programs in the community. Among the fornia Press, 1980); Emmet A. Greenwalt, California more interesting programs was a relief work effort Utopia: Point Loma, 1897–1942 (San Diego: Point Loma, in Cuba that included taking a group of Cuban 1978); , Theosophy: The Path of the children to Point Loma. Mystic (Pasadena, Calif.: Theosophical University Press, Theosophy is basically a Western esoteric 1977); ———, The Wine of Life (Point Loma, Calif.: teaching, but it resonated with Hinduism at Woman’s International Theosophical League, 1925); a variety of points. Most notably, it shared an ———, The Wisdom of the Heart: Katherine Tingley understanding of the individual as essentially Speaks. Compiled by Emmet Small (Point Loma, Calif.: a substantial soul that reincarnated in different Point Loma, 1978). bodies through time. The youth division of the school at Point Loma was designated the Raja Yoga College, a designation Tingley took from the Tirthankara SANSKRIT sense of “royal union.” She saw true edu- The Tirthankaras (ford crossers), those who have cation to consist in the harmonious development crossed the ocean of birth and rebirth and have and balancing of all human faculties. As taught at been released from the bonds of KARMA, are the the school, raja yoga was a system for developing central objects of devotion for Jains (see JAINISM). psychic, intellectual, and spiritual powers and A Tirthankara is a karmically select being, not a a union with one’s higher self (the inner divine god, but a perfected YOGI who has reached enlight- source of all). enment. At rare intervals, such people appear in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 448 12/14/06 9:29:38 AM Tirumurai 449 J

this world to teach and promulgate the tradition natha: A Study (Mysore: Dept. of Jainology and Prakrits, of the Jains. Technically, no one can become com- University of Mysore, 1977). pletely released from karma until death; Jains use the term Tirthankara in anticipation of the libera- tion from karma that these venerated beings have Tirumular (c. sixth century) Tamil Shaivite saint earned. Tirumular has a unique position in the Tamil In each “half-era,” 24 Tirthankaras manifest. literature. He is one of the 63 orthodox Shaivite Such events have transpired for an infinite num- (see SHAIVISM) saints of the Tamil pantheon, while ber of eons and will do so in the future; thus, also considered the first of the mysterious Sittars there have been an infinite number of Tirthan- (SIDDHAS in Sanskrit), the antinomian, antiortho- karas, in theory. Besides, posits dox YOGIS of that tradition. Tirumular is so called numerous other realms beyond our Earth where because he entered his mula (body) by the grace other Tirthankaras manifest, so it is understood of Tiru (the sacred one), the designation of SHIVA’s that though we have no living Tirthankara here bull NANDI. He says in one of his verses, “God cre- on Earth, there is always one alive somewhere in ated me, so that I might recreate Him in Tamil.” the universe. Tirumular is known for his sixth-century poem In Jain temples the Tirthankara is often the Tirumanthiram, which forms the 10th book of the central icon in the shrine, usually depicted at Tamil Shaivite canon, the TIRUMURAI. his or her moment of enlightenment and first teaching, surrounded above and around by all Further reading: B. Natarajan, trans., Tirumantiram, the gods, humans, and animals present to hear a Tamil Scriptural Classic by Tirumular (Madras: Sri the teaching. The 24 Tirthankaras of the current Ramakrishna Math, 1994); Kamil V. Zvelebil, Tamil half of a cosmic cycle: RISHABHA, Ajita, Sambhava, Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). Abhinandana, Sumati, , Suparshva, , Suvidhi/Puspadanta, Shitala, Sreyamsa, , Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Tirumurai Shanti, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, , Nami, The Tirumurai is the Tamil Shaivite (see SHAIVISM) Nemi, PARSHVANATH/MAHAVIRA. canon. This set of sacred texts, written in Tamil, DIGAMBARA and SHVETAMBARA Jains agree on holds a place in that tradition at least equal to this list; however, the Shvetambara believe that the SANSKRIT texts about SHIVA. It is a collection Malli was a woman, while the Digambaras do not of devotional hymns and stories of holy men and accept that women can achieve enlightenment or women, written over the course of 600 years by release from karma in a female birth. Most often the 63 Tamil Shaivite poet-saints. the names of the Tirthankaras are followed by the The entire 12-volume canon was assembled term Natha, or “Lord,” for example, Parshvanath. between 1080 and 1100 by Nambi Antar Nambi. The final Tirthankara of our half of a cosmic cycle, Nambi began with the seven-volume TEVARAM, his MAHAVIRA, however, is generally not addressed collection of hymns by the three great saints SAM- this way. In iconography, the first Tirthankara and BANTHAR, APPAR, and SUNDARAR. Nambi then added the last three are by far the most commonly seen. MANIKKAVACAKAR’s poems, the Tirukkovaiyar and TIRUVACAKAM, as the eighth book, and collected Further reading: Jyotindra Jain and Eberhard Fischer, 28 hymns by nine other saints into the ninth Jaina Iconography, 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978); P. book. He made the Tirumanthiram of TIRUMULAR S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal the 10th book. The 11th book has two parts; the Banarsidass, 1979); T. G. Kalghatgi, Tirthankara Parsva- first contains 40 hymns by 12 other poets, and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 449 12/14/06 9:29:38 AM K 450 Tirupati

the second contains his own contribution, the to the worshippers to take home. The temple is Tirutontar Tiruvantathi. This work recounts the known both for allowing non-Hindus into its lives and achievements of the 63 saints, offers the inner sanctum and for keeping the eyes of the story of his own life and work, and records some image covered—its look is considered too potent of his own hymns. Finally, Nambi made SEKKILAR’s for people to bear. PERIYA PURANAM, a larger summary of the lives and The temple is located amid the famous seven works of the Shaivite saints, the 12th book. hills of the Sheshacalam mountain range, said to Thus, the Tirumurai is a vast heterogeneous represent the seven hoods of the divine serpent collection. It spans the centuries from the first ADISHESHA, the couch for the recumbent VISHNU Shaivite saint, the woman Karakkal Ammaiyar (c. as they float on the MILK OCEAN between eras. 500 C.E.), to Sekkilar in the 12th century. For a The oldest part of the temple dates to the ninth or fuller list of the Shaivite saints see NAYANMARS. 10th century. There is a credible tradition that the temple was originally a MURUGAN or SHIVA temple Further reading: T. N. Ramachandran, trans., Tirumurai that was converted to Vishnu by the famous the Sixth: St. Appar’s Thaandaka Hymns (Dharmapuram: Vaishnava RAMANUJA in the 12th century. Dharmapuram Aadheenam, 1995); V. C. Sasivalli, Mys- The temple was enlarged considerably under the ticism of Love in Saiva (Madras: International VIJAYANAGARA kings, who took Venkateshvara as Institute of Tamil Studies, 1995); Kamil V. Zvelebil, the patron deity of the royal family. Tamil Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). Further reading: Nandith Krishna, Balaji, Venkatesh- wara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati—an Introduction (Mum- Tirupati bai: Vakils Feffer & Simons, 2000); Velcheru Narayana Tirupati (also known as Tirumala) is a site in Rao and David Shulman, God on the Hill: Temple Poems southern Andhra Pradesh where a TEMPLE to from Tirupati (New York: Oxford University Press, VISHNU in the form of Venkateshvara stands on top 2005). of a sacred hill. It is one of the major PILGRIMAGE sites in India and may be India’s richest temple. People go to see Venkateshvara for practical ends, Tiruvacakam with wishes for children, wealth, or success in The Tiruvacakam is the celebrated collection of education. It is very common for people to have hymns by the Tamil Shaivite poet-saint MANIK- their head shaved in the town of Tirupati, to KAVACAKAR. Together with the shorter poem Tiruk- fulfill a vow to the deity, who has been humbly kovaiyar, it forms the eighth book of the Tamil beseeched. Shaivite canon TIRUMURAI. Tiruvacakam contains As many as 30,000 pilgrims a day walk the 51 hymns comprising a total of 3,414 lines. The long narrow winding roads to the top of Tirumala hymns range in length from eight to 400 lines and hill to the modest-sized temple there. There are show a significant variety of metrical forms, with rest houses along the walking route. A bus ride 14 subvarieties of meter. The hymns are usually to the summit takes approximately one hour rhymically recited or sung rather than read. from the bottom. The summit is a dramatic 2,100 The work includes some unusual themes. feet over the city of Tirupati. As are most Vaish- Some have a woman in the role of devotee to the navite temples Tirupati is known for its delicious Lord, singing songs appropriate for playing games PRASADA, or “grace food,” which is given to all who or doing village chores. One interesting poem is visit the Lord. The food is symbolically offered to meant to be sung to awaken the divinity in the God and divinely eaten by him before it is given temple in the morning (a common part of Indian

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 450 12/14/06 9:29:39 AM Transcendental Meditation 451 J

temple ritual). Because of its sacredness, Tiruva- attention when celebrities such as , cakam has no traditional commentaries attached Jane Fonda, and the Beatles became involved. to it. In T.M., each student is given a private, indi- Manikkavacakar’s most important theme is vidual MANTRA or sound for silent repetition. The the shadow of KARMA, which hovers over all as overall strategy of Maharishi is revealed in his a specter. The poet calls to God to remove the book The Science of Being and Art of Living, in bonds of karma and free him. He also speaks of which he spells out the groundwork for creating impurity that takes him on the long road; when worlds of unmanifest being, with the goal of real- impurity has been removed, he becomes a slave to izing God. Lord SHIVA. (For both Shaivites and Vaishnavites, The theoretical base on which T.M. operates the truest devotee is often called a “slave to the is termed the Science of Creative Intelligence feet” of the divinity.) Most importantly he asks (SCI); practitioners maintain that their objective for Shiva’s grace to escape the hold of the senses, is scientific and not religious; the basic technique which lead one to impurity and destruction. Man- for SELF-REALIZATION is derived from VEDIC science ikkavacakar is not, in the end, antisensual, but is and technology. T.M. claims that its effective- wary, as many renunciants are, of the pull of the ness has been scientifically proved in therapeutic unrestrained senses. settings involving criminals, drug abusers, and alcoholics. Further reading: Ratna Navaratnam, A New Approach to The technique is described as a simple mental Tiruvacagam, 2d ed. (Annamalainagar: Annamalai Uni- exercise that initiates deep relaxation and rest. It versity, 1971); Radha Thiagarajan, A Study of Mysticism is generally practiced for 15 to 20 minutes in both in the Tiruvacakam (Madurai: Madurai Kamaraj Univer- the morning and evening. Although the technique sity, 1983); Glenn Yocum, Hymns to the Dancing Siva: was inspired by Vedic practices, instructors in A Study of Manikkavacakar’s Tiruvacakam (Columbia, T.M. and the Maharishi do not consider the prac- Mo.: South Asia Books, 1982). tice to be specifically Hindu, as it does not require either belief in or devotion to a deity. The ben- efits of this practice (lowering of blood pressure, Transcendental Meditation decreased effects of stress, and rehabilitation from Transcendental Mediation (T.M.) is a meditation dysfunctional habits) are said to have been veri- practice taught first in the 1940s by Maharishi fied by more than 500 scientific studies conducted MAHESH YOGI, a disciple of Swami Brahmananda at 214 independent universities and research Saraswati (1869–1953), affectionately known as institutes in over 27 countries. The research has Guru Dev. been published in scientific journals in India, Maharishi has refused to discuss his early life Europe, Canada, and the United States. and little has been discovered. It is known that Transcendental Meditation has received he was born Mahesh Prasad Varma and that he acclaim for improving physiological functioning, graduated with a bachelor’s degree from Allahabad developing mental potential, improving concen- University. Beginning in the 1940s, he spent 13 tration, improving health, preventing disease, and years in silent retreat with Guru Dev. After the bringing about positive effects on social behavior. death of Guru Dev in 1958, Maharishi started In 1977, T.M. announced its SIDDHA program teaching publicly and began to gather disciples. to help initiates achieve abilities, He taught what he had learned from Guru Dev including of the body. A former teacher and added some of his own ideas to strengthen of the Siddha program eventually sued the coun- the work. His movement began to attract global cil, claiming that these manifestations of unusual

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 451 12/14/06 9:29:39 AM K 452 transmigration

phenomena could not be achieved. He won a Millions of people have taken T.M. courses. judgment of $138,000. There are currently more than 7,000 authorized T.M. was largely introduced to the West teachers working at 400 teaching centers. As the through two organizations, the Spiritual Regen- movement has grown, it has become to a large eration Movement and the Student International extent decentralized. In the United States, a Vedic Meditation Society. In 1971, Maharishi purchased City is being planned on land adjacent to the the defunct Parsons College in Fairfield, Iowa, and Maharishi University of Management. The many turned it into Maharishi International University, T.M.-related bodies are described in Web sites which in 1974 was renamed the Maharishi Univer- sponsored by the global movement. sity of Management [of the Universe]). The school During the 1980s the council introduced a awards bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees in line of AYURVEDIC medical products and opened a consciousness-based education. Currently, almost center adjacent to the university to promote them. 800 students are enrolled in programs structured The writer and physician emerged one course at a time in small classes over a period as a leading exponent of Maharishi’s Ayurvedic of four weeks. Degrees are granted in science, the (see AYURVEDA) program but has in recent years humanities, and Vedic science. distanced himself from the organization. In 1972, Maharishi revealed a World Plan to guide the nations of the world in using the Further reading: William Sims Bainbridge and Donald insights derived from the practice of T.M. and the H. Jackson, “The Rise and Decline of Transcendental Science of Creative Intelligence. The World Plan Meditation,” in Rodney Stark and William Sims Bain- includes a wide spectrum of activities for cultural bridge, eds., The Future of Religion (Berkeley: Univer- renewal, health, freedom from war, and personal sity of California Press, 1985); Harold H. Bloomfield, development. Over the last generation, a number Michael Peter Cain, and Dennis Jafee, T.M.: Discover- of different organizations have been formed to ing Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress (New York: implement the plan’s ambitious goals. Delacorte Press, 1975); Martin Ebon, Maharishi: The According to the World Plan Council, T.M. Guru (The Story of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi) (Bombay: is not a new religious group, but some observ- Pearl, 1968); Jack Forem, Transcendental Meditation ers disagree. In the United States controversy (New York: Dutton, 1974); Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, arose as T.M. teachers were receiving government Life Supported by Natural Law (Washington, D.C.: Age funds to teach T.M. in places such as the public of Enlightenment Press, 1986); ———, Transcendental schools and the armed forces. In 1978, a federal Meditation (New York: Signet, 1968); Paul Mason, The district court in Newark, New Jersey, ruled that Maharishi: The Biography of the Man Who Gave Tran- T.M. was indeed a religious practice and could scendental Meditation to the West (Shaftesbury, England: not receive public funds; nor could government Element, 1994). agencies promote its teachings and practice. After this ruling, the sharp upward trajectory of growth for the movement fell sharply, though it remains a transmigration See REINCARNATION. substantial movement worldwide. The New Jersey ruling pointed to the use of MANTRAS as a form of japa yoga; to T.M. initiations, which include traditional religious acts (most of All of the Yugas, or Ages in the Indian tradition, which were never explained to Westerners); and refer to throws in an ancient dice game. Treta to the acceptance of the movement in India as a Yuga is named after the 3, the second best throw. form of SHAIVITE Hinduism. It always follows the KRITA, or SATYA, YUGA (the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 452 12/14/06 9:29:39 AM Trinidad 453 J

Golden Age of Truth). It is 1,296,000 years in duration. The Sun God is its presiding divinity. Where in Krita Yuga pleasure was spontaneous, this ends in Treta Yuga. Where there were no per- manent homes in the Krita Yuga, in the Treta Yuga trees become the homes for people. A beautiful honey (not made by bees) could be found in holes in the trees and was all the food people needed. People were all happy, well fed, and healthy. However, passion and greed began to increase in this age. People remained truthful, but they focused on worldly success. As people cycled between greed and virtue, the trees would dis- appear and reappear. In their absence, people suffered from cold and heat and had to build shelters. Toward the end of the Yuga, people grew more angry and more greedy, and men tried to possess each other’s wives and wealth. In response, Lord BRAHMA emitted the warrior class, the KSHATRIYAS, to set limits in the world. Equality vanished as classes were formed.

Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Image of the Hindu trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University , Bombay (Mumbai) (Constance A. Jones) Press, 1978); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973).

the is a much looser concept and was not trimurti emphasized theologically or theorized upon in Trimurti (tri, three; murti, forms) is a common any way as the Trinity was in Christianity. term in Hindu texts, referring to the triad of divinities BRAHMA, VISHNU, and SHIVA. Brahma is Further reading: Anant Ramchandra Kulkarni, Buddha, the creator god, Vishnu is seen as the sustainer the Trimurti, and Modern Hinduism (Nagpur: Kulkarni, of the world, and Shiva is seen as its destroyer. 1980); Kurian Mathothu, The Development of the Concept In theistic Hinduism these three are often seen as of Trimurti in Hinduism (Palai: Sebastian Vayalil, 1974); aspects of one divinity, either Shiva or Vishnu. Margaret Stutley, The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Ico- Shiva and Vishnu are the two divinities around nography (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). which the two great Hindu sects, SHAIVISM and VAISHNAVISM, constellate. Brahma is not a sectarian divinity, and there are only two temples dedicated Trinidad solely to Brahma in all of India. Though it resem- Hinduism first arrived on the Caribbean island of bles the trinitarian conceptions of Christianity, Trinidad on May 30, 1845, with a group of 197

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 453 12/14/06 9:29:39 AM K 454 Trinidad

indentured workers, who had endured a month- Hindus in Trinidad followed the diverse forms long voyage from Calcutta (Kolkata) aboard the of traditional worship and rituals common in Fatal Kazack. Trinidad had become a British their homeland. Over time, exposure to multi- colony in 1802, after a takeover from Spain. After cultural experiences and pressure by Brahmin Britain abolished slavery in 1833, African slaves leaders to make Hinduism a respected religion on left the sugar and cocoa plantations to pursue the island combined to transform Hindu practices employment as free workers in urban areas. To and make them distinct from Indian Hinduism. fill the labor shortage on plantations, British offi- In the early 20th century the Brahmin caste con- cials developed a scheme to introduce indentured solidated and standardized doctrines and ritual servants from India. Between 1845 and 1917 practices in an official, organized orthodoxy now approximately 140,000 such workers arrived in defined by the Sanatana Dharma Maha Sabha, Trinidad. Most were from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, the largest Hindu organization in Trinidad. This and Calcutta in northern India; others were central organization prescribes congregationally from Madras (Chennai) in the south. About 60 centered practices, BHAKTI rituals (devotions), percent of them were males. The majority left and the study of scriptures. The specification of a their homes in India to escape decades of famine, Hindu orthodoxy has placed Hinduism on a par while others sought to escape increased British with other religions, compatible with Christianity repression in India after the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, and Islam. the first of several revolutionary outbreaks of Changes in Hindu observance include the Indian nationalism. elimination of caste. Nevertheless, the Brahmin Indentured servants were originally contracted priest is recognized for ritual purposes. Brahmins to work five years, yet the majority remained in were once considered to have lost their caste Trinidad and formed permanent settlements. They status once they traveled across the ocean, but were enticed by the offer of free land and did not the general population of Hindus today receive want to return to India, where conditions had not Brahmins with reverence as unique practitioners yet improved. Settlers soon converted the land- of essential and inherent duties. Today, many scape, renaming streets and villages with familiar Brahmins in Trinidad are not full-time pandits references to their Indian home. (teachers) or priests but rather rely upon secular Colonial officials initially sought Indian work- jobs for their income. ers from the lower castes, claiming that BRAHMINS Hinduism has also made its impact on the had “soft hands” for the hard work of the cane larger culture of Trinidad. The popular Hindu fes- fields. British policy soon explicitly denied pas- tival DIVALI has become recognized as a national sage to the well educated in an effort to prevent holiday in Trinidad with the growing influence Brahmins from stirring resistance among lower- of Hindu representation in government. Divali, caste workers. Nevertheless, approximately 10 also known as the festival of lights, is a much percent of workers entering Trinidad were Brah- anticipated week-long event that honors LAKSHMI, mins, who secured passage by concealing their the goddess of light, wealth, and prosperity. It is caste status and changing their name. Many celebrated in the same way as Hindu communi- arrived in response to the urgent plea for spiritual ties observe Divali internationally: families and guidance. As more Hindus settled permanently communities join together, homes are decorated on the island, Brahmins were able to practice with traditional clay lamps, and festive meals their religious duties more openly. By 1870, pub- and sweets are prepared for the celebration. The lic Hindu rituals were common in villages that climax of the holiday occurs with the lighting had large populations of Indians. of the lamps, which are arranged in homes, on

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 454 12/14/06 9:29:39 AM Tukaram 455 J

porches, along streets, and throughout villages. Tukaram (1608–1649) Maharashtran poet-saint The thousands of lamps are lit to dispel darkness Tukaram was a Maharashtran poet-saint, who and ignorance. sang Marathi songs in praise of Vithoba or Vit- In the 1920s, buildings known as koutias thala, a local incarnation of KRISHNA. became a regular feature in the country’s land- He appears to have been low-caste in birth, scape. The structure, found throughout the Bhoj- probably SHUDRA. As with many of the poet-saints pur region in India, traditionally served to house little is known of him for certain, and most of that the temple caretaker. In Trinidad, koutias became is taken from autobiographical snippets found in additions to traditional temple structures and his verses. The primary , the Bhak- served as congregational halls. Many koutias were tililamrita and the Bhaktavijaya, were both written built in communities where there were no tradi- by one Mahipati. They contain many miraculous tional temples, in order to attract visits from SWA- events and much information that is probably not MIS. The congregational halls became converted factual. into central places of worship and began housing Poet-saints sometimes find the corpus of their numerous . By the 1950s, the koutia works expand over the years as others mimic temple became a unique feature of Trinidad’s Hin- their style and wish to have verses of their own duism. The structure of the koutia includes a long composition appear under the respected name of rectangular body with a flat or low-angled roof. a saint. This phenomenon is evident in the case of When attached to a traditional temple it appears Tukaram. Thus, there is no possibility of issuing a with a decorative dome at its front entrance. The critical edition of Tukaram’s words, though many temple typically holds up to 100 worshippers, editions and sets of verses have been attributed who use the structure for congregational rituals, to him. seminar talks with visiting swamis, and general The hagiographical biography is as follows: worship services. Tukaram is born as an AVATAR of the Mahatrastran At present, approximately 300,000 Hindus saint-poet at the behest of VISHNU him- reside in Trinidad and Tobago. They make up self, after his parents, Vaishnavite Bolhoba and about 23 percent of the country’s population Kanakai, sincerely entreat God for a saintly son. and represent the second largest religion in the When Tukaram reaches manhood, his father gives country after Christianity. Hinduism continues to him responsibility in his business. Because his thrive. Despite the incursion of secular influences, first wife is feeble, Tukaram’s father arranges a sec- many young people remain interested in their ond for him. Tukaram proves inept at business, as faith and continue to support the preservation of he has otherworldly concerns; when he does have Hindu traditions. a successful venture he gives away all his profits to a needy BRAHMIN. Further reading: K. O. Laurence, A Question of Tukaram falls into severe poverty and his elder Labour: Indentured Immigration into Trinidad and Brit- wife starves to death. Then his eldest son dies. At ish Guiana, 1875–1917 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, this, Tukaram renounces the world and retires to 1994); Ashram B. Maharaj, The Pandits in Trinidad: A a mountain to worship Vithoba. There Vithoba Study of a Hindu Institution (Trinidad: Indian Review reveals himself to him. Tukaram’s second wife Press, 1991); Steven Vertovec, The Hindu Diaspora: continues to serve him as her husband but com- Comparative Patterns (New York: Routledge, 2000); plains bitterly of his otherworldly nature. ———, Hindu Trinidad: Religion, Ethnicity and Socio- Tukaram is known for his kindness and caring Economic Change (London: Macmillan Caribbean, for all. He feeds the hungry by miracles, he aids 1992). a lame woman, he repairs a temple. Gradually, he

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 455 12/14/06 9:29:40 AM K 456 tulsi

attracts disciples and gains fame in his worship of so that her leaves may be used in the worship of Vithoba at Pandharpur. The famous Maratha king KRISHNA. Shivaji visits Tukaram, who tells him to return to Tulsi is offered daily in Vaishnavite pujas, kingship and not renounce the world. Tukaram whether in the temple or at home. When an performs many miracles, including turning iron orthodox Vaishnavite BRAHMIN male dies, a tulsi into gold. After many visitations, God himself plant is worshipped and a bit of root is placed in escorts the glorious Tukaram to heaven. his mouth and leaves are placed on his face and eyes; he is sprinkled with a tulsi sprig that has Further reading: Justin Abbott, Life of Tukaram (Delhi: been dipped in water. This ritual is said to guar- Motilal Banasidass, 1980); Ajit Lokhande, Tukarama, antee heaven. Some say that even looking at this His Person and His Religion: A Religio-Historical, Phe- sacred plant confers release from sins. nomenological and Typological Enquiry (Frankfurt: Peter Any illness or pollution from contact with pol- Lang, 1976); Eleanor Zelliot, “Four Radical Saints luting people or substances is said to be removed of Maharastra,” in Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle, by worship of the plant. Tending the tulsi plant eds., Religion and Society of Mahatrastra. South Asian is said to assure liberation from birth and rebirth. Papers, No. 1 (Toronto: Centre for South Asian Stud- Sprigs of tulsi are offered to Vishnu especially in ies, University of Toronto, 1987); Eleanor Zelliot and the month of Karttika (October–November). Tulsi Maxine Berntsen, The Experience of Hinduism: Religion dipped in saffron will please Vishnu. A twig of in Maharastra (Albany: State University of New York tulsi given to someone can lift his or her troubles Press, 1988). and anxieties. Tulsi leaves are aromatic, and the plant is thought to help with coughs; it is taken as a folk tulsi (tulasi) medicine. Orthodox Vaishnavite Brahmins take Tulsi (Ocymum sanctum) is a species of plant it after meals to help digestion. It is also taken resembling European basil that is sacred to the before and after rituals. Vaishnavites (worshippers of VISHNU) and is culti- vated by them for use in PUJAS (worship services) Further reading: Abbé J. A. Dubois, Hindu Manners, and offerings. It is often put on a four-sided ped- Customs and Ceremonies. Translated by Henry K. Beau- estal placed in a special location in one’s house or champ, 3d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959); Yash near a place of worship. It is sometimes seen to be Rai, Holy Basil, a Herb: A Unique Medicinal Plant. Trans- the wife of Vishnu, LAKSHMI herself. lated by K. K. Sata (Ahmedabad: Gala, 1992). One popular legend explains its origin: once Lakshmi and SARASVATI quarreled and cursed each other. Sarasvati’s curse turned Lakshmi into Tulsidas (1532–1623) greatest Hindi poet a tulsi plant and forced her to live on Earth for- It can be said without reservation that Tulsidas is ever. Vishnu, however, intervened and modified the greatest poet to write in the Hindi language. the curse, saying that Lakshmi would remain on Tulsidas was a BRAHMIN by birth and was believed Earth as tulsi until the river Gandaki flowed from to be a reincarnation of the author of the SANSKRIT her body. RAMAYANA, VALMIKI. In another story tulsi is understood to be the Tulsidas was born in the village of Rajpur in plant incarnation of Vrindadevi, the primary and Uttar Pradesh in 1532 C.E. He died in 1623 C.E. at archetypal “forest goddess.” She beautifies the the age of 91 at Asighat in BENARES (Varanasi). His flora and fauna of the ultimate spiritual forest, father’s name was Atmaram Shukla Dube and his Vrindavana (BRINDAVAN). She appears in this world mother’s was Hulsi. Tulsidas’s birth name was Tul-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 456 12/14/06 9:29:40 AM Turiya 457 J

siram. The story of Tulsidas’s life is not historically Several stories demonstrate Tulsidas’s special verifiable and many details clearly are intended to spiritual status. Once some thieves went to his enhance the understanding that he was a saint. For ASHRAM to steal. They were frightened off by a example, he did not cry at birth and was born with dark-complexioned guard holding a bow and 32 teeth. His early life was fraught with sorrow arrow in his hand. The next morning they asked because his parents died when he was still young. Tulsidas about this unusual-looking guard. Tulsi- Some say that his foster parents also passed away das realized that it had been Lord Rama and was when he was young. We know he was married to a overcome with devotion. In thanks, he gave away woman named Buddhimati or Ratnavali. It is said all his wealth to the needy. he had a son named Tarak. In another story it is said that Tulsidas, while Tulsidas was inordinately fond of his wife. One visiting BENARES, was greeted by a murderer, asking day she went to her father’s house without telling alms in the name of Lord Rama. Tulsidas invited her husband. When Tulsidas found out, he could him to his house and gave him PRASADA, sacred not stay away from her and went to sleep with her food, from the worship of Rama. The BRAHMINS were in her father’s house. Buddhimati, trying to resist angered; they thought it improper to give a criminal his advances in embarrassment, said that if Tulsi- such a blessing and to sit and eat with him. The das had half the love for Lord RAMA that he had Brahmins challenged Tulsidas; they said they could for her lowly body, he would most certainly reach approve giving alms to a murderer only if the tem- liberation from birth and rebirth. Shamed by this, ple icon of NANDI, Shiva’s bull mount, would accept Tulsidas resolved to leave the householder life and food from the hand of this murderer. Tulsidas took become an ascetic. them up on this challenge, and the temple Nandi He spent the next 14 years visiting the vari- did indeed eat from the murderers hands. ous PILGRIMAGE sites of North India. Living in the In another tale saint Tulsidas restores a poor wilderness, Tulsidas would spill the excess water woman’s husband to life. Finally, Tulsidas is said after his ablutions on the root of a particular to have been jailed by the Mughal emperor; when tree. This pleased the being within the tree, who he was freed by a band of monkeys, friends of offered Tulsidas a boon. Tulsidas asked for a direct Hanuman, the emperor himself, though a Muslim, vision of Lord Rama. The being told Tulsidas to recognized Tulsidas as a saint. go to a particular temple where HANUMAN, the monkey god, visited regularly in the form of a Further reading: A. G. Atkins, trans., The Ramayana leper. He was told to approach Hanuman for his of Tulsidas (New Delhi: , 1954); S. P. request. This he did, and he received DARSHAN of Bahadur, The Ramayana of Goswami Tulsidas (Bombay: Lord Rama. Jaico Publishing House, 1972); S. P. Bahadur, trans., Tulsidas wrote 12 books, but, by far, the most Complete Works of Gosvami Tulsidas (Varanasi: Prachya important is the Ramcharitmanas (The Holy Lake Prakashan, 1978); S. R. Bakshi and Sangh Mitra, eds., of the Acts of Ram), a Ramayana written in old Saints of India (New Delhi: Criterion, 2002); Ramdat Hindi (Avadhi) couplets. The book was written Bharadwaj, The Philosophy of Tulsidas (New Delhi: under the direction of Hanuman himself. It is Munshiram Manoharlal, 1979); Sant Vani: Hindi Devo- read all over North India, and particularly during tionals from Saint Poets (Dum Dum: EMI: His Master’s the time of the Ramlila. It is sung aloud in large Voice, 1975); Devendra Singh, Tulsidas (Bombay: India groups for devotional purposes. Patrika is Book House, 1971). another excellent book said to be written by Tulsi- das, who also authored Gitavali (1571), Kavitavali (1612), and Barvairamayana (1612) Turiya See STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 457 12/14/06 9:29:40 AM K 458 Turiyasangitananda, Swami

Turiyasangitananda, Swami (Alice The ashram has a bookstore and a vegetarian res- Coltrane) (1937– ) jazz pianist and taurant. Radio and television programs are also spiritual teacher produced by the center. Avatar Book Institute Swami Turiyasangitananda combined her spiritual of Agoura Hills distributes Turiyasangitananda’s learning and musical talent to create a unique writings and recordings. teaching in the YOGA tradition. Born in Detroit, Michigan, on August 27, Further reading: Alice Coltrane-Turiyasangitananda, 1937, Alice MacLeod was a rare female jazz Endless Wisdom (Los Angeles, Calif.: Avatar Book Insti- instrumentalist, playing piano, organ, and harp. tute, 1981); ———, Monument Eternal (Los Angeles, She married the famous jazz musician John Col- Calif.: Vedantic Book Press, 1977). trane in 1965. In 1968 she received a spiritual awakening and received initiation into SANNYAS (renunciation). She traveled to India with Swami Twitchell, Paul See ECKANKAR. SATCHIDANANDA, founder of the INTEGRAL YOGA INTERNATIONAL and studied his teachings. She began publishing books and recording devotional Tyberg, Judith M. (1902–1980) Theosophist music, reflecting her spiritual life. In 1975 she and U.S. Sri Aurobindo disciple was given the name Swami Turiyasangitananda was a convert to Hinduism who and began to establish a small following in the worked to introduce the faith to the West. United States. In 1983 she established the Vedan- Judith was born on May 17, 1902, in Califor- tic Center on 48 acres of land in the Santa Monica nia. Her parents were both Danish Theosophists; Mountains near Agoura, California, and built an her mother reportedly chanted a Vedic hymn to ASHRAM to serve its growing membership. The the entering soul throughout her pregnancy carry- ashram was renamed Sai Anantam Ashram in ing Judith. Her parents sent her to the THEOSOPHI- Chumash Pradesh in 1994. CAL SOCIETY’s Point Loma Raja Yoga School and the Sai Anantam incorporates both the teachings Theosophical University. She earned an M.A. and of Swami Satchidananda and Western spirituality. Ph.D. in Religion and Philosophy with a concen- Music and singing have a central role at the ash- tration in Oriental thought and . ram. Devotional compositions influenced by Turi- While working on her degrees, she began to teach yasangitananda’s musical talents mix traditional at the Raja Yoga School. In 1932 she became its BHAJANS with modern Western features. Studies at assistant principal, a position she left to become the center include readings from the VEDAS and the dean of studies at the Theosophical University the Hindu scriptures as well as Christian, Islamic, in 1935. and . As a scholar, she began to work on the SAN- Sai Anantam is open to seekers of all faiths. SKRIT terms that had been introduced into Theo- Turiyasangitananda emphasizes basic Vedic prin- sophical teachings. Her first book, Sanskrit Keys to ciples including the advancement of human life, the Wisdom-Religion, appeared in 1940. self-purification, selfless service, and unity with In 1947, Tyberg moved to India to pursue fur- God. The center has primarily African American ther studies at Benares Hindu University and to members. Approximately 30 residents live at Sai follow a spiritual quest that was leading her from Anantam and others from the surrounding com- Theosophy to Hinduism. Soon after her arrival, she munity attend regular worship services. Activities was introduced to the writings of SRI AUROBINDO. at the ashram include Sunday school for children, Impressed, she traveled to Pondicherry and met the weekly worship, chanting of services, and prayer. MOTHER, who related to Judith that both she and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 458 12/14/06 9:29:40 AM Tyberg, Judith M. 459 J

Aurobindo had awaited her arrival. At the touch Swami VISHNUDEVANANDA, visited and lectured of the Mother’s hand, Judith felt electric forces go there. Besides offering regular meetings to share through her being. Judith asked the Mother for Aurobindo’s teaching, the center became a wel- a spiritual name and was given a piece of paper coming place for Indian teachers to meet Western- on which, in Aurobindo’s handwriting, was writ- ers and to offer initial presentations of their ideas ten Jyotipriya (lover of light). While she would and practices. encounter a number of prominent Indian teachers She continued to work in Los Angeles until her over the next years, including ANANDAMAYI MA, death on October 3, 1980. The East-West Cultural Swami SHIVANANDA of RISHIKESH, Sri KRISHNA PREM, Center evolved into the Sri Aurobindo Center of and RAMANA MAHARSHI, she had found her gurus in Los Angeles and continues to the present. Aurobindo and the Mother. Jyotipriya returned to the United States in Further reading: Judith Tyberg, First Lessons in Sanskrit 1950 and opened the East-West Cultural Center Grammar and Reading (Covina, Calif.: Theosophical in Los Angeles in 1953, the first Aurobindo center University Press, 1944); ———, The Language of the in America. Eminent teachers from India, includ- Gods: Sanskrit Keys to India’s Wisdom (Los Angeles, ing Swami RAMDAS, Mother KRISHNABAI, Jagadguru Calif.: East-West Cultural Centre, 1970); ———, San- Shankaracharya of Puri, Dilip Roy, , skrit Keys to the Wisdom-Religion (Point Loma, Calif.: Swami MUKTANANDA, Swami SATCHIDANANDA, and Theosophical University Press, 1940).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 459 12/14/06 9:29:40 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 460 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM U J: AF

udgatri See VEDAS. later, in 1911, was a branch of this Hindu reform- ist organization established in London. The substantial presence of Hindu communi- Uma See PARVATI. ties in Britain can be traced to the late 1950s and 1960s, often the result of enforced alienation, rather than employment. Hindus now have a Umaswami (Umasvati) See TATTVARTHA noticeable presence in numerous major British SUTRA. cities. At the early stages of settlement, Hindu communities rented premises for PUJA (worship services). A decade later, during the late 1960s United Kingdom and 1970s unused churches and some private The National Census of April 2001 reported houses were converted into Hindu TEMPLES, and 559,000 Hindus living in Britain, approximately a few temples were built dating from the 1990s. 1 percent of the population, making Hinduism There are some 150 mandirs (temples) in Britain: Britain’s third largest religion. In 1977, 70 per- the earliest is the Sri Geeta Bhawan in Birming- cent of Hindu residents were Gujarati, 15 percent ham (1967), and the largest is the Sri Swamina- Punjabi, and others originating from other Indian rayan Mandir in Neasden, completed in 1995. locations, such as Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Hinduism’s main traditions are reflected in Maharashtra, as well as Sri Lanka. Britain’s religious landscape: Vaishnavite, Shaivite, The presence of Hinduism in Britain goes back and SHAKTA, as well as some presence of the at least to the early 19th century, when Rammohun NATH tradition. Within the Vaishnavite tradition, ROY (1772–1833), founder of the BRAHMO SAMAJ, the SWAMINARAYAN sect enjoys some prominence. visited England toward the end of his life and Although followers speak a variety of languages, died in Bristol in 1833. In 1870, Keshab Chunder the use of SANSKRIT in worship is prevalent. All SEN, another representative of the Brahmo Samaj, major Hindu festivals are celebrated. visited London and initiated the transmission of Hinduism has inevitably undergone adapta- Hindu thought and practice to the West. Only tion in the DIASPORA. The most notable changes

461

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 461 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM K 462 United Kingdom

have occurred in worship, as increasing emphasis A number of umbrella organizations have been is placed on congregational activity, scheduled to formed to champion the interests of British Hin- accommodate Western working hours. Rites of dus. These include the National Hindu Students passage have undergone some change. Initially Forum UK (founded 1993), the Hindu Council of temples were not registered for the solemnization the UK (founded 1994), and the National Council of marriage, thus necessitating a civil ceremony as for Hindu Temples. The last of these was set up well as a religious one. Hindu temples, however, in the late 1980s, mainly by the INTERNATIONAL are now formally recognized as places of wor- SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON), to ship, although the ceremony must incorporate enlist the support of the wider Hindu community elements necessitated by British law. FUNERAL for ISKCON’s activities. rites have undergone some modification, to make Few indigenous Britons have converted to Hin- them more compatible with crematorium arrange- duism in its traditional forms. However, a number ments. The CASTE system continues to prevail and of Hindu-related movements have emerged within remains relevant to POLLUTION, marriage, and eat- the country and have proved attractive to West- ing prescriptions. erners. One early example was the RAMAKRISHNA

Swaminarayan Temple, completed 1995, in suburban London, England (Institute for the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 462 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM United States 463 J

VEDANTA CENTRE, founded by Swami Ghanananda in 1948. The MAHARISHI MAHESH YOGI lectured on TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION in London in 1960. In 1969 the Beatles hosted Swami A. C. Bhaktive- danta PRABHUPADA in London, and in 1973 purchased Bhaktivedanta Manor for the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). Other more recent Hindu groups include ANANDA MARGA YOGA SOCIETY (founded by P. R. Sarkar), BRAHMA KUMARIS WORLD SPIRITUAL ORGA- NIZATION (founded by Dada Lehraj), Prem RAWAT’s movement (previously known as the Divine Light Mission and now called Elan Vital), Sahaja Yoga (led by Sri Mataji), the SELF-REALIZATION FELLOW- SHIP (brought by YOGANANDA), Siddha Yoga Dham (founded by MUKTANANDA), and Sri CHINMOY cen- ters. SATYA SAI BABA’s movement remains contro- versial; SHIRDI SAI BABA (1838–1918), his allegedly previous incarnation, is followed in his own right by some of Britain’s Asian community, who regard Satya Sai Baba as an imposter. Western interest in Hindu spirituality has given rise to a number of Western GURUS who Hindu temple in Malibu, California, a popular site for teach in the Indian tradition. The best known are American Hindus (Institute for the Study of American Baba RAM DASS (born Richard Alpert, 1931), Ava- Religion, Santa Barbara, California) tar ADI DA SAMRAJ (born Franklin Jones, 1939), and Andrew COHEN (b. 1955). See also UNITED STATES. entered America. Ironically, the assimilation of Further reading: R. Ballard, Desh Pardesh: The South Asian immigrants from India has not been a primary Presence in Britain (London: Hurst, 1994); G. Parsons, ed., vehicle for the introduction or popularization of The Growth of Religious Diversity: Britain from 1945, Vol. Hindu teachings. The development of appreciation 1, Traditions (London: Routledge, 1993); T. Thomas, ed., for Hindu traditions followed a standard American The British: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices 1800–1986 pattern—dependence on European scholarship (London: Routledge, 1988); S. Vertovek, The Hindu Dias- and interpretation in the 17th, 18th, and 19th pora: Comparative Patterns (London: Routledge, 2000); centuries and independent experimentation and P. Weller, Religions in the U.K.: A Multi-Faith Directory selectivity in the 20th and 21st. During the 17th (Derby, England: University of Derby, 2003). century, colonists and missionaries set up relation- ships with India that led to translation into English of some Hindu sacred texts. The BHAGAVAD GITA, United States translated in 1785, became important to Emerson, The dissemination of Hindu thought and practice Thoreau, and other leaders of the transcendentalist in the United States began before any Hindu teacher movement early in the 19th century.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 463 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM K 464 United States

Before the transcendentalists, Americans Providence with cloth, teas, spices, and crafts. showed little understanding of or sympathy for By 1799, William Bentley, minister of the Second India and Hinduism. Cotton Mather, spokesman Congregational Church of Salem, Massachusetts, for militant Christianity, maintained a keen inter- set up the East India Marine Society and became est in the East, but only as a field in which Chris- the first notable collector in America of Oriental tian missionaries might preach, teach, and convert art and artifacts. the “heathen.” In 1721, Mather’s India Christiana The first attempts to understand Hinduism outlined the methods he felt were best suited to and the East were those of American thinkers who drawing Hindus into the flock of Christ. were inheritors of the spirit of the Enlightenment, Later in the 18th century, tangible evidence a time in which redefinition of religion was cen- of contact with India reached American eyes. tral. In Europe, hailed as one In 1784, the ship United States sailed to Pondi- of history’s great men, and English deists found cherry and returned to stock Boston, Salem, and Oriental religions of equal merit with Christianity.

Old Vedanta temple in San Francisco, California, dedicated in 1905 (Constance A. Jones)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 464 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM United States 465 J

Attuned to this new thought, Benjamin Franklin Hindu Rammohun ROY, found spiritual affinity maintained a friendship with Sir William Jones, with Unitarianism and sought to apply Unitarian the English Orientalist, who introduced the study standards to Hinduism and to focus the atten- of SANSKRIT to Western scholars. In the 1780s, tion of Unitarians on India. By 1820, Roy had while occupying a judgeship in Bengal, Sir Wil- published several Hindu texts in English and had liam established the Asiatic Society and translated developed his ideas on Hindu reform in articles the Laws of Manu and Kalidasa’s Sakuntala. and speeches, which were featured prominently Joseph Priestley, scientist, scholar, and founder in Unitarian periodicals published in the United of English Unitarianism, traveled to America in States. Roy’s writings and talks explaining Asia 1794 and spent the last decade of his life there. His and Hinduism were the first expressions by a works of philosophy, science, and theology reveal Hindu in Unitarian terms to which Americans a new understanding and respect for the Hindus, had access. In the 1850s the Unitarian Charles a people of “superior wisdom and civilization.” Dall and the Brahmo Samaj’s Keshub Chunder SEN Praising the culture, control, and traditions of the developed a friendship that initiated a relationship Hindus, Priestley stopped short of extolling their between the two organizations that is still bearing religion, which he dismissed as “absurd notions” fruit. and “complicated .” As a reader of the Later in the 19th century, leaders of the tran- translations of Sir William Jones, Priestley looked scendentalist movement read newly translated back toward European thinking and scholar- Hindu scriptures and incorporated their ideas in ship. As a resident in America, he exerted direct an American philosophy. Emerson stressed eclec- influence on John Adams, who heard the elderly tic theology; Thoreau, the immersion in nature; Priestley lecture in Philadelphia in 1796. Adams, and Bronson Alcott, an interest in universal scrip- in turn, referred Thomas Jefferson to Priestley’s tures. Influenced by Emerson, Walt Whitman writings. wrote poetry that expressed a remarkable similar- At the turn of the century, Hannah Adams’s ity to Asian thought. In his writing he admits he A View of Religion (1801) encouraged greater had read “the ancient Hindoo poems,” and he acceptance of non-Christian faiths. In her study, mentions BRAHMA and Hinduism in his “Song of Adams devotes considerable attention to Hindu- Myself.” While these figures created an intellec- ism, describing the voluntary suffering to which tual climate receptive to the ideas of Hinduism, the Indian submits in order to fulfill religious transcendentalism did not attempt to represent all obligations and labeling Indian religion “the most of Hindu teachings, but rather selected elements tolerant of all.” The open-mindedness of A View consistent with their worldview. of Religion reflects a new liberality willing to dis- Another American group, the Free Religious pute the supremacy of Christianity and to make Association, made up largely of Quakers, Uni- religious questions and religious a stan- tarians, and transcendentalists, turned to world dard, at least among the informed. religions to support their rejection of a faith based Spreading this new liberality of interpretation solely on the Bible. Their publications and meet- was Unitarianism, with its emphasis on tolerance ings featured the works of the Oriental scholar and the centrality of . In India, Hin- and championed the idea of a world dus were responding to the impact of Christianity. Bible. Through this organization, active from 1865 Among the reformist movements in India was through the late 1880s, the American conscious- the BRAHMO SAMAJ, a movement based upon the ness was exposed to comparisons and contrasts of assumed monotheism of the UPANISHADS and the Christianity and Hinduism. In its 17 years of pub- abandonment of all image worship. The founder, lication, The Index, journal of the Free Religious

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 465 12/14/06 9:29:41 AM K 466 United States

Association, issued more than 500 separate works of the world, and its unorthodox interpretation explaining and describing the East. of Christ, demonstrated a mixture of Eastern and Beginning in 1875, the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Western views of reality. The sources of the Chris- took to the United States an appreciation of Hindu- tian Science founder Mary Baker Eddy’s ideas ism and Buddhism, interpreted through the lenses remain in debate, but the result is clear: the incor- of its Western leaders, HELENA PETROVNA BLAVATSKY, poration in an organized American church of at Charles Leadbeater, and ANNIE WOOD BESANT, least some of the ideas and values of Hinduism. who traveled to India and took home firsthand While religious movements and philosophi- impressions. Theosophists directly proclaimed an cal schools offered their interpretations of Hin- adherence to Asian thought but included elements duism, scholars were examining the East from of occultism and psychism as well. As a result of their own perspective. The American Oriental this synthesis, the contribution of Theosophy to Society, founded in 1842, provided a forum for the developing American consciousness was an scholarly exchange. It established a library and amalgam of Hinduism, Buddhism, spiritualism, published the Journal of the American Oriental and rationalism. ’s Society, which ran bibliographic essays reporting claimed direct revelation from Eastern adepts, on Vedic research occurring in Germany, transla- called Mahatmas, and celebrated the traditional tions of religious texts that exposed ideas formerly Hindu concepts of REINCARNATION and KARMA. In unavailable to American readers, and essays on the spite of its original association with spiritualism, philosophy of Hindu scriptures and on the various Theosophy exerted a major influence in both India schools of Hinduism. These scholarly efforts lifted and the United States. By 1884, in addition to its cultural, religious, and linguistic barriers. Leaders success in the United States, over 100 branches in the society were Edward Salisbury; William of Theosophy flourished in India. Continuing Dwight Whitney, who became America’s greatest until the present, various Theosophical publish- Oriental scholar; and Charles Rockwell Lanman, ing houses have been important disseminators in who, among other contributions, edited the Har- the United States of Hindu texts, commentaries, vard Oriental Series. and histories. Much of what Americans grasp of Attempts to understand and explain surfaced Hinduism has been a result of the popularity of in the general press as well. Although popular Theosophical publications. magazines did not carry reliable information Uniquely American religions, including New about Asia, serious reviews served to foster escape Thought and , took up Hindu from American isolation by looking analytically at concepts. The New Thought churches, which Hindu ideas and scholarship. The North American include Religious Science, Divine Science, Unity Review, as did the Edinburgh Review, touched on School of Christianity, Mind Cure, and Applied many aspects of Indian culture and the Hindu reli- Metaphysics, concentrated on VEDANTA philoso- gion. Book publishing reflected the new interest phy and the concepts of REINCARNATION and KARMA. in the East. The popularity of Sir Edwin Arnold’s Indebted to the research of the Theosophists, Light of Asia (1879) and his free translation of exponents of New Thought gained for Hinduism the Bhagavad Gita (1885) drew the author to the a new kind of acceptance, however narrow, in the United States for a lecture tour. United States. No longer were the doctrines of the In 1883, the first Hindu GURU visited America. East damned as pagan nonsense; they were now Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a representative of incorporated into American religion. Christian the BRAHMO SAMAJ, delivered his first American Science, with its radical monism, its doctrine of address at the home of ’s eternal mind, its disavowal of the ultimate reality widow in Concord, Massachusetts. He returned

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 466 12/14/06 9:29:42 AM United States 467 J

in 1893 to attend, along with many representa- Establishment of the Vedanta centers coin- tives of the religions of Asia, the WORLD PARLIA- cided with the first small wave of immigrants from MENT OF RELIGIONS in Chicago. The congress was India to America, in the 1890s—a phenomenon the first international gathering of representa- that evoked riots and vitriolic reaction against tives of the major Eastern and Western faiths. a “Hindu invasion.” But reason also existed and Speakers gave formal recognition to non-Chris- prompted a growing interest in Hinduism among tian faiths and made clear that Western thought non-Indians, the establishment of various societ- had always drawn heavily on the East, and that ies, and the arrival of Indian teachers, partly to Hinduism was a source of tolerance, introspec- serve the immigrants. Among them, in 1902, was tion, self-discipline, and the opportunity for a a young monk, Swami RAMA TIRTHA, who lectured full religious life, not mere idol worshipping or for two years throughout the United States on the polytheism. This 17-day conference, which drew reasonableness of Hinduism—and the evils of the crowds far larger than any forecast, permitted Indian CASTE system. In 1904, a Bengali Vaish- non-Christians to speak about their own faiths navite, Baba Premanand BHARATI, began a five-year and created an appreciation of the offerings of tour, during which he formed the Krishna Samaj; Eastern traditions. The experience affirmed that in 1909, Swami PARAMANANDA, another member of an interest in comparative religions was not the Ramakrishna Math in India, arrived, eventu- simply the province of a few specialized or elite ally to form another group of Vedantins. groups. From the time of the parliament onward, the Swami VIVEKANANDA, another representative United States saw the establishment of Hindu of Hinduism and a young disciple of the late Sri organizations and an expanding interest in the RAMAKRISHNA, was one of the parliament’s most teachings of the religion. In large cities such as impressive speakers. He was hailed by the Ameri- New York and Chicago, the press chronicled the can press as the most persuasive speaker of the exploits of visiting teachers from India. Emulat- parliament. In several eloquent presentations, ing these emissaries, some Americans adopted Vivekananda rejected formalism and delivered the role of Hindu teacher and helped disseminate a universal gospel of unity in diversity by quot- Hindu ideas through publications and formation ing from the sacred books of India. He chose to of groups. In 1903, William Walker Atkinson, a cite, “Whoever comes to Me, through whatsoever New Thought teacher, assumed the title Yogi RAM- form, I reach him,” and “All men are struggling ACHARAKA and published widely on various YOGAs through paths which in the end lead to Me.” He and Hindu philosophy. His many books remain in spoke of the gods of all faiths, not only the God of print a century later. Around 1909, PIERRE ARNOLD a respective religion (Rolland, 1931). BERNARD, calling himself “Oom the Omnipotent,” His popularity established, Vivekananda fol- founded the Tantrick Order of America and dem- lowed the parliament session with a two-year onstrated flamboyant stagecraft while dressed in tour of the United States. In 1895, he founded Eastern garb. In spite of the demise of his move- the first Hindu organization in the United States, ment after a few decades, his nephew, Theos Ber- the VEDANTA SOCIETY, and, upon his return to nard (1908–47), wrote several texts on YOGA that India, he organized the scattered disciplines of remain reliable resources. Sri Ramakrishna into the RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND After two decades of growing interest in Hin- MISSION. Two disciples, Swami ABHEDANANDA and duism from 1895 to 1915, the growth of Hindu Swami Turiyananda, traveled from Calcutta (Kol- groups waned during and after World War I. A kata) to head the Vedanta centers in New York and string of American occultists created in the public San Francisco, respectively. mind the image of SWAMIS as fortune tellers and

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 467 12/14/06 9:29:42 AM K 468 United States

charlatans. After Sara Bull left the greater part of Indo-American understanding so severely and her half-million-dollar estate to the Vedanta Soci- so prejudiced an entire generation of Americans. ety, her daughter called for testimony of family From the early 1920s until 1960, anti-Indian servants, who reported frequent visits of swamis, feeling was strong, although Hinduism itself was a MEDITATION room, and séances. On the basis of not perceived as a political threat. This period their testimony, the court overturned Bull’s will includes two world wars, American isolation- and awarded the money to her daughter. A series ism after World War I, intense hatred of things of articles in the press spewed forth, complaining Eastern because of Pearl Harbor, and the Korean that Americans, particularly women, were duped conflict. That attacks on India and Indian tradi- by Indian “holy men” and were forsaking the tions occurred is hardly surprising. What may be true Christian faith. A recurring theme was that surprising are the viability and growth of interest Hinduism appealed to bored older women who in Hinduism throughout this period. had sizable fortunes to bequeath to their teach- The Hindu community grew very slowly after ers. In 1914, Elizabeth Reed’s Hinduism in Europe the passage of the exclusion act. Teachers who and America attacked alleged exploiters of naïve immigrated prior to the exclusion act continued Westerners and blamed the tenets of Hinduism to lead and write. A Bengali playwright, Besudeb for their crimes. Bhattacharya, took the name Pundit Acharya and Anti-Asian sentiment had direct political effect founded the Temple of Yoga, the Yoga Research as well. Following immigration exclusion acts in Institute, and Prana Press in New York. Paramah- 1882 and 1914 directed primarily against Chinese ansa YOGANANDA, charismatic teacher and author and Japanese immigrants, the Asian Exclusion Act of the still-popular Autobiography of a Yogi, arrived of 1917 specifically denied immigration to Asians in the United States in 1920 and organized the from India. By denying entry into the United Yogoda-Satsang in 1926. Now known as SELF- States from most Asian countries, including India, REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP, Yogananda’s organization the act effectively cut off immigration for several has been extremely influential in disseminating generations and halted what would have been, Hindu thought through home correspondence most probably, a significant growth of Hindu- courses and initiation into KRIYA YOGA disciplines. ism. Several years later, the Supreme Court of the Other teachers from India created organizations, United States ruled that Indians were not eligible taught Hindu ideas and practices, and fostered for citizenship and that the citizenship granted to interfaith cooperation, including A. K. Mozumdar previous Indian immigrants would be revoked. By (The Messianic World Message), Swami Omkar 1921, a quota system allowed immigration from (Shanti Ashrama), Sri DEVA RAM SUKUL (Dharma countries in proportion to each nationality’s per- Mandal), Kedarnath Das Gupta (Fellowship of centage in the United States. The quota for India Faiths), Sant Ram Mandal (Universal Brotherhood was approximately 100 annually. This federal act Temple and School of ), Rishi of exclusion significantly curtailed the growth of Krishnananda (Para-Vidya Center), and Swami A. Hindu movements. Of the organizations formed P. Mukerji (Transcendent Science Society). before 1917, only the Vedanta Society remained. Theosophy continued to contribute to the In 1927, Katherine Mayo’s best-selling MOTHER dissemination of Hindu ideas through its grow- INDIA damned all things Indian and heaped oppro- ing number of lodges and its reliable editions of brium on the worship of KALI. Mayo characterized Hindu and Buddhist texts. Theosophy also gained Indians as inert, helpless, and weak: in all, slaves increasing popularity through its promotion of to superstition and oppressors of women and Jiddu KRISHNAMURTI as the vehicle for the coming minorities. Perhaps no other writing damaged world teacher, prophesied by spiritual adepts in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 468 12/14/06 9:29:42 AM United States 469 J

the East. Krishnamurti, a poor BRAHMIN boy from United States (Melton, 1985). By 1965, most large South India, had been selected by the Theoso- American cities had at least one Hindu center phists to be groomed for acceptance of a higher where lectures could be heard, texts purchased consciousness that the world would need in the or read, and courses taught in Hindu philosophy. current era. He lectured throughout the 1920s as Although relatively small, these groups were sig- the anointed messiah but became disillusioned nificant in their stability and in their attempts to with the Theosophical enterprise and, in 1929, make Hindu literature available. Popular figures renounced the organization founded in his name. such as (1877–1945) made tradi- Upon leaving the Theosophical fold, he began his tional Hindu concepts, such as reincarnation and own career as an independent teacher, founding karma, almost standard fare for spiritual seek- educational institutions in England, the United ers not bound to traditional denominations. But States, and India and lecturing until his death in popularization has been accompanied by charges 1986. Although Krishnamurti rejected any claim of violence, fraud, drug misuse, and emotional to represent Hinduism (or any ), abuse leveled against some Indian and American he nevertheless taught a form of self-analysis and promoters and leaders of Hindu and related New self-observation that was congruent with Hindu Age groups. Hinduism, in its various guises in the and Buddhist disciplines. And, in his later years, United States, has provided inspiration to spiritual after having shunned the study of sacred texts seekers, an entry into countercultural pursuits, throughout his life, he became enamored of the and groups who have experienced backlash from VEDAS and the UPANISHADS. Americans who became conservative quarters. familiar with Krishnamurti’s teaching were drawn Most immigrants from India have not been closer to Hindu thought and practice, although teachers of Hinduism, but rather Hindu lay people they did not identify themselves as “Hindu.” seeking traditional venues and methods of prac- Later, in 1951, a Bengali philosopher, Haridas ticing their religion. Unable to fund conventional CHAUDHURI, founded the Cultural Integration Fel- structures, such as temples and shrines appropri- lowship in San Francisco, which represented the ate to their respective sects, they have joined other first American influence of the famous philoso- Hindus to create temples that serve several modes pher and mystic Sri AUROBINDO. Chaudhuri was of Hindu worship—SHAIVITE, Vaishnavite, and a charismatic proponent of Aurobindo’s approach SHAKTA—within one structure. Groups of Hindus to integralism in philosophy and yoga, adding his have cooperated to recruit traditionally trained own insights to his teacher’s message through col- priests to the United States to preside over ritual laboration with other scholars of the East. In the activities at these temples. 1960s Chaudhuri founded the California Institute Since the 1960s, elements of Hinduism have of Asian Studies, an educational organization that entered popular culture as components of various exists today under the name California Institute of forms of spirituality, health practices, cosmetics, Integral Studies. bumper stickers, and medical and psychological In the fall of 1965, the Asian Exclusion Act therapies. Somewhat independent of its source was repealed and immigration quotas for Asia in Hinduism is the popular practice of HATHA became comparable to the quotas for Europe. The YOGA, almost pervasive throughout the country number of Indian immigrants rose dramatically. in a variety of forms. Romain Rolland, French Between 1871 and 1965, only 16,013 Indians student of Vedanta, spoke in 1931 of the “strange had been admitted to the United States. Between moral and religious mentality of the modern 1965 and 1975, over 96,000 were admitted, and United States” that was both cause and effect of the 1980 Census reported 387,223 Indians in the the appropriation of Hindu thought in the 19th

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 469 12/14/06 9:29:42 AM K 470 United States

century. Simultaneous with stringent efforts to 1973); J. W. Hanson, ed., The World’s Congress of Reli- preserve traditional Hindu teachings intact and in gions (Chicago: The Monarch Book, 1894); Hinduism toto is the more dominant American practice of Comes to America: A Brief Account of the Purpose, Ori- eclecticism, which combines elements of any (or gin, and Spiritual Significance of the Vedanta Movement all) religions into idiosyncratic fusions designed in America (Chicago: Vedanta Society, 1933); Carl T. to serve the individual. Jackson, The Oriental Religions and American Thought: See also DIASPORA; UNITED KINGDOM. Nineteenth Century Explorations (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981); Spencer Lavan, Unitarians and Further reading: Hannah Adams, A View of Religion India (Boston: Skinner House, 1977); T. Jackson Lears, (Boston: Manning & Loring, 1801); S. E. Ahlstrom, A No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transforma- Religious History of the American People (New Haven, tion of American Culture 1880–1920 (New York: Pan- Conn.: Yale University Press, 1972); Mrs. Gross Alex- theon Books, 1981); Gurinder Singh Mann, Paul David ander, “American Women Going after Heathen Gods,” Numrich, and Raymond Williams, Buddhists, Hindus, Methodist Quarterly Review 62 no. 3 (July 1912): 495– and Sikhs in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 512; Leona B. Bagai, The East Indians and the Pakistanis 2001); Katherine Mayo, Mother India (New York: Blue in America (Minneapolis: Lerner, 1967); J. H. Barrows, Ribbon Books, 1927); J. Gordon Melton, A Bibliography The World’s Parliament of Religions: An Illustrated and of Hinduism in America Prior to 1940 (Evanston, Ill.: Popular Story of the World’s First Parliament of Religions Institute for the Study of American Religion, 1985); P. Held in Chicago in Connection with the Columbian Exposi- C. Mozoomdar, The Faith and Progress of the Brahmo tion of 1893, 2 vols. (Chicago: Parliament, 1893); Theos Samaj (Calcutta: Calcutta Central Press, 1882); F. Max Bernard, Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal Experience Muller, India: What Can It Teach Us? (London: Long- (New York: Columbia University Press, 1944); S. C. mans, Green, 1883, 1919); Jacob Needleman, The New Bose, The Life of Protap Chunder Mozoomdar. Vol. 2 (Cal- Religions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970); Joseph cutta: Nababidhan Trust, 1927); Charles S. Braden, ed., Priestly, Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit, 1777 These Also Believe: A Study of Modern American Cults and (New York: Garland Pub., 1976); ———, Letters to a Minority Religious Movements (New York: Macmillan, Philosophical Unbeliever, 2d ed. (Birmingham, England: 1951); Charles S. Braden, ed., Varieties of American Reli- J. Johnson, London, 1787); ———, A Comparison gion (Chicago: Willett, Clark, 1936); A. F. Buchanan, of the Institutions of Moses with Those of the Hindoos “The West and the Hindu Invasion,” Overland Monthly and Other Ancient Nations (Northumberland, Penn.: 51, 4 (April 1908): 308–312; B. F. Campbell, Ancient Printed for the author by A. Kennedy, 1799); H. G. Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement Rawlinson, Intercourse between India and the Western (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Arthur World (Cambridge: University Press, 1916); H. G. Raw- Christy, The Asian Legacy and American Life (New York: linson, Intercourse between India and the Greenwood Press, 1968); ———, The Orient in Ameri- (Cambridge: University Press, 1916); J. P. R. Rayapati, can Transcendentalism: A Study of Emerson, Thoreau, and Early American Interest in Vedanta (New York: Asia Pub- Alcott (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932); R. lishing House, 1973); E. A. Reed, Hinduism in Europe K. Das, Hindustani Workers on the Pacific Coast (Berlin: and America (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1914); Walter de Gruyter, 1923); Robert S. Ellwood Jr., Alter- ———, Hinduism Invades America (New York: G. P. native Altars: Unconventional and Eastern Spirituality in Putnam’s Sons, 1914); Dale Riepe, The Philosophy of America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); India and Its Impact on American Thought (Springfield, W. Estep, An American Answers Mother India (Excelsior Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1970); Romain Rolland, The Springs, Mo.: Super Mind Science Pubs., 1929); S. Gott- Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel (Almora: schalk, The Emergence of Christian Science in American advaita Ashrama, 1931); Cybelle Shattuck, Dharma in Religious Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, the Golden State: South Asian Traditions in California

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 470 12/14/06 9:29:42 AM Upanishads 471 J

(Santa Barbara, Calif.: Fithian Press, 1996); Wendell dence from Britain denounced the notion of caste Thomas, Hinduism Invades America (New York: Bea- and called for the abolition of untouchability. con Press, 1930); W. S. Urquhart, Vedanta and Modern MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI was most notable Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1928); in this regard. He coined the term harijan (those Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi (Bom- born of God) to relieve the stigma from untouch- bay: Jaico Publishing House, 1946). ables. The constitution of India was written by an untouchable (who also became a Buddhist), Dr. Babasaheb R. Ambedkar (1891–1956). In the set- untouchability ting up of India’s central and state governments, The concept of untouchability has long played untouchables were given designated quotas of a role in the Hindu CASTE system of socioeco- positions, including parliamentary seats, to guar- nomic organization. Members of certain low- antee their advancement. status castes were considered polluting and not Today, India’s untouchables have taken an allowed to touch any person of the upper castes, increasingly militant political stance. They prefer particularly BRAHMINS and members of the warrior to call themselves Dalit (the oppressed). Many of and merchant castes. This practice was exagger- them have converted to Buddhism, following Dr. ated even further in parts of South India, where Ambedkar’s conversion in late life. Buddhism was certain people were considered unseeable and had always opposed to caste notions and preached to stay out of sight of the upper castes. spiritual equality. The history of untouchability no doubt tracks the rise of ARYAN cultural domination of India. Further reading: B. R. Ambedkar, What Congress and There is evidence to suggest that certain tribal Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables (Bombay: Thacker, groups and peoples last integrated into the Aryan 1946); Mark Jurgensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The fold became classified as “out-castes” or the “fifth Movement against Untouchability in 20th Century Pun- caste” (where the Aryans had a fourfold class jab (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); J. system from great antiquity). The custom is sup- Michael Mahar, ed., The Untouchables in Contemporary ported by a very complex social conception of India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972); Elea- “POLLUTION” related to occupation. Purity is seen nor Zelliot, “Dalit—New Cultural Context of an Old to reside in certain types of activity such as teach- Marathi Word,” in Clarence Maloney, ed., Language and ing and recitation of the VEDAS, and in habits such Civilization Change in South Asia. Vol. 11, Contributions as VEGETARIANISM, while such essential social tasks to Asian Studies (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978), pp. 77–97. as sweeping, the collecting of refuse, the removal of carrion animals, and the production of leather are considered severely polluting. upanayana See SACRED THREAD. Caste, more properly jati, or birth, is in fact directly related in most cases to occupation, so untouchability is generally conferred by birth. Upanishads (However, certain polluting situations within the There are thousands of texts referred to in Indian family context, such as having someone recently tradition as Upanishads. They all take this name die in the household, make any person, whatever to gain the authority of the original Upanishads, the caste, polluting or “untouchable” for a limited about 14 in number, which are considered part time.) of the BRAHMANA or commentaries that are asso- It should be noted that almost all of the major ciated with the four VEDAS. (Each of the four is freedom fighters in India who sought indepen- divided into a MANTRA portion, which consists of

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 471 12/14/06 9:29:43 AM K 472 Urvashi and Pururavas

the chants themselves, and a BRAHMANA, or com- Further reading: S. M. Srinivas Chari, The Philosophy mentary. Both portions are considered SHRUTI, or of the Upanisads: A Study Based on the Evaluation of the revelation.) Comments of Samkara, Ramanuja, and Madhva (New Within the Brahmana portion of the Vedas are Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2002); S. N. Dasgupta, two classes of passages that later took the names The History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal ARANYAKA and Upanishad. The Aranyaka portions Banarsidas, 1975); S. Radhakrishnan, trans., The Phi- often closely resemble the Brahmana but often losophy of the Upanisads (London: G. Allen & Unwin, contain esoteric interpretations of the Vedic ritu- 1935); ———, The Principal Upanishads (Atlantic als. The further sections, sometimes within these Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1994). Aranyaka sections, were termed Upanishads. While included in the Vedic literature, the Upanishads were composed somewhat later, roughly in the sev- Urvashi and Pururavas See APSARAS. enth to third centuries B.C.E., although they exist in the same ancient literary SANSKRIT. Upanishad in its literal definition means “to Ushas sit down near.” They represented secret teachings Ushas is the Vedic goddess of the dawn. The reserved for those who sat near their GURU in the night goddess, Ratri, is often called her sister. forest. They contain a wide range of material. Some Some of the most beautiful hymns of the VEDAS of it is indistinguishable from the rest of the Brah- are addressed to Ushas. Sometimes she is seen mana or Aranyaka, but other sections discuss the as the mother of the Sun god and sometimes his creation and nature of the universe. Most often, wife. She travels in a shining chariot drawn by red the discussions concern the BRAHMAN, or ultimate horses or cows. reality; the ATMAN, the ultimate self or soul; or their She is seen as very beautiful, dressed in orna- relationships with the individual self or soul. ments and fine raiments. She gives life and health In many places these Upanishads make clear to all beings. She is called the “life of all life” and that the individual self, seen from the highest the “breath of all breaths.” She is a great power consciousness, is nothing but the ultimate reality who revivifies Earth each day and makes all life in all its glory. The exact relationship between the that we know possible. ultimate reality and the souls became the subject of centuries of discussion and mystic insights into Further reading: Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology. the nature of things. The most commonly listed Translated by Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma. Vol. 1 Upanishads are ISHA, KENA, KATHA, Prashna, - (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu daka, MANDUKYA, TAITTARIYA, AITAREYA, CHANDO- Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Bombay: Rupa, GYA, BRIHADARANYAKA, Pingala, and Jabala. 1973).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 472 12/14/06 9:29:43 AM V J: AF

Vach (Vak) vairagya Vach or Vak is Hindu goddess of speech, and the Vairagya, freedom from any attachment, or renun- most prominent and important goddess in the ciation, has been a central theme in Hinduism VEDAS. In later times she becomes identified with throughout the centuries. It was understood that SARASVATI, the goddess of learning, and loses her attachment to worldly desires and ends can result separate character, except in linguistic philosophy. only in continued rebirth, a continued circuit on In Vedic tradition the words of SANSKRIT have a the wheel of SAMSARA or worldly life. divine character. Words are not arbitrary or mere The period from the eighth to the sixth cen- names, but are the essential truth of the object turies B.C.E., when JAINISM and Buddhism first they represent. The sounds of the word tree, for emerged along with the UPANISHAD era within instance, form the essence of a tree. All of reality the VEDIC tradition, saw a great expansion in can be seen as mere congealed speech. mendicancy and ascetic orders and a flowering of Vedantic theory sees four levels of speech: traditions of renunciation. The Vedas themselves, (1) the transcendent level, where speech is the in their ancient MANTRA sections, upheld a very divine silence out of which emerges the mani- different, world-affirming point of view. fest universe; (2) speech as it becomes incipient Ever since in India, it has been those who left thought looking toward manifestation; (3) speech the ordinary world behind and abandoned worldly expressed as thought, but before external expres- concerns who have been credited with the greatest sion; and (4) speech as uttered words. spiritual accomplishments. Vairagya in one form can mean simple avoidance of worldly externals, Further reading: Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology, 2 but in its most difficult form it might mean bodily vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Andre Padoux, mortification. In either case it is a central feature Vac: The Concept of the Word in Selected Hindu Tantras. of Hindu religious life. Translated by Jacques Gontier (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990). Further reading: Robert Lewis Gross, The Sadhus of India: A Study of Hindu Asceticism (Jaipur: Rawat, vaikuntha See HEAVEN. 1992); Patrick Olivelle, “Contributions to the Semantic

473

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 473 12/14/06 9:29:43 AM K 474 Vaisheshika

History of Samnyasa,” Journal of the American Oriental sect than among the Shaivites. (Vishnu, after all, Society 101 (1981): 265–274; ———, Renunciation in is the “preserver” of the world, whereas Shiva Hinduism: A Mediaeval Debate, 2 vols. (Vienna: Univer- himself is a naked renunciant who is the world sity of Vienna, 1986–87). destroyer.) Six sects of the Vaishnavites are prominent: the Shrivaishnavas founded in SHRIRANGAM in Vaisheshika See NYAYA-VAISHESHIKA. Tamil Nadu, best known for their great 12th-cen- tury teacher RAMANUJA; the Gaudiya Vaishnavites of Bengal, founded by the great 15th-century Vaishnavism devotional mystic CHAITANYA; the or Vaishavism is the name for the group of traditions Rudrasampradaya founded at BRINDAVAN in the that adhere to the worship of VISHNU. An adher- north by the great teacher VALLABHA around the ent of Vaishnavism is a Vaishnavite, “One who 15th century; the MADHVA sect founded in the belongs to Vishnu.” state of Karnataka at Udipi in the 13th century; Vishnu can be worshipped alone as Mahav- the NIMBARKA, or Nimbarki sect, based in Govard- ishnu or “Supreme Vishnu,” but Vaishnavites hana and founded by the 15th-century Vedantin more commonly worship one of the two most philosopher Nimbarka; and the Sri sect founded prominent AVATARS or manifestations of the god- by Ramananda, who was strongly influenced by head, RAMA or KRISHNA, along with their respec- the Ramanuja lineage, at AYODHYA. tive consorts, SITA or RADHA. To be sure, every Textually, Vaishnavites revere, in addition to Vaishnavite reveres all 10 of Vishnu’s avatars. the Vedas and Upanishads, the epics, the BHAGA- As all Hindu traditions do, Vaishnavism traces VAD GITA, the Vishnu Purana, the BHAGAVATA itself back to the VEDAS and honors them as the PURANA, and the hymns of the ALVARS or other ultimate authority. Vishnu, “The All-Pervad- poet-saints of Vaishnavism. They focus, as does ing,” is only a minor divinity in the Vedas, but Shaivism, on temple worship, with, of course, the roots of a devotional cult that can be called their own distinctive ritual elements. PRASADA Vaishnavite had been established by the later in the form of “blessed food” is typically dis- Vedic period in the sixth or fifth century B.C.E. tributed at Vaishnavite temples and shrines and The MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA epics are both festivals after being offered to the divinity. This primarily Vaishnavite documents, highlighting the stories of Krishna and Rama, respectively. giving of blessed food is less common in Shaivite contexts. The BHAGAVAD GITA within the Mahabharata is a sophisticated philosophical text that outlines the Vaishnavite path of devotion in the context of Further reading: R. G. Bhandarkar, Vaishnavism, Saivism Vedic and UPANISHADic visions of the divinity. The and Minor Religious Systems (Varanasi: Indological Book later temple-oriented Vaishnavism is based largely House, 1965); Manju Dube, in on the ancient PANCHARATRA tradition. Vaishnava Philosophical Systems (Varanasi: Sanjay Book The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer Centre, 1984); Jan Gonda, Aspects of Early Vishnuism than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 (Utrecht: A. Oosthoek, 1954); ———, Vishnuism and million. If there is a distinctive character to Vaish- Sivaism: A Comparison. Jordan Lectures in Comparative navism, aside from its doctrine of the avatar, it is Religion, no. 9 (London: Athlone Press, 1970); T. - in its commitment to the life of a householder. garajan, Dictionary of Vaishnavism (Delhi: Eastern Book There are far fewer renunciants in the Vaishnavite Linkers, 2004).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 474 12/14/06 9:29:43 AM Vallabha 475 J

Vaishnavite (Vaishnava) See VAISHNAVISM. who learned all the VEDAS and all the philosophi- cal systems in four years of study. After his father died when he was just 11, Vallabha spent the next Vaishya 20 years wandering India’s sacred sites, remain- Vaishya is the term used in the ancient fourfold ing unmarried. At a mere 12 years old, he is said class (VARNA) system of India for the common peo- to have entered into a debate at the Vijayanagara ple, including merchants and agriculturists. The court. He emerged victorious against the views of earlier VEDIC term was Vish, from which the term SHANKARA’s Vedanta (absolute non-dualist) on the Vaishya derived. They were “twice-born” as were one hand and the views of MADHVA’S supporters the KSHATRIYAS (warriors) and BRAHMINS (priests), (dualist) on the other. being invested with the sacred thread at eight to Vallabha stayed at the Vijanagara court for 12 years of age to symbolize a new birth into soci- some three years, learning the BHAGAVATA PURANA ety. They were allowed to learn the VEDAS, though and becoming familiar with the Madhva tradition they probably studied them much less than the (which he did not accept). By now he had follow- upper two classes. Vaishya merchants were known ers of his own, as his debating victory had greatly for their early support of JAINISM and Buddhism (c. enhanced his status. 800 to 500 B.C.E.). At the age of 15 he set out on a long pil- grimage to a great many of India’s sacred sites. Further reading: Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of One story relates that at Kaundiya Ashrama (see Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); Utsa Patnaik, Peasant Class Differentiation: A ASHRAM), Vallabha had a vision of the rishi (seer) Study in Method with Reference to (Delhi: , who preached to him the path of Oxford University Press, 1987); T. Ramaswamy, Mer- devotion, or BHAKTI; even the Vedas and the gods chant Class: South India, 1336–1665 (Madurai: Mathi, do not know VISHNU, Kaundinya said; only the 1997). one who concentrates his consciousness upon Vishnu and serves him every moment can merit that knowledge. Vallabha (1473–1531) Vedanta philosopher It is said that Vallabha spent time at the impor- Vallabha was one of the great exponents of devo- tant centers of RAMANUJA’s followers and Madhva’s tional VEDANTA. He was born in 1473 to a Telegu followers, learning all the nuances of the different BRAHMIN, Lakshmana Bhatta, and his wife, Yel- philosophies. Heading north, Vallabha arrived in lamma Garu, a member of an influential South BRINDAVAN, the center of KRISHNA worship in India. Indian family. Her father had been a priest at the Here he made Krishna his Lord and received the VIJAYANAGARA court. vision to establish a new sect, the Pushti Marga. Vallabha’s father is said to have fled BENARES The last leg of this long pilgrimage took him (Varanasi) while his wife was pregnant with Val- to the HIMALAYAS. After returning to stay with labha, because of a rumored Muslim invasion. his mother for one year, he headed to Maha- While he hid in the forest near modern Raipur rashtra and Pandaripura, where he encountered in Chattisgarh state, Vallabha emerged from his the special form of Krishna, Vitthala. Here he mother stillborn—but miraculously came to life. received the divine command to marry, as he had When the Muslim invasion did not take place, up till now been a celibate, though not a SAN- Vallabha’s father returned. NYASI (renunciant). When he arrived in Benares in As were many of the Vedantic ACHARYAS, or about 1500, he encountered a man who offered scholar-teachers, Vallabha was a precocious child him his daughter in marriage.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 475 12/14/06 9:29:43 AM K 476 Vallabha

Vallabha’s marriage produced two sons, one of In the last year of his life Vallabha took whom was central in building his sect. While in vows of renunciation from the world. He wan- the town of Gokula, near Mathura, Vallabha took dered as a mendicant for only one year. The the vow to establish his new sect. This new tradi- story has it that he plunged into the GANGES tion was all his own, as he had never accepted at HANUMAN Ghat in Benares and disappeared anyone as his GURU. The initiatory MANTRA of in 1531. his sect was Sri Krishna Sharanam Mama, “Shri The philosophical system of Sri Vallabhacha- Krishna is my refuge.” rya (to call him by his honorific) was technically An auspicious miracle soon occurred near called (pure non-dualism). He Gokula. An image of Krishna in his pose lift- did not believe that the world was illusory—all ing the mountain Govardhana appeared out of a the universe was Krishna alone. The worldly, cave. It was said that Krishna would only accept then, is a lower aspect of the divine, but still food from the hand of Vallabha. On this spot Val- an expression of the being of the divinity. In labha built a small temple, later supplanted by a Vallabha’s system Krishna, as BRAHMAN, or the large complex. The temple’s image later had to ultimate reality, was called Purushottama, the be moved to Udaipur in Rajasthan, because of highest personage. the Muslim invaders. There it is known as SRI SRI In practical terms, the Vedanta of Vallabhacha- NATHJI. rya was similar to that of both RAMANUJA and NIM- Vallabha now embarked on a journey around BARKA. God is permanently transcendent; souls the country that might be described as evan- can reach union with God but remain distinct gelical. He would debate the proponents of other even in liberation. systems, sharpen his own principles, and gain fol- Distinctive in Vallabha’s system is the notion lowers. His message resonated particularly in the of inherent distinctions among souls. There are area of Gujarat, thanks to the support of a famous privileged souls who are destined for union with devotional singer there. the divine, and other souls who are destined There are many stories of Vallabha’s meeting for eternal reincarnation without attainment of with his contemporary SRI CHAITANYA. Both made liberation (this Vallabha has in common with the BHAGAVATA PURANA the primary authority and Madhva). both took Krishna as the fullest expression of His Pushti Marga, or path of grace, is unique. divinity on Earth. The contrast was between Val- Pushti literally means “nourishment,” and later labha the intellectual, who prescribed worship of in the sect’s history, this word began to be taken the child Krishna or the cowherd Krishna, and more literally, and the eating of vast amounts of Chaitanya the ecstatic mystic, who preached “Love PRASADA or sacred food became a sign of the sect. Devotion” based on the relationship between However, Vallabha seemed to intend “spiritual Krishna and his lover RADHA. nourishment” or “grace.” This effectively means In all Vallabha wrote 17 books in SANSKRIT and that human efforts to reach the divine are sec- five in medieval Hindi (Braj). All but one of his ondary; primary are the will and grace of the Sanskrit “books” were actually brief manuscripts. divine. His longest book was in Sanskrit, Essays on the Thus, in terms of the YOGAs of the BHAGAVAD Light of Knowledge, a full exposition of his theol- GITA, the yoga of action (KARMA YOGA), the yoga ogy. Others of his books in Sanskrit are Vyasa of knowledge (JNANA YOGA), and even meditative Sutra Bhashya, Jaimini Sutra Bhasya, Bhagavata yoga (raja yoga) are of almost no importance to Tika Subodhini, Pushti Pravala Maryada, and Sid- Vallabha. Devotional yoga (BHAKTI YOGA) alone is dhanta Rahasya. enjoined to gain the grace (PUSHTI) of the divine.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 476 12/14/06 9:29:44 AM vanaprastha 477 J

This devotion is best developed through total ser- 1985); Ilapavuluri Panduranga Rao, Valmiki (New vice to the divinity and his servants. Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1994).

Further reading: Richard Barz, The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhacarya (Faridabad: Thomson Press, 1976); Vamana Avatar G. H. Bhatt, Sri Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines There are many versions of the stories about (Delhi: Butala, 1980); Sharad Goswami, Manual of the VISHNU’s Vamana AVATAR (incarnation), as there are Devotional Path of Pusti. Translated by M. R. Paleja about his other manifestations. (Gujarat: Sri Vallabhacarya Trust, 2002); James D. In the best-known Vamana story, the avatar Redington, The Grace of Lord Krishna: The Sixteen appeared in order to fight the (demon or Verse Treatises (Sodasagranthah) of Vallabhacharya. Sri antigod) Bali, who had succeeded by his religious Garib Das Oriental Series, no. 257 (Delhi: Satguru, austerities in gaining supreme power over the 2000); Natvar Lal Gokal Das Shah, A Life of Shri Val- three worlds. Because of his own powers he was labhacharya (Baroda: Shri Vallabha, 1984); Jethlal G. depriving the gods of the offerings that ordinar- Shah, Shri Vallabhacharya: His Philosophy and Religion ily went to them. They went to Vishnu to ask for (Nadiad: Pushitmargiya Pustakalaya, 1969); Brajnath assistance. He took on the form of a dwarf (vamana R. Shastri, Shrimad Vallabhacharya and His Doctrines. means “dwarf” in SANSKRIT) and approached the Sri Vallabha Studies, no. 5 (Baroda: Shri Vallabha, arrogant demon, BALI. The foolish demon king 1984); G. V. Tagare, Brahma-Vada Doctrine of Sri offered the dwarf the boon of having whatever Vallabhacarya (New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 1998); territory he could cover in three paces. Thereupon Swami Tapasyananda, The Bhakti Schools of Vedanta the dwarf, who was Vishnu himself, took one step (Madras: Ramakrishna Mutt, 1990). to possess the Earth, another to possess the sky, and another to possess heaven itself. (In some versions Vamana takes two paces to step over the Valmiki author of the Ramayana whole universe and the last step onto Bali’s head.) Valmiki is the mythological author of India’s great Thus did Vamana return the worlds to the gods. epic the RAMAYANA. His authorship, however, con- sisted simply in putting into a lasting composition Further reading: Nanditha Krishna, The Book of Vishnu a story that was related to him by the ancient RISHI (New Delhi: Viking, 2001); A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns (seer) NARADA. for the Drowning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Valmiki is said once to have seen a hunter Press, 1981); Pandrimalai Swamigal, The Ten Incarna- shoot a male bird as it was making love to its tions: Dasvatara (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, mate. The female bird, seeing her mate bleed- 1982). ing and in distress, cried out piteously. In grief and sorrow, Valmiki uttered a poetic verse of two lines that upon reflection made a special vanaprastha meter. Because he received the line in sorrow In the orthodox Brahminical stages of life for (shoka), Valmiki termed the meter shloka. It is men, vanaprastha, going into the forest, is the in this meter, suitable to be accompanied by the third stage or ASHRAMA. After he has completed his Indian lute (vina), that most of the Ramayana studentship and fulfilled his duty in life (when he was composed. has seen his children’s children), the man enters the forest with or without his wife to devote him- Further reading: J. L. Brockington, Righteous Rama: The self to celibacy, austerity, study of the VEDAS, Vedic Evolution of an Epic (Delhi: Oxford University Press, sacrifices, and spiritual discipline. This stage is

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 477 12/14/06 9:29:44 AM K 478 varada mudra

also called the stage of SADHU. The man must wear The boar dives down to the bottom of the ocean animal skins, bark, or rags; leave his hair and and takes the Earth to the surface again so that life nails uncut; and eat pure food. He may beg food, can reemerge. if necessary. The final stage is SANNYASI or mendi- cancy, when he emerges from the forest to wander Further reading: Nanditha Krishna, The Book of Vishnu alone, seeking alms. The vanaprastha and the san- (New Delhi: Viking, 2001); A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns for nyasi stage were clearly the most ideal course of the Drowning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, conduct and were probably never followed com- 1981); Pandrimalai Swamigal, The Ten Incarnations: Das- pletely by all BRAHMINS or other upper-CASTE men, vatara (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982). for whom they were primarily intended.

Further reading: Patrick Olivelle, The Asrama System: Varanasi See BENARES. The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). varna Varna (color) is the Vedic word for social class, in varada mudra the class scheme found in Rig Veda X. 90. There The varada (giving boons) mudra (see MUDRAS) the divine being is said to have offered himself in is an important iconic gesture, with the fingers sacrifice to create reality. It is said that his mouth pointing downward and the palm facing straight became the BRAHMIN, or priestly class; his arms outward from the body. The open palm indicates became the Rajanya (KSHATRIYA), or warrior class; that the divinity or personage will bestow bless- his thighs became the Vish (VAISHYA), or mer- ings upon the person who looks upon him or chants, farmers; and his feet became the SHUDRAS, her with respect or devotion. Many iconic divini- or the servant class. ties, particularly those who have more than two The “mouth” of society is symbolically impor- hands, give this gesture with a left hand. This tant in India because of the power of divine ancient mudra is found in the iconography of the speech through the SANSKRIT language. The arms Buddhists, Jains (see JAINISM), and Hindus. The are obviously symbolic of the strong arms of the BUDDHAS and the Jain TIRTHANKARAS are frequently warrior. The thighs symbolize the ability to pro- seen using this hand gesture. This, as may any create and create prosperity for society. Feet have other mudra, may be used in any Indian dance long been associated with impurity in Indian when divinities are represented. tradition, but it is a fact that no body can move without its feet. Further reading: Eva Rudy Jansen, The Hindu Book of There has been some debate about whether the Imagery: The Gods and Their Symbols (Havelte, Holland: use of the word color to denote class reflects an Binkey Kok, 1995); Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated ancient racist system. At the present day Brahmins Dictionary of Hindu Iconography (Boston: Routledge & in any part of India tend to have slightly lighter skin Kegan Paul, 1985). than other classes, while the poorest elements of society often have much darker skin. When colors are traditionally assigned to the classes, white is for Varaha Avatar the Brahmin, red for the warrior, yellow for the mer- At the commencement of a new eon, when the chants and farmers, and black for the servants. Earth is covered by water in every direction, This verse of the Vedas, which may in fact Vishnu takes the form of a huge boar (varaha). have been simply an ideal scheme for an inte-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 478 12/14/06 9:29:44 AM Vasudeva 479 J

grated society, which could not function without on the fifth day of the bright half of the lunar any of its constituents, became the religious justi- month of Magha (January–February), the begin- fication for the later concept of caste. Caste itself is ning of spring in India. It is dedicated to the wor- a Portuguese word adopted into English; the more ship of SARASVATI, the goddess of learning and fine proper word for this type of social class is jati, or arts. The worship is performed to a fashioned clay “birth.” Nothing in this Vedic verse implies that image, which is then put into a body of water such varna is fixed at birth or that people can never as a river or a tank. This festival is particularly alter their varna. It is well known, for instance, popular in Bengal. that the RISHI (seer) Vishvamitra, though born a Some call this festival Sri Panchami and equate warrior, became a Brahmin. Sarasvati (who is usually the wife of Brahma) with LAKSHMI or Sri, the wife of VISHNU. Part of the day’s Further reading: Bharat Jhunjhunwala, Varna Vyavastha: observance is a preparation for the HOLI festival, Governance through Caste System (Jaipur: Rawat, 1999); which falls 40 days later. The devotee places a Laurie L. Patton, ed., Authority, Anxiety and Canon: flammable image of the demoness (after Essays in Vedic Interpretation (Albany: State University whom Holi is supposedly named) on a log, with of New York Press, 1994); Brian K. Smith, The Ancient an inflammable image of PRAHLADA (the great Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste (Oxford: devotee of VISHNU) on her lap. During the 40 days Oxford University Press, 1994). people throw twigs and other flammable objects on the log, which is set on fire before the Holi festival commences. Varuna Varuna is a sky god of the VEDAS who has many, Further reading: Swami Harshananda, Hindu Festivals sometimes contradictory traits. He is the Indian and Sacred Days (Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994); counterpart of the Greek Ouranos. Varuna is H. V. Shekar, Festivals of India: Significance of the Cel- paired with several deities in rituals and hymns, ebrations (Louisville, Ky.: Insight Books, 2000). most commonly with MITRA. By himself, Varuna is seen as a guardian over the cosmic order. He is called the sovereign ruler of the universe, but this Vasudeva is said of other Vedic gods. Later he becomes the In Hindu mythology Vasudeva is the father of Indian god of the ocean. KRISHNA. He was particularly popular in the Jain tradition (see JAINISM), whose PURANAS abound Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary with stories about his life. Krishna himself is of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, known by the epithet Vasudeva (with a long a as and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, the second letter, indicating that he is the son of 1974); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology, 2 vols. Vasudeva). (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Heinrich Luders, Vasudeva was the chief minister of the evil Varuna, 2 vols. (Gottingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, king Kamsa of Mathura. Kamsa had learned that 1951–59); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Vasudeva’s wife, DEVAKI, was destined to bear a Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). son who would eventually kill him. He kept the couple under constant guard and had their first six children killed. The seventh child, BALARAMA, Vasanta Panchami was miraculously transferred to the womb of Vasanta Panchami festival, literally “The ‘Fifth Vasudeva’s other wife, Rohini. When the eighth Day of the Moon’ in the Springtime,” is celebrated child, KRISHNA, was born, a profound slumber fell

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 479 12/14/06 9:29:44 AM K 480 Vatsyayana

upon the guards, and Vasudeva was able to sneak knowledge. In Indian tradition the four Vedas the child across the YAMUNA River and leave it (sometimes collectively referred to as “the Veda”) with the cowherd Nanda and his wife, YASHODA, are the ancient scriptural texts that are considered who thus becomes Krishna’s (foster) mother. the foundation for all of Hinduism. The four are The Jain puranas credit Vasudeva with 26 the RIG, SAMA, YAJUR, and ATHARVA VEDAS. wives. The most complete story of the life of The Rig Veda (c. 1500 B.C.E.), the most ancient Vasudeva is found in the Jain text Vasudevahindi extant Indian text, is the most important of the (c. third century C.E.), a work in the Prakrit lan- four. It consists of over 1,000 hymns, the great guage. The text was an adaptation of the earlier majority of them from five to 20 verses long. BRIHATKATHA story cycle, an ancient Indian story. Very few exceed 50 verses. The hymns praise a pantheon of divinities. A few of them are cosmo- Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. B. van Buite- gonic—they tell of the creation of the universe; nen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader these were extremely important in the later devel- in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University opment of Hinduism. Press, 1978); Jagdishchandra Jain, The Vasudevahindi: By far the greatest number of hymns in the An Authentic Jain Version of the Brhatkatha. L. D. Series Rig Veda are devoted to INDRA, king of the gods, a 59 (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of , 1977). deity connected with storms and rain who holds a thunderbolt, and AGNI, the god of fire. The rest of the hymns are devoted to an array of gods, most Vatsyayana (c. 400–500 C.E.) See KAMA SUTRA. prominently MITRA, VARUNA, SAVITRI, SOMA, and the ASHVINS. The most important gods in the later Hindu pantheon, VISHNU and SHIVA (in his Vedic Vayu guise as RUDRA), were far less frequently men- Vayu is the god of the wind in Indian mythology. tioned in the Rig Veda. A number of goddesses are He makes his first appearance in the VEDAS. He is mentioned, most frequently USHAS, GODDESS of the associated with INDRA, king of the Vedic gods. He is dawn. ADITI is said to be the mother of the gods. seen as moving along in a chariot pulled by many Scholars have categorized the religion of the horses. Most importantly he is regarded as the Rig Veda as henotheistic: that is, it was polythe- father of the monkey god HANUMAN. BHIMA, one of istic, but it recognized each divinity in turn as the five PANDAVA brothers in the MAHABHARATA, is supreme in certain ways. Later Hinduism main- said to be the son of Vayu. The term vayu is also tained and enriched this henotheistic concept; in used for one of the five elements in Hindu physics; time Hindus have even been able to accept Christ in that context it is best translated as “air.” and Allah as supreme “in turn.” A very powerful ritual tradition was central to Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. B. van Buite- the Rig Veda, with fire always a central feature. nen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader At public and private rituals () worshippers in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University spoke to and beseeched the divinities. Animal sac- Press, 1978); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology, 2 rifices were a regular feature of the larger public vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990). rites in the Vedic tradition. Two of the other Vedas, the Yajur and Sama, were based on the Rig Veda. That is, it supplied Veda(s) most of their text, but the words were reorganized Veda is derived from the word, vid, “to know.” A for the purposes of the rituals. Yajur Veda, the Veda, then, would literally be a compendium of Veda of sacrificial formulas, has two branches, the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 480 12/14/06 9:29:44 AM Veda 481 J

Black and the White Yajur Vedas; it contains the terrestrial, and divine realities. Early Western chants that accompanied most of the important scholars tended to discount these texts as priestly ancient rites. The Sama Veda, the Veda of sung mumbo-jumbo, but later scholarship has recog- chants, is largely focused on the praise of the nized the central importance of the Brahmanas to god Soma, the personification of a sacred drink the development of Indian thought and philoso- imbibed during most rituals that probably had phy. It is not known when the various subdivi- psychedelic properties. Priests of the three Vedas sions of the Vedas were identified and named. needed to be present for any larger, public ritual. The name Brahmana derives from a central The Atharva Veda became part of the greater word in the tradition, BRAHMAN. Brahman is generi- tradition somewhat later. It consists primarily cally the name for “prayer,” specifically the power of spells and charms used to ward off diseases or magic of the Vedic mantras. (It also was used or influence events. This text is considered the to designate the “one who prays,” hence the term source document for Indian medicine (AYURVEDA). BRAHMIN for priest). Brahman is from the root brih It also contains a number of cosmogonic hymns (to expand or grow) and refers to the expansion that show the development of the notion of divine of the power of the prayer itself as the ritual pro- unity in the tradition. A priest of the Atharva Veda ceeds. The brahman is said to be “stirred up” by was later included in all public rituals. From that the prayer. In later philosophy, brahman was the time tradition spoke of four Vedas rather than transcendent, all-encompassing reality. three. The culmination of Brahmana philosophy is In the Vedic tradition, the Vedas are not con- often said to be found in the SHATAPATHA BRAH- sidered to be human compositions. They were MANA of the White Yajur Veda, which explicates all “received” by RISHIS or seers whose names are the , the largest public ritual of the frequently noted at the end of a hymn. Whatever tradition. Shatapatha Brahmana makes clear that their origin, none of the texts was written until this public ritual is, in fact, a reenactment of the the 15th century C.E. They were thus passed primordial ritual described in Rig Veda, X. 90, the down from mouth to ear for at least 3,000 years. most important cosmogonic hymn of the Vedas. It is an oral tradition par excellence. The power That hymn describes the ritual immolation of a of the word in the Vedic tradition is considered cosmic “man,” who is parceled out to encompass an oral and aural power, not a written one. The all of the visible universe and everything beyond chanting itself has the power to provide material that is not visible. That is, the cosmic “man” is benefit and spiritual apotheosis. Great emphasis, ritually sacrificed to create the universe. Through therefore, was laid on correct pronunciation and the annual agnichayana, the universe is essentially on memorization. Any priest of the tradition re-created every year. The Brahmana understands was expected to have an entire Veda memorized, that, at its most perfect, the Vedic ritual ground is including all its components, as detailed in the identical to all the universe, visible and invisible. following. The Brahmanas contained two important sub- Each of the four Vedas is properly divided divisions that were important in the development into two parts, the MANTRA, or verse portion, and of later tradition. The first is called the ARANYAKA; the BRAHMANA, or explicatory portion. Both parts this portion of the text apparently pertained to are considered revelation or SHRUTI. The Brahma- activity in the forest (aranya). nas comment on both the mantra text and the The Aranyakas contain evidence of an eso- rituals associated with it, in very detailed, varied, teric version of Vedic yajna, or ritual practice, and esoteric fashion. They repeatedly equate the that was done by adepts internally. They would rituals and those performing them with cosmic, essentially perform the ritual mentally, as though

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 481 12/14/06 9:29:45 AM K 482

it were being done in their own body and being. cally conditioned rebirth, had its roots in earlier This practice was not unprecedented, since the Vedic thought. But its full expression in VEDANTA priests of the Atharva Veda, though present at all (Hindu philosophy) had to wait for the Upani- public rituals, perform their role mentally and do shads. There, the earlier notion of reaching unity not chant. However, the esoteric Aranyaka rituals with the ultimate reality was seen not merely as a were performed only internally. From this we can spiritual apotheosis, but also as a way out of the see the development of the notion that the adept trap of rebirth (and redeath). himself was yajna or ritual. Many texts have called themselves the “fifth The UPANISHADS, a second subdivision within Veda” to emphasize their importance in the tradi- Brahmanas, were the last of the Vedic subdivi- tion. The ARTHASHASTRA, the NATYASHASTRA, and sions, commonly found within the Aranyakas. the MAHABHARATA all have claimed that designa- Many of these texts, as did the Brahmanas in tion. Sometimes the TANTRA also refers to itself as general, contained significant material reflecting the fifth Veda. on the nature of the Vedic sacrifice. In fact, the Tamil SHAIVITES or the Tamil Vaishnavites refer divisions among Brahmana proper, Aranyaka, and to their sacred texts, respectively, the TEVARAM Upanishad are not always clear. The most impor- and the Nalayira Divya Prabantham, as the Tamil tant feature of the Upanishads was the emergence Veda. Other local traditions in various languages of a clear understanding of the identity between do likewise. the individual self, or ATMAN, and the all-encom- The term Veda is also sometimes used generi- passing brahman, which now was understood as cally in other fields of knowledge. Medicine, the totality of universal reality, both manifest and for example, is referred to as the “Veda of Life” unmanifest. (AYURVEDA), and the study of war is the “Veda of The genesis of this Upanishadic view that the the Bow” (). self was in unity with cosmic reality can be clearly traced. Firstly, Shatapatha Brahmana explained Further reading: Faddegon Barend, Studies in the that the most perfect ritual was to be equated to Samaveda (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1951); S. N. the universe itself. More accurately it was the uni- Dasgupta, History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1 (Delhi: verse, visible and invisible. Second, the Aranyakas Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); Jan Gonda, Vedic Literature began to make clear that the initiated practitioner ( and Brahmanas): A History of Indian Lit- was to be equated to the ritual itself. So, if the erature, Vol. 1, no. 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, ritual equals all reality, and the individual adept 1975); Thomas Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition equals the ritual, one easily arrives at the idea that (Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1971); J. C. Heesterman, the individual equals all reality. The Upanishads, The Broken World of Sacrifice: An Essay on Ancient Indian then, were the outgrowth not of philosophical Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); speculation, but of self-conscious ritual practice. Brian K. Smith, Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual and The later orthodox Upanishads (those physically Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); associated with a Vedic collection) barely mention Frits Staal, AGNI: The Altar of Fire, 2 vols. (Berkeley, the rituals; they merely state the derived abstract Calif.: Asian Humanities Press, 1983). concepts. Another key breakthrough in the Upanishads was the explicit discussion of REINCARNATION Vedangas and the theory of KARMA, the notion that actions The Vedangas, or “branches of the VEDA,” are in this birth would have consequence in a new six ancillary sciences of traditional Brahminical birth. There is evidence that karma, or ethi- learning: (proper pronunciation), kalpa

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 482 12/14/06 9:29:45 AM Vedanta Societies/Ramakrishna Math and Mission 483 J

(mastery of the ritual details), (SAN- duality of soul, world, and God, but God is seen SKRIT grammar), (etymology or derivation as supreme and all other realities as subsidiary. It of Sanskrit words), chandas (prosody or verse is non-dualism with the reservation that the god- metrics), and jyotish (astronomy/astrology). The head has supreme power to act. adept had to know all these to be considered fully Finally, there is the rare minority sect of educated. Vedanta championed by Sri MADHVA, who argues that the soul, the world, and God are all separated Further reading: Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of from each other eternally and will never be one. Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, All is dependent upon the radically transcendent 1994); Jagadguru Shankaracharya, The Vedas and Vedan- God. gas (Kumbakonam: Sri Kamakoti Research Centre, In the Neo-Vedanta of the followers of RAMA- 1988). KRISHNA, reality is still one, but “God” may be characterized as “Allah” or “Christ” as well as in the usual Hindu ways. Because of the power of Vedanta the word Vedanta, even systems like that of SRI Vedanta, literally the end or conclusion (anta) AUROBINDO that resemble the TANTRA will be char- of the VEDA, is the most important philosophical acterized as Vedanta. His followers have some- school in Indian tradition. It is a wide and capa- times called his system Integral Vedanta. cious field that includes those who adhere to a All systems of Vedanta (except that of Aurobindo) strict non-dualist (ADVAITA) perspective, those who agree that the highest goal is to break the bonds of believe in a non-dualism with certain reserva- KARMA and realize mukti, or liberation. tions, and those who believe in the type of dual- ism (DVAITA) that states that God and the human Further reading: Surendranath Dasgupta, The History soul will never be one. of Indian Philosophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, The one basic requirement of Vedanta is that 1975); Swami Tapasyananda, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta it rest upon the three basic texts: the UPANISHADS, (Lives and Philosophies of Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva, the VEDANTA SUTRAS, and the BHAGAVAD GITA. Most Vallabha and Chaitanya) (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna commonly known in both India and the West is Math, 1990). the Vedanta of SHANKARA, the seventh-century philosophical savant. This Vedanta understands that the world is illusory, MAYA, and only the Vedanta Centre/Ananda Ashrama See transcendent ultimate reality, the BRAHMAN, is real. PARAMANANDA. That brahman has no characteristics and does not act in any way. It is a pure plenum or totality that is sometimes characterized as infinite being (sat), Vedanta Societies/Ramakrishna Math infinite consciousness (cit), and infinite bliss and Mission (ANANDA). (See SAT-CHIT-ANANDA.) The Vedanta Societies are part of a missionary A second type of Vedanta might best be movement created by the monastic disciples of Sri described as BHAKTI Vedanta or devotional Vedanta. RAMAKRISHNA Paramahansa (1836–86), the Indian Here the oneness of the godhead is also under- saint of ADVAITA (non-dual) VEDANTA, who was stood, but the world is seen to be real and perme- considered an incarnation of God. Ramakrishna’s ated by God in the form of VISHNU, usually, or message was that truth can be found in all of the his incarnations RAMA or KRISHNA. (Vedantas that world’s religions. The basic tenet of Vedanta is emphasize SHIVA in this way are rare.) There is no that reality is non-dual and that one divine reality

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 483 12/14/06 9:29:45 AM K 484 Vedanta Sutra

lywood, California. The Vedanta Society in Hol- lywood became the Vedanta Society of Southern California, with several , a convent, and the Vedanta Press. The writers Gerald Heard (1889–1971), Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), and Christopher ISHERWOOD (1904–86) were disciples of Prabhavananda. The Vedanta Societies remain under the author- ity of the central monastery, the Ramakrishna Order, headquartered in Belur Math, India. The larger organization, the Ramakrishna Math and Mission, administers a network of Ramakrishna Missions in major cities and some rural areas of India. Missions sponsor hospitals in addition to religious services. SWAMIs are trained at the math and are sent to direct Vedanta centers outside India. At present, all swamis are male, although nuns are part of the organization and convents Ramakrishna Temple, in Ramakrishna Math, Belur, are provided for nuns through the Sarada Math, Bengal (Constance A. Jones) named for SARADA DEVI, the wife of Ramakrishna. Several swamis have left the Vedanta Society because of its traditional authority structure. encompasses all. Swami VIVEKANANDA, a disciple of Sri Ramakrishna, first introduced Ramakrish- Further reading: Swami Gambhrananda, History of the na’s ideas of Vedanta to the UNITED STATES when Ramakrishna Math and Mission (Calcutta: Advaida Ash- he addressed the WORLD PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS rama, 1957); Christopher Isherwood, Ramakrishna, and in Chicago in 1893. His message was so well His Disciples (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965); Carl received that he lectured throughout the coun- T. Jackson, Vedanta for the West: Ramakrishna Movement try and founded the first Vedanta Society in the in the United States (Bloomington: Indiana University United States in New York City in 1896. Press, 1994); Romain Rolland, The Life of Ramakrishna Other swamis or monastics in the order (Mayavati: advaita Ashrama, 1931); ———, The Life of founded other Vedanta Societies in major cit- Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel (Mayavati: advaita ies. Swami ABHEDANANDA served the New York Ashrama, 1931); ———, Prophets of the New India. society and taught throughout the United States Translated by E. F. Malcolm-Smith (New York: Albert from 1897 to 1921. In San Francisco, Swami & Charles Boni, 1930); Catherine Wessinger, “Hindu- Trigunatita oversaw the construction of the first ism Arrives in America: The Vedanta Movement and Hindu temple in the United States in 1906. the Self-Realization Fellowship,” in Timothy Miller, ed., Swami PARAMANANDA (1885–1940) lectured all America’s Alternative Religions, 173–190 (Albany: State over the United States and established centers in University of New York Press, 1995). Los Angeles and Boston. In 1923 he established ANANDA ASHRAMA at La Crescenta, California. Swami Nikhilananda founded a center in Manhat- Vedanta Sutra (first century C.E.) tan in 1933. (1914–76) The Vedanta Sutra is said to have been com- established centers in Portland, Oregon, and Hol- posed by VYASA, but it is also known as Vedanta

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 484 12/14/06 9:29:45 AM vegetarianism 485 J

Sutra and as such is attributed to Badarayana, an Vedic See VEDA(S). ancient sage. A SUTRA is a short aphoristic line of text; Vedanta Sutra can thus be translated as “lines relating to the VEDANTA.” There are about 560 vegetarianism lines in this text. Vegetarianism is highly valued in Indian cul- The work was composed to resolve difficul- ture. In general orthodox BRAHMINS will eat ties in the interpretation of the UPANISHADS and neither meat nor eggs. Castes who desire to gain to refute the views of certain opposing schools. respect and perhaps eventual advancement in Chapter I systematically and with great specific- the hierarchy will adopt vegetarianism as a way ity discusses the Upanishad passages dealing with to “Sanskritize” or become more Brahminical. BRAHMAN (the universal reality) and ATMAN (the soul Hindus who are on any spiritual quest in India or self). Chapter II is devoted to a refutation of the will remove meat and other things such as spices other interpretations, as presented by the schools from their diet in order to ensure spiritual purity. of SAMKHYA, YOGA, NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, MIMAMSA, Meat is considered to be tamasic (see GUNAS), , Buddhism, and JAINISM. Chapter III dis- or spiritually negative, and is believed to cause cusses the PRAMANAS, the valid methods of obtain- excessive desire for sexuality and a tendency ing knowledge (such as perception, inference, or toward violence. scripture) in order to understand the brahman and Most scholars agree that vegetarianism was atman. The fourth and final chapter discusses the not originally part of the Vedic or Brahmini- results of brahman realization. cal system, though this remains a controversial The Vedanta Sutra, Upanishads, and BHAGAVAD conclusion. The solid evidence of the Vedic texts GITA form the traditional foundational texts for themselves as well as authoritative DHARMA (right Vedantic philosophy. As a result, Vedanta Sutra conduct) texts such as the DHARMASHASTRA of has attracted numerous and varied commentar- Manu, indicate quite clearly that meat, including ies. SHANKARA, RAMANUJA, and MADHVA all wrote beef, was eaten by all sectors of Indian society extensive commentaries, which strongly disagree including Brahmins. with one another, largely because the extremely The Jains (see JAINISM) and Buddhists, how- concise style of the individual lines often admits ever, were extremely critical of the Brahminical to varied interpretations. animal sacrifices and of the habit of eating meat. The Jains were most radical in this regard; Jain Further reading: V. M. Apte, trans., Brahma-Sutra, monks (and to a lesser degree the laity) practiced Shankara-Bhashya: Badarayana’s Brahma-Sutras with AHIMSA (noninjury) from as early as 900 B.C.E., as Shankaracharya’s Commentary (Bombay: Popular Book did the BUDDHA from around 600 B.C.E. Depot, 1960); Swami Gambhirananda, trans., Brahma- For the Jain monks, every motion of the body Sutra-Bhasya of Sri Sankaracarya (Calcutta: advaita had to be calculated to minimize its effect on Ashrama, 1965); S. Radhakrishnan, trans., The Brahma invisible microscopic beings that were believed Sutra, the Philosophy of Spiritual Life (New York: Green- to exist in air, water, fire, and earth. (This may wood Press, 1968); S. S. Raghavachar, Sri Bhashya on have been the first human conception of micro- the Philosophy of the Brahma-Sutra (Bangalore: Sri Lak- organisms.) All the more did they refrain from shmi Hayagreeva Seva Trust, 1986). slaughtering and eating large animals. Strict vegetarianism was required for monks, and the laity followed their example. One could never be Vedantic Center See TURYASANGITANANDA, a Jain in India, then or now, and eat meat or eggs. SWAMI. Buddhists were vegetarian in their monasteries

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 485 12/14/06 9:29:45 AM K 486 vehicles of the divinities

but were allowed to eat meat received as alms. SARASVATI is seen in association with a swan or They were less absolute, but they too discour- peacock; KARTTIKEYA, the younger son of Shiva aged MEAT-EATING. and PARVATI, has a peacock vehicle; GANESHA, the The Brahminical tradition began to move in elephant-headed divinity, is seen in association the direction of ahimsa toward the end of the last with the lowly rat. LAKSHMI is unique in having millennium before the Common Era. Law codes a lotus that she is always shown seated upon, such as the Manu Smriti or the Dharmashastra of which serves as her vehicle. Manu allow Brahmins to eat the meat of sacrificial There are, however, many prominent divini- animals, but other meat eating is discouraged. ties who do not have iconographic vehicles. These The influence of ahimsa is clear in the argument include RAMA and SITA, PARVATI and KRISHNA. that ritually sacrificing an animal is not himsa, or Among the Jains the TIRTHANKARAS (perfected “killing” per se. beings) were usually depicted in association with As time went on, and Vedic ritual began to particular animals, perhaps in imitation of the recede in importance in the culture, Brahmins Hindu notion. However, since the Jain tradition is took on strict vegetarianism as a sign of purity. so old, it is quite possible that the practice origi- They also followed the Jains and Buddhists in pre- nated with them. venting any needless killing of any being. While Jainism and Buddhism remained localized or Further reading: Cornelia Dimitt and J. A. B. van minority traditions, Brahmin conduct was always Buitenen, eds. and trans., Classical Hindu Mythology: the model for the Hindu majority. Vegetarianism A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple soon became the pan-Indian ideal. University Press, 1978); Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography (Boston: Routledge & Further reading: D. N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow Kegan Paul, 1985). (London: Verso, 2002); Brian K. Smith, “Eaters, Food and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India,” Journal of the Academy of Religion 58, no. 2 (1990): 177–205; Francis Videha Zimmerman, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats (Berke- Videha was an important region or country of ley: University of California Press, 1987). ancient India, located in what is now north- ern Bihar state. With its capital Mithila it was mentioned in both the MAHABHARATA and the vehicles of the divinities RAMAYANA. King Janaka of Videha was famous In the post-Vedic iconography of India, gods for his daughter SITA, who became Lord RAMA’s and goddesses are commonly seen in associa- wife, and for reaching a perfected state through tion with what is described in SANSKRIT as their action alone, as recounted in the BHAGAVAD GITA. (vehicle). Often they are pictured astride The king is also mentioned in the UPANISHADS as an animal; at other times there is a depiction of a knower of BRAHMAN. Videha is also mentioned the animal standing alone in the foreground or in the Buddhist Jataka stories and the Majjhima background. Vedic divinities did not have such Nikaya; the Buddha traveled there. MAHAVIRA, mounts, but mounts were created for them in later the great Jain TIRTHANKARA (perfected being), was times to make their images accord with those of born in this country. the non-Vedic gods. The vehicle of VISHNU is the man-eagle Further reading: Yogendra Mishra, History of Videha: ; the vehicle of SHIVA is the bull NANDI; From the Earliest Times to the Foundation of the Gupta DURGA is often depicted astride a lion or tiger; Empire, A.D. 319 (Patna: Janaki Prakashan, 1981).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 486 12/14/06 9:29:46 AM Vijayanagara 487 J

vidya Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi- Vidya (knowledge) from the SANSKRIT root “to losophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); T. M. know” is an important philosophical term in Hindu P. Mahadevan, The Philosophy of Advaita, with Special tradition. Initially it connoted the knowledge of Reference to Bharatitirtha- (London: Luzac, the Vedic MANTRAS and ritual, and it bestowed great 1938); Swami , Pancadasi of Svami power. When the UPANISHADS concluded that Vedic Vidyaranya, chaps. 5, 10, and 15 (Mumbai: Central rituals alone could not help break the cycle of birth Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1999). and rebirth, Vedic knowledge began to be called the “lower knowledge” (apara vidya) while the Upanishadic knowledge was called the higher or Vijayadashami See NAVARATRI. liberating knowledge (). Buddhism also used the term to refer to knowledge of the path that breaks the cycle of birth and rebirth. Vijayanagara (1336–1630) Vijayanagara, the “City of Victory,” was a fortress Further reading: Thomas Hopkins, The Hindu Religious city founded by an alliance of kings as a bulwark Tradition (Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1971); Klaus K. against the Muslims in the south of India. Its Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: State Uni- vast ruins can still be seen at the site of Hampi in versity of New York Press, 1994). Karnataka. The city was the capital of a sprawling empire that controlled almost all of India south of the Vidyaranya (c. 1450 C.E.) Vedantic philosopher Krishna and the Tungabhadra Rivers at its height Vidyaranya was a well-known philosopher in the under King Krishnadevaraya. The empire took the tradition of SHANKARA. He is thought to be the name of the city, the Vijayanagara empire. brother of ; Sayana is the commentator on Vijayanagara played a key role in Hindu history, the VEDAS. Vidyaranya composed several texts. by successfully fending off many Muslim invasions The Sarvadarshanasangraha is a discussion of and preserving and promoting Hindu culture for different philosophical views. The Panchapadika- nearly 300 years, at a time when the rest of India vivarana is considered an excellent and thorough was suffering complete Muslim domination. Two summary of the non-dualist philosophical per- princes, and Bukka, created the kingdom spective; Vivarnaprameyasangraha explores the in 1336. Harihara I (1336–57) planned and built same theme in a more scholarly fashion. the great new city of Vijayanagara, which became Vidyarana’s Jivanmuktiviveka discusses those the capital of the empire in 1343. In 1346, the beings who have already been liberated from the Hoysalas, the last remaining South Indian rivals to cycle of birth and rebirth but remain in embodied the Vijayanagara kingdom, were defeated. existence. Finally, Panchadashi is a popular com- The city covered 20 square miles and had pendium in verse of Vedantic thought, known for seven concentric lines of fortifications. It had at its clarity and accessibility. Here he outlines his its height a population of 500,000 people. It was own understanding of the nature of the ultimate an international city with wide trade ties, which brahman, describing the maya or illusory world helped finance beautifully carved and embellished appearance as being in a sense a power of the buildings. The culture saw a flowering of South BRAHMAN. Brahman is the underlying pure reality, Indian civilization with support for all the sects while all names and forms are the false discolor- of Hinduism, including Vaishnavite, Shaivite, and ation over the pure whiteness, as it were, of the the GODDESS, and for the heterodox Jains as well ultimate reality. (see JAINISM).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 487 12/14/06 9:29:46 AM K 488

Further reading: K. A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of the rivers that separate the East and West through South India from Prehistoric Time to the Fall of Vijaja- traditional yoga techniques. nagar (Madras: Oxford University Press, 1996); Burton Stein, Vijayanagara (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Further reading: Dadaji Vimalananda, Yogamritam (The University Press, 2005). Nectar of Yoga) (San Rafael, Calif.: Yoga House Ashram, 1977).

Vimalananda (1942– ) founder of Yoga House Ashram Vindhya Mountains Vimalananda, founder of Yoga House Ashram The Vindhya Mountains, 1,000 to 3,500 feet in and a former member and teacher of the ANANDA elevation, are a range of hills forming a natural MARGA YOGA SOCIETY, currently teaches yoga barrier between northern and southern India. throughout northern California. They mark the northern edge of the central Indian Dadaji, as he in known to his friends and or Deccan plateau. From Gujarat state on the disciples, was born in 1942 to a BRAHMIN family west, they extend about 675 miles across Madhya in Badwel in South India. He had spiritual experi- Pradesh state to touch on the GANGES River valley ences as a young boy and at age six experienced near BENARES (Varanasi) in Uttar Pradesh. These a bright light filling his room and a voice urg- mountains are mentioned in the Indian epics and ing him to commit himself to the inner path of are mythologically associated with numerous per- enlightenment. Dadaji answered the call of the sonages including , who is said to have inner life; by the time he was 16 he was adept as caused them to bow down permanently in his a YOGA instructor. travels to South India. DURGA is sometimes said to In 1962 he developed a relationship with have her home in the Vindhyas in the form of the Sri ANANDAMURTI, founder and creator of the goddess VINDHYAVASINI. ANANDA MARGA YOGA SOCIETY. He delighted in the services the society provided for the sick, Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of the poor, and the elderly. Very quickly he was Hindu Mythology (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint, promoted to yoga teacher. In 1966 Dadaji felt 1973); History to Prehistory: Contribution of the Depart- the need to spread the words and programs of ment to the Archaeology of the Ganga Valley and the Vind- the society to help humanity. He left India as hyas (Allahabad: Department of Ancient History, Culture, an emissary of the society to found centers in and Archaeology, University of Allahabad, 1980). Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sin- gapore, Hong Kong, and the Philippines. He was honored by the for his heroic Vindhyavasini work in the aftermath of the great earthquake Vindhyavasini (she who dwells in the VINDHYA that struck Manila in 1968. MOUNTAINS) is an example of a local indigenous In 1969 Dadaji went to the UNITED STATES GODDESS who was incorporated in the larger tra- and assisted in developing the Ananda Marga dition of the great Goddess in ingenious ways. Society there. However, in the mid-1970s he left Among the many Hindu local goddesses she is the society, created the Yoga House Ashram, and rare in maintaining the face of a bird and not a developed his own following. He settled in the human, in keeping with non-Aryan tribal notions San Francisco area and continued to teach that of divinity. service to humanity was as important as yoga or Vindhyavasini is depicted with the face of a MEDITATION. His life has been devoted to bridging bird and the body of a woman, having four arms.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 488 12/14/06 9:29:46 AM Virashaivas 489 J

In her hands are a , a club, a war discus, and Virashaivas the “fear not” gesture of the hand (ABHAYA MUDRA). The Virashaivas are a BHAKTI, or devotional, move- Her vehicle is a lion. She is also depicted as KALI ment in the southern Indian state of Karnataka is with a garland of human skulls. To her right is that was founded in the 12th century by their the elephant GANESHA and to her left is a yogini, a leader, BASAVANNA. The Virashaivas were socially demigoddess, seated on an elephant. Vindhyavasini radical, condemning all forms of caste, establish- is mentioned in the Devi Mahatmya, an important ing equality of the sexes, and rejecting ritual of text that presents the various incarnations or forms all kinds as empty posturing. Most important of the great Goddess (Mahadevi). She is also men- for them were the GURU, the saints as a group, a tioned in an early 19th-century local text called the personal relationship with Lord SHIVA, and high Vindhya Mahatmya. In both she is understood to regard for the wandering seeker who embraces be the BRAHMAN, or ultimate reality, in its totality. poverty and defies convention. One Virashaivite She is also assimilated to Mahalakshmi, or LAKSHMI, saint, for example, , was a woman conceived of as the ultimate divinity. who wandered about naked. Vindhyavasini is primarily connected with the Virashaiva orthodoxy has eight elements: (1) Vaishnavite tradition. The story goes that when the GURU who leads the self to Shiva; (2) the LIN- KRISHNA was given to his foster mother Nanda GAM, the sole symbol of Shiva, worn on a necklace to escape being killed by the evil king Kamsa, in by anyone; among the Virashaivas there is no exchange VASUDEVA, Krishna’s father, received a indication that the lingam is considered a phallic divine child, Vindhyavasini. Kamsa, getting word symbol; (3) the jangama, the male or female wan- that a birth might have occurred, went to Krish- dering religious teacher who is considered God na’s mother DEVAKI’s house and tried to seize the incarnate; the guru, lingam, and jangama all have new girl child. She escaped the king’s grasp and sanctifying power; (4) the that has prophesied, before returning to the Vindhyas, that touched the feet of the guru and been drunk as a Kamsa would be killed by Krishna. sign of devotion; (5) PRASADA (grace), food blessed A different account of Vindhyvasini’s birth by the guru; devotees take this food from the feet (resembling the tale that KALI emerged from of the guru together; commensality and commu- PARVATI) tells of a goddess, , who was nity sharing occur regardless of CASTE, in defiance formed when Parvati shed her dark complexion to of ordinary social behavior in Indian tradition; become golden or light in color (earning her the (6) holy ash, which is worn as a sign of Shiva; (7) standing epithet Gauri, or white one). Kaushiki rudraksa beads, a necklace made of seeds from immediately went to the HIMALAYAS to take up her a special plant and worn as a sign of Shiva; they role as Vindhyavasini. are sacred to all who worship Shiva; and (8) the There is an active and elaborate PILGRIMAGE to five-syllable MANTRA, Om Nama Shivaya; this is an Vindhyavasini around the village of Vindhyachal important mantra for all Shaivites. at the northern foothills of the Vindhyas, where The Virashaivas recognize a number of impor- they touch the GANGES between ALLAHABAD and tant saints born from the 10th to the 12th cen- BENARES (Varanasi). The temple of Vindhyavasini turies. The poem-songs of these saints are sung has elements that resemble those of Kali, and ani- and recited as part of devotion. These saints are mal sacrifices are performed. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, , and Devara Dasimayya. Further reading: John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, eds. Devi: Goddesses of India (Berkeley: Further reading: Vinaya Chaitanya, Songs for Siva: University of California Press, 1996). Vacanas of Akka Mahadevi (Lanham, Md.: Mira

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 489 12/14/06 9:29:46 AM K 490

Press, 2005); K. Ishwaran, Speaking of : Lingayat was also the grandson of . Yamunacha- Religion and Culture in South Asia (Boulder, Colo.: West- rya was probably born in the early 10th century. view, 1992); A. K. Ramanujan, trans., Speaking of Siva He was a king who renounced everything to go to (New York: Penguin Books, 1973). SRIRANGAM, one of the most important shrines for the Sri Vaishnavite tradition, which supports the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita. Vishishtadvaita had many disciples, of whom The term Vishishtadvaita is very commonly misin- 21 became prominent. RAMANUJA (born at the terpreted as “qualified” (or “modified”) (vishishta) end of the 11th century), the greatest ACHARYA of non-dualism (ADVAITA). A more accurate (though the lineage, was born to the elder sister of one still imprecise) translation is “non-duality with of Yamunacharya’s disciples, Mahapurna. Yamu- differentiation.” This reflects Vishishtadvaita’s nacharya composed six important Sanskrit works understanding of the three reals: Ishvara (God), developing the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita. As cit (consciousness) and acit (unconsciousness). with other great acharyas of the Vishishtadvaita The conscious and unconscious existence are real tradition he was a great devotee, as well as a great aspects or attributes of God, non-dual or non-dif- scholar; one of the six works he composed was a ferent from God from the point of view of God, praise poem to Lord KRISHNA. but they are also eternally distinct (differentiated), Yamunacharya apparently lived to a ripe in that they are attributes only. age but died before he could meet Ramanuja. God or BRAHMAN and the world are seen to Ramanuja’s own guru understood that his stu- have the relation of soul and body. The manifest dent would one day outshine him and tried to universe is the body of God, but in his plentitude have him killed, but Ramanuja was miraculously he is also an unchangeable infinity beyond the saved from this attempt. Eventually, Ramanuja world, untouched in any way by the negatives or took Mahapurna, his uncle, to be his guru and impurities of the world of manifestation. followed him to Srirangam. He arrived just after Vishishhadvaita tradition begins with the 12 Yamunacharya died. ALVARS, the mystic poet-singers of Tamil Nadu From seeing three of Yamuna’s fingers twisted, who date from the eighth to the 10th centuries. after death, he learned that he should do three The songs of these Alvars inspired and shape things: (1) convert the people to the Vaishnavite the tradition of Vishishtadvaita. The philosophy doctrine of surrender, (2) write a commentary to expressed in these songs was first systematically the VEDANTA SUTRA, and (3) write extensively on explored by the teacher Nathamuni, probably in Sri Vaishnavism. All these things he did. Not long the ninth century C.E. Nathamuni is said to have afterward, he renounced the householder life and received the verses of NAMMALVAR, which he put to went to Srirangam to head the order and devote music in Vedic style. These verses are still sung in himself to the divinity of that shrine. Ramanuja is the temples of Tamil Nadu, in addition to verses famed for his Sri Bhashya, his commentary on the in SANSKRIT, and are part of the Vaishnavite VEDA Vedanta Sutra, but he also wrote a commentary in Tamil. on the BHAGAVAD GITA and several other major Nathamuni is credited with composing three Vedantic works. Sanskrit texts that still inform the tradition. He All Ramanuja’s works were written in Sanskrit. had 11 disciples, the most important of whom were Two important philosophers followed Ramanuja, Pundarikaksha, Karukanatha, and Shrikrishna Lak- Bhattar, who wrote a Sanskrit com- shminatha. Pundarikaksha’s student Rama Mishra mentary on the Sanskrit Thousand Divine Names became the guru of the famed Yamunacharya, who of Vishnu, and Pillan or Kurukesha, who wrote a

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 490 12/14/06 9:29:47 AM Vishnu 491 J

Tamil commentary on the hymns of the Alvars, Era, and with the god Narayana of the Vedic BRAH- which became a philosophical backbone for later MANA literature. By the time of the MAHABHARATA Vishishtadvaita thought. The most prolific later and RAMAYANA epics his prominence was assured. teacher among many later philosophers in this He was identified both with the gods KRISHNA, lineage was Venkatanatha of the 15th century, who hero of the Mahabharata, and RAMA, hero of the wrote numerous works in Sanskrit and Tamil. Ramayana. Most significant in the philosophy of Sri Eventually, Vishnu’s cult reached full devel- Vaishnavism is a vision of a personal divinity that opment when he was recognized as Mahavishnu is worshipped with great passion and devotion. At (great Vishnu), preserver of the universe, who the same time that divinity, Vishnu, is understood entered into the world when needed in succes- to be the transcendent brahman of the UPANISHADS. sive AVATARs or “descents.” Before the world is The Alvar’s faith was passionate and mystical. created, Vishnu sleeps on the cosmic MILK OCEAN Ramanuja’s commentaries were subtle philosophy on the back of the divine serpent ADISHESHA. Out that sought to legitimate their path in terms of of his navel grows a lotus from which BRAHMA the Vedanta. The two paths together constitute what creator god emerges to create the universe. Once Sri Vaisnavas call the “Double Vedanta” (Ubayave- danta), which relies on both Sanskrit and Tamil textual bases.

Further reading: John Braisted Carmen, The Theology of Ramanuja (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974); S. N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. 3 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); A. K. Ramanu- jan, Hymns for the Drowning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981); , Visistadvaita Vedanta: A Study (New Delhi: Heritage, 1978).

Vishnu Vishnu in his various forms is one of the most worshipped gods in the Indian pantheon. His tradition, known as VAISHNAVISM, constitutes the second largest sect within Hinduism. Vishnu first appears in the VEDAS as a rather insignificant divinity, with only minor ritual impor- tance. There are only 64 mentions of him in the RIG VEDA, most of them in passing, with only a handful of hymns addressed to him alone. He is celebrated in the Vedas mostly for his “three steps” that saved the world, in his incarnation as VAMANA AVATAR. Vishnu first gains prominence in the later Vedic period, apparently after being identified Lord Venkateshwara, popularly known as Balaji, is one with VASUDEVA, a non-Vedic god popular in west- of the manifestations of Lord Vishnu. (Institute for the ern India in the last centuries before the Common Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 491 12/14/06 9:29:47 AM K 492 Vishnudevananda, Swami

the world is created Vishnu reigns in his heavenly Period) (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1973); Cor- realm of Vaikuntha. nelia Dimitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, eds. and trans., Iconographically, Vishnu is depicted as being Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit of dark blue color with four arms. He is seated Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); on a throne. In his four hands he holds a conch, J. Gonda, Aspects of Early Visnuism, 2d ed. (Delhi: a war discus, a mace, and a lotus. He wears the Motilal Banarsidass, 1969); ———, Visnuism and Siva- Kaustubha gem around his neck and has a tuft of ism: A Comparison (London: Athlone, 1970); Nanditha hair on his chest called . His vehicle is Krishna, The Book of Vishnu (New Delhi: Viking, 2001); the man-eagle GARUDA. His spouse is LAKSHMI, or Sushil Kumar Patel, Hinduism in India: A Study of Visnu Sri. In the highest understanding he exists as all Worship (Delhi: Amar Prakashan, 1992); A. K. Ramanu- things and also transcends them. jan, trans., Hymns for the Drowning: Poems for Visnu Vishnu as the sustainer divinity takes human by Nammalvar (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University or animal incarnations when needed to maintain Press, 1981); Margaret Stutley, An Illustrated Dictionary or defend the world. The BHAGAVAD GITA says that of Hindu Iconography (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, whenever there is a decrease in righteousness 1985); Pandrimalai Swamigal, The Ten Incarnations: and an increase in unrighteousness in the world, Dasvatara (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982). Vishnu (there KRISHNA) sends himself forth. Only Vishnu among the gods is seen to take on incar- nations as part of a divine duty. Other gods such Vishnudevananda, Swami (1927–1993) as SHIVA and the Goddess will be found in various See SHIVANANDA YOGA VEDANTA CENTERS. forms, but these will not be referred to in general as avatars or incarnations. There are different lists of avatars or incarna- chakra tions of Vishnu in different texts and traditions, The vishuddha chakra is the fifth CHAKRA (energy variously containing 10, 12, or 22 god names. center) from the base of the spine in the KUNDALINI The most common list of avatars is MATSYA YOGA system. It is located on the spine at the (fish), KURMA (tortoise), VARAHA (boar), Nara- throat area. At this chakra worldly emotions are simha (man-lion), VAMANA (dwarf), PARASHURAMA transcended and higher spiritual qualities begin (RAMA with the axe), Rama of the RAMAYANA, to emerge, particularly higher spiritual insight KRISHNA, BUDDHA, and KALKI (his future incarna- (JNANA). Accordingly, its element is the refined tion). Sometimes Krishna’s brother BALARAMA is element ether (see ELEMENTS, FIVE). Its deity is made the 11th avatar and sometimes both Krishna Panchavaktra Shiva or five-faced SHIVA. Its SHAKTI and Balarama are classified as one avatar. or energy is shakini, the embodiment of purity. It Whenever Vishnu takes an avatar, he is subject has 16 bluish gray petals. to birth and death just as a human is. Krishna of the MAHABHARATA, for instance, dies by being shot Further reading: Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Centers in the heel. of Transformation (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 2000); John G. Woodroffe, The Serpent Power, 7th ed. (Madras: Further reading: R. G. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism, Ganesh, 1964). and Minor Religious Systems (Poona: Bhandarkar Ori- ental Research Institute, 1982); K. Bharadvaja, A Philo- sophical Study of the Concept of Visnu in the Puranas (New Delhi: Pitambar, 1981); S. Desai, Iconog- The Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP or World Hindu raphy of Visnu (In Northern India, up to the Mediaeval Council) is one of the most visible of several

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 492 12/14/06 9:29:47 AM Vishvanath Temple, Benares 493 J

Hindu nationalist groups. It arose as the religious Self Identity: Nations in Turmoil (Hanover, N.H.: Univer- wing of the militant RASHTRIYA SVAYAM SEVAK sity Press of New England, 1997); Raheem Quraishi, SANGH (RSS). The Assam Bloodbath: Who Is Responsible? (Indianapolis: The VHP was founded in 1964, in order to Trust, 1984); Santosh C. Saha, ed., Religious Fundamen- redefine Hindutva, or Hinduism, in a simplified talism in the Contemporary World: Critical Social and but rigorous form that could compete with other Political Issues (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2004); world religions. It is an attempt to create a single, Santosh C. Saha and Thomas K. Carr, eds., Religious unified Hindu culture. Two leaders of the SHANKA- Fundamentalism in Developing Countries (Westport, RACHARYA ORDER were present at its formation. Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001); Peter van der Veer, The VHP devised a uniform religious practice, Religious Nationalism, Hindus and Muslims in India which it publicized in the 1980s. All Hindus were (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). expected to worship SURYA (the Sun) at dawn and dusk, wear the OM symbol around their neck, keep a copy of the BHAGAVAD GITA in their home, main- tain a shrine to their personal deity, and attend Vishvakarma, “the one who does all action,” is temple services. the architect and artisan among the Vedic gods. The VHP’s writings give no importance to the He fashions buildings for them and makes their four VEDAS, which have always been considered weapons and implements. On Earth he is said the most sacred Hindu scripture. Instead, they to have fashioned the entire world, including exalt the military ethos of the BHAGAVAD GITA men and women. He shares in sacrifices made by and RAMAYANA. The focus of worship for the VHP people to the other gods. The , who make has been on BHAKTI (devotional) practices, com- chariots and other objects for the gods, are said to bined with sacrifices and PILGRIMAGES, with little be his pupils. attention to SELF-REALIZATION or renunciation. Vishvakarma persists in the mythology of the A unique practice introduced during the 1980s PURANAS, where he maintains his role as divine was the worship of bricks with the name of RAMA architect and artisan. There he is the son of inscribed upon them. Bricks like these were used BRAHMA and is said to have three eyes, a club, a as weapons against Muslims in the murderous gold crown, and a gold necklace, though there is riots of 1992 and 2002 (see HINDU NATIONALISM). no proliferation of iconography of him. Though the VHP courts the lower castes, it exalts the KSHATRIYA or warrior caste. Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary In North America the VHP operates secretly. of Hindu Mythology, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Its visual presence is best seen through the affili- Depot, 1974); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology, 2 ated Hindu Student Congress. vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Further reading: Gwilym Beckerlegge and Anthony Rupa, 1973). Copley, eds., Saffron and Seva (Hinduism in Public and Private) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Chetan Bhatt, Hindu Nationalism: Origins, Ideologies, Vishvanath Temple, Benares and Modern Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, The Vishvanath Temple to Lord SHIVA in BENARES 2001); Gerrie ter Haar and James J. Busuttil, eds., The (Varanasi) replaced a temple destroyed in the Freedom to Do God’s Will: Religious Fundamentalism and 17th century by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Social Change (London: Routledge, 2003); Martin E. who built a mosque on the same site. The temple Mary and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Religion, Ethnicity, and was rebuilt beside that mosque in 1776 by Rani

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 493 12/14/06 9:29:47 AM K 494 Vithoba

Ahalyabai of Indore. Its magnificent 70-foot spire is totally covered with over a ton of gold plate, giving it its popular name of the Golden Temple. It enshrines a Shiva LINGAM that is considered one of the 12 , or lingams of divine light, in India.

Further reading: Diana L. Eck, Banaras, City of Light (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier, The Hindu Temple (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976); K. K. Moorthy, The Lord Shiva to Be Adored: A Mini-Compendium of 300 Saivite Shrines, Inclusive of the Dwadasa Kshetras, Pancabhutashtas, Pancharamas Plus Those Situated in Nepal Srilanka and Vietnam and Indonesia (Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh: Message, 1995).

Vithoba (Vitthoba, Vitthala) Vithoba is a form of VISHNU or KRISHNA; his main shrine is in Pandharpur, Maharashtra. This was the favored shrine of the Maharasthran saint TUKARAM, whose poetic songs are often addressed Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), founder of the to this divinity. Vithoba is worshipped in Maha- Vedanta Society in the United States and the Rama- rashtra and in Karnataka (where he is called Vit- krishna Math and Mission in India (Courtesy Vedanta thala). The god is generally depicted standing on Society, San Francisco) a brick (his name derives from the Marathi word for brick) with his arms resting on his hips. In one hand is a pouch with pebbles in it and in his other Vivekananda, Swami (1863–1902) hand is a conch. founder of Vedanta Society and Ramakrishna Math It is said that Krishna, accompanied by the and Mission RISHI (seer) NARADA, once went to visit a certain Swami Vivekananda was a great teacher of Hin- Pundalika to observe his devotion to his elderly duism for the modern world. His missionary parents. They arrived while he was taking care of work played a major role in the consolidation his parents. Without stopping his work, he threw of ADVAITA VEDANTA in India and its spread to the a brick at Krishna and asked him to wait. West. He founded the VEDANTA SOCIETY in the United States and the RAMAKRISHNA MATH AND Further reading: G. A. Deleury, The Cult of Vithoba MISSION in India. (Poona: Deccan College, Postgraduate and Research Narendranath Datta was born on January Institute, 1960); Kusumawati Deshpande and M. V. 12, 1863, in Calcutta (Kolkata), West Bengal, Rajadhyaksha, History of Marathi Literature (New Delhi: to aristocratic Bengali parents: Viswanath Dutta Sahitya Akademi, 1988); Eleanor Zelliot and Maxine and Bhuvaneswari Devi. He meditated from a Bertsen, The Experience of Hinduism: Religion in Maharas- very early age and entertained spiritual ques- tra (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988). tions from childhood. His inquiries about God

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 494 12/14/06 9:29:47 AM Vivekananda, Swami 495 J

led him as a youth to the BRAHMO SAMAJ, a reform renown. He gathered his brother monks and movement founded by Rammohun ROY, but he founded the Ramakrishna Math and Mission, was not satisfied with the spirituality of the whose very name emphasized Ramakrishna’s uni- movement. fication of the monastic life with social service. In November 1881, while studying at Cal- He found a site for the monastery at Belur and cutta University, he visited Sri RAMAKRISHNA, the began relief work in nearby Calcutta. He worked famous mystic and priest at the KALI temple of with SARADA DEVI, Sri Ramakrishna’s widow, to Dakshineswar near Calcutta. Narendra was fas- serve the poor. The Ramakrishna Math and Mis- cinated by Ramakrisha’s claim that he saw God sion is today one of the largest monastic orders clearly, and he wanted to know more. Although in Hinduism. responsible for the care of his poverty-stricken His teaching centered around advaita Vedanta family upon the death of his father, Narendra and he constantly pointed to the identity of each continued his work at the university and his person with the highest BRAHMAN. He believed study with Ramakrishna. He spent five years in that no one could be free until all are free. Even training with Ramakrishna, during which he the desire for personal salvation should be relin- became committed to renouncing all of life in quished in favor of tireless work for the salvation quest of God-realization. Ramakrishna died of of others. throat cancer in August 1886. Then Narendra Vivekananda wanted to raise the inferior sta- and a small group of Ramakrishna’s disciples took tus of by including them in vows to become monks and renounce the world. spiritual life. He worked with many women in In 1887 he took the vow of SANNYAS and became India, including Sarada Devi and Sister NIVEDITA, Swami Vivekananda (bliss of discernment). and with many Western disciples in promot- With some other young monks, Vivekananda ing the education of and service to women. He wandered all over the subcontinent, begging for insisted that the women of India must be able to food and lodging. In his travels he learned first- meet the modern age with adequate education; it hand of the imbalances in Indian society and the was the topic of one of his many books. inhumanity of the CASTE system. He began to see Vivekananda made a second visit to the West the need for social service for millions of poor in 1899–1900, during which he founded other Indians, not traditionally an interest of spiritual Vedanta Centers. seekers in India. He was only 39 when he died on July 4, 1902, In 1893 Vivekananda attended the WORLD at Belur Math near Calcutta. PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS in Chicago, with the intent of representing the message of Hinduism Further reading: Marie Louise Burke, Swami Vive- to the West. He was the most popular speaker kananda in America: New Discoveries (Calcutta: advaita at the parliament, giving classical, erudite dis- Ashrama, 1958); Sailendra Nath Dhar, A Comprehen- positions on the nature and value of Hinduism, sive Biography of Swami Vivekananda, 2 vols. (Madras: which excited many. From this success he began Vivekananda Prakashan Kendra, 1975); Reminiscences a tour of the United States, lecturing in the of Swami Vivekananda by His Eastern and Western Midwest and New York City, where in 1895 he Admirers (Calcutta: advaita Ashrama, 1961); Romain founded the Vedanta Society of New York, the Rolland, The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal first Hindu organization founded in the United Gospel (Mayavati, Almora: advaita Ashrama, 1944); States. Swami Vivekananda, The Complete Works of Swami Upon his return to India in 1897, he found Vivekananda, 12 vols. (Calcutta: advaita Ashrama, that his success in the West had increased his 1965).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 495 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM K 496 vows

vows () also involve celibacy, service to the divinity, and Vows or vratas are a central feature of Hinduism pilgrimage. and JAINISM. They are undertaken for myriad There is a long list of special days appropriate reasons, but always with the desire of pleasing to specific vows, usually entailing particular obli- the divinity. Vows are often taken to do a par- gations of worship and observances. A devotee ticular thing in exchange for help from God. might vow to worship the Sun and fast on the day For instance, a mother might promise to donate of Acalasaptami; to worship LAKSHMI at the base of a sum of money to a certain divinity’s temple, a tree during Navaratri; to abstain from plowing if her gravely ill child should recover. A person on AMBUVACHI; to abstain from fish on Bakapan- might carry out a vow to shave his or her head caka; or to bathe three times and make special and make a PILGRIMAGE to a god’s temple in offerings to the ancestors on Bhismapanchaka. exchange for success on exams or to get a male Certain days of the month are auspicious for par- child. ticular vows. The 11th of the month is observed In times past very severe vows were some- as a fast day by many Hindus. The Caturvargacin- times taken. People were known to starve tamani of Hemadri (c. 13th century) lists nearly themselves to death in exchange for a divinity’s 700 such vows. promise to remove a curse on their family; oth- ers vowed that if a son were born they would Further reading: Sudhir Ranjan Das, A Study of - offer him up to a renunciatory order upon his Rites. Foreword by Nirmal Kumar Bose (Calcutta: S. C. coming of age. Indian mythology records innu- Kar, 1953); Swami Harshananda, Hindu Festivals and merable severe vows. Ravana the demon king, Holy Days (Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994); Anne for instance, took a vow to stand on one toe for Mackenzie Pearson, Because It Gives Me Peace: Ritual 10,000 years in order to win overlordship of the Fasts in the Religious Lives of Hindu Women (Albany: universe. State University of New York Press, 1996). Most vows in modern times involve fast- ing, celibacy, pilgrimage, study of sacred books, feeding of BRAHMINS or mendicants, or limited vratas See VOWS. vows of abstention. Vratas can be classified in different ways. One classification divides them into those that are bodily, those that pertain See BRINDAVAN. to speech, and those that pertain to the mind. Another type of classification is related to dura- tion and timing of the vow, whether for a day, Vyasa (or Vedavyasa) several years, until the fortnight is over, or until Vyasa (arranger or compiler) is the sage or a certain star appears. A third classification is RISHI who compiled all the VEDAS. He did not according to the divinity for whom the vow is “write”them—they are eternal MANTRAS that are performed. Last are vows that are specific to received by different rishis in different eras, as certain CASTES or communities. the world is re-created. He is identified with To be valid, vows must almost always begin the Vyasa who recited the ancient MAHABHARATA in a condition of ceremonial purity. Most vows story to the god GANESHA, who wrote it down. begin early in the morning. Festivals, in general, In the Mahabharata Vyasa is also called Krishna often entail vows taken by various family mem- Dvaipayana. The Vedavyasa who composed the bers; typically they involve fasting, but they may most commonly consulted Sanskrit commentary

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 496 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM Vyasa 497 J

on the YOGA SUTRA is also considered to be the Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in same person. the Hindu Scriptural Tradition,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62, no. 2 (1994): 377–401; ———, Further reading: Bruce Sullivan, Krsna Dvaipanaya “The Unworshipped Avatar: Vyasa’s Relationship to Vyasa and the Mahabharata: A New Interpretation Vishnu and Brahma,” Journal of Vaisnava Studies 4 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1990); ———, “The Religious (Summer 1996): 57–64.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 497 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 498 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM W J: AF

women and Hinduism Also, groups such as the Nayars show that matri- Hinduism, because of its extreme diversity liny and matrilocality, which must be associated throughout the ages, has encompassed complex with more supportive lives for women, were systems of thought and social hierarchies, which probably fairly common in the Indian, pre-Aryan defy any simple generalizations. This overview substratum that provides the cultural undergird- of the status and role of women in Hindu India, ing for much of later Hinduism. and of the culture’s attitudes toward them, reflects A pattern develops, visible in the Brahminical that variety. It should be born in mind that social texts, of women’s having roles in the early Vedic correlates of gender, such as CASTE, class, stage of culture (1500–800 B.C.E.) that began to be denied life, age, and family membership, are all variables them even in the late Vedic period. Some RISHIs, that significantly affect the position of women in for instance, were arguably women, and in the Hindu society, so that women in Hinduism dem- White YAJUR VEDA there are chants that can be onstrate significant differences in their lives. performed only by a woman who knows Sanskrit. It is the case that in prehistory everywhere Though Hindu tradition even up to the present there were significantly more autonomy and sex- day understands that women were never allowed ual freedom for women (and men) than in later to recite the VEDAS or even witness a Vedic ritual, times. There are indications, certainly, that in these examples indicate that this rule was not pre-Vedic times in India (before 1500 B.C.E.), such strictly observed in early Vedic tradition. freedom and autonomy existed among the pre- When hierarchies of society begin to be created ARYAN tribal people who inhabited every corner in association with the creation of historical cities of India. Tribal groups such as the Santals to this worldwide (in India beginning around 800 B.C.E.), day do not restrict women’s sexuality and action such social developments generally result in the in any way as their more staid counterparts in the restriction of the rights of women. So was it in larger culture do. Ancient Tamil poetry, dated as India, where women began to be subjugated more early as 300 B.C.E., shows women freely choosing and more to family and husband and began to lose sexual partners before marriage and relying upon their role as independent actors. But as soon as the love marriages rather than family arrangements. early urban period had come to fruition, perhaps

499

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 499 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM K 500 women and Hinduism

as early as 400 C.E., women began to participate tion), dowry, and female infanticide, are illegal, as direct actors in the devotional movements and these practices continue in some areas and among play important roles there. A good example is groups who have low socioeconomic status. Karaikkal Ammaiyar (400 C.E.), who became the Traditional Indian cultural practices have usu- first of the 63 Shaivite saints. ally been given religious justification, even when Movements like these pointed toward spiritual the scriptural bases for such practices were non- equality for women and, though the women saints existent, as was often the case with women’s form the exception to the rule of social constraints issues. In the extremely heterogeneous society for women, they were prominent and numerous that is India today, cultural practices cannot easily for many centuries leading up to the modern era. be distinguished from the religiously sanctioned More than one movement, such as the VIRASHAI- prescriptions and proscriptions of Hinduism. VAS of Karnataka in the 11th century, called for Hindu women in India occupy a broad range spiritual equality for women and equal access to of statuses, varying from the most modernized, spiritual leadership. Sikhs, starting in the 15th educated, and independent to some of the most century, held similar views, and the saint-poets of traditional, least educated, and subordinate. North India directly questioned the notion that Within India today, social class is more important gender should have any role in determining spiri- in determining the status of women than is caste tual development or accomplishment. membership. Educated, urbanized women often When modernity comes forward in the 18th marry outside caste, religion, and nationality. It through 20th centuries and radically changes is becoming more common for newly married traditions such as child marriage, dowry, the couples to choose their own place of residence ban on widow remarriage, and the custom of the after marriage, so that they are not within the joint childless wife’s burning herself on the funeral family system. As a result, many elderly women pyre of her older husband, it must be understood and men no longer receive care from younger that these traditions had not been unchallenged generations but are being placed in nursing homes and contested in different regions and different where neglect can be a problem. movements within Hinduism’s large umbrella. It is important to emphasize that modern India’s FEMINISM legal rectification of these negative cultural sanc- On the whole, Indian women, even proponents tions upon women was complete, even though of women’s rights and equality, resist the term legal actions have not completely solved these feminist, which is often associated with aggres- problems. Histories of oppression are not solved siveness, sexual permissiveness, immodesty, and a overnight by the passing of just laws, but these lack of womanly virtues; feminists are assumed to bold legal measures are significant for a young be against motherhood, family values, and men. postcolonial, independent nation. For many the image of feminism is too directly discordant with the image of the “ideal woman” in MODERNIZATION Hindu society as defined in the Brahminic scrip- Modernization is dramatically affecting the social tures or puranas. Even filmmakers, writers, and and religious lives of women in India. Since inde- artists whose work aims to castigate male privilege pendence, India has sought to throw off the cloak and sexist attitudes often reject the label feminist. of traditional prejudices related to caste, race, reli- Modern reform movements to improve the sta- gion, and gender. While traditional practices that tus of women first arose in the 19th century, after contribute to the low status of women in India, the country had entered the mainstream of world such as child marriage, sati (widow self-immola- civilization under British imperial rule. Both

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 500 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM women and Hinduism 501 J

women and men worked together to improve the is the traditional role model for Hindu women. conditions of women’s lives. Reform was strongest Women understand that the fierce goddesses in Bengal and Maharashtra and tended to focus on (which Western women often view as inspiring) ideals of family and society, rather than the inde- are goddesses that are not to be imitated. Uncon- pendence and autonomy of women. trolled by society and convention, powerful god- A new women’s movement emerged in India in desses are not seen as role models. One of the the 1970s, unaligned with any political parties and greatest insults to an Indian woman is to be called uninfluenced by foreign or government funding. a KALI. Primarily composed of female volunteers, these As is the case in most of the world, women women have sought to highlight the misogynist in India have throughout the centuries been the aspects inherent within Hinduism, advocate for main cultural transmitters of myths and story and women’s rights over their own bodies and sexual- simple religious practices. While history records ity, and undermine tolerance for domestic violence. the lives of great male SWAMIS and teachers, little They have had to contend not only against nation- is recorded of the prayers, vows, and devotions of alist elements, but also against Leftist resistance to Hindu women who take on the tasks of assuring discussing the oppression of women. the welfare of their families by asking for divine The opening up of the domestic economy to intercession and aid. Yet, it is this integrative func- liberalization and globalization since the early tion performed by women that connects the every- 1990s has affected the outlook of the feminist day world to the cosmic order, even as it sacralizes movement in India. Various nongovernmental the universe—an essential Hindu practice. While organizations funded by foreign aid have shown males, in the main, were free to develop philoso- interest in some of the demands of the women’s phies and movements, women, forced into more movement. limited roles, creatively reached out to the forces of the universe to preserve and protect their loved WOMEN AND THE SACRED ones and provide for a harmonious and fruit- Hindu women have the feminine divine before ful society. For every wandering ascetic who did them all the time, as the Hindu tradition preserves his renunciation for higher spiritual gain, one a worship of the GODDESS that probably dates could count, contemporaneously, thousands of from the Neolithic. Many divine tales recount individual women who practiced vows, fasts, and the supremacy of the female aspect of the divine disciplines to ensure the welfare of those around over the masculine. Through this access, women them. This role of women as powerful religious gain power in being and bearing; yet, in the social and spiritual actors, although recognized in the sphere, women have generally not been given culture, is largely unrecorded. The paucity of freedom to reflect the powerful goddesses overtly. women saints in the history of Hindu tradition In Hindu society one can often hear a man say belies the agency that women have exerted in the that his sister or wife is the “goddess” and, there- temples, shrines, and households of India over fore, should be treated well and respected. Social the centuries. This agency has been central to the conditions, however, support significant oppres- continuity of Hinduism over time. sion of Indian women, especially those of lower social standing. Further reading: Frederique Apfel-Marglin, Wives of The goddesses who become role models for the Godking (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985); Indian women are not those that show autonomy Mandakranta Bose, ed., Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, and independence but those that embody subordi- Medieval, and Modern India (Oxford: Oxford University nate roles. SITA, the obedient wife of Lord Rama, Press, 2000); Thomas Coburn, Encountering the God-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 501 12/14/06 9:29:48 AM K 502 Woodroffe, Sir John

dess: A Translation of the Devi Mahtamya and a Study of High Court and was made a fellow of Calcutta Its Interpretation (Albany: State University of New York University and appointed Tagore Professor of Law. Press, 1991); Vidya Dehejia, Yogini Cult and Temples: He served as judge on the High Court and in 1915 A Tantric Tradition (New Delhi: National Museum, served as chief justice. 1986); Rita M. Gross, Feminism and Religion (Boston: In addition to his practice and writing on Beacon Press, 1996); John Stratton Hawley and Donna jurisprudence, Woodruffe studied SANSKRIT and Marie Wulff, eds., The Divine Consort: Radha and the Hindu philosophy extensively, particularly TAN- Goddesses of India (Boston: Beacon Press, 1982); Alf TRIC literature. As a result of long and assiduous Hiltebeitel and Kathleen M. Erndl, Is the Goddess a study of classical texts and contacts with tantric Feminist? The Politics of South Asian Goddesses (New pundits of Bengal, he translated important tan- York: New York University Press, 2000); Donna Jordan, tric texts and added his own commentary and “A Post Orientalist History of the Fierce Shakti of the introductions. His publication The Garland of Subaltern Domain.” (Ph.D. diss., California Institute Letters is a clear and authoritative exposition of of Integral Studies, San Francisco, 1999); Julia Leslie, the Mantra Shastra and includes his explanation ed., Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women (Delhi: Motilal of the philosophy underlying tantric philosophy Banarsidass, 1991); Sara S. Mitter, Dharma’s Daugh- and practice. ters (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, Around 1910, Woodroffe was initiated by Shi- 1991); Vasudha Narayanan, “Brimming with Bhakti, vachandra Vidyarnava. He did not take students, Embodiments of Shakti: Devotees, Deities, Perform- but rather remained a scholar, intent upon provid- ers, Reformers, and Other Women of Power in the ing clear and authoritative translations and expo- Hindu Tradition,” in Arvind Sharma and Katherine sitions that would be appreciated only decades K. Young, eds., Feminism and World Religions (Albany: after his death. State University of New York Press, 1999); Lucinda Joy His publications have left an enduring legacy Peach, Women and World Religions (Upper Saddle River, of original resources translated into English and N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002); David Smith, Hinduism and valuable commentary on tantra. He collaborated Modernity (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003); Katherine with a fellow initiate, Atal Behari Ghose, in pro- Young, “Hinduism,” in Arvind Sharma, ed., Women in ducing the first translations and interpretations World Religions (Albany: State University of New York of tantra in a Western language. Because Ghose Press, 1987). remained anonymous in his publications, Wood- roffe also published under a pseudonym, Arthur Avalon. Under the name Avalon, he published Woodroffe, Sir John (Arthur Avalon) Shakti and Shakta, commentaries on the Shakta (1865–1936) scholar of tantric texts Tantra Shastra, and under the name Woodroffe, he Sir John Woodroffe was an Englishman, Indian published The Garland of Letters, a commentary civil servant, and scholar who pioneered the mod- on the Mantra Shastra. He lectured in England ern study of the tantric literary tradition. and India, including addresses to the Royal Asi- Woodroffe was born December 15, 1865, the atic Society and the Vivekananda Society. After eldest son of James T. Woodroffe, advocate-gen- retirement from legal work in India, he returned eral of Bengal and occasional member of the gov- to England and served as reader in Indian law at ernment of India, and his wife, Florence. John was the University of Oxford. He died there on Janu- educated at Woburn Park School and University ary 18, 1936. College, Oxford, where he studied law. He was called to the Bar by the Inner Temple in 1889. He Further reading: Arthur Avalon, (Sir John Woodroffe), soon served as advocate of the Calcutta (Kolkata) Shakti and Shakta, 2 vols. (Madras: Ganesh, 1959);

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 502 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM World Parliament of Religions 503 J

———, The Tantra of the Great Liberation (Mahanirvana Gandhi; the BRAHMO SAMAJ by Protap Chunder Tantra) (London: Luzac, 1913); Shiva Chandra Vidyar- Mozoomdar and B. B. Nagarkar; and THEOSOPHY nava Bhattacharya, Principles of Tantra, edited by Sir by G. N. Chakravarti. The largest Asian contin- John Woodroffe, 5th ed. (Madras: Ganesh, 1978); Pur- gent was made up of representatives of Buddhism, nananda, The Serpent Power. Translated by Arthur Ava- from Sri Lanka and Japan. The goal was to have a lon, 4th ed. (Madras: Ganesh, 1950); Sir John George personal spokesperson for every religion, an ambi- Woodroffe (Arthur Avalon), Bharata Shakti: Collection tious and impossible ideal to meet. In fact, major of Addresses on Indian Culture, 3d ed. (Madras: Ganesh, Asian religions were represented by practitioners 1921); ———, The Garland of Letters (Varnamala): of only one or two sects within each larger reli- Studies in the Mantra Shastra, 3d ed. (Madras: Ganesh, gious complex. In the case of Hinduism, Swami 1955); ———, Introduction to Tantra Shastra, 2d ed. Vivekananda’s remarks represented VEDANTA phi- (Madras: Ganesh, 1952); ———, The World as Power: losophy and practice but gave no understanding of Reality, Life, Mind, Matter, Causality and Continuity, 3d popular forms of SHAIVISM or VAISHNAVISM. ed. (Madras: Ganesh, 1966). Most presentations and papers focused on the areas of agreement between Western and Eastern religions. Several problems between East and World Parliament of Religions West were addressed repeatedly, particularly the (Chicago, 1893) misrepresentations of Oriental religions in the The World Parliament of Religions was the first West and the destructive ardor and arrogance of interfaith religious convention in the West to intro- Christian missionaries in the East. The entire Sep- duce major Eastern religions to a public audience. tember 22 session was “Criticism and Discussion Held in conjunction with the Chicago World’s Fair, of Missionary Methods.” Both negative and posi- the opening ceremonies were attended by 4,000 tive assessments of the parliament were made by people in the newly opened Hall of Columbus. missionaries, yet, whatever the final evaluation, Originally the idea of Charles Carroll Bonney, a missionary delegates revealed a new awareness Chicago attorney with an interest in comparative of the appeal of Asian religion and the need for religion, the parliament was organized by a Presby- changes in missionary methods. terian minister, John Henry Barrows (1847–1902), Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, representative as one of 20 congresses covering a number of of the Brahmo Samaj, while vociferously con- topics, including women’s progress, , demning the social abuses of India, explained the commerce, literature, music, and agriculture. Rep- “world’s religious debt to Asia.” He cited a higher resentatives of the Roman , Greek view of nature, recognition of the value of intro- Orthodox Church, , Buddhism, JAIN- spection, and the crucial roles of devotional activ- ISM, Hinduism, and addressed the ity and self-discipline in a full religious life. His audiences over the course of two weeks, creating a prominence at the world parliament was the sec- climactic event for the closing of the 19th century. ond time he had influenced American audiences A number of Christian faiths refused to send rep- with his words of tolerance. His visit in 1883–84 resentatives to a forum that would valorize “false to the United States preceded the parliament by a faiths.” decade and constituted the first visit of a Hindu Unprecedented attention was given to Asian teacher to the United States. religions; their beliefs and practices were explained Swami Vivekananda, with fluency in the directly by adept practitioners from the Orient. En glish language and a commanding stage pres- Hinduism was represented by Swami VIVEKANANDA ence, was a sensation with all of his addresses. and Nara Sima Charyar; JAINISM by Virchand R. He became a celebrity as he adroitly rejected, in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 503 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM K 504 World Plan Executive Council

memorable phrases and stories, Western notions Century Explorations (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood of Hinduism as polytheistic and idolatrous. Vive- Press, 1981); Clay Lancaster, The Incredible World’s Par- kananda’s clear exposition of tolerance toward liament of Religions at the Chicago Columbian Exposition other faiths as the essence of Hinduism was a rev- of 1893: A Comparative and Critical Study (Fontwell, olutionary addition to the West’s understanding. England: Centaur Press, 1987); Richard Hughes Sea- The press noted the masterful oration and ger, The World’s Parliament of Religions: The East/West erudition of Oriental delegates and commented Encounter, Chicago, 1893 (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- on the arrogance of Western churches that sent versity Press, 1992). partially educated students of theology to instruct the wise and accomplished spiritual leaders of the World Plan Executive Council See East. One missionary to India for many years, the TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION. Reverend Thomas Slater of the London Mission- ary Society, observed, “The Hindus, by instinct and tradition, are the most religious people in the World Vaishnavite Association (est. 1994) world.” The World Vaishnavite Association was formed A number of delegates from the East had been in 1994, in large part to heal the splintering that or were in 1893 members of the Theosophical had occurred around the International Society for Society. Peppered throughout the remarks from Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) in the years Asian representatives were ideas about synthetic following the death of its founder, Srila A. C religion, a clear influence from Theosophy. The- Bhaktivedanta Swami PRABHUPADA (1896–1977). osophists termed the parliament a “distinctly Theosophical step.” ISKCON taught a form of devotional (BHAKTI) yoga in the tradition of Although most of the population of the UNITED (1486–1533). ISKCON had been the leader and STATES and the West in general were unaware of the proceedings of the parliament, the concluding role model for this form of worship in the 20th remarks of the session lauded the event as per- century. It rapidly expanded during the 1960s, haps the most important religious gathering ever but in the years since Prabhupada’s death in 1977, assembled. The parliament encouraged a growing the organization has faced a variety of leadership conviction that the features that believers held problems and experienced a number of schisms in common were essential characteristics of all in different parts of the world. Additionally, new religions, and that tolerance and charity among organizations emerged in India from the GAUDIYA all religions were more important than differences MATH, the spiritual home of Prabhupada prior to in belief. Most certainly, the parliament created a his founding of ISKCON. new appreciation of Oriental religions. The World Vaishnavite Association was formed to address issues and heal the divisions that had Further reading: John Henry Barrows, ed., The World’s occurred within the movement. Despite unity of Parliament of Religions, 2 vols. (Chicago: Parliament, faith and practice, numerous differences concern- 1893); Charles C. Bonney, “The Genesis of the World’s ing organization and the nature of leadership Religious Congresses of 1893,” New Church Review existed. Some groups thought that the leadership 1 (January 1894): 73–100; Walter R. Houghton, ed., style followed by Sri Prabhupada should continue Neely’s History of the Parliament of Religions and Reli- and that current SWAMIS should be venerated in gious Congresses of the World’s Congress Auxiliary of the the same exalted manner as Prabhupada. Others World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, 2 vols. thought Prabhupada unique and eschewed any (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1893); Carl T. Jackson, The veneration of the current GURUS. More than two Oriental Religions and American Thought: Nineteenth- dozen factions emerged.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 504 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM World Vaishnavite Association 505 J

Efforts began in the 1980s to gather together promote the teaching and spiritual enhancement the factions. Gradually the idea of forming an of SANATANA DHARMA, the vital and legitimate teach- association emerged. At a meeting in 1994, the ings of Hinduism. Its theological approach is the- group convinced the 97-year-old Srila B. P. Puri ist, a belief in a personal deity that deserves love Maharaj to take charge of the association. They and veneration. The WVA tries to help communi- also invited the leaders of splinter groups to par- ties through troubling times in the regions where ticipate. In February 1994, they published the it has a presence and to promote missionary initial copy of a periodical. The World Vaisnava efforts outside India. The WVA attempts to medi- Association Newsletter was distributed to every ate between affiliated groups. Any ISKCON-based group from the Gaudiya Math lineage to keep group can join. The headquarters of the associa- them apprised of developments. In November tion is in the sacred city of BRINDAVAN, India, the 1994 a founding meeting was held with 120 mythological home of KRISHNA. participants. Twenty-eight ACHARYAS and SANNYASIS became founding members. Further reading: World Vaisnava Association. Avail- The WVA does not facilitate guru-student rela- able online. URL: http://www.wva-vvrs.org/. Accessed tionships; nor does it create ASHRAMS. Its role is to August 16, 2005.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 505 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM 001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 506 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM Y J: AF

yajna UPANISHAD. In one teaching he is asked how many Yajna is from the SANSKRIT root yaj, “to honor a gods there are and he answers: “Three hundred god with oblations.” A yajna is a ritual involving and three and three thousand and three.” Pressed oblations in the Vedic tradition. It may be simply to be clearer he says there are 33. He is questioned an offering of clarified butter into a fire, or it may again and again and eventually arrives at the state- involve 17 priests in an elaborate 12-day ritual ment that there is only one “God,” the BRAHMAN, including the building of a large fire altar as in or all. In another dialogue one of his wives asks the AGNICHAYANA. The ritual of the yajna always him whether wealth could make her immortal and includes a fire, Sanskrit MANTRAS, and some sort he propounds a notion that everything that exists of offering. In the larger public rituals a sacrifice is underlain by one reality, which is what is to be of some animal or animals has been common. held dear, not wealth. The word yajna is frequently translated roughly Yajnavalkya was said to have been the source as “sacrifice.” for the White YAJUR VEDA. The Yajnavalkya whose name is attached to an important text of DHARMA- Further reading: Jan Gonda, Vedic Literature (Samhitas SHASTRA is unlikely to be the same individual. and Brahmanas): A History of Indian Literature, Vol. 1, no. 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1975); Thomas Further reading: Swami Brahmananda, The Philosophy Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition (Encino, Calif.: of Sage Yajnavalkya: A Free Rendering of the Yajnavalkya Dickenson, 1971); Frits Staal, AGNI: The Altar of Fire, 2 Kanda of the as Expounded vols. (Berkeley, Calif.: Asian Humanities Press, 1983). in the Atma Purana (Shivanandanagar: Divine Life Society, 1981); Shoun Hino and K. P. Jog, eds. and trans., Suresvara’s Vartika on Yajnavalkya’s Dialogue Yajnavalkya (c. 700 B.C.E.) with Artabhaga and Others (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Yajnavalkya was the most prominent sage named 1999); Swami Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, The Vision in the UPANISHADS. He was a student of Aruni. of Atman: Yajnavalkya’s Initiation of Maitreyi into the His teachings are recorded in dialogues in the Intuition of Reality (Holenarsipur: Adhyatma Prakasha BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD and the CHANDOGYA Karyalaya, 1970).

507

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 507 12/14/06 9:29:49 AM K 508 Yajur Veda

Yajur Veda SKRIT poets as KALIDASA and BHAVABHUTI. The earliest The Yajur Veda is the VEDA of the sacrificial formula, Indian sculptures, which tend to be Buddhist (c. the YAJUS. The priest of the Yajur Veda, the ADHVARYU, 200 B.C.E.), are replete with yaksas and yakshis; they is responsible for the major sacrificial duties at the are well known in Buddhist literature as well. Vedic ritual, including pouring oblations and kill- Yakshas also appear in and ing the sacrificial animals in the prescribed way. literature (see JAINISM). Some Jain temples show The formulas from the Yajur Veda must be uttered yakshis particularly in subsidiary shrines. Finally, in proper fashion at the proper times. in the Hindu puranas, yakshas are also frequently The Yajur Veda consists to a large extent of encountered. In physical form they tend to be passages from the RIG VEDA rearranged for sacrifi- very handsome or beautiful, and they are very cial purposes. The Yajur Veda has two recensions: prosperous as well. KUBERA, the god of wealth, is the White and the Black. The White Yajur Veda always depicted as attended by yaksas. consists of hymns alone, numbering around 800. The Black Yajur Veda includes the exact same Further reading: Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Yakshas hymns, but it intersperses the explanatory. BRAH- (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001); Ram Nath MANA sections among the hymns. It is apparently Misra, Cult and Iconography (New Delhi: Mun- this “muddied” or mixed aspect of the Veda that shiram Manoharlal, 1981). caused it to be named the Black Yajur Veda.

Further reading: J. Gonda, Vedic Literature (Samhitas Yama and Brahmanas): A History of Indian Literature, Vol. Yama is the Indian god of death and the under- 1, no. 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1975); R. T. world. He is the son of Visvasvat, the Sun. In the Griffith, trans., The Hymns of the (Benares: VEDAS he is seen as the first mortal to die and Chowkhamba, 1957); Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Reli- thereby becomes king of the world of the dead. gion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads (Westport, According to the Atharva Veda, he is accompa- Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1971); ———, trans., The nied by two four-eyed dogs in his realm. There he Veda of the Black Yajus School, Entitled Taittiriya Sanhita dwells with the ancestors, who receive offerings of (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914). food from men. In the Vedic context, the realm of the dead is quite unlike the Christian hell; it is an afterworld yaksha (fem. yakshi) of satisfaction and pleasures. One verse of the RIG In the VEDA a yaksha was a deity or divinity. Later VEDA mentions Yama’s twin sister, Yami, who asks the term designated certain semidivine beings. him to mate with her to create the human race. These yakshas could change form at will; they Yama refuses. lived in caves, mountains, forests, trees, bodies of The ancient Iranian Avesta knows Yama by the water, and even magic cities in the sky. They are name Yima. In later puranic descriptions Yama’s roughly analogous to gnomes, fairies, or sprites realm is depicted less pleasantly; karmic retribu- in the European tradition. Yakshas or yakshis tions are even meted out (see KARMA). Yama in his were often associated with sacred trees in villages. role as guardian of the realm of the dead appears Indian temple iconography often depicts trees in many contexts in Indian tradition. In the KATHA with beautiful yakshis sensuously entwined. UPANISHAD he offers the wisdom of BRAHMAN, Such yakshas and yakshis turn up in the MAHAB- ATMAN, and liberation to the young NACHIKETAS. In HARATA and the RAMAYANA, and in greater numbers the MAHABHARATA he plays an important role in the in the PURANAS and in the works of such great SAN- story of SAVITRI and Satyavan.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 508 12/14/06 9:29:50 AM yantra 509 J

Further reading: John Dowson, A Classical Diction- Yamuna is seen as a GODDESS mounted on a tortoise, ary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, His- carrying a blue lotus, a fly whisk, and a water pot. tory, and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book (A beautiful sandstone statue of her is found at Depot, 1974); Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology Aihole in Karnataka, dating from the seventh cen- 2 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); Kusum tury.) Sometimes Yamuna is understood to be the P. Merh, Yama, the Glorious Lord of the Other World sister of the god of death, YAMA. One of the greatest (New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 1996); W. J. Wilkins, Indian festivals, the KUMBHA MELA, is celebrated at Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: the conjunction of the Yamuna and the Ganges. Rupa, 1973). Further reading: David L. Haberman, River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern yama India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); The eightfold path (ASHTANGA) of Patanjali’s yoga Sudhakar Pandey, Ganga and Yamuna in Indian Art and stresses observance of the “five ” or moral Literature (Chandigarh: Indra Prakashan, 1984). restraints: AHIMSA, avoiding causing pain or injury to any creature; satya, speaking the truth; asteya, not stealing; BRAHMACHARYA, sexual abstinence; yantra and aparigraha, not being acquisitive. All of these A yantra is a meditative and ritual drawing or restraints are developed to ever higher levels as design used particularly in Indian TANTRIC YOGA. YOGA progresses, so that “speaking the truth” It is almost always drawn with colored powder on becomes a struggle to avoid even the desire to lie. the floor or ground in a ritual process. It it usually Though some say that these constrants are not a geometric pattern, with flowers or flower petals. part of yoga per se, in fact a focus on these con- Once it is completed, a MEDITATION is performed, straints is a common yogic practice. Furthermore, focusing on the center of the yantra, which is the other branches or elements of the eightfold most often the BINDU, a condensed point of con- path such as “concentration” (dharana) are seen sciousness out of which the universe is seen to as enhancing and perfecting the yamas. evolve. The yantra is usually seen as the subtle form of Further reading: Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Yoga the divinity; when one creates a yantra one mani- Philosophy of Patanjali (Albany: State University of New fests an alternative form of the totality of the divin- York Press, 1983); M. N. Dvivedi, trans., The Yoga- ity for more focused ritual and worship. In ritual Sutras of Patanjali: Sanskrit Text and English Translation and meditation, one moves outward from the bindu Together, with an Introduction and an Appendix, and Notes to the other aspects and junctures of the design. on Each Sutra Based upon Several Authentic Commentar- Or, one may begin at the outer edge of the design ies (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1980); Ganganatha Jha, trans., and work inward toward the bindu. The yantra may The Yoga-Darshana, Comprising the Sutras of Patan- in certain circumstances be worshipped in and of jali—with the Bhasya of Vyasa (Madras: Theosophical itself and in other circumstances will form a part of Publishing House, 1934). a much larger ritual. As with most tantric rituals, these are rarely performed in public. Sometimes yantras are referred to as mandalas. Yamuna (Jumna) River The SRI YANTRA is sometimes called Sri Chakra. The Yamuna River flows past Delhi and past the Buddhism and JAINISM also use yantras, though sacred sites of Mathura and BRINDAVAN and meets in Buddhism they will generally be referred to as the GANGES at ALLAHABAD (Prayag). The deity mandalas.

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 509 12/14/06 9:29:50 AM K 510 Yantra, Sri

Further reading: Madhu Khanna, Yantra, the Tantric petals, and the outer border that looks like a set of Symbol of Cosmic Unity (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Tradi- four entrances to a temple. The process can either tions, 2003); P. H. Pott, Yoga and Yantra: Their Inter- begin with the bindu and work out to the edge, or relation and Their Significance for Indian Archaeology. follow the opposite path. Translated from the Dutch by Rodney Needham (The A new Sri Chakra is always carefully drawn Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1966); S. K. Ramachandra Rao, whenever a PUJA to Sri Yantra is performed. The Sri-Chakra: Its Yantra, Mantra, and Tantra (Bangalore: pujas that are done in this tradition are always per- Kalpatharu Research Academy, 1982). formed privately, except for pujas done to the few large Sri Yantras found in select temples. An exam- ple is the KANCHIPURAM temple to Kamakshi, who is Yantra, Sri sometimes identified with Sri Lalita. In this temple The Sri YANTRA, or Sri Chakra, is an important there is a very large Sri Yantra that is worshipped cult object for the SRI VIDYA tradition of TANTRISM. by a designated priest in a secret way. This ritual is It is understood as being the subtle form of the never witnessed by anyone, except the priest. goddess Sri Lalita. The yantra’s geometric design combines five Further reading: Madhu Khanna, Yantra, the Tantric downward-pointing triangles representing the Symbol of Cosmic Unity (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Tradi- Goddess, or SHAKTI, with four upward-pointing tions, 2003); S. K. Ramachandra Rao, Sri-Chakra: Its triangles representing SHIVA. In the “nine circuits,” Yantra, Mantra, and Tantra (Bangalore: Kalpatharu all the parts of the design are worshipped in turn: Research Academy, 1982); S. Shankaranarayanan, Sri the junctures of the triangles, the central BINDU, Chakra (Pondicherry: Dipti, 1970). certain outlying features such as circles of lotus Yashoda Yashoda is the cowherd woman, wife of Nanda, who became the foster mother of KRISHNA. The evil king Kamsa had determined to kill the first male child of Krishna’s mother, DEVAKI, wife of his minister VASUDEVA, to avoid a prophecy that he would die at the hand of a son of Devaki. By divine intervention, when Krishna was born, all of the king’s guards who kept watch over the couple fell asleep and he was delivered to Yashoda, who raised him. Yashoda has a special place in Krishna worship; poems and songs to her and of her can be found in every part of India.

Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978); John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, Sri Yantra, symbol of the Goddess and ritual design for and Literature, 12th ed. (Ludhiana: Lyall Book Depot, meditation 1974); John S. Hawley, At Play with Krishna: Pilgrim-

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 510 12/14/06 9:29:50 AM yoga 511 J

age Dramas from Brindavan (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton The BUDDHA’s yoga (c. 600 B.C.E.) was created University Press, 1981). specifically to counter the earlier push toward complete bodily denial. He declared that mental control was the final object of yoga and did not Yasodhara Ashram Society See RADHA, need to be accomplished by hurting the body. SWAMI SHIVANANDA. Central to his yoga were watching of the breath and observing of the sensations of the body. See DEVAYANI AND YAYATI. The UPANISHADS (c. 900–300 B.C.E.) do not dis- cuss yoga per se, but they point toward a mental practice that aims to realize the unity of one’s own yoga (yogi, yogini) self with the ultimate Self. This yoga is known Yoga is an ancient Hindu practice and belief as JNANA YOGA, sometimes called “the Yoga of system that aims at releasing the adept from the Knowledge.” Nothing is said about postures and bonds of the endless cycle of birth and rebirth. only one Upanishad speaks of sitting in a quiet The word yoga is derived from the root yuj, “to place to meditate. A form of MEDITATION, however, yoke,” probably because the early practice con- seems to have been central to this type of yoga. A centrated on restraining or “yoking in” the senses. number of passages in the Upanishads imply both Later the name was also seen as a metaphor for bodily denial and attention to the breath. “linking” or “yoking to” God or the divine. The BHAGAVAD GITA (c. 200 B.C.E.) makes the The earliest form of yoga may have been the first mention of a yoga that uses focus on God as Jain yoga (c. 900 B.C.E.), which involved severe the central practice (in the later YOGA SUTRA, a sensual denial and restraint (see JAINISM). To free focus on God is an adjunct practice to the central the soul from birth and rebirth Jains felt it was disciplines). The yoga developed in the Bhaga- necessary to restrain the senses completely so as to vad Gita was called “devotional yoga,” or BHAKTI be beyond both “love” and “hate,” or more accu- YOGA. One focused one’s mind in the same yogic rately, beyond any positive or negative emotion. way as in other practices, but one used God as a The early Jain monks and TIRTHANKARAS (perfected focus point for all consciousness. Nowadays the beings) would train themselves to ignore the body chanting of the Gita itself or other texts will be completely and to train the mind to ignore even part of the practice. the strongest positive and negative stimuli. The The Bhagavad Gita also contains the earliest details of these ancient Jain practices are lost to reference to KARMA YOGA—in which the focus is us. Jain yoga today is focused more on restraining on good conduct in the world. One acts in a dis- oneself to prevent injury to any living being, which interested way without regard to the fruits of one’s was always a concern in that tradition. actions. This makes everyday life a form of yoga. An element of worldly denial has always been MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI considered this part of all yoga, and even today yogis can be found the most important yoga; he wrote extensively who perform extreme feats of restraint. Yoga of about this practice. this sort is ultimately about controlling all bodily The ASHTANGA (eight-limbed) YOGA of PATAN- functions, so that even the autonomic nervous JALI (c. second century C.E.) involved a sitting system can be under the adept’s control. When yoga, sometimes called raja yoga, which focused SWAMI RAMA first traveled to the United States in on breathing. As one observed the breath, one the 1970s, he demonstrated such control by stop- developed ways of concentrating the mind and ping his heart completely for more than a minute eventually controlling the mind. ASANAS, or pos- while being attached to a heart monitor. tures, are well developed in today’s versions of

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 511 12/14/06 9:29:50 AM K 512 Yogananda, Paramahansa

PATANJALI yoga, but his Yoga Sutra does not list worship the devotee (most often a male) drinks any postures; these may have been later addi- alcohol, eats the forbidden beef, and has sexual tions to the practice, or they may have developed intercourse with a low-caste partner or “goddess.” separately and then merged with the Patanjalian The sexual union is seen as the union of the divin- school. There are strong resemblances between ity in its transcendent form with the divinity in the practices found in the and its mundane aspect. The practice aims to produce those found in Patanjali. an understanding of the divinity in its totality. HATHA YOGA is an amalgam of practices that may Alcohol too helps teach about the “bliss” of the have emerged separately and were later combined. infinite. Eating forbidden beef and other acts nor- It includes the basic practices that can be found in mally thought as “polluting” teach that even the Patanjali as well as postures. The term hatha origi- dirt and refuse in the world are essentially divine. nally meant “violent,” and it is possible that this “Right-handed” tantra yoga does not resort to style of yoga originated in certain types of severe these forbidden practices. It includes much ritual yoga that were softened for protection of the body. and chanting of MANTRAS to guide the conscious- In some systems hatha yoga includes KUNDALINI ness to its chosen goal. YOGA as part of its path. The focus of breath con- Apart from these general categories of yoga, many trol becomes the “serpent” or “Goddess Energy” specialized disciplines have emerged, including (kundalini) at the base of the spine, which must KRIYA YOGA and Integral Yoga (see Sri AUROBINDO). be awakened and forced upward to pierce the psychic centers or CHAKRAS that run parallel to Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, The History of Indian the spine. The NADIS or subtle bodily channels are Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); Georg used to guide breath into the central spinal chan- Feuerstein, The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali (Rochester, Vt.: nel to help the raising of the kundalini through the Inner Traditions International, 1989); Trevor Leggett, centers. Finally, the rising kundalini meets the god Realization of the Supreme Self: The Bhagavad Gita SHIVA at a point above the head called SAHASRARA Yogas (New York: Kegan Paul International, 1995); CHAKRA. This meeting provokes absolute enlighten- Robert Svoboda, Aghora: At the Left Hand of God ment. Kundalini yoga practice itself can vary; the (Albuquerque, N. Mex.: Brotherhood of Life, 1998); kundalini methods used in hatha yoga are some- Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, eds., Yogas: The what different from those used in TANTRA yoga. Indian Tradition (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003); Tantra is the most esoteric of all of the yogas. Sir John Woodroffe, Sadhana for Self-Realization: Man- All yogas, and in fact all paths toward spiritual tras, Yantras and Tantras (Madras: Ganesh, 1963); Viv- advance in the Indian tradition, depend upon ian Worthington, A History of Yoga (Boston: Routledge the guidance of a GURU. However, the tantra yoga & Kegan Paul, 1982). practices are so complicated and often danger- ous that a guru is of the utmost importance. The basic realization of tantra yoga is that the Yogananda, Paramahansa (1893–1952) phenomenal world is nothing but the divine kriya yoga teacher and founder of Self-Realization truth—the transcendent and the earthly divinity Fellowship are one and the same. Whereas other yogas look The founder of the influential SELF-REALIZATION toward a retreat from the sensual, tantra plunges FELLOWSHIP (SRF), Paramahansa Yogananda was into the dangers of the senses in order to reach one of the most successful missionaries for yoga the highest realization. in the West. This is true in particular of the notorious Born Mukunda Lal Ghosh on January 5, 1893, practices of “left-handed” tantra. In the process of into an affluent Bengali family in ,

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 512 12/14/06 9:29:50 AM Yogananda, Paramahansa 513 J

Paramahansa Yogananda learned Hindu spiritual- ity early in life. His father, a railway executive, was a disciple of , one of those who revived KRIYA YOGA in the 20th century. Mukunda relates that, as a child, he was healed by a photo- graph of Lahiri. After high school, Mukunda joined a hermitage in BENARES (Varanasi), the Sri Bharat Charma Mahamandal, where he met Sri YUKESWAR Giri. Sri Yukeswar gave him the vows of SANNYAS (renunciation) in the Shankaracharya Order, Giri branch, in 1914 and he became Yogananda, mean- ing the “bliss that comes from yoga.” In 1916 he discovered the techniques of Yogoda, a system of life-energy control for physi- cal and spiritual development, which, combined with traditional yoga, became the central concern of his teachings. Yogananda expressed a sustained interest in education. He attended Scottish Church College and later transferred to Serampore Col- lege to be near Yukteswar. In 1917, he founded a school for boys, Yogoda San-Sanga Brahmacharya Vidyalaya, at Dihik, Bengal, and in 1918 moved Paramahansa Yogananda (1893–1952), master of the school to Ranchi. His school included high kriya yoga and founder of Self-Realization Fellowship (Courtesy Self-Realization Fellowship, Encinitas, California) school subjects as well as yoga and MEDITATION. In 1920 Yogananda went to the United States to speak at the International Congress of Reli- gious Liberals in Boston, where he remained to rated his organization as the Self-Realization Fel- teach for three years. In 1924 he conducted a lowship. His lectures were collected into a home lecture tour of the United States that resulted in correspondence course for students to study in the establishment of several centers in his name. any location. Also in 1935, he visited India for An American headquarters for these centers was the last time and was given the title Paramahansa, set up at Mount Washington in Los Angeles. His meaning “great swan,” because his guru recog- personality was extremely effective in relaying nized that Yogananda had reached the state of his message and the ancient wisdom of India to a nirvikalpa samadhi (irrevocable God-union). Western audience. Once back in the United States, Yogananda Yogananda taught kriya yoga, which he wrote his most famous book, Autobiography of describes as a scientific technique for God-real- a Yogi, perhaps the most widely read account ization. The practice is conveyed in an initiation of a Hindu teacher, published in 1946. His ceremony and involves meditation and visualiza- account is an absorbing story of a search for tion. His approach to kriya yoga is presented as a truth, interwoven with explanations of the subtle form of raja yoga but also includes concepts and laws by which yogis perform miracles and attain exercises similar to those of KUNDALINI YOGA. self-mastery. He describes his years of training Yogananda originally called his work the in India under Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri and Yogoda Satsang Society, but, in 1935, he incorpo- his meetings with exceptional persons of the

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 513 12/14/06 9:29:51 AM K 514 Yoga Sutra

age, including Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI, Book I begins with a definition: “Yoga is the Luther Burbank, Therese Neumann, and Rabin- practice of ceasing the false identification with dranath TAGORE. In 1942 he opened the Church the fluctuations of the mind.” It then lists the of All Religions in Hollywood and later the Self- types of mental fluctuations and discusses how to Realization Lake Shrine and Mahatma Gandhi curb their influence on the self, soul, or PURUSHA. World Peace Memorial in Pacific Palisades, Cali- It deals with types of concentration (dharana), fornia. Self-Realization Fellowship is currently the obstacles that get in the way, and methods of headed by Sri Daya MATA at Mount Washington, overcoming them. Finally, it discusses God as a California. special self and presents the goal of a stable mind His death on March 7, 1952, was noted by his and attaining undisturbed calm. disciples as an extraordinary event because of the Book II begins with methods for overcoming “absence of any visual signs of decay in the dead the mental “afflictions,” things that cause distrac- body of Paramahansa Yogananda . . . even twenty tions. It discusses the origin of KARMA, the causes days after his death, according to a notarized tes- of sorrow or pain, how to escape these through timony from Forest Lawn Mortuary in Glendale, yoga, the eight branches of yoga (Ashtanga Yoga), California.” abstentions (yama), observances (niyama), pos- tures (asana), breath control (pranayama), and Further reading: Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiogra- withdrawal of sense organs from their objects phy of a Yogi (Los Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship, (pratya hara). 1971); ———, Whispers from Eternity (Los Angeles: Book III begins by discussing the internal Self-Realization Fellowship, 1958); ———, Yogoda practices of yoga, including MEDITATION (dhyana) (Boston: Yogoda Satsang Society, 1924); Paramahansa and various levels of concentration, including Yogananda, in Memoriam (Los Angeles: Self-Realization SAMADHI, the highest. It goes on to discuss seed- Fellowship, 1958). less concentration (i.e., concentration without an object) and different categories of mental tranquility. Finally it discusses the attributes and Yoga Sutra powers one can achieve though these practices, The Yoga Sutra of PATANJALI outlining ASHTANGA including supernormal powers. YOGA is the earliest and most important text of Book IV discusses philosophy, including argu- the HATHA YOGA, or “posture yoga,” tradition. It is ments against other Indian philosophical systems. dated around the second century C.E. The SUTRA It ends with a discussion of the highest state of designation refers to the text style: a collection of liberation and tranquility. very concise lines that often need further expla- The Yoga Sutra is usually studied together with nation to be understood fully. The Yoga Sutra the ancient commentary of Vedavyasa (VYASA), totals 195 sutras divided into four books: Book I which expands in detail upon each of the subjects is on concentration; Book II outlines the practice covered in the brief sutras. Most yoga schools rely and means of reaching the highest goals; Book on this commentary explicitly or implicitly. There III details powers gained in the practice of yoga, are many subcommentaries to the commentary of including supranormal powers; Book IV describes Vedavyasa, which are used by different schools in various aspects of the nature of things but par- support of their particular practices. ticularly the nature of the liberated state. Scholars believe the four chapters may have been written Further reading: Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Yoga at different times, but all the hatha yoga traditions Philosophy of Patanjali (Albany: State University consider them to be a single authoritative text. of New York Press, 1983); Ian Whicher, Patañjali’s

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 514 12/14/06 9:29:51 AM yoni 515 J

Metaphysical Schematic: Purusa and Prakriti in the was left to spread the practice of hatha yoga on Yogasûtra, Adyar Library Pamphlet Series, no. 55 his own. (Chennai: Adyar Library and Research Centre, 2001); Unable to continue his work in America, Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, eds., Yogas: The Yogendra threw himself into the task of building Indian Tradition (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003); his Yoga Institute. He provided his own funding James Haughton Woods, The Yoga-System of Patanjali, with royalties from his invention of a new type of Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. 17 (Delhi: Motilal Banar- boot polish. He found a helpmate in the form of sidass, 1972). Sita Devi, whom he married in 1927. The 1930s became a time of significant expan- sion. A magazine, the Journal of the Yoga Institute Yogendra, Sri (1897–1989) pioneer teacher of (now Yoga and Total Health), was launched, and hatha yoga Yogendra wrote several books on the basics of Sri Yogendra was one of the important figures in hatha yoga, a practice that had largely disappeared the modern revival of HATHA YOGA, both in India over the centuries in India. Yogendra continued and in the UNITED STATES. He founded the Yoga his efforts to present hatha yoga practice to the Institute and helped provide a scientific basis for United States by working with an American stu- the practice of yoga. dent, Theos Bernard (1908–47), whose Ph.D. dis- Yogendra was born on November 18, 1897, as sertation for Columbia University was eventually Manibhai Harihai Desai in rural Gujarat, India. published as Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal As a student at St. Xavier’s College in Bombay Experience (1943). (See BERNARD, PIERRE ARNOLD.) (Mumbai), he met his GURU, Paramahansa Madha- Aftr the disruptions of World War II, Yogendra vadasaji. After several years, however, he ceased to purchased land in Mumbai as a permanent home be a disciple. Desai did not wish to lead a celibate for the institute. In the 1950s, the institute began life; instead, he wished to find out whether there to build a global reputation through the steady could be a scientific underpinning for the practice arrival of Westerners to study there. Yogendra of hatha yoga. In 1918 he founded the Yoga Insti- continued to write, turning out a series of books. tute of India. He was active well into his eighties, but in 1985 In 1919, Desai, who had by this time assumed turned over directorship of the institute to his the name Yogendra, moved to the United States eldest son, Dr. Jayadeva Yogendra. to work with several medical doctors who shared his interest in the yogic arts. Among the people Further reading: Santan Rodrigues, The Householder he met was Benedict LUST (1872–1945), founder Yogi: Life of Sri Yogendra (Bombay: Yoga Institute, of the new medical system called naturopathy. 1982); Sri Yogendra, Hatha Yoga Simplified (Bombay: Lust saw the value of hatha yoga for his work Yoga Institute, 1958); ———, Yoga Asanas Simplified and studied it with Yogendra. Along with the (Bombay: Yoga Institute, 1939). early experiments on yoga, Yogendra completed his first books while in America: Light on Hatha Yoga and a volume on Rabindranath TAGORE. Yogoda Satsang Society See YOGANANDA, In 1922 Yogendra returned to India. He PARAMAHANSA. planned a second visit to the United States in order to continue the research, but in 1924 Congress passed new immigration laws that yoni prevented Asians from entering the country and The yoni (vagina or womb), seen as the embodi- Yogendra was not allowed to visit again. Lust ment of the great GODDESS, is worshipped in

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 515 12/14/06 9:29:51 AM K 516 yoni

emblematic form in many Indian traditions. It with a pot filled with vegetation. In some depic- can take the form of a pot or other vessel, a cleft tions vegetation emerges from her yoni. These rock, or a pond, lake, or pool. In certain esoteric iconographical representations of the Goddess rituals, a human vagina is worshipped directly. seem to have originated in the early Indus Valley, The association of female genitals with the divine or even pre-Indus Valley civilizations. Lajja Gauri female principle, and the correlation of women’s and another goddess of vegetation, Sakhambari, reproductive and sexual cycles with the Earth’s are worshipped today as the embodiment and seasonal and vegetative cycles, have given the yoni generator of fertility, fortune, abundance, and life- cosmological significance. force energy, qualities that are also associated with Considered the gateway between life and the yoni. The Goddess in general is conceived as death, as well as the generative force behind all the elemental source of all animal and plant life, existence, the yoni has had special importance as creative power personified. particularly in the KAULA, SHAKTA, and TANTRA tra- Creative female sexual power is represented ditions. However, even ordinary Shaivite devotees in various symbols even today. The lotus has worship the yoni together with the SHIVA LINGAM become a quintessential symbol of the yoni. In (phallus); the popular icon consists of a rounded SHAKTA and TANTRA texts, the yoni, as is the lotus, stone shaft placed upright on a horizontal circular is a symbol of perfection, symmetry, and beauty. base that forms the yoni. In waters are considered the All of these practices are probably based perennial source and equated with the Goddess’s on pre-Vedic, prepatriarchal civilizations. Many womb. As the lotus rests on the water and female figurines have been discovered in a pre- remains unsaturated by water, not soiled by mud, Harappan site in the Zhob Valley dating to the to Shakta tantrics, so the yoni remains perpetu- midfourth millennium B.C.E. Many of these fig- ally pure. ures had pronounced breasts and yonis, perhaps In , the temple is con- signifying their generative function. Cowry shells, ceived as a microcosmic representation of the a common representation of the vulva, were also macrocosmic whole. The inner sanctum of Hindu found at these sites. Scholars believe women temples, regardless of religious sect, is called the most likely used these objects in rituals, perhaps garbhagriha, which means “womb-house.” In together with their own menstrual and sexual flu- Guwahati, Assam, at the site of the Kamarupa ids, in order to ensure a fruitful harvest. Temple, the Goddess in her form as the Great Numerous seals, ritual objects, and yoni/lin- Yoni is worshipped. Here she is worshipped in gam structures from the later INDUS VALLEY CIVI- aniconic form as a dark wet rock over which a LIZATIONS of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa also natural spring flows. Each summer this water point to an early understanding of the sanctity turns red and is worshipped as the Goddess’s of female sexuality and its association with the menstrual blood. Earth’s fertility. Reverence of the female principle KAMAKHYA, in Assam, is a PILGRIMAGE site to and the belief that it controls the perpetuation of Shaktas, Kaulas, and Tantrikas who worship a the human and vegetative life cycles seems to lie woman’s menstrual blood as the sacred and potent at the base of these civilizations. elixir of life. In these traditions, women’s men- In the fourth century C.E., the cult of the god- strual cycles relate to processes of the universe. dess Lajja Gauri arose across the subcontinent. The body itself is considered the link between The most well-known images depict a woman earth and cosmos, a microcosmic representation with her legs bent and open and her vulva com- of the macrocosmic whole. In Kaula, Shakta, and pletely exposed. Often, her head has been replaced tantric cosmogony women play a divine role due

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 516 12/14/06 9:29:51 AM Yuga 517 J

to the nature of their sex. In these ideologies lib- mutual wife DRAUPADI. Twice he loses in dice to eration (MOKSHA) is possible to humans within this the brothers’ rivals the KAURAVAS; on the second lifetime, but only through ritual sexual practices occasion he loses everything, forcing the Pandavas and the worship of the yoni, female sexual fluids, and their wife into 13 years of exile. Generally, and menstrual blood. however, Yudhishthira is regarded as wise, righ- In the first section of the Yoni Tantra, Shiva teous, and pure and is given the title “king of the tells DEVI, the Goddess, that all gods and their right” (dharmaraja). power of creation, maintenance, and destruc- tion originate in the yoni. In the Yoni Tantra the Further reading: Peter Brook, director, The Mahab- Mahavidyas, 10 tantric goddesses of spiritual harata (videorecording), produced by Michael Prop- liberation, are each associated with different parts per (Chatsworth, Calif.: Image Entertainment, 2002); of the yoni. William Buck, The Mahabharata (Berkeley: University The tantric Sri Chakra cult also gives special of California Press, 1973); J. A. van Buitenen, The importance to the yoni. The main iconic emblem Mahabharata, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago of the Goddess, the SRI YANTRA, is composed of Press, 1973–78); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology interlocking triangles. Five of these, symbolizing (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986). the yoni, point downward; the other four, symbol- izing the LINGAM, point upward, in reference to the union of feminine and masculine qualities Yuga and representing the mysteries of creation and In Hindu cosmology a Yuga, or “Age,” is the destruction. smallest unit of cosmological time. Four Yugas make up one MAHAYUGA, or Great Age: the Further reading: Arthur Avalon, The Serpent Power: The Golden Age (KRITA, or Satya, YUGA), the Silver Secrets of Tantric and Shaktic Yoga, 7th ed. (New York: Age (TRETA YUGA), the Bronze Age (DVAPARA Dover, 1974); N. N. Bhattacharya, History of the Tantric YUGA), and the Iron Age (KALI YUGA, no con- Religion (New Delhi: Manohar, 1999); Carol Radcliffe nection with the goddess Kali). The Yugas are Bolon, Forms of the Goddess Lajja Gauri in Indian Art named after an ancient dice game, in which a (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1997); Madhu Khanna, 1, or kale, was the worst throw and a 4, or krita Yantra: The Tantric Symbol of Cosmic Unity (London: (literally, the one that makes it!), is the best. Thames & Hudson, 1979); Michael Magee, The Yoni The Yugas decrease in duration: Satya Yuga Tantra, Vol. 2 (Harrow, England: Worldwide Tantra lasts 1,728,000 years, Treta 1,296,000 years, Project, 1995); Ajit Mookerjee, Kali: The Feminine Dvapara 864,000 years, and Kali 432,000 years. Force (New York: Destiny Books, 1988); David Gordon The figures are sometimes given in “god-years,” White, Kiss of the Yogini (Chicago and London: Univer- each divine year equal to 360 human years. sity of Chicago Press, 2003). Then the Satya Yuga is 4,800 divine years; the Treta Yuga 3,600 divine years; the 2,400 divine years; and the Kali Yuga 1,200 Yudhishthira divine years. Each Mahayuga totals 12,000 Yudhishthira, “he who is steadfast in war,” is the divine years. oldest of the five PANDAVAS brothers of the MAHAB- As the Yugas follow one another, every aspect HARATA story. He is the son of Kunti by the god of human life suffers a decline, including human Dharma. Yudhisthira has a prominent place in the height, longevity, and morality. We are currently story. He is addicted to gambling and, therefore, in the Kali Yuga, the most corrupt of the ages. At the source of sorrow for his brothers and their its end, a new Satya Yuga will begin. Mahayugas

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 517 12/14/06 9:29:52 AM K 518 Yukteswar, Sri

follow one another cyclically; after a long series, the the Bhagavad Gita and also drew comparisons universe undergoes a dissolution, or pralaya. After between the teachings of KRISHNA and the teach- this interlude, the progression of the Yugas resumes. ings of Christ. The process goes on to infinity. Jain tradition has a In 1894 Priya Nath went to ALLAHABAD for the similar progression of ages with different names. KUMBHA MELA, a PILGRIMAGE festival that occurs four times every 12 years, attended by millions Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van of people from all over the world. Here he first Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the met BABAJI, his teacher’s teacher, a semilegendary Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University saint who appeared and reappeared at long inter- Press, 1978); F. B. J. Kuiper, “Cosmogony and Concep- vals. Although not yet a SANNYASI (renunciant), he tion: A Query,” History of Religions 10 (1970): 91–138; was honored as such by Babaji. In this encounter, W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d Babaji encouraged Priya Nath to write about the ed. (Calcutta: Rupa, 1973). similarities in the Hindu and Christian traditions, certain that the West could benefit from learning of these connections. Babaji assured him that they Yukteswar, Sri (1855–1936) kriya yoga would meet again when the book was finished; teacher indeed, when Kaivalya Darshanam, the Holy Sci- Sri Yukteswar was an important link in the lineage ence, was published, Babaji appeared under a tree that revived KRIYA YOGA, especially through his near where Priya Nath took his daily bath in the pupil Paramahansa YOGANANDA. GANGES River. Priya Nath Karar was born in 1855 in Seram- By the early 1900s Priya Nath was teaching to pore, a suburb of Calcutta (Kolkata). He received wider audiences; in 1902 he established Sat Sanga his primary education at a modern English school Sabha, a religious cultural institution that offered and was later admitted into Calcutta University educational, social, and spiritual programs, includ- but left the university when he found his physics ing courses in kriya yoga and the Yogashastras. At teacher to be incompetent. He continued to study this time, he received the vows of SANNYAS and informally by auditing classes in physics, chemistry, was given the name Swami Sri Yukteshvar Giri biology, physiology, and anatomy at the Calcutta (union with God) by Swami Krishna Dayal Giri. Medical College. Especially talented in mathemat- In 1913, he met his student Mukunda Lal, later ics, he also studied astronomy and astrology. He known as YOGANANDA, and later bestowed on him would later become a famous spiritual teacher and the title of Paramahansa (great swan). Yukteswar astrologer. He married, but his wife died after giv- took mahasamadhi (died) in 1936 while meditat- ing birth to his daughter. As a widower, he cared for ing in the lotus position. His body is buried in his his daughter and widowed mother. ASHRAM; his tomb has become a sacred place for In 1883 he met LAHIRI MAHASAYA, who initiated initiates of kriya yoga. him into the practice of kriya yoga. Kriya means “work,” in this case a specific set of mental and Further reading: Sailendra Bejoy Das Gupta, Kriya Yoga physical practices for SELF-REALIZATION. He mas- and Swami Sriyukteshvar (Calcutta: Uccharan, 1979); tered the system and soon became a guru of kriya Swami Hariharananda Giri, Kriyayoga: The Scientific yoga himself. Process of Soul-Culture and the Essence of All Religions Having been raised in Serampore, a center for (Orissa: Karar Ashram, 1977); Paramahansa Yogananda, Christian missionaries, Priya Nath was greatly Autobiography of a Yogi (Los Angeles: Self-Realization influenced by the teachings of the Holy Bible and Fellowship, 1971); Sri Yukteswar, The Holy Science (Los Jesus Christ. He wrote his own interpretation of Angeles: Self-Realization Fellowship, 1968).

001-518_hindu_a-z.indd 518 12/14/06 9:29:52 AM bibliography K

Ali, Syed Mohammed. Hinduism: A Select Bibliography. Brockington, John L. Hinduism and Christianity. Hound- Gurgaon: Indian Documentation Service, 1984. mills, England: Macmillan, 1992. Ashby, Phillip H. Modern Trends in Hinduism. New York: ———. The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in Its Continuity Columbia University Press, 1974. and Diversity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Axel, Michaels, and Barbara Harshav. Hinduism: Past Press, 1981. and Present. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Camphausen, Rufus C. The Encyclopedia of Sacred Sexu- Press, 2004. ality: From Aphrodisiacs and Ecstasy to Yoni Worship Babb, Lawrence A. Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern and Zap-Lam Yoga. Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions, Styles in the Hindu Tradition. Berkeley: University of 1999. California Press, 1986. Carpenter, David, and Ian Whicher. Yoga: The Indian Bahadur, Om Lata. The Book of Hindu Festivals and Cer- Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2003. emonies. New Delhi: UBS, 1995. Chandola, Anoop. The Way of True Worship: A Popular Baird, Robert D., ed. Religion in Modern India. New Story of Hinduism. Lanham, Md.: University Press Delhi: Manohar, 1995. of America, 1990. Basham, A. L. The Origins and Development of Classical Chaudhuri, Nirad C. Hinduism, a Religion to Live By. Hinduism. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. ———. The Wonder That Was India. New York: Cole, W. Owen, and Piara Singh Sambhi. A Popular Taplinger, 1968. Dictionary of Sikhism. Calcutta: Rupa Paperback, Benjamin, Walker. The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic 1990. Survey of Hinduism. 2 vols. New York: Praeger, Copley, Anthony, ed. Gurus and Their Followers: New 1968. Religious Reform Movements in Colonial India. Bhardwaj, S. M. Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Dandekar, R. N. Universe in Hindu Thought. Bangalore: Bhattacharyya, Narendra Nath. Ancient Indian Rituals University of Bangalore, 1972. and Their Social Contents. London: Curzon Press, Danielou, Alain. Hindu Polytheism. New York: Pan- 1975. theon, 1964. Bishop, D. H., ed. Indian Thought: An Introduction. New Dasgupta, Shashi Bhushan. Obscure Religious Cults. Cal- York: John Wiley, 1975. cutta: KLM, 1976.

519

519-524_hindu-BM.indd 519 12/14/06 1:05:59 AM K 520

Dasgupta, Surendranath. A History of Indian Philosophy. 5 Feuerstein, Georg. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga. New vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922–55. York: Paragon House, 1991. Davidson, Linda Kay, and David M. Gitlitz. Pilgrim- ———. The Shambala Encyclopedia of Yoga. Boston: age from the Ganges to Graceland: An Encyclopedia. Shambhala, 1997. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2002. Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Day, Harvey. Yoga Illustrated Dictionary. New York: Friedrichs, and Michael S. Diener, eds. The Encyclo- Barnes & Noble, 1971. pedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Dell, David J. Guide to Hindu Religion. Boston: G. K. Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Boston: Shambhala, 1989. Hall, 1981. Flood, Gavin D. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. de Michelis, Elizabeth. A History of . Lon- Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003. don: Continuum, 2004. ———. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cam- Deussen, Paul. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. New bridge University Press, 1996. York: Dover, 1966. Ghurye, G. S. Indian Sadhus. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, Deutsch, Eliot, and J. A. B. van Buitenen, eds. A Source 1964. Book of Advaita Vedanta. Honolulu: University of Goodall, Dominic, ed. and trans. Hindu Scriptures. Berke- Hawaii Press, 1971. ley: University of California Press, 1996. Dhavamony, Mariasusai. Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Griswold, Henry DeWitt. Insights into Modern Hinduism. Theological Soundings and Perspectives. New York: New York: Henry Holt, 1934. Rodopi, 2002. Guénon, René. Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doc- Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J. A. B. van Buitenen, eds. and trines. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1993. trans. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the ———. Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta. Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University New Delhi: Oriental Books, 1981. Press, 1978. Hartsuiker, Dolf. Sadhus: Holy Men of India. Singapore: Dimock, Edward C. The Sound of Silent Guns and Other Thames & Hudson, 1993. Essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Harvey, Andrew. Teachings of the Hindu Mystics. Boston: Doniger, Wendy, ed. Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Shambala, 2001. Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: Hawley, John Stratton, and Donna Marie Wulff. Devi: State University of New York Press, 1993. Goddesses of India. Berkeley: University of Califor- Dowson, John. A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythol- nia Press, 1997. ogy and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature. Hemenway, Priya. Hindu Gods: The Spirit of the Divine. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2003. Dubois, Abbe J. A. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremo- Holland, Barron, comp. Popular Hinduism and Hindu nies. 2d ed. Calcutta: Rupa, 1993. Mythology (An Annotated Bibliography). Westport, Dundas, Paul. The Jains. New York: Routledge, 1992. Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979. Eliot, Charles. Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Hopkins, Thomas J. The Hindu Religious Tradition. Sketch. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1954. Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1971. Ellwood, Robert S. Alternative Altars: Unconventional Huyler, Stephen P. Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devo- and Eastern Spirituality in America. Chicago: Uni- tion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999. versity of Chicago Press, 1979. Jackson, Carl T. The Oriental Religions and American Embree, Ainslee T., ed. The Hindu Tradition. New York: Thought: Nineteenth-Century Explorations. West- Random House, 1966. port, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981. Farquhar, J. N. An Outline of the Religious Literature of Jackson, Robert, and Dermot Killingley. Approaches to India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967. Hinduism. London: John Murray, 1988. Fenton, John Y. Transplanting Religious Traditions: Asian Jain, Muni Uttam Kamal. Jaina Sects and Schools. Delhi: Indians in America. New York: Praeger, 1988. Concept, 1975.

519-524_hindu-BM.indd 520 12/14/06 1:06:00 AM Bibliography 521 J

Jarrell, Howard R. International Yoga Bibliography 1950 Madan, T. N., ed. . New York: Oxford to 1980. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1981. University Press, 1991. Johnson, Linda. Daughters of the Goddess: The Women Mann, Gurinder Singh, et al. Buddhists, Hindus and Sikhs in Saints of India. St. Paul, Minn.: Yes International, America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 1994. Marriot, McKim. India through Hindu Categories. New Kamath, M. V. The United States and India, 1776–1976. Delhi: Sage, 1990. Washington, D.C.: Embassy of India, 1976. McKean, Lise. Divine Enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu Kapoor, S., ed. Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Nationalist Movement. Chicago: University of Chi- Mythology, Religion, History, Literature and Pantheon. cago Press, 1996. New Delhi: Cosmo, 2004. McLeod, W. H. Historical Dictionary of Sikhism. Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Religion and Philosophy of Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995. the Veda and Upanishads. Cambridge, Mass.: Har- ———. The Sikhs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. vard University Press, 1925. ———. Who Is a Sikh? Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Kinsley, David. Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Melton, J. Gordon. The Encyclopedia of American Reli- Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Berkeley: gions. 7th ed. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2003. University of California Press, 1986. ———. The Encyclopedic Handbook of Cults in America. ———. Hinduism: A Cultural Perspective. Englewood New York: Garland, 1992. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993. ———. Religious Leaders of America. Detroit: Gale ———. The Sword and the Flute: Kali and Krishna, Research, 1991. Melton, J. Gordon, and Martin Baumann, eds. Religions Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs Mythology. Berkeley: University of California Press, and Practices. 4 vols. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC- 1975. Clio, 2002. Klostermaier, Klaus K. Hindu Writings: A Short Intro- Melton, J. Gordon, Aidan A. Kelly, and Jerome Clark. New duction to the Major Sources. Oxford: One World, Age Encyclopedia. Detroit: Gale Research, 1990. 2000. Mishra, Vibhuti Bhushan. Religious Beliefs and Practices ———. Hinduism: A Short History. Oxford: One World, of North India during the Early Medieval Period. 2000. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1973. Knipe, David M. Hinduism: Experiments in the Sacred. Mittal, Sushill, and G. R. Thursby. The Hindu World. San Francisco: Harper, 1991. New York: Routledge, 2004. Knott, Kim. Hinduism, A Very Short Introduction. New Mitter, Sara. Dharma’s Daughters: Contemporary Indian York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Women and Hindu Culture. New Brunswick, N.J.: Krishnamurthy, Visvantha. Essentials of Hinduism. New Rutgers University Press, 1991. Delhi: Narosa, 1989. Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna. Palkhi: An Indian Pil- Lane, David Christopher. “Radhasoami Parampara in gramage. Albany: State University of New York Definition and Classification.” M.A. thesis, Gradu- Press, 1987. ate Theological Union, Berkeley, Calif., 1981. Morgan, Kenneth W. The Religion of the Hindus. New ———. The Radhasoami Tradition: A Critical History of York: Ronald Press, 1953. Guru Successorship. New York: Garland, 1992. Morinis, E. Alan. Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: A Lele, Jayant, ed. Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Move- Case Study of West Bengal. New York: Oxford Uni- ments. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1981. versity Press, 1984. Liebert, Gosta. Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Nakamura, Hajime. A History of Early Vedanta Philoso- Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Leiden: E. phy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983. J. Brill, 1976. Narayanan, Vasudha. Hinduism: Origins, Beliefs, Prac- Macauliffe, Max Arthur. The Sikh Religion. 6 vols. New tices, Holy Texts, Sacred Places. New York: Oxford Delhi: S. Chand, 1978. University Press, 2004.

519-524_hindu-BM.indd 521 12/14/06 1:06:00 AM K 522 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Nath, Rakhal Chandra. The New Hindu Movement, 1886– Rinehart, Robin. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture 1911. Columbia, Mo.: South Asia Books, 1982. and Practice. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2004. O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Karma and Rebirth in Clas- Rosen, Steven. The Six Goswamis of Vrindavan. Brook- sical Indian Traditions. Berkeley: University of Cali- lyn, N.Y.: Folk Books, 1991. fornia Press, 1980. Roy, Ahim Kumar. A History of the Jainas. New Delhi: ———. The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berke- Gitanjali Press, 1984. ley: University of California Press, 1976. Rukmani, T. S., ed. Hindu Diaspora: Global Perspectives. Organ, Tory Wilson. Hinduism: Its Historical Development. Montreal: Concordia University, 1999. Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Series, 1974. Santucci, James A. An Outline of Vedic Literature. Mis- Pandey, Raj Bali. Hindu Samskara: A Socio-Religious soula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976. Study of Hindu Sacraments. New Delhi: Motilal Saraswati, Swami Prakashanand. The True History of the Banarsidass, 1969. Religion of India: A Concise Encyclopedia of Authen- Pararignanar, Saiva Ilakkia. The Development of Saivism tic Hinduism. Austin, Tex.: International Society of in South India. Kanchipuram: Dharmapuram Adhi- Divine Love, 2000. nam, 1964. Sharma, Arvind. Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduc- Pereira, Jose. Hindu Theology. Garden City, N.Y.: Dou- tion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. bleday, 1976. ———. Hinduism for Our Times. Delhi: Oxford Univer- Pintchman, Tracy. The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu sity Press, 1996. Tradition. Albany: State University of New York Sholapurkar, G. R. Religious Rites and Festivals of India. Press, 1994. Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1990. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, and Charles A. Moore, eds. Singer, Milton. When a Great Tradition Modernizes: An A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, N.J.: Anthropological Approach to Indian Civilization. Chi- Princeton University Press, 1957. cago: University of Chicago Press, 1972. Raghavan, V. The Great Integrators: The Saint-Singers Singh, Harbans. Encyclopedia of Sikhism. n.p.: Punjabi of India. Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of University, 1995. Information and Broadcasting, 1966. Smith, Bardwell L. Hinduism: New Essays in the History Rai, Ram Kumar, comp. Encyclopedia of Indian Erotics. of Religions. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976. Indological Reference Series 3. Varanasi: Prachya Smith, David. Hinduism and Modernity. Malden, Mass.: Prakashan, 1983. Blackwell, 2003. Raju, P. T. The Philosophical Tradition of India. Pitts- Srinivas, M. N. Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. burgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972. Bombay: Asia Pub. House, 1962. Ramachandra Rao, S. K. Encyclopedia of Indian Iconog- Stutley, Margaret, and James Stutley. A Dictionary of raphy, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. 3 vols. New Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore and Development Delhi: Sri Satguru, n.d. 1500 B.C.–A.D. 1500. London: Routledge & Kegan Rawlinson, Andrew. The Book of Enlightened Masters. Paul, 1977. Chicago: Open Court, 1997. Sugirtharajah, Sharada. Imagining Hinduism: A Postcolo- Renou, Louis. The Nature of Hinduism. New York: Walker, nial Perspective. New York: Routledge, 2003. 1962. Sullivan, Bruce M. The A to Z of Hinduism. Lanham, Rice, Edward. Eastern Definitions: A Short Encyclopedia Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2001. of Religions of the Orient with Terms from Hinduism, ———. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Lanham, Md.: Sufism, Buddhism, Islam, Zen, Tao, the Sikhs, Zoroas- Scarecrow Press, 1997. trianism and Other Eastern Religions. Garden City, Tatla, Darshan Singh. Sikhs in America: An Annotated N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978. Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Richards, Glyn. A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism. Lon- Thapar, Romila. Interpreting Early India. New York: don: Curzon, 1985. Oxford University Press, 1992.

519-524_hindu-BM.indd 522 12/14/06 1:06:00 AM Bibliography 523 J

Tripathi, B. D. Sadhus of India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, Wilson, H. H. Religious Sects of the Hindus. Calcutta: 1978. Susil Gupta, 1958. Uban, Sujan Singh. The Gurus of India. London: Fine Books, Wuthnow, Robert. After Heaven: Spirituality in America 1977. since the 1950’s. Berkeley: University of California Vertovec, Steven. The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Pat- Press, 1998. terns. London: Routledge, 2000. Younger, Paul. Playing Host to the Deity: Festival Religion Werner, Karel. Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Chicago: in the South Indian Tradition. New York: Oxford Uni- NTC, 1997. versity Press, 2002. Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer. Civilizations of the Indus Zaehner, R. C. The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths. Valley and Beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. Boston: Beacon Press, 1959. Whitehead, Henry. The Village Gods of South India. New ———. Hinduism. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. York: Oxford University Press, 1916. Zimmer, Heinrich. Artistic Form and Yoga in the Sacred Williams, George M. Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Images of India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer- Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2003. sity Press, 1984. Williams, Raymond. Religions of Immigrants from ———. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. India and Pakistan: New Threads in the Ameri- Washington, D.C.: Bollingen Series, Pantheon, 1946. can Tapestry. Cambridge: Cambridge University ———. Philosophies of India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Press, 1988. University Press, 1951.

519-524_hindu-BM.indd 523 12/14/06 1:06:00 AM 519-524_hindu-BM.indd 524 12/14/06 1:06:00 AM index K

Page numbers in italic indicate adhyasa 6 44 Sri Vidya 422 illustrations. Page numbers Adi Da Samraj 6–7 atman 51 tantrism 438 in boldface indicate major avatar 57 Baul sect 69 Vedanta 483 treatment of a subject. Page Saniel Bonder 88 Bhartrihari 81 Vedanta Societies 483 numbers followed by c Lee Lozowick 262 Saniel Bonder 88 Vishishtadvaita 490 indicate chronology entries. Swami Muktananda 296 Swami Chinmayananda Swami Vivekananda 494 United Kingdom 463 110 xxviic A Adi Granath xxxic Alain Danielou 118 Africa, Hinduism in xxxiiic, abhaya mudra 1 Guru Nanak 303 Swami Dayananda 10–12 Nataraja 307 Radhasoami Movement Saraswati 123 Diaspora 132, 133 Vindhyavasini 489 344 Arnaud Desjardins 125 Europe 150 Abhedananda, Swami 1–2 Sikhism 413, 414 dvaita 141 and immigration xxv Swami Paramananda 323 Adipurana 7 Gangaji 162 agama 13 United States 467 Adishesha (Shesha; Ananta) Gaudapada 164 Pancharatra 322 Vedanta Societies 484 7–8 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Saiva Siddhanta 375 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute 2 amrita 25 Society 166 shruti 409 Abhijnanasakuntalam Badami 63 Gorakhnath 170 tantrism 437 (Kalidasa) 222 Balarama 65, 66 International Meditation Agastya (Agasti) 13–14 Abhinavagupta xxxc, 3 nagas 300 Institute 198 Cauvery River 101 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Patanjali 327 Christopher Isherwood Drona 138 Shaivism 397 Vishnu 491 203 Vindhya Mountains 488 tantrism 438 Aditi 8 jnana 215 Agattiyam xxviiic Abhishiktananda, Swami 3–4, Adityas 8 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Agehananda Bharati, Swami 115 Agni 15 kaula 232 14–15 absolute monism 394 Daksha 117 Jean Klein 235, 236 sadhus 15, 438 Abu, Mount 4–5 goddess 168 Swami Krishnananda 245 Agni 15–16 Brahma Kumaris World Rig Veda xviii, 365 Madhva 266 Aditi 8 Spiritual Organization 90 Shakti 399 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Adityas 8 Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh 345 Surya 428 273 Arjuna 44 Acharanga Sutra 5 Veda(s) 480 Mandukya Upanishad 275 Brahmana 91 acharya 5 Adityas 8 maya 282 Daksha 117 83 Aditi 8 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314, deva 127 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Aryaman 47 315 Foundation of Revelation 343 Daksha 117 Sri Ramakrishna 350 154 Vallabha 475 Pushan 338 Ramana Maharshi 350 goddess 168 World Vaishnavite adrishta 8–9 Self-Revelation Church of Indra 195 Association 505 advaita xxxivc, 9–10 Absolute Monism 394 Karttikeya 228 acquired immunodeficiency Swami Abhedananda 2 Shankara 402 Rig Veda xviii, 365 syndrome (AIDS) 214 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, Society of Abidance in rita 367 adhvaryu 5–6, 508 New York 29 Truth 419 Veda(s) 480

525

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 525 12/14/06 1:07:00 AM K 526 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

agnichayana xix, 16 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359 Ananda Marga Yoga Society arati Prajapati 332 Sarasvati 387 30–31 Babji 62 purusha 338 Temple of Cosmic Religion Abhidhyan Yoga Institute temple 441 rita 367 442 2 Ardhamagadhi 42 Savitri (Vedic divinity) Vindhyavasini 489 Africa, Hinduism in 12 43 391 Yamuna River 509 Sri Anandamurti 34 chakra 21 Shatapatha Brahmana 404 Sri Yukteswar 518 PROUT 335 39 Veda(s) 481 All India Movement (AIM) United Kingdom 463 Elephanta 149 yajna 507 for Seva Vimalananda 488 Parvati/Uma 327 Society 16–17 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam Anandamayi Ma xxxivc, arhat 43 Agra xxxic 44–45 31–33, 32 acharya 5 Ahalya 17 Swami Dayananda Arnaud Desjardins 126 puja 336 Indra 195 Saraswati 123 Sunyata 427 Rishabha 366 Kamban 226 Alvars xxixc, xxxc, 22–23 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Arjun, Guru xxxic Kathasaritsagara 231 Andal 36 Ananda movement 33–34 Arjuna 43–44 ahamkara 17, 21 Bhagavata Purana 74 Swami Kriyananda 247, Bhagavad Gita 73 ahimsa 18 Nammalvar 302 248 Bhishma 84 Gurudev Sri Ramanuja 352 Temple of Kriya Yoga Birla Mandir 86 112 Vishishtadvaita 490, 491 442 Draupadi 136 H. Jay Dinshah 135 amangala 23 Anandamurti, Sri 34–35 International Society of ecology and Hinduism Amarnath 23–24 Ananda Marga Yoga Divine Love 201 146 Ambedkar, B. R. xxiv, xxxvic Society 30, 31 Kathakali 230 Jainism 209 Ambuvachi 24 PROUT 335 Krishna 238 Mahavira 270 Kamakhya 224 Vimalananda 488 Mahabalipuram 267 meat-eating 283 vows 496 Ananta. See Adishesha Mahabharata 268 sacred cow 371, 372 American Meditation Society Anasuya Foundation 35–36 Pandavas 322 Sthanakavasi 423 24 ancestor worship 36 Parashurama avatar 324 Therapanthi 446 American Yoga Association Andal xxixc, 36–37 Rishikesh 367 vegetarianism 486 24–25 Alvars 23 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam 44, yama 509 Amin, Idi 10 Shrirangam 409 123 Ahmedabad 431 amrita 25 Andhaka 37, 149 artha 150 AIDS (acquired Amritsar 27 37 Arthashastra xxviiic, 45 immunodeficiency Chandra 104 Anga 37–38 shastra 404 syndrome) 214 Garuda 164 Digambara 134 Veda(s) 482 AIM. See All India Movement Mohini 291 Shvetambara 410 (AIM) for Seva Amrita Foundation 25–26 Angiras 94 45–46 air 148 Amritanandamayi Ma 26, xxxc 46 Airavata (Airavana) 18–19 26, 27 Anglicans 114 Aryaman 8, 47 Durvasas 140 Amritsar xxxic, 27, 28, 28. Anglo-Maratha war xxxiic Aryan (Arya) xxxiic, 47 Indra 195 See also Golden Temple in Anirvan, Sri 38–39, 427 Agastya 13 Aitareya Upanishad 19, 270 Amritsar Annapurna 39 arrival of xviii Aiyanar 19 21 Anoopam Mission 39–40 bhakti 77 Ajanta 19–20, 96 Mohandas Karamchand Ansha 8 caste xxii, 100 Ajapa Yoga Foundation 20 Gandhi 159 anumana 40–41, 333 Chittirai festival 113 Ajivikas xxviiic, 20, 272 Sikhism 413 Apabhramsha 41 demonic beings 124 ajna chakra 20–21, 102 temple 441 apartheid 11 Dravidian 137 Akal Takht 21 Bhagat Singh Thind 446 Appar (Tirunavakkarasu) goddess 168 Amritsar 27 chakra 28, 102 xxixc, 41 icons 193 Sikhism 414 ananda 28–29 Chidambaram 107 Indus Valley civilization akasha 38 Self-Realization Fellowship Nayanmars 309 196 Akbar xxxic 393 Periya Puranam 328 Kathakali 230 Akka Mahadevi 21–22, 489 Shankaracharya Order Sundarar 426 tantrism 437 akshamala 22 402 Tevaram 443 untouchability 471 alcohol 132 Taittariya Upanishad 435 Tirumurai 449 women and Hinduism Allah xviii Vedanta 483 apsaras 41–42 499 Allahabad (Prayag) xxxviic, Ananda Ashram, Kanhangad, Agastya 13 Arya Samaj xxxiic, 47–48 22 Kerala 356 Hanuman 177 Africa, Hinduism in 11 amrita 25 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, New heaven 182 Caribbean region 99 Ganges 163 York 29, 290, 291 Kathasaritsagara 231 Guyana 175 207 Ananda Ashrama and Vedanta Aranyaka xx, 42 Mauritius 281 Kumbha Mela 252 Centre 29–30 Sanskrit 382 asana 48 Naga sect 301 Swami Paramananda 323, shruti 409 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute new moon/full moon 324 Upanishads 472 2 ceremonies 312 Vedanta Societies 484 Veda(s) 481–482 Anandamayi Ma 32

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 526 12/14/06 1:07:00 AM Index 527 J

Ashtanga Yoga 50 sannyasi/sannyasini 381 Shvetashvatara Upanishad International Society of Swami Chetanananda 107 Swami Satchidananda 388 410 Divine Love 200 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Satya Sai Baba 389 Upanishads xx, 472 pilgrimage 328 Indra Devi 130 Swami Shivananda Veda(s) 482 Rama 347 hatha yoga 181 Saraswati 407 Vedanta Sutra 485 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Himalayan International Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Yama 508 Sangh 362 Institute 183 Centers 408 Aurangzeb xxxic, xxxiic Swaminarayan movement 189 Sita 418 Aurobindo, Sri (Aurobindo 430 B. K. S. Iyengar 204 Tulsidas 457 Ghose) xxxiiic, 52, 52–54 Ayurveda xix, 58 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 214 Vallabha 475 Sri Anirvan 38 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, Jean Klein 235 World Vaishnavite Auroville 54 New York 29 Kripalu Yoga 237 Association 505 Haridas Chaudhuri 106 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam yoga 511–512 Sri Yukteswar 518 Sri Chinmoy 111 44 Yoga Sutra 514 ashramas 50 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Datta Yoga Center 121 Ashish, Sri Madhava 49, 246 brahmacharya 89 The Mother 292, 293 Roy Eugene Davis 122 Ashoka (king) xx, xxviiic vanaprastha 477 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359 Deva Foundation 128 ashram 50 Ashtadhyayi xxviiic sadhaka 372 Baba Hari Dass 179 Agastya 13 Ashtanga Yoga 50–51 Swami Satchidananda 387 Hinduism Today 185 Amritanandamayi Ma 27 Baba Hari Dass 179, 179, Savitri (mythic princess) Mauritius 281 Anandamayi Ma 32 180 390 Ramamurti Mishra 290, Sri Aurobindo 52–54 hatha yoga 181 Judith M. Tyberg 458, 459 291 Babji 62 Jagad Guru United States 469 Swami Muktananda 295 Haridas Chaudhuri 106 Siddhaswarupananda Vedanta 483 origins of xix Swami Chidvilasananda 411 view on spiritual Swami Shivananda 108 Swami Kuvalayananda corruption xxiii Saraswati 407 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Yoga Foundation 429 Auroville 54–55 Transcendental Meditation Arnaud Desjardins 125, yoga 511–512 Sri Aurobindo 54 452 127 Yoga Sutra 514 The Mother 293 Veda(s) 481, 482 143 Ashvins xxviic, 51 Australia 55–56, 131 58–59 Gayatri Mantra 167 Pandavas 322 Autobiography of a Yogi International Yoga Rig Veda 365 (Yogananda) xxxvc, 61, 513 Fellowship 202 Veda(s) 480 avadhuta 56–57, 121 B Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Asian Exclusion Act 468, 469 Avalon, Arthur 502–503 Baba 61, 427 213–214 asparas 222 avatar xxixc, 57 Baba Dyal 312 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 asuras Anandamayi Ma 31 Babaji 61–63 Swami Jyotirmayananda Brihaspati 94 Ayodhya 57 kriya yoga 248 Saraswati 217 Buddha 96 Balarama 65 Kriya Yoga Centers 248 Sant Keshavadas 233, 234 Daksha 117 Bali, the asura 68 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Sri Krishna Prem 246 demonic beings 123 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 249 Kriya Yoga Centers 248 Durga 139, 140 Buddha 96 Lahiri Mahasaya 255, 256 Laksmanjoo 257 Hiranyakashipu 188 Draupadi 136 Swami Shivananda Radha Mauritius 281 189 goddess 168 342 Ramamurti Mishra 290, Kurma Avatar 253 Jayadeva 212 Self-Realization Fellowship 291 Milk Ocean 288 Kabir 219 392, 393 The Mother 293 Atharva Veda xix, xx Kalki Avatar 223 Babaji Nagaraj 197–198 Swami Muktananda 295 adhvaryu 5 Kamban 226 Babri Masjid Mosque xxxvic Swami Narayanananda Ayurveda 58 Krishna 240 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 306–307 Dvapara Yuga 141 Kurma Avatar 253 Hindu nationalism 187 Swami Omkarananda 320 mahavakyas 269 Matsya avatar 280 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Swami Paramananda 323, prithivi 335 Mother Meera 285 Sangh 362 324 Veda(s) 480, 481 Meher Baba 286 Shiv Sena 409 Swami Shivananda Radha atman 51–52 Narasimha avatar 305 xxxic, xxxvic 342 Aitareya Upanishad 19 Rama 346 Badami 63, 180 Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh 346 Amritanandamayi Ma 27 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Badarayana 439 Rama 348 Bhagavata Purana 74 Sangh 362 Badrinath 64 Ramana Maharshi 351 brahman 91 temple 441 Babji 61 Sri Maharaj Ram Chandra Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Thailand 443 Dvaraka 142 355 93 Tukaram 455 Haridvar 180 Prem Rawat 363 mahavakyas 270 Vaishnavism 474 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 rishi 367 Mandukya Upanishad 275 Vishnu 491, 492 Kedarnath 232 Swami Rudrananda myths of creation 297 avidya 6, 57 math 280 369–370 om 319 Ayodhya 57–58 Rameshvaram 359 Saiva Siddhanta Church purusha 338 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 Rishikesh 367 377 self-realization 392 Hindu nationalism 187 Shankaracharya Order 402

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 527 12/14/06 1:07:00 AM K 528 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Bagalamukhi 120 reform movement xxiii, Vishva Hindu Parishad World Vaishnavite Bahadur, Guru Tegh xxxiic xxiv 493 Association 504 Bahubali 64, 183 Rabindranath Tagore yoga 511 yoga 511 Bailey, Alice Ann 64–65, 445 433–435 Bhagavan 74, 127 Bhakti Sutras xxviiic Balarama 65 Bentley, William 464 Bhagavata Purana 74 Bhaktivedanta, Swami A. C. Adishesha 8 Bernard, Pierre Arnold 70–71, Swami A. C. Prabhupada Prabhupada xxxivc, xxxvic, Devaki 128 467 Bhaktivedanta 78 77–78 Draupadi 136 Besant, Annie Wood 71–72 Buddha 96 Sri Krishna Chaitanya Jagannath Temple, Puri Helena Petrovna Hahn ISKCON 199 101 207 Blavatsky 87 Radha 341 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Krishna 238 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Vaishnavism 474 Society 165–166 Vasudeva 479 Theosophical Society 445 Vallabha 475, 476 IRM 200 Vishnu 492 Katherine Tingley 447 Bhairava 74–75 ISKCON 199 Bali, Hinduism in xxixc, xxxic, United States 466 120 Krishna 240 66–68, 194 Bhadrabahu 72–73 Bhajan, Yogi 75 Metamorphosis League for Bali, the asura 68 Parshvanath 325 Healthy, Happy, Holy Monastic Studies 287, Badami 63 Purvas 338 Organization 181, 182 288 demonic beings 124 Bhaga 8 Sikhism 415 Jagad Guru Divali 136 Bhagavad Gita xxxiic, 73–74 bhajans 75–76 Siddhaswarupananda Vamana Avatar 477 Sri Anirvan 38 Amritanandamayi Ma 27 411 Bambi Baaba 384 Arjuna 44 Caribbean region 99 Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Bangladesh xxiv Arsha Vidya Gurukulam Guru Amrit Desai 124 Mandal 420 Basavanna xxxc, 68–69 44, 45 kirtans 235 United Kingdom 463 Akka Mahadevi 21 Art of Living Foundation Yogi Ramsuratkumar 360 World Vaishnavite Virashaivas 489 45 temple 440 Association 504 Baul sect 69 Sri Aurobindo 53 bhakti 76, 76, 77 Bharat (Bharata) (country) Sri Anirvan 38 bhakti 77 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute 78–79, 366. See also India avadhuta 56 Swami A. C. Prabhupada 2 Bharata (ruler) Lee Lozowick 262 Bhaktivedanta 78 ahamkara 17 Bahubali 64 Be Here Now (Ram Dass) 358 Vinoba Bhave 82 Anoopam Mission 39 Bharat 78–79 Benares (Varanasi; Kashi) Caribbean region 99 Basavanna 69 Mahabharata 268 69–70 Mohandas Karamchand Bhagavad Gita 73 Pandavas 322 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute 2 Gandhi 158, 159 Bhagavata Purana 74 Bharata Natyam 79 Swami Abhishiktananda 4 Baba Hari Dass 180 bhajans 76 devadasi 128 Swami Agehananda International Society of Baba Premanand Bharati Kathakali 230 Bharati 14 Divine Love 201 80 mudra 295 Annapurna 39 ISKCON 199 Swami Chinmayananda Nataraja 307 Vinoba Bhave 82 jnana 215 110 Natya Shastra 308 Birla Mandir 85 Jnaneshvara 215 Gaudiya Math 165 Bharati, Baba Premanand Buddha 96 karma 228 Gaudiya Vaishnavite 79–80, 349 Buddhism xx Krishna xxi, 238, 240 Society 166 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Alain Danielou 118 Swami Krishnananda 245 International Society of xxxvic, xxxviic, 80–81 Ganges 163 Kurukshetra 253 Divine Love 201 Hindu nationalism xxv, Jainism xx, 208 Mahabharata 268 Sant Keshavadas 234 186, 187 Kabir 219 Sri Daya Mata 279 Madhva 266 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Lahiri Mahasaya 255 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Ma Yoga Shakti Sangh 362 Ma Yoga Shakti 343 International Mission Shiv Sena 409 International Mission Ramanuja 352 282 Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan xxxvc 282 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Neem Karoli Baba 310 Bhartrihari 81 Navaratri 309 Satya Sai Baba 390 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Bhaskara 81, 83 Parshvanath 325 Self-Realization Fellowship Saiva Siddhanta Church Bhavabhuti xxixc, 81, 102 pilgrimage 329 393 376 Bhave, Vinoba 81–83 Ramanuja 352 shalagrama 401 Swami Shivananda 9, 83 Rameshvaram 359 Shankara 402 Saraswati 407 Bhikanji 445, 446 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359 shruti 409 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Bhima 83–84 temple 441 smriti 419 Centers 408 Duryodhana 141 Tulsidas 456, 457 United States 463 Swaminarayan movement Hanuman 177 Vallabha 475 Vaishnavism 474 430 Mahabalipuram 268 Vindhya Mountains 488 Vallabha 476 Trinidad 454 Mahabharata 268 Vindhyavasini 489 Vedanta 483 Vallabha 476 Pandavas 322 Vishvanath Temple 493 Vedanta Sutra 485 Vedanta 483 Vayu 480 Bengal xxxic, xxxiic Videha 486 Virashaivas 489 Bhishma 84 Ambuvachi 24 Vishishtadvaita 490 Vishva Hindu Parishad Bhagavad Gita 73 British in xxiii Vishnu 492 493 Drona 138

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 528 12/14/06 1:07:00 AM Index 529 J

Ganges 164 Meru, Mount 287 sat-chit-ananda 388 Kathasaritsagara 231 Mahabharata 268 muladhara chakra 297 Shakta 398 Jiddu Krishnamurti 242 Bhubaneshwar 84–85 myths of creation 297 Shakti 399 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 Bhunvaneshvari 119–120 Narada 305 Shankara 402 Swami Krishnananda bija mantra 85 Narasimha avatar 305 Shankaracharya Order 244–245 bindu 85 Natya Shastra 308 402 Kshatriya 250 yantra 509 om 319 Shatapatha Brahmana 405 Lalleshvari 258 Sri Yantra 510 Pancharatra 321, 322 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Laws of Manu 259 Birla Mandir 85–86, 86 Prajapati 332 410 Madhva 266 Bishnois 146, 147 Pushkara 339 states of consciousness meat-eating 283 BJP. See Bharatiya Janata Party Ramanuja 352 422 Nayanmars 310 BKWSO. See Brahma Kumaris Rati 362 Taittariya Upanishad 435 Neem Karoli Baba 310 World Spiritual Organization saptamatrika 385 Upanishads 472 Swami Bhagawan Black Yajur Veda xix Sarasvati 387 Vallabha 476 Nityananda 315 Brahmana 91 Sati 388 Veda(s) 481 pancha makara 321 Taittariya Upanishad 435 shakti pithas 401 Vedanta 483 papa 323 Veda(s) 481 Thailand 444 Vedanta Sutra 485 pipal tree 329 Yajur Veda 508 time in Hindu tradition Videha 486 pollution/purity 329, 330 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna 447 Vidyaranya 487 Pongala 330–331 Hahn xxxiic, xxxiiic, 86–87 Treta Yuga 453 Vindhyavasini 489 priest 92 Alice Ann Bailey 65 trimurti 453 Vishishtadvaita 490 punya 336 Annie Wood Besant 71, United States 465 Swami Vivekananda 495 Pushan 338 72 Vishnu 491 Yajnavalkya 507 Sri Ramakrishna 349 Sri Krishna Prem 246 brahmacharya 88 Yama 508 Rama Navami 352 Theosophical Society 444, Sri Madhava Ashish 49 Brahmana xix, xx, 91 Ramanuja 352 445 ashramas 50 Aranyaka 42 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Katherine Tingley 447– Guyana 175 Chandogya Upanishad Sri Maharaj Ram Chandra 448 Laws of Manu 259 103 355 United States 466 Satguru 202 rishi 366 Blue Mountain Center for Subramuniyaswami 424 Kena Upanishad 233 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Meditation 144 yama 509 Nachiketas 299 sacred thread 372 Bodhi tree 96 Brahma Kumaris World Prajapati 332 Sai Baba of Shirdi 374 Boghaz Valley, xxviic Spiritual Organization reincarnation/rebirth 364 Sambanathar 378 Bonder, Saniel 87 (BKWSO) xxxiic–xxxivc, Rig Veda 365 samskara 380 Boota Singh 313 88–91, 90, 463 samsara 380 sannyasi/sannyasini 381 Brahma 87–88 brahman (brahma) 91, 482 Sanskrit 382 sapta rishi 385 Agni 15 adhyasa 6 shruti 409 Sri Sarada Devi 385 Allahabad 22 Adishesha 8 Upanishads 471, 472 Savitri (Vedic divinity) Anasuya Foundation 35 advaita 9 Veda(s) 481, 482 390 apsaras 42 antiiconic view xxiv Vishnu 491 Ramprasad Sen 395 Ardhanarishvara 43 avidya 57 Yajur Veda 508 Shankara 402 Bali, Hinduism in 66 Bhagavad Gita 73 Brahmin (Brahman) 92 Shatapatha Brahmana Bhairava 74 Bhartrihari 81 Adipurana 7 404, 405 brahman 91 brahmacharya 89 Agastya 13 Singapore 416 Cauvery River 101 Brahmana 91 agnichayana 16 Soma 419–420 Daksha 117 Brahmin 92 ahimsa 18 Sri Vidya 422 Dasha 120 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ancestor worship 36 Sundarar 426 Durga 139 93 Arjuna 44 tantrism 437 Elephanta 149 Isha Upanishad 202 ashramas 50 temple 441 Gayatri Mantra 167 jnana 215 Bali, Hinduism in 67 Thailand 443 goddess 168 Katha Upanishad 231 Bhairava 74 Trinidad 454 Hanuman 177 Kena Upanishad 233 brahmacharya 89 Tukaram 455 Haridvar 180 Mandukya Upanishad 275 brahman 91 tulsi 456 Himavat 184 mantra 277 Caribbean region 99 Tulsidas 456, 457 188 maya 282 caste xxii, 100 United States 469 ISKCON 199 moksha 292 dana 118 untouchability 471 Kali Yuga 223 Swami Muktananda 296 funeral rites 154 Vaishya 475 kalpa 223 myths of creation 297 Gayatri Mantra 167 Vallabha 475 Karttikeya 228 Nachiketas 299 170 vanaprastha 478 Krita Yuga 246 namarupa 301 Guyana 174 varna 478, 479 Kubera 250 om 319, 320 International Society of Veda(s) 481 Kumbhakarna 251 origins of term xix Divine Love 200 vegetarianism 485 Mahashivaratri 269 sadhu 373 Kabir 219 vows 496 Manu 278 sannyasi/sannyasini 381 Kapila 227 water ablutions 148

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 529 12/14/06 1:07:00 AM K 530 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Brahminism (Brahmanism) Ayyappan 58 Canada 131, 132 kaula 232 xvii, xxi, 193 Benares 70 Caribbean region xxxiiic, Gopi Krishna 241 Brahmo Samaj xxiii, xxxiic, caste system xxiii 99–100 kriya yoga 248 92–93 Haridvar 180 Diaspora 131, 132 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society antiiconic view xxiv Kshatriya 250 Europe 150 249 Christian-Hindu relations nagas 300 Guyana 174–175 kundalini 252 114 pipal tree 329 immigration to xxv Kundalini Research Raja Rammohun Roy as reformer xx caste xxii–xxiii, xxxic, Foundation 253 367–368, 368 stotra 423 xxxvic, 100. See also lalata chakra 258 Keshab Chunder Sen 394 varada mudra 478 Brahmin; Kshatriya; Shudra; manipura chakra 102, Sikhism 414 Vishnu 492 untouchability; varna 276–277 Rabindranath Tagore 433 yoga 511 Hindu nationalism xxv muladhara chakra 102, 297 United Kingdom 461 buddhi 97 Indian Constitution xxiv nadi 299 United States 465, 466 ajna chakra 21 Kamban 226 om 319 Swami Vivekananda 495 guna 171 Laws of Manu 259 Sahaja Yoga Center 373 World Parliament of Samkhya 379 pollution/purity 329, 330 sahasrara chakra 181, Religions 503 Buddhism xxviiic, xxixc, Rashtriya Swayam Sevak 252, 297, 374, 512 breath control. See pranayama xxxivc Sangh 361–362 Self-Realization Fellowship Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ahimsa 18 reform movement xxiii 393 93–94 Ajanta 19 sacred thread 372 Sri Vidya 422 horse sacrifice 191 anumana 40 Sufi wanderers xxiii svadhishthana chakra 102, mahavakyas 270 arhat 43 temple 441 429 sacred cow 372 Aryan 47 United Kingdom 462 vishuddha chakra 102, 492 Yajnavalkya 507 avidya 57 United States 467 yoga 512 Brihadishvara Temple 94 Badami 63 Vaishya 100, 167, 372, Chamunda 102–103 Nandi 304 Andrew Cohen 115 475, 478 Kamakhya 224 temple 441 Dasha Mahavidya 119 vanaprastha 478 saptamatrika 385 Brihaspati (Brahmanaspati) Ellora 149 vegetarianism 485 Shakta 398 94, 138 gandharvas 157 Virashaivas 489 Chandi 103, 120 Brihatkatha 94–95 Gorakhnath 170 Swami Vivekananda 495 Chandi Yajna 266 Gunadhya 171, 173 Guptas 173 vows 496 Chandogya Upanishad 103 Kathasaritsagara 231 Jainism 211 women and Hinduism mahavakyas 270 Vasudeva 480 karma 228 499, 500 om 319 Brilliant, Larry 358 nagas 300 Catholicism 113, 115 Yajnavalkya 507 Brindavan 95 namarupa 301–302 Cauvery River 101 Chandra 103–104, 117 Sri Madhava Ashish 49 nirvana 313, 314 Swami Abhishiktananda 3 Chandra Das, Kailasa 287 Bhagavata Purana 74 papa 323 pilgrimage 329 chanting xxxic Swami A. C. Prabhupada Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Swami Ramdas 356 Atharva Veda xx Bhaktivedanta 78 Sangh 361 Shrirangam 409 bhakti 77 Gaudiya Math 165 reincarnation/rebirth 364 caves ISKCON 199 Krishna 238 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Ajanta 19 Veda(s) xix Nathdwara 307 samsara 379, 380 Amarnath 23–24 charity. See dana Neem Karoli Baba 310 stotra 423 Chaitanya, Sri Krishna xxxic, Charles, Master 104 pilgrimage 328 supremacy of xx–xxi 101–102 charms xix Radha 341 sutra 429 Swami A. C. Prabhupada Charvaka 105 Surdas 428 tantrism 436 Bhaktivedanta 78 anumana 40 tulsi 456 Thailand 443–444 bhedabheda 83 pramana 333 Vallabha 475 vairagya 473 Brindavan 95 Vedanta Sutra 485 World Vaishnavite Vaishya 475 Gitagovinda 167 Chaudhuri, Haridas 105, 105, Association 505 Vedanta Sutra 485 International Society of 106 Yamuna River 509 vegetarianism 485–486 Divine Love 200, 201 Sri Aurobindo 54 Britain. See United Kingdom vidya 487 ISKCON 199 United States 469 British colonialism xxiii–xxiv, World Parliament of Krishna 240 Chetanananda, Swami 106– xxxic–xxxvic Religions 503 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 360 107, 370 Africa, Hinduism in 10 yantra 509 Vaishnavism 474 Chidambaram xxxic, 107–108 Mohandas Karamchand bull 304, 304 Vallabha 476 Bharata Natyam 79 Gandhi 159–161 burial World Vaishnavite Manikkavacakar 276 Guyana 174 Bali, Hinduism in 67 Association 504 Nataraja 307 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak funeral rites 154 chakra 102 Periya Puranam 327 Sangh 361 Burma xxxc ajna chakra 20–21, 102 Sambanathar 378 sati (suttee) 389 anahata chakra 28, 102 Sekkilar 392 Brunton, Paul xxxvc, 95–96 C asana 48 Chidvilasananda, Swami Buddha xxviiic, 96–97 Calcutta Royal Asiatic Society bija mantra 85 (Gurumayi) 108, 108–109 abhaya mudra 1 xxxiic Deva Foundation 128 Abhinavagupta 3 Ajanta 19 Cambodia xxixc ialata chakra 258 Swami Muktananda 296

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 530 12/14/06 1:07:01 AM Index 531 J

Swami Bhagawan sacred 136, 371, 371, 372 Desai, Yogi Shanti 125, Satguru Subramuniyaswami Nityananda 316 sacred cow 371, 371, 372 403–404 424 Shanti Mandir 403 creation of the universe desired divinity 203 Swaminarayan movement Chinmayananda, Swami hiranyagarbha 188 Desjardins, Arnaud 125–127 431 xxxivc, 109–110, 122, 123 Rig Veda xviii deva 123, 127 United Kingdom 461–462 Chinmoy, Sri xxxvc, 110–111, cremation devadasi 79, 128 dice 111, 391 Bali, Hinduism in 67 Deva Foundation 128 Divali 136 Chinnamasta 120 funeral rites 154 Devaki 128–129 Draupadi 136–137 Chipko movement 146, 147 CSA (Christian Spiritual Balarama 66 Parvati/Uma 327 Chitrabhanu, Gurudev Sri 112 Alliance) 122 Krishna 238 Treta Yuga 452 Chittirai festival 112–113 Vasudeva 479 Digambara xxviiic, 133–134 Meenakshi Temple, Vindhyavasini 489 Acharanga Sutra 5 Maduri 285 D Yashoda 510 Adipurana 7 Minakshi 290 Daksha 117 Devanagari 129, 382 Anga 37 Cholas xxxc Aditi 8 Devayani and Yayati 129 Bahubali 64 Christ, Jesus Adityas 8 Devi Bhadrabahu 72 acceptance of xviii apsaras 42 Amritanandamayi Ma 27 Jain festivals 207 Christian-Hindu relations gandharvas 157 yoni 517 Jainism 209, 211 114 Haridvar 180 Devi, Indra 130 Mahavira 270–272 Christensen, Alice 24–25 Nataraja 307 shakti pithas 401 Shvetambara 410 Christian-Hindu relations Rati 362 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Tattvartha Sutra 440 Africa, Hinduism in 11, 12 Sati 388 Devi, Sarada 350 Tirthankara 449 Caribbean region 99 shakti pithas 400 dharana 283 diksha 134–135 Guyana 174 Dalits. See untouchability dharma 130–131 Swami Agehananda Hindu nationalism xxv, dana 117–118 dana 117 Bharati 14 185–187 dancing xxxic Dharmashastra 131 Anandamayi Ma 32 Self-Realization Fellowship Bharata Natyam 79 ecology and Hinduism Swami Chidvilasananda 393 Nataraja 307 147 108 Shantivanam ashram 113, Danielou, Alain 118–119 ends of life, four 150 Guru Sushil Kumar 251 113–116 darshan 119 Kama Sutra 225 Swami Muktananda 296 United States 464, 465 bhakti 77 Sant Keshavadas 233, 234 Dinshah, H. Jay 135 World Parliament of icons 193 Krita Yuga 246 Dipavali. See Divali Religions 503 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 214 Shree Maa 265 Divali (Dipavali) 135–136 Christianity xxxiic Mother Meera 285 Pandavas 322 Africa, Hinduism in 12 Roy Eugene Davis 121, Yogi Ramsuratkumar 360 papa 323 Caribbean region 99 122 Tulsidas 457 rita 367 Dvaraka 142 Ramakrishna and xxiv Dasha Mahavidya 119–121 sanatana dharma 380 Guyana 175 Keshab Chunder Sen goddess 169 shastra 404 Jain festivals 208 394–395 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Guru Gobind Singh 417 Kali 221 Sikhism 414 214 vegetarianism 485 Mauritius 281 trimurti 453 Kamakhya 224 Dharmashastra xxviiic, 131 Trinidad 454–455 Christian Science 466 Dasharatha 353, 354 Arthashastra 45 Divine Life Society xxxivc Christian Spiritual Alliance , Lord dana 117 Australia 56 (CSA) 122 Anasuya Foundation 35 dharma 131 Swami Krishnananda 245 The Clarion Call (magazine) avadhuta 56 Narada 305 Lokenath Divine Life 166 Datta Yoga Center 121 pancha makara 321 Mission 261 Clive, Robert xxxiic Datta Yoga Center 121 papa 323 Swami Shivananda Cohen, Andrew 116 Davis, Roy Eugene 121–122 shastra 404 Saraswati 407 Sri Harilal Poonja 331 , Swami vegetarianism 485, 486 Divine Light Mission (DLM) United Kingdom 463 44, 122–123 Yajnavalkya 507 Prem Rawat 363 colonialism, British. See British death ceremony 380 Dhritarashtra 84 Sant Mat movement 384 colonialism Delhi xxxc–xxxiic 120 divinities (local) xxi Coltrane, Alice 458 demonic beings 123–124 dhyana DLM. See Divine Light Mission Common Era xxi, xxii, 173 Andhaka 37 meditation 284 dowry Congress Party xxv Bali, Hinduism in 67 samadhi 377 outlawing of xxiv Constitution (Indian) xxiv Gunadhya 172 Diaspora xxxvc, xxxviic, women and Hinduism Cornwallis, Lord xxxiic Hiranyakashipu 188 131–133 500 cosmic “Man” xix Kumbhakarna 251–252 Arya Samaj 48 Draupadi 136–137 cowherd (female). See gopi Denmark 391, 392 Christian-Hindu relations Arjuna 43, 44 cows Desai, Guru Amrit 124–125 115 Bhima 83 Vinoba Bhave 83 Kripalu Yoga 237 Dravidian 137 Drona 138 gotra 170 Swami Sri Kripalvananda Hinduism Today 185 Duryodhana 141 Hindu nationalism 187 238 Hindu nationalism 187 Mahabalipuram 268 Pongal 330 Shanti Yoga Institute and Mauritius 281 Yudhishthira 517 Rudra 369 Yoga Retreat 404 spread of Hinduism xxv Dravidian 47, 137–138

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 531 12/14/06 1:07:01 AM K 532 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Drona 138 ekadashi 147 Gandhi, Indira xxxvic Ganges (Ganga) xxviic, xxxc, Agastya 13 Elan Vital Sri Anandamurti 34 xxxviic, 162–164, 163 Bhagavad Gita 73 Prem Rawat 363–364 Sikhism 414–415 Allahabad 22 Mahabharata 268 Sant Mat movement 384 Gandhi, Mohandas Badrinath 64 dualism 141 elements, five 148, 148 Karamchand (Mahatma) Benares 69, 70 Duce, Ivy O. 138–139 prithivi 335 xxxiiic, xxxvc, xxxvic, Bhima 83 Durga 139, 139, 140 tanmatra 435–436 157–161, 158 Bhishma 84 Annapurna 39 vishuddha chakra 492 Africa, Hinduism in 11 Cauvery River 101 Bali, Hinduism in 67–68 Elephanta 148, 149 ahimsa 18 Elephanta 149 Caribbean region 99 Ellora xxixc, 149, 149–150 Bhagavad Gita 73 Gangaji 162 Chamunda 102 Badami 63 Swami A. C. Prabhupada Gaudiya Math 165 Chandi 103 Buddha 96 Bhaktivedanta 78 Haridvar 180 Dasha Mahavidya 119 Mahabalipuram 267 Vinoba Bhave 82, 83 Himalayan Mountains goddess 168, 169 Emerson, Ralph Waldo xxxiic Birla Mandir 85 184 ISKCON 199 ends of life, four 150 Gurudev Sri Chitrabhanu Himavat 184 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 214 Arthashastra 45 112 International Yoga Kali 221 moksha 292 H. Jay Dinshah 135 Fellowship 201 Kanya Kumari 227 England. See United Kingdom Eknath Easwaran 143, Swami Amar Jyoti 216 Mahabalipuram 268 ether/space 148 144 Kailash, Mount 220 Navaratri 309 Europe xxv–xxvi, xxxviic, ecology and Hinduism Karttikeya 228 saptamatrika 385 150–151. See also specific 146 Mahabalipuram 267 Ramprasad Sen 395 countries Hindu nationalism 186 Matsya avatar 280 Shaivism 396 karma 228 Meru, Mount 287 Shakta 398 Jean Klein 235 F muladhara chakra 297 Shakti 399, 400 Lakshmanjoo 257 Naga sect 301 vehicles of the divinities facial markings 85, 153 Mauritius 281 Parvati/Uma 326 486 farmers xxii Mother India 294 pilgrimage 329 Vindhya Mountains 488 feminism 500–501 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Ramanuja 352 Durvasas 140–141 festivals 343 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Kalidasa 222 Chittirai festival 112–113 Sahaja Yoga Center 373 Yogi Ramsuratkumar Kurma Avatar 253 Divali 135–136 Self-Revelation Church 359 Duryodhana 141 Holi 190 of Absolute Monism Rishikesh 367 Draupadi 137 Jain festivals 207–208 394 Sri Sarada Devi 386 Kathakali 230 Kumbha Mela 252 Sunyata 427 Ramprasad Sen 395 Mahabharata 268 Nagapanchami 299–300 Rabindranath Tagore Pandavas 322 Navaratri 308–309 435 Shanti Mandir 403 the Dutch 66 Pongal 330 untouchability 471 Shiva 406 dvaita 141 Pongala 330–331 view on spiritual Swami Shivananda Madhva 266 vows 496 corruption xxiii Saraswati 407 Vedanta 483 Fiji xxxivc, xxxvc, xxxviic yoga 511 Guru Gobind Singh 416 Dvapara Yuga 141–142, 517 Adi Da Samraj 6, 7 Paramahansa Yogananda Sunyata 427 Dvaraka (Dwaraka) 142 Diaspora 131, 132 514 Temple of Cosmic Religion Benares 70 fire Gandhi, Rajiv xxxvic 442 Kedarnath 232 Agni 15 Ganesha 161, 161–162 Vallabha 476 math 280 elements, five 148 bija mantra 85 Vindhya Mountains 488 pilgrimage 328 Indus valley civilization Birla Mandir 86 Vindhyavasini 489 Rameshvaram 359 xviii Caribbean region 99 Yamuna River 509 Shankaracharya Order pipal tree 329 goddess 168 Garuda 164 402–403 Pongala 330 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati vehicles of the divinities Shatapatha Brahmana xix 214 486 Forum on Religion and Kamakhya 224 Vishnu 492 E Ecology 147 Karttikeya 228 Gaudapada 164, 275 earth 148 Foundation of Revelation Mahabharata 268 Gaudiya Math 165 East Africa 10 153–154 mantra 277 Swami A. C. Prabhupada East India Company xxxic Franklin, Benjamin 465 Mauritius 281 Bhaktivedanta 78 Easwaran, Eknath 143, 143, funeral rites 154–155 Parvati/Uma 326–327 Jagad Guru 144 Bali, Hinduism in 67 Saiva Siddhanta Church Siddhaswarupananda Eckankar (ECK) 144–146, 384 Haridvar 180 376 411 ecology and Hinduism Shiva 406 Sri Chaitanya Saraswat 146–147 Tevaram 443 Mandal 420 economy 335 G vehicles of the divinities World Vaishnavite education gandharvas 157 486 Association 504, 505 Diaspora 132 apsaras 42 Vindhyavasini 489 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Society and immigration xxv heaven 182 Vyasa 496 165–166 ego 17 Meru, Mount 287 Gangaji 162, 331 Gautama (Gotama) 318

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 532 12/14/06 1:07:01 AM Index 533 J

Gayatri Mantra 167 Gorakhnath xxxc, 169–170 Madhva 266 H B. K. S. Iyengar 204 Aghori sadhus 15 Sri Mahendranath 272 Hanuman 177, 178, 178 Savitri (Vedic divinity) avadhuta 56 mangala 275 Birla Mandir 86 390 Babji 61 Manikkavacakar 276 Caribbean region 99 Deva Ram Sukul 426 Nath Yogis 308 Ma Yoga Shakti Guyana 175 Surya 428 Shaivism 397 International Mission Hanuman Foundation 178 genocide 187 Siddha 411 282 Himalayan Mountains 184 Ghana 12 Gotama 318 Metamorphosis League Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Gitagovinda 167 gotra 170, 385 for Monastic Studies 214 Jayadeva 212, 213 Grace Essence Fellowship 287 Neem Karoli Baba 310 Radha 341 170–171 Swami Muktananda 295 new moon/ full moon globalization 501 Granth Sahib xxiii Guru Nanak 303 ceremonies 311 goddess 167–169 Akal Takht 21 Swami Narayanananda Rama 348 Aditi 8 Amritsar 27 306 Ramayana 354 Aghori sadhus 15 Kabir 219, 220 Neem Karoli Baba 310 Ram Dass 358 Ardhanarishvara 43 Great Britain. See British Nirankari movement Rameshvaram 359 Dasha Mahavidya 119–121 colonialism; United 313 Tulsidas 457 deva 127 Kingdom Nisargadatta Maharaj Vallabha 476 Draupadi 137 greeting 302 314 Vayu 480 Durga 139, 139, 140 Gross, Darwin 145 Swami Bhagawan Hanuman Foundation 178– Kamakhya 224, 225 Group Areas Act 11 Nityananda 315, 316 179, 358 Khajuraho 235 Guénon, René xxxivc pollution/purity 330 Harappa 196 kundalini 252 Gujarat massacre xxv, 187 puja 336 Hardvar. See Haridvar Lakshmi 256 guna 171 Sri Ramakrishna 350 Hare Krishna lila 259 ajna chakra 21 Ramana Maharshi 350 Baba Premanand Bharati Mariyamman 278 Samkhya 379 Ramanuja 352 80 maya 282 Ram Dass 358 ISKCON 199 Minakshi 289–290 acharya 5 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359 Krishna 240 The Mother 292 Adipurana 7 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Hari Dass, Baba 179, 179, 180 Neolithic times xvii Gunadhya 171–173 Rig Veda 365 Babji 62 puranas 337 Brihatkatha 94 sadhu 373 Ram Dass 357 Radha 341 Kathasaritsagara 231 Sahaja Yoga Center 374 Sri Ramakrishna 349 Guptas xxixc, 173 Haridvar (Haridwar; Hardvar; Saiva Siddhanta 376 Rig Veda xviii Kalidasa 222 Hardwar) xxxc, 180 Sant Mat movement 383 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Kshatriya 250 amrita 25 Shaivism 397 sahasrara chakra 374 Vedic ritual xxii Gayatri Mantra 167 shaktipat 400 saptamatrika 385 guru xxxvc, 173–174 Baba Hari Dass 179 Shankara 402 Sarasvati 387 Agastya 13 Kumbha Mela 252 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Ramprasad Sen 395 Babji 61 Madhva 266 Centers 408 Shaivism 396 Swami A. C. Prabhupada pilgrimage 329 Jagad Guru Shakta 397–398 Bhaktivedanta 78 Rishikesh 367 Shakti 399–400 Swami Chidvilasananda Siddhaswarupananda Shanti Mandir 403 Shankara 402 108 411 Harihara 180, 181, 181 Shashthi 404 Roy Eugene Davis 121 Sikhism 412–414 Hariharananda, Swami Shitala 405 Guru Amrit Desai 124– Satguru 248–249 Sri Vidya 422 125 Subramuniyaswami hatha yoga 181 temple 441 diksha 134 424 American Yoga Association Ushas 472 Drona 138 tantrism 436 24 Vach 473 facial markings 153 Temple of Kriya Yoga amrita 25 Veda(s) 480 Gaudiya Vaishnavite 442 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, Vijayanagara 487 Society 166 United Kingdom 463 New York 29 Vindhyavasini 488–489 Hanuman Foundation United States 466 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam women and Hinduism 501 178 Upanishads 472 44 Yamuna River 509 International Babaji Kriya Virashaivas 489 asana 48 yoni 515–517 Yoga Sangam 197 World Vaishnavite Babji 61 Golden Temple in Amritsar International Society of Association 504 Pierre Arnold Bernard 71 xxxic, xxxvic Divine Love 201 yoga 512 Swami Chetanananda 107 Akal Takht 21 Jayadeva 212 Sri Yogendra 515 Indra Devi 130 Amritsar 27, 28, 28 Swami Jyotirmayananda Gurudwara temple (Hong Europe 151 Sikhism 413, 414 Saraswati 216 Kong) 413 Gorakhnath 170 temple 441 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Gurumayi. See Himalayan International gopi 169 Swami Sri Kripalvananda Chidvilasananda, Swami Institute 183 Gitagovinda 167 237 Guyana xxxvic, xxxviic, 99, Richard Hittleman 189 Krishna 238, 240 Gopi Krishna 241 174–175 Indo-American Yoga- rasa lila 361 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 Gypsies (Romany) 150 Vedanta Society 194

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 533 12/14/06 1:07:01 AM K 534 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

hatha yoga (continued) Himavat 184–185 Hubbard, L. Ron 144 Ahalya 17 Kripalu Yoga 237 Ganges 164 hymns demonic beings 123, 124 Swami Sri Kripalvananda Himalayan Mountains 184 Rig Veda xviii deva 127 237, 238 Parvati/Uma 326 Veda(s) xix Durvasas 140 Benedict Lust 263 Hindi language xxxic Garuda 164 Ma Yoga Shakti Swami Agehananda goddess 168 International Mission Bharati 14 I heaven 182 282 Baba 61 ialata chakra 258 Kalidasa 222 Swami Muktananda 295 Babji 62 I Am That (Nisargadatta Kena Upanishad 233 nadi 299 Caribbean region 99 Maharaj) 315 Krishna 239, 240 Swami Narayanananda Hindu fundamentalism icons 193 Kubera 250 306, 307 emergence of xxv Agni 15 Kumbhakarna 251 Nath Yogis 308 Vishva Hindu Parishad 493 bhakti 77 Kumbha Mela 252 Prana Yoga Ashram 334 Hinduism Birla Mandir 85 Mahavira 271 Samkhya 379 dissemination of xxv–xxvi darshan 119 manvantara 278 Swami Satchidananda 387 emergence of xxi shakti pithas 401 Milk Ocean 288 Sikhism 415 Epic/Classic xx–xxii tantrism 437 Nathdwara 307 Deva Ram Sukul 426 origins of xvii–xviii temple 440 Pandavas 322 Swami Kuvalayananda sanatana dharma 380 Tirthankara 449 Rakshabandhan 346 Yoga Foundation 429 texts of xviii–xx worship of xxiv Rig Veda xviii, 365 United States 469 usage of term xvii Ilankovatikal 193–194 rita 367 yoga 512 Hinduism Today 185 immigration xxxiic–xxxvic saptamatrika 385 Yoga Sutra 514 Hindu nationalism xxxvc, Africa, Hinduism in 10, 11 Soma 419 Sri Yogendra 515 xxxvic, 185–188 Australia 55–56 time in Hindu tradition Hauteville Ashram 125, 127 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 Diaspora 132 447 Healthy, Happy, Holy Hindu xxv Europe 150 Vayu 480 Organization (3HO) Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Guyana 174–175 Indus 196 181–182 Sangh 361 United States 468, 469 Indus Valley civilization Yogi Bhajan 75 Shiv Sena 408–409 indentured laborers xxxiic, xxviic, xxxvc, 196–197 Sikhism 415 Vishva Hindu Parishad xxxvc goddess 168 heaven 182–183 493 Africa, Hinduism in 11, Indus 196 183 Hindutva. See also Hindu 12 origins of Hinduism xviii henotheistic concept xviii nationalism Caribbean region 99 saptamatrika 385 Himalayan International Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Diaspora 132 Shaivism 396 Institute of Yoga Science and Sangh 361 Fiji xxxivc Shakta 397 Philosophy 183–184 Vishva Hindu Parishad Trinidad 454 Shakti 399 Himalayan Mountains 184 493 India xxxiic–xxxvic Shiva 406 Annapurna 39 Hinkins, John-Roger 384 Arayans xviii yoni 516 Ganges 163, 164 hiranyagarbha 188, 228 British colonialism inheritance xxiv heaven 182 Hiranyakashipu 188–189 xxiii–xxiv Integral Yoga Himalayan International Adishesha 8 ecology and Hinduism Sri Aurobindo 52, 53 Institute 183 Hiranyaksha 189 146 Auroville 55 Himavat 184 Holi 190 Mohandas Karamchand Integral Yoga Institute Indus 196 Narasimha avatar 305 Gandhi 157–161, 158 Swami Satchidananda 387 International Babaji Kriya Prahlada 332 Hindu nationalism 186 Savitri (mythic princess) Yoga Sangam 198 temple 441 independence of xxxiiic, 390 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 Hiranyaksha 37, 189 xxxvc, xxxvic, 81–83, Swami Turiyasangitananda Kailash, Mount 220 Hittleman, Richard 189–190 160 458 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Holi 190 Islam xxii–xxiii intellect 97 249 Guyana 175 partition of xxiv–xxv Intergalactic Culture Shree Maa 265 Vasanta Panchami 479 post-independence Foundation 197 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Holy Shankaracharya Order xxiv–xxv International Babaji Kriya Yoga 273 190–191 Indian National Congress Sangam 63, 197–198 Swami Narayanananda homespun clothing 159–161 xxxivc International Meditation 306 horse sacrifice 191 Indo-American Yoga-Vedanta Institute 198–199 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 Allahabad 22 Society 194 International Society for Swami Bhagawan Arjuna 44 Indonesia xxixc, xxxc, Krishna Consciousness Nityananda 315 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 194–195 (ISKCON) xxxivc, xxxvic, Swami Omkarananda 320 93 Bali, Hinduism in 66–68 199. See also Bhaktivedanta, Rishikesh 367 Indus Valley civilization Caribbean region 99 Swami A. C. Prabhupada Shankaracharya Order 196, 197 immigration to xxv Africa, Hinduism in 12 402 Ramayana 354 Indra xxviic, xxviiic, 195–196 Australia 56 Vallabha 475 sacred cow 372 Aditi 8 Baba Premanand Bharati Vindhyavasini 489 Sita 418 Adityas 8 80

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 534 12/14/06 1:07:02 AM Index 535 J

Diaspora 133 ahamkara 17 vairagya 473 Sant Mat 383 Europe 151 ahimsa 18 Vaishya 475 Ramprasad Sen 395 Gaudiya Math 165 Anekantavada 37 varada mudra 478 Kailasanatha Temple 150 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Anga 37 Vasudeva 479, 480 Kailasa temple xxixc Society 166 anumana 40 Vedanta Sutra 485 Kailash, Mount (Mount Kailas Guyana 175 Appar 41 vegetarianism 485, 486 or Mount Kailasha) 220 IRM 200 Ardhamagadhi 42 vehicles of the divinities Ellora 150 Mauritius 281 arhat 43 486 Himalayan Mountains 184 Metamorphosis League for Aryan 47 vows 496 Parvati/Uma 326 Monastic Studies 287, Ayodhya 57 World Parliament of Swami Satchidananda 387 288 Badami 63 Religions 503 kaivalya 220 Scandinavia 391 Bahubali 64 yaksha 508 Kali xxxiic, 220–222 Jagad Guru Siddhaswaru- beliefs of 210 yantra 509 Anandamayi Ma 31 pananda 411 Bhadrabahu 72–73 yoga 511 Bhairava 74 Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Birla Mandir 85 Yuga 518 bija mantra 85 Mandal 420 Gurudev Sri Chitrabhanu International Caribbean region 99 United Kingdom 462, 463 112 Center Chamunda 102 World Vaishnavite communities divisions Gurudev Sri Chitrabhanu Chidambaram 107 Association 504 in 211 112 Dasha Mahavidya 119, International Society for contemporary Jainism 211 120 Krishna Consciousness communities 211 japa Divali 136 Revival Movement (IRM) dharma 131 Amritanandamayi Ma 26 Draupadi 137 78, 199–200 Digambara 133–134 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Durga 139 International Society of Divine H. Jay Dinshah 135 Centers 408 goddess 168, 169 Love 200–201 Ellora 149, 150 Java xxviiic, 194, 195 Himavat 184 International Yoga Federation gandharvas 157 Jayadeva 167, 212–213 ishta devata 204 201 Ganesha 162 Jaya Sati Bhagavati, Ma 213, Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati International Yoga Fellowship Guptas 173 213, 214, 358 214 201–202 Hemachandra 183 Jehan, Shah xxxic Kamban 226 Australia 56 Ilankovatikal 194 Jehangir xxxic Shree Maa 265 Scandinavia 391 Kanchipuram 227 7 Mother Meera 285 Iran xviii karma 228 jivanmukta 214–215 Nataraja 307 IRM. See International Society Kshatriya 250 moksha 292 Sister Nivedita 317 for Krishna Consciousness Guru Sushil Kumar Siddha 410 Parvati/Uma 327 Revival Movement 250–251 jnana 215 Sri Ramakrishna 349 Isha Upanishad 202, 289 meat-eating 283 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute 2 Sri Sarada Devi 385 Isherwood, Christopher 202– meditation 283 adhyasa 6 Ramprasad Sen 395 203, 484 moksha 292 Benares 70 Shaivism 396 ishta devata 203, 203, 204, 284 muni 297 Bhagavad Gita 73 Shakta 398 ISKCON. See International nagas 300 Sant Keshavadas 234 Shakti 399, 400 Society for Krishna nirvana 314 Swami Krishnananda 245 temple 441 Consciousness Parshvanath 324–325 Kriya Yoga Centers 248 temple of 221 Islam xxii–xxiii, xxxiic. See puja 336 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 United States 468 also Muslims punya 337 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Vindhyavasini 489 Bali, Hinduism in 66 Purvas 338 Centers 408 women and Hinduism Indonesia 195 Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh 345 Vallabha 476 501 Ramakrishna and xxiv Ramayana 355 vishuddha chakra 492 Kalidasa xxixc, 222–223 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Rashtriya Swayam Sevak yoga 511 Guptas 173 Sangh 361 Sangh 361 Jnaneshvara 215 yaksha 508 Iyengar, B. K. S. 204–205 reincarnation/rebirth 364 John Paul II (pope) 115 Kali Yuga 214, 223 Rishabha 366 Johnson, Lyndon 132 dana 117 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Jones, Sir William xxxiic Kalki Avatar 223 J Sambanathar 378 Jumna River. See Yamuna Satya Sai Baba 389 Jagannath Temple, Puri 207 samsara 379, 380 (Jumna) River time in Hindu tradition Kedarnath 232 Sanskrit 382 Jyoti, Swami Amar xxxviic, 447 temple 441 Shvetambara 410 215–216 Yuga 517 Jaimini xxviiic, 207 Sthanakavasi 422, 423, 423 Jyotirmayananda Saraswati, Kalki Avatar 223 Jain festivals 207–208 stotra 423 Swami 216–217, 407 Satya Sai Baba 389 Jainism xxxivc, 208–212. See sutra 429 Vishnu 492 also Mahavira; Tirthankara tantrism 436, 439 kalpa 223 Abu, Mount 4 Tattvartha Sutra 439, 440 K Manu 278 Acharanga Sutra 5 temple 441 Kabir xxiii, xxxic, 219–220 manvantara 278 acharya 5 temple in Palitana 209 Radhasoami Movement Kalpa Sutra 73 Adipurana 7 Therapanthi 445–446 344 kama (pleasure) 150

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 535 12/14/06 1:07:02 AM K 536 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Kamadeva (Kama) 223–224, Vallabha 476 bhajans 76 Nathdwara 307 362, 363 Veda(s) 482 temple 440 Nimbarka 312 Kamakhya 224–225 Vedanta 483 Klein, Jean 235–236 Pancharatra 322 Shree Maa 265 Yama 508 Klemp, Harold 145 Pandavas 322 shakti pithas 401 yoga 511 Konarak xxxc, 236, 236, 237 pilgrimage 328 yoni 516 Yoga Sutra 514 Kripalu Yoga 237 Sri Harilal Poonja 331 Kamakshi temple xxixc Karnataka xxxvc Guru Amrit Desai 124– Radha 341 Kamala 121 Karttikeya 228–229 125 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Kama Sutra xxixc, 225–226 Ganesha 161 Swami Sri Kripalvananda Sri Maharaj Ram Chandra Arthashastra 45 Malaysia 274 237 355 Khajuraho 234 Mauritius 281 Shanti Yoga Institute and rasa lila 361 Kamban 226 Parvati/Uma 326 Yoga Retreat 404 Satya Sai Baba 390 Kanchipuram xxixc, 227 saptamatrika 385 Kripalvananda, Swami Sri Sri Sri Nathji 421, 422 Benares 70 Shaivism 396 237–238 Surdas 428 Guptas 173 Shiva 406, 407 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Swaminarayan movement Mahabalipuram 267 Tevaram 443 Kripalu Yoga 237 430 temple 441 vehicles of the divinities Krishna xxixc, xxxic, 238– temple in Kanchipuram Sri Yantra 510 486 240, 239 440 Kannada language 137, 138 Karttikeyan 281 Adishesha 8 Temple of Cosmic Religion Kanya Kumari 227 Kashi. See Benares Alvars 23 442 Kapila xxviiic, 227–228, 379 Kashmiri language xxxc Amritanandamayi Ma 27 Tukaram 455 Karaikkalammaiyar xxixc Kashmiri Shaivism xxixc, Arjuna 44 tulsi 456 karma 228 xxxc, xxxivc, 229–230 Balarama 65, 66 Vaishnavism 474 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute Abhinavagupta 3 Bhagavad Gita 73 Vallabha 475, 476 2 American Yoga Association Bhagavata Purana 74 Vasudeva 479, 480 ahimsa 18 25 bhakti 77 Vedanta 483 Ajivikas 20 Swami Chetanananda Swami A. C. Prabhupada vehicles of the divinities arhat 43 106, 107 Bhaktivedanta 77–78 486 atman 51 Swami Chidvilasananda Baba Premanand Bharati Vindhyavasini 489 Babji 62 108 80 Vishishtadvaita 490 Bhagavad Gita 73 Laksmanjoo 256, 257 Birla Mandir 86 Vishnu 492 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Lalleshvari 258, 259 Brindavan 95 Vithoba 494 94 Swami Muktananda 296 Sri Krishna Chaitanya 101 World Vaishnavite ecology and Hinduism 147 Shaivism 397 Devaki 128 Association 505 heaven 182 tantrism 438 Devayani and Yayati 129 Yashoda 510 Jainism 210 Kathakali 230 Divali 136 Sri Yukteswar 518 Swami Krishnananda 245 Kathasaritsagara 94, 231 Draupadi 136, 137 Krishna, Gopi 240–241, 252, kriya yoga 248 Katha Upanishad 231 Dvaraka 142 253 Laws of Manu 259 Nachiketas 299 Gaudiya Math 165 Krishnabai, Mother 240–242 Ma Yoga Shakti Yama 508 Gitagovinda 167 Swami Ramdas 356 International Mission kaula 231–232, 516–517 goddess 168 Judith M. Tyberg 459 282 Kauravas 232 gopi 169 Krishnamurti, Jiddu xxxvic, papa 323 Bhagavad Gita 73 Hemachandra 183 242, 242–244 Parshvanath 325 Bhima 84 Indra 195 Annie Wood Besant 72 prasada 334 Bhishma 84 International Society of B. K. S. Iyengar 204 punya 336 Draupadi 136 Divine Love 200 Jean Klein 235 Ram Dass 358 Drona 138 ISKCON 199 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Duryodhana 141 Jagannath Temple, Puri Sunyata 427 Swami Rudrananda 369 Kurukshetra 253 207 Theosophical Society Saiva Siddhanta 376 Mahabharata 268 Jayadeva 212 445 Samkhya 379 Pandavas 322 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Katherine Tingley 448 samsara 380 Kautilya xxviiic 214 United States 468–469 Swami Shivananda Kedarnath 180, 232 Jnaneshvara 215 Krishnamurti, U. G. 244 Saraswati 407 Kena Upanishad 233, 326 Kamadeva 224 Krishnananda, Swami 244– Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Keshavadas, Sant 233, 233, Kamakhya 224 246, 245, 407 Centers 408 234, 442 Kshatriya 250 Krishna Prem, Sri 246 Tattvartha Sutra 440 Khajuraho 234–235, 237 Madhva 266 Sri Madhava Ashish 49 Temple of Cosmic Religion King, Martin Luther, Jr. Mahabharata xxi, 268 Sunyata 427 442 ahimsa 18 Metamorphosis League for Krita Yuga 246–247 Therapanthi 446 Mohandas Karamchand Monastic Studies 287 Kalki Avatar 223 Tirthankara 448, 449 Gandhi 161 Mirabai 290 time in Hindu tradition Tiruvacakam 451 kirtans 235 nagas 300 447 United States 466 Ananda Marga Yoga Nammalvar 302 Treta Yuga 452, 453 Upanishads xx Society 30 Narada 305 Yuga 517

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 536 12/14/06 1:07:02 AM Index 537 J

Kriyananda, Swami 247–248 new moon/full moon Kurma Avatar 253, 492 Lanka 177 Ananda movement 33 ceremonies 312 Kuru 232 Laws of Manu 259 Temple of Kriya Yoga Sarasvati 387 Kurukshetra 253–254, 268 caste xxii 442 Temple of Cosmic Religion Dharmashastra 131 182 442 Manu 278 kriya yoga 248 Yamuna River 509 L meat-eating 283 Amrita Foundation 26 Sri Yukteswar 518 Lahiri Mahasaya 255–256 Leary, Timothy Ananda movement 33 kundalini xxxc, xxxivc, 252 Babji 61 Ramamurti Mishra 291 Babji 61–63 ajna chakra 21 kriya yoga 248 Ram Dass 357 Andrew Cohen 115 anahata chakra 28 Paramahansa Yogananda Lekhraj, Dada xxxiiic, 89, 90 Datta Yoga Center 121 Babji 61 513 life’s breath 333 Roy Eugene Davis 121, Yogi Bhajan 75 Sri Yukteswar 518 Light of Truth Universal 122 bija mantra 85 Lakini 277 (LOTUS) xxxvic International Babaji Kriya chakra 102 Lakshmana 347 (Iyengar) 204 Yoga Sangam 197 Swami Chidvilasananda Durvasas 140 lila 259–260 Swami Sri Kripalvananda 108 Hanuman 177, 178 Krishna 240 238 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Himalayan Mountains Shakti 399 Swami Kriyananda 247 Deva Foundation 128 184 lingam 260, 260, 261. See Kriya Yoga Centers Grace Essence Fellowship Rama 348 also yoni 248–249 170 Ramayana 354 Akka Mahadevi 21 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society hatha yoga 181 Lakshmanjoo (Lakshmanjoo) Amarnath 23, 24 249 Healthy, Happy, Holy 256–258 Basavanna 69 Lahiri Mahasaya 255, 256 Organization 182 American Yoga Association Benares 69 Swami Shivananda Radha International Babaji Kriya 25 Bhairava 75 342 Yoga Sangam 198 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Brihadishvara Temple 94 Self-Realization Fellowship International Yoga Lakshmi xxii, 256 Chidambaram 107 392, 393 Fellowship 202 bija mantra 85 Elephanta 149 Self-Revelation Church of Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 214 Birla Mandir 85 Guyana 175 Absolute Monism 394 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Dasha Mahavidya 119 icons 193 Temple of Kriya Yoga kaula 232 Divali 136 Kanchipuram 227 442–443 Swami Sri Kripalvananda goddess 168, 169 Kedarnath 232 United States 468 238 heaven 183 lingam 260 yoga 512 Gopi Krishna 240–241 Jain festivals 208 Mahashivaratri 269 Paramahansa Yogananda kriya yoga 248 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 214 Meenakshi Temple, 513 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Kamakhya 224 Maduri 284 Sri Yukteswar 518 249 Kubera 250 Nataraja 307 Kriya Yoga Centers 248–249 Guru Sushil Kumar 251 Mahabalipuram 268 pilgrimage 329 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Kundalini Research Milk Ocean 288 “proto-Shiva” seal xviii 249–250 Foundation 253 new moon/ full moon Rameshvaram 359 Kshatriya xxii, 250 lalata chakra 258 ceremonies 311 Shaivism 396, 397 caste 100 manipura chakra 276 Shakta 398 Shiva 406 Gayatri Mantra 167 muladhara chakra 297 Trinidad 454 temple 440, 441 sacred thread 372 nadi 299 tulsi 456 Virashaivas xxiv, 489 Satya Sai Baba 389 Nath Yogis 308 Vasanta Panchami 479 Vishvanath Temple, Treta Yuga 453 Swami Shivananda Radha vehicles of the divinities Benares 494 Vaishya 475 342 486 yoni 516, 517 varna 478 Sahaja Yoga Center 373, Vindhyavasini 489 Lokenath Divine Life Mission Vishva Hindu Parishad 374 Vishnu 492 261 493 sahasrara chakra 374 vows 496 Long, Barry 261–262 Kubera 250 shaktipat 400 Lakshmy, Swami 190, 191 Lopamudra 13 gandharvas 157 Siddha 411 Lal, B. B. xviii LOTUS (Light of Truth Kailash, Mount 220 Jagad Guru lalata chakra 258 Universal) xxxvic yaksha 508 Siddhaswarupananda Lalleshvari xxxc, 258–259 Lozowick, Lee 262–263, 360 kula 397, 398 411 language xxviic, xxxiic Lust, Benedict 263, 515 Kumar, Guru Sushil 250–251 Sikhism 415 Apabhramsha 41 Lutherans 114 Kumbhakarna 251–252, 309 svadhishthana chakra 429 Gunadhya 172 Kumbha Mela xxxviic, 252 tantrism 438 Hindi xxxic, 14, 61, 62, 99 Allahabad 22 vishuddha chakra 492 Kannada 137, 138 M Haridvar 180 yoga 512 Kashmiri xxxc Maa, Shree 265–266 Sant Keshavadas 234 Kundalini Research Foundation Malayalam 137 Machiavelli, Nicolò 45 Ma Yoga Shakti 252–253 Sanskrit 381–383 Madhva xxxc, 266 International Mission Kunti Tamil xxviiic, 137, 338, Bhagavata Purana 74 282 Bhima 83 499 dvaita 141 Naga sect 301 Draupadi 136 Telegu 137, 138 Vaishnavism 474

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 537 12/14/06 1:07:02 AM K 538 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Madhva (continued) Mahadevi mantra 277–278 Vyasa 496 Vallabha 475 goddess 168 acharya 5 yajna 507 Vedanta 483 Shakta 398 Adipurana 7 yoga 512 Vedanta Sutra 485 Shakti 400 ahamkara 17 Manu xxviiic, 278 Madurai Maharaj Ji, Guru. See Rawat, Amritanandamayi Ma 26 Dharmashastra 131 Chittirai festival 112 Prem Anandamayi Ma 32 Kapila 228 Minakshi 289–290 Maharashtra xxxvc Aryaman 47 manvantara 278 magic 120 Maharshi Mahesh Yogi xxxvic Arya Samaj 48 Matsya avatar 280 Mahabalipuram Mahashivaratri 269, 281 Bhartrihari 81 pancha makara 321 (Mamallapuram) xxixc, mahatmas 87 bija mantra 85 papa 323 266–268, 267 mahavakyas 103, 269–270 brahman 91 time in Hindu tradition Ardhanarishvara 43 Mahavira xx, xxviic, xxviiic, Brahmana 91 447 Mauritius 281 270–272, 271 Brahmin 92 manvantara 278 Mahabharata xxi, xxviiic, Abu, Mount 4 Sri Krishna Chaitanya Manu 278 268–269 Benares 70 101 time in Hindu tradition Agastya 13 caste system xxiii Dasha Mahavidya 119 447 Airavata 18 Jain festivals 207–208 diksha 134 Mariyamman 278–279 Arjuna 43, 44 Jainism 208, 209, 211 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Shitala 405 Badrinath 64 Kshatriya 250 Society 166 Singapore 415 Bhagavad Gita 73 Guru Sushil Kumar 251 Gayatri Mantra 167 marriage Bharat 79 Neminatha 311 goddess 168 gotra 170 Bhima 83 Parshvanath 324–325 Himalayan International reforms xxiii, xxiv Bhishma 84 Purvas 338 Institute 183 samskara 380 Birla Mandir 86 Rishabha 366 icons 193 sati (suttee) 389 Charvaka 105 Shvetambara 410 ISKCON 199 women and Hinduism demonic beings 124 stotra 423 Kabir 219, 220 500 dharma 131 Tirthankara 449 Krishna 240 Mars (planet) 275–276 Draupadi 136, 137 Videha 486 Lahiri Mahasaya 256 Marshall, Sir John xxxvc Drona 138 mahayuga 272 Mahashivaratri 269 Maruts 279, 369 kalpa 223 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi masts 286 Durvasas 141 time in Hindu tradition 273 Mata, Sri Daya 279–280 Duryodhana 141 447 meditation 284 Self-Realization Fellowship Ganesha 162 Yuga 517–518 Mimamsa 289 393, 394 Ganges 164 Mahendranath, Sri (Lawrence Nayanmars 309 Paramahansa Yogananda guru 174 Amos Miles) 272–273 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 514 Hanuman 177 Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi om 319 Matangi 120–121 heaven 182 273–274 Sri Harilal Poonja 331 math 280 Indonesia 195 rishi 367 puja 336 Shankaracharya Order Kanya Kumari 227 Rishikesh 367 Rakshabandhan 346 402 Kathakali 230 Transcendental Meditation Rama Navami 352 Jagad Guru Kauravas 232 451, 452 Swami Ramdas 356 Siddhaswarupananda Krishna 238 United Kingdom 463 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 360 411 Kshatriya 250 103 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Mather, Cotton 464 Kurukshetra 253 Malakara Orthodox Church rishi 366 Matsya avatar 280, 492 R. K. Narayan 306 113 Sai Baba of Shirdi 374 Matsyendranatha xxxc Pandavas 322 Malayalam language 137 samsara 379 Mauritius xxxiic, xxxvc, Parashurama avatar 324 Malaysia xxixc, xxxc, xxxviic, Sanskrit 382 xxxviic, 280–282 puranas 337 274, 274–275 Sant Mat movement 383 Africa, Hinduism in 11, Pushkara 339 Malvikagnimitra (Kalidasa) 222 shanti 403 12 rishi 367 manas 21, 275 Shanti Mandir 403 Diaspora 131, 132 Sanskrit 382 Mandukya Upanishad 275 shruti 409 Mauryan Empire xxviiic Shaivism 396 Gaudapada 164 Sri Vidya 422 maya 282 Shakti 399 mahavakyas 270 Sunyata 427 adhyasa 6 Shiva 406 om 319 tantrism 438, 439 advaita 9 Vaishnavism 474 states of consciousness temple 441 Meher Baba 286 Vayu 480 422 Tevaram 443 Shankara 402 Veda(s) 482 mangala 23, 275–276 Transcendental Meditation Vedanta 483 Videha 486 Manikkavacakar xxxc, 276 451, 452 Mayo, Katherine 293–294 Vishnu 491, 492 Nayanmars 309 Upanishads 471–472 Ma Yoga Shakti International Vyasa 496 Saiva Siddhanta 375 vairagya 473 Mission 282–283 yaksha 508 Tirumurai 449 Vallabha 476 McDonald’s 283 Yama 508 Tiruvacakam 450, 451 Veda(s) xix, 481 meat-eating 283 Yudhishthira 517 manipura chakra 102, vidya 487 ahimsa 18 Mahabhutas 318 276–277 Virashaivas 489 Bali, Hinduism in 66

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 538 12/14/06 1:07:03 AM Index 539 J

caste 100 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Metamorphosis League for Savitri (mythic princess) Diaspora 132 273 Monastic Studies 287–288 390 pancha makara 321 Ma Yoga Shakti migration Judith M. Tyberg 458– pollution/purity 330 International Mission Diaspora 131–133 459 sacred cow 371, 372 282 Sikhism 415 Mother India 293–294, 468 vegetarianism 485, 486 Ramamurti Mishra 290 Singapore 415, 416 Mother Teresa 261 yoga 512 Nammalvar 302 spread of Hinduism xxv Mount Abu. See Abu, Mount medicine. See Ayurveda Swami Narayanananda Trinidad 454 Mount Kailash. See Kailash, meditation xxxivc, 283, 284. 306 Milk Ocean 288 Mount See also mantra Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 Adishesha 7 Mount Meru. See Meru, Mount American Meditation Swami Bhagawan Airavata 18 mudra 295 Society 24 Nityananda 315 amrita 25 abhaya mudra 1 American Yoga Association prakriti 333 Brahma 89 amrita 25 24 Swami Shivananda Radha Durvasas 140 Anandamayi Ma 32 Amritanandamayi Ma 26 342 Kurma Avatar 253 Bharata Natyam 79 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, Radhasoami Movement Mahashivaratri 269 Kathakali 230 New York 29 344 Mohini 291 Natya Shastra 308 Ananda Ashrama and Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh myths of creation 297 tantrism 438 Vedanta Centre 30 346 nagas 300 varada mudra 478 Ananda Marga Yoga Sri Ramakrishna 349 Patanjali 327 xxii–xxiii, Society 30 Ram Dass 357 Tirupati 450 xxxic, xxxiic Sri Anandamurti 34 Prem Rawat 363 Vishnu 491 Muktananda, Swami xxxivc, Sri Madhava Ashish 49 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Mimamsa xxviiic, 289 295, 295, 296 atman 51 sacred cow 372 adrishta 8–9 Abhinavagupta 3 Bhagavad Gita 73 samadhi 377 pramana 333 Adi Da Samraj 6 Yogi Bhajan 75 Samkhya 379 Vedanta Sutra 485 Master Charles 104 Brahma Kumaris World Scandinavia 391 Minakshi xxi, 289–290 Haridas Chaudhuri 106 Spiritual Organization Self-Realization Fellowship Chittirai festival 112, Swami Chetanananda 90 392 113 106 chakra 102 shanti 403 goddess 168 Swami Chidvilasananda Master Charles 104 Shanti Mandir 403 Meenakshi Temple, 108–109 Swami Chetanananda 107 Swami Shivananda Maduri 284, 285 Roy Eugene Davis 122 Sri Chinmoy 111 Saraswati 407 puranas 338 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Roy Eugene Davis 122 Sikhism 412 temple 440 Swami Bhagawan Indra Devi 130 Satguru Subramuniyaswami Mirabai xxxic, 290 Nityananda 315 Eknath Easwaran 143, 424 Mishra, Ramamurti 290–291 Swami Rudrananda 369 144 tantrism 438 Mishra, Vachaspati 291 shaktipat 400 Gangaji 162 Temple of Cosmic Religion Mitra xxviic, 291 Shanti Mandir 403 Grace Essence Fellowship 442 Aditi 8 Siddha 411 170 Temple of Kriya Yoga 443 Adityas 8 swami 429 Baba Hari Dass 179 Vimalananda 488 Rig Veda 365 tantrism 438 Healthy, Happy, Holy yantra 509 Varuna 479 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Organization 182 yoga 511 Veda(s) 480 muladhara chakra 102, 297 Himalayan International Yoga Sutra 514 Mohenjo-Daro 196 Müller, Max xxxiiic, xxxivc Institute 183 Meenakshi Temple, Maduri Mohini 291 Mumford, John 56 International Babaji Kriya 284, 284–285 Ayyappan 58 muni 179, 297 Yoga Sangam 198 Chittirai festival 113 Milk Ocean 288 Munshi, K. M. xxxvc International Meditation temple 441 moksha 292 Murugan xxi, 450 Institute 198 Meera, Mother 285 Arthashastra 45 music Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Meghaduta xxixc bhajans 76 Alain Danielou 118–119 214 Meher Baba xxxivc, 286, ends of life, four 150 Datta Yoga Center 121 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 286–287 Jainism 210 gandharvas 157 Kamadeva 223 Paul Brunton 95 Rama Navami 351 Muslim-Hindu relations Gopi Krishna 241 Ivy O. Duce 138 reincarnation/rebirth 364 xxxvic Jiddu Krishnamurti 243 Sai Baba of Shirdi 375 yoni 517 Ayodhya 57 Swami Krishnananda 245 Menninger Foundation Monier-Williams, Sir M. Mohandas Karamchand Krita Yuga 246 Research Project 183 xxxiiic Gandhi 160 kriya yoga 248 merchants xxii Moozumdar, P. C. xxv Gujarat massacre xxv Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Meru, Mount 287 Mother, The 292, 292–293 Hindu nationalism 249 Agastya 13 Sri Aurobindo 53, 54 185–187 Kundalini Research Bali, Hinduism in 67 Auroville 54–55 and Hindu nationalism Foundation 252–253 gandharvas 157 Haridas Chaudhuri 106 xxv Lahiri Mahasaya 255, 256 Kailash, Mount 220 Sri Chinmoy 111 post-independence Lakshmanjoo 257 Milk Ocean 288 sadhaka 372 xxiv–xxv

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 539 12/14/06 1:07:03 AM K 540 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Muslim-Hindu relations Meenakshi Temple, Nityananda, Swami Bhagawan Bhima 83–84 (continued) Maduri 284 315, 315–316 demonic beings 124 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Shiva 407 Swami Chidvilasananda dharma 131 Sangh 361, 362 temple 441 108 Draupadi 136 separate electorates for xxiv Nathdwara 307, 421 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati 213 Drona 138 Muslims xxixc–xxxiic, xxxvic. Nath Yogis xxxc, 308 Swami Muktananda 295, Durvasas 141 See also Islam Aghori sadhus 15 296 Duryodhana 141 Ayyappan 58 avadhuta 56 Swami Rudrananda 369 Kauravas 232 and Sufism xxiii Gorakhnath 169–170 Shanti Mandir 403 Krishna 238, 240 myths of creation 297 hatha yoga 181 Nivedita, Sister (Margaret Kurukshetra 253 Kabir 220 Noble) 316–317, 495 Mahabharata 268 Sri Mahendranath 272 Nobel Prize xxxiiic, 433, 434 Vayu 480 N Radhasoami Movement Noble, Margaret. See Nivedita, Yudhishthira 517 Nachiketas 299 344 Sister pandits Katha Upanishad 231 Shaivism 397 North America. See also Sanskrit 381 Yama 508 national identity xxv Canada; United States Shankaracharya Order nadi 299 nationalism. See Hindu Diaspora 131 403 Gorakhnath 170 nationalism Hindusim in xxv–xxvi Trinidad 454 hatha yoga 181 naturopathy 263, 515 Nyaya-Vaisheshika 317–318 Pandu kundalini 252 Natyashastra 482 anumana 40 Bhima 83 yoga 512 Natya Shastra 107, 308 Hemachandra 183 Bhishma 84 Nagapanchami 299–300 Navaratri 140, 308–309 Vachaspati Mishra 291 Panini xxviiic nagas 300 Nayanmars 309–310 pramana 333 agama 13 Arjuna 44 Periya Puranam 327 Vedanta Sutra 485 Sri Anirvan 38 Bhima 83 Saiva Siddhanta 375 nymphs 41–42 papa 323, 336 Mahabalipuram 267 Sundarar 426 Paramananda, Swami 323–324 Naga sect 301 Tevaram 443 Ananda Ashrama and Naga sect 301, 301, 403 Tirumurai 450 O Vedanta Centre 29, 30 namarupa 301–302 Nazis 47 Olcott, Henry Steel United States 467 namaste 302 Neem Karoli Baba xxxvic, 310, Annie Wood Besant 72 Vedanta Societies 484 Nambi xxxc, 450 310–311 Helena Petrovna Hahn Parashurama avatar 324, 492 Nammalvar xxxc, 302 Hanuman Foundation 178 Blavatsky 87 Parliament (Indian) xxiv Alvars 23 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Theosophical Society 444, Parshvanath 324, 325, 325 Vishishtadvaita 490 213 445 Badami 63 Nanak, Guru xxiii, xxxic, Ram Dass 357–358 Katherine Tingley 448 Jainism 208, 211 302–304, 303 Sunyata 427 Old Vedanta temple (San Mahavira 270 guru 174 Nehru, Jawaharlal xxxvc, Francisco, California) 464 nagas 300 Sant Mat 383 xxxvic, 160 om 319, 319–320 Tirthankara 449 Sikhism 412, 414 Neminatha 311 Gayatri Mantra 167 Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari, Guru Gobind Singh 416 Neolithic times xvii Mandukya Upanishad 275 Sri 325–326, 421 Nandi 304, 304 goddess 167–168 shanti 403 partition of India/Pakistan Tirumular 449 Indus Valley civilization Omkarananda, Swami 320 xxiv–xxv Tulsidas 457 196 oral tradition xix Mohandas Karamchand vehicles of the divinities Nepal 96 Osho. See Rajneesh, Bhagwan Gandhi 160 486 the Netherlands xxxvic, 150 Sri Hindu nationalism 186 Narada 305 , neti 94 Parvati/Uma xxi–xxii, Annapurna 39 new moon/ full moon 326–327 Kanya Kumari 227 ceremonies 311–312 P agama 13 Rati 362 Nigama 13 Pakistan xxixc Amarnath 23 Valmiki 477 Nilgiri Press 144 Hindu nationalism 186 Andhaka 37 Vithoba 494 Nimbarka xxxc, 312 Indus Valley civilization Annapurna 39 182 acharya 5 xviii Ardhanarishvara 43 Narasimha avatar 305 bhedabheda 83 Islam xxv Bali, Hinduism in 67 Badami 63 Vaishnavism 474 partition of xxiv–xxv Dasha Mahavidya 120, Hiranyakashipu 188 Vallabha 476 Persians xvii 121 Hiranyaksha 189 Nirankari movement 312– Pallava dynasty xxixc Divali 136 Prahlada 332 313, 414 pancha makara 321 Durga 140 temple 441 Nirmala Devi, Sri Mataji 373, kaula 231–232 Ganesha 161 Narayan, R. K. 305–306 374 tantrism 438 goddess 168 Narayanananda, Swami 306– nirvana 313–314 Pancharatra xxviiic, 321–322, Himalayan Mountains 184 307, 391 Neminatha 311 474 Himavat 184, 185 Nataraja 307 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Pandavas 322 Kali 221 abhaya mudra 1 Nisargadatta Maharaj 49, Arjuna 43 Kalidasa 223 Chidambaram 107 314–315 Bhagavad Gita 73 Karttikeya 228

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 540 12/14/06 1:07:03 AM Index 541 J

Kena Upanishad 233 pipal tree 300, 329 priest, Brahim 92, 336 Shakti 399 Milk Ocean 288 pithas 400–401 Priestly, Joseph 465 shakti pithas 400 Nataraja 307 pleasure 150 prithivi 335 Surya 428 Sati 388 pollution/purity 329–330 elements, five 148 time in Hindu tradition Shaivism 396 caste 100 Shakti 399 447 Shakta 398 goddess 169 PROgressive Utilization Vasudeva 479, 480 Shakti 400 United Kingdom 462 Theory. See PROUT Vishvakarma 493 Shiva 406 untouchability 471 prosperity 150 yaksha 508 Tevaram 443 polygamy xxiv Protestantism 114, 115 purdah 394 vehicles of the divinities Pongal 330 proto-Shiva xviii, xxviic, 196 Puri 142 486 Pongala 330–331 PROUT (PROgressive purusa 333 Vindhyavasini 489 Poonja, Sri Harilal (Poonjaji; Utilization Theory) 335 purusha 338 Patanjali xxviiic, 327 Papaji) 331, 331–332 Ananda Marga Yoga agnichayana 16 Sri Anirvan 38 Andrew Cohen 115 Society 31 Aitareya Upanishad 19 Ashtanga Yoga 50 Gangaji 162 Sri Anandamurti 34 hiranyagarbha 188 Baba Hari Dass 179 Prahlada 332 puja 336, 336 myths of creation 297 hatha yoga 181 Adishesha 8 Andal 36 Prajapati 332 B. K. S. Iyengar 204 Hiranyakashipu 188 Arya Samaj 48 Rig Veda 365 kaivalya 220 Holi 190 Caribbean region 99 samadhi 377 Kripalu Yoga 237 Vasanta Panchami 479 Chandi 103 Samkhya 379 Guru Sushil Kumar 251 Prajapati 332 Diaspora 133 Shatapatha Brahmana 404 meditation 283 agnichayana 16 facial markings 153 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Vachaspati Mishra 291 Kapila 228 Ganesha 161 410 pranayama 333 myths of creation 297 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 Yoga Sutra 514 samadhi 377 purusha 338 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Purvas 134, 338 Samkhya 379 Prajnapad, Sri Swami 126– Navaratri 309 Pushan 8, 338–339 siddhi 412 127 prasada 334 Pushkara 89, 339 Swami Kuvalayananda prakriti 332–333 Saiva Siddhanta Church pushti 476 Yoga Foundation 429 Ashtanga Yoga 50 376 Tattvartha Sutra 439 Dvapara Yuga 142 Sri Vidya 422 yama 509 guna 171 temple 441 R yoga 511–512 hiranyagarbha 188 Thailand 444 Radha 239, 341–342 Yoga Sutra 514 kaivalya 220 tulsi 456 Brindavan 95 Periya Puranam xxxc, Samkhya 379 United Kingdom 461 Sri Krishna Chaitanya 327–328 Shakti 399 Sri Yantra 510 101 Chidambaram 107 time in Hindu tradition Punjab xxxc Gitagovinda 167 Nayanmars 309 447 punya 323, 336, 337 goddess 168 Sekkilar 392 pramana 333, 485 puranas xxi, xxviiic, xxixc, gopi 169 Tirumurai 450 prana 333 337, 337–338 Krishna 238, 240 Persia (Persians) xvii, xxviic icons 193 apsaras 42 Nimbarka 312 pilgrimage 328, 328, 329 nadi 299 Ashvins 51 Vaishnavism 474 Amarnath 24 Prana Yoga Ashram 334 Bhagavata Purana 74 Vallabha 476 Badrinath 64 pranayama 333–334 Brahma 88 Radha, Swami Shivananda Benares 70 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute Brihatkatha 95 342–343, 407 bhakti 77 2 Chamunda 102 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli Haridvar 180 asana 48 Daksha 117 xxxivc, 343–344 Kanya Kumari 227 Ashtanga Yoga 50 demonic beings 123, 124 Radhasoami Movement Kedarnath 232 Indra Devi 130 deva 127 344–345. See also Sant Mat Nayanmars 309 kriya yoga 248 Durvasas 140 movement punya 336, 337 meditation 283 gandharvas 157 Eckankar 144, 145 Ramanuja 352 Prana Yoga Ashram 334 Ganesha 161 Kirpal Maharaj Singh 417 Rameshvaram 359 Sri Maharaj Ram Chandra Ganges 164 rajas Rishikesh 367 355 goddess 168 Dvapara Yuga 142 Shrirangam 409 Prana Yoga Ashram 334 hiranyagarbha 188 guna 171 Swaminarayan movement prasada 334–335 International Babaji Kriya Samkhya 379 430 temple 441 Yoga Sangam 198 Shakti 399 temple 440 Tirupati 450 Kamadeva 223 rajasuya 345 Tirupati 450 Tulsidas 457 Karttikeya 228 raja yoga Tulsidas 457 Vaishnavism 474 Kurma Avatar 253 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute Vindhyavasini 489 Vallabha 476 Kurukshetra 254 2 Vishva Hindu Parishad 493 Virashaivas 489 rishi 367 Himalayan International vows 496 Pratap, Vijayendra 429 Sanskrit 382 Institute 183 yoni 516 pratyaksha 40 sapta rishi 385 meditation 283 Sri Yukteswar 518 Prayag. See Allahabad Shaivism 396 Ramamurti Mishra 291

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 541 12/14/06 1:07:03 AM K 542 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

raja yoga (continued) Swami Abhedananda 1 Caribbean region 99 Ramsuratkumar, Yogi 262, Sri Maharaj Ram Chandra Swami Agehananda Charvaka 105 359, 360, 361 355 Bharati 14 demonic beings 124 rasa 361 Swami Satchidananda 387 Ananda Ashrama and Durvasas 140 Kathakali 230 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Vedanta Centre 29, 30 Ganesha 162 Natya Shastra 308 Centers 408 Vinoba Bhave 82 Hanuman 177 rasa lila 361 Vallabha 476 Christian-Hindu relations heaven 182 Rashtrakuta dynasty xxixc Rajendra I xxxc 114 Himalayan Mountains 184 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh Rajneesh, Bhagwan Sri Kali 221 Indonesia 195 (RSS) xxxvc, 361–362 345–346 Shree Maa 265 Kalidasa 222 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 Rakshabandhan Sister Nivedita 317 Kamban 226 Hindu nationalism xxv, (Rakhibandhan) 311, 346 Swami Paramananda 323 Kathakali 230 186 rakshasas reform xxiv Kathasaritsagara 231 Vishva Hindu Parishad demonic beings 123, 124 Sri Sarada Devi 385, 386 Kshatriya 250 493 Kumbhakarna 251 Keshab Chunder Sen 394 Kumbhakarna 251 Rati 362–363 Rama (Ram) xxxic, xxxivc, Ramprasad Sen 395 Mahabharata 268 Dasha Mahavidya 120 xxxvic, 346–348, 347 United States 467 R. K. Narayan 306 Kamadeva 224 Agastya 13 Vedanta 483 Navaratri 308, 309 Ratri 168 Ahalya 17 Vedanta Societies 483 puranas 337 Ravana Alvars 23 Swami Vivekananda 495 Rama 347 Airavata 18 Ayodhya 57 Ramakrishna Math and Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Bhavabhuti 81 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 Mission. See Vedanta Ram Dass 358 Kamban 226 Bhavabhuti 81 Societies/Ramakrishna Math Rameshvaram 359 Navaratri 309 demonic beings 124 and Mission rishi 367 Ramayana 353, 354 Durvasas 140 Ramakrishna Vendanta Centre Sanskrit 382 Rameshvaram 359 goddess 168 462, 463 Shaivism 396 Rawat, Prem (Guru Maharaj Ji) Hanuman 177 Ramana Maharshi xxxivc, Shakti 399 363–364 Hindu nationalism 187 xxxvc, 349, 350, 351 Shiva 406 Sant Mat movement 384 Kabir 219, 220 Swami Abhishiktananda 3 Sita 418 United Kingdom 463 Kalidasa 222 Saniel Bonder 88 temple 440 reform movement xxxiiic Kamban 226 Paul Brunton 95 Thailand 443 and British era xxiii–xxiv Kshatriya 250 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 Tulsidas 456 post-independence xxiv Kumbhakarna 251, 252 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Vaishnavism 474 women and Hinduism pilgrimage 328 Lee Lozowick 262 Valmiki 477 500–501 Rama Navami 351, 352 Sri Harilal Poonja 331 Videha 486 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Ramayana 353, 354 Swami Ramdas 356 Vishnu 491, 492 ancestor worship 36 Swami Ramdas 356 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359 Vishva Hindu Parishad Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Rameshvaram 359 Swami Satchidananda 387 493 94 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Society of Abidance in yaksha 508 ends of life, four 150 Sangh 362 Truth 419 Ram Chandra, Sri Maharaj jivanmukta 215 Sita 418 Sunyata 427 355–356 Mimamsa 289 Thailand 443 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Sri Parthasarathi nadi 299 Tulsidas 457 Rama Navami 351–352 Rajagopalachari 326 nirvana 313–314 Vaishnavism 474 Ramanuja (Ramanujacharya) Sri Ram Chandra Mission Parvati/Uma 326 Vedanta 483 xxxc, 352 421 punya 337 vehicles of the divinities acharya 5 Ramcharitmanasa xxxic Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh 346 486 advaita 9 Ramdas, Swami xxxivc, 356 Samkhya 379 Videha 486 Nimbarka 312 Arnaud Desjardins 126 samsara 379–380 Vishnu 492 Shrirangam 409 Mother Krishnabai 241, Temple of Cosmic Religion Vishva Hindu Parishad Tirupati 450 242 442 493 Vaishnavism 474 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 359, United States 466 women and Hinduism Vallabha 475, 476 360 Upanishads xx 501 Vedanta Sutra 485 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Veda(s) 482 Rama, Swami Vishishtadvaita 490, 491 Ram Dass 356–359, 357 religion. See also specific American Yoga Association Rama Tirtha, Swami xxxiiic, Hanuman Foundation 178 religion, e.g.: Jainism 25 352–353 Ramamurti Mishra 291 henotheistic xviii Roy Eugene Davis 122 Sri Harilal Poonja 331 Neem Karoli Baba 310 Hindusim as world xvii Himalayan International United States 467 United Kingdom 463 renunciants 381 Institute 183, 184 Ramayana xxi, xxviiic, Rameshvaram 359 rice 330, 331 yoga 511 353–355 Benares 70 Richard, Mirra. See Mother, The Ramacharaka, Yogi 348–349, Ahalya 17 Dvaraka 142 Rig Veda xviii–xix, xxviic, 467 Airavata 18 Kedarnath 232 xxxiic, 365–366 Ramakrishna, Sri xxxiiic, 349, Ayodhya 57 Madhva 266 adhvaryu 5 349–350 Bhavabhuti 81 temple 440 Aditi 8

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 542 12/14/06 1:07:03 AM Index 543 J

Agastya 13 Nandi 304 S Ram Dass 357 Agni 15 Narada 305 Sachchidananda, Sri Ganapati Jagad Guru agnichayana 16 Nataraja 307 121 Siddhaswarupananda Aitareya Upanishad 19 Rati 362 sacred cow 136, 371, 371, 372 411 Aranyaka 42 Rig Veda 365 sacred thread 372 Sama Veda xix, xxviic, 378 Aryan 47 Rishikesh 367 diksha 134 adhvaryu 5 Brihaspati 94 Sanskrit 381 Kshatriya 250 Chandogya Upanishad Dvapara Yuga 141 sapta rishi 385 samskara 380 103 fire ceremony xix shruti 409 sacrifice. See also horse Dvapara Yuga 141 Ganges 163–164 smriti 419 sacrifice Kena Upanishad 233 Gayatri Mantra 167 time in Hindu tradition Buddha xx mahavakyas 269 goddess 168 447 Daksha 117 om 319 hiranyagarbha 188 Vallabha 475 Rig Veda xviii–xix Soma 420 Indra 195 varna 479 sadhaka 372 Veda(s) 480, 481 Indus Valley civilization Veda(s) 481 sadhana 373 Sambanathar 196 Vyasa 496 Anandamayi Ma 32 (Jnanasambanthar) xxixc, mahavakyas 269 Rishikesh 367 Sri Anirvan 38 378 mantra 277 Swami Shivananda Radha Guru Amrit Desai 124 Appar 41 Maruts 279 342 Arnaud Desjardins 127 Nayanmars 309 myths of creation 297 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Laksmanjoo 257 Sundarar 426 om 319 Swami Shivananda Satguru Tevaram 443 Prajapati 332 Saraswati 407 Subramuniyaswami 424 Tirumurai 449 prithivi 335 rita 131, 367 tantrism 438 Samkhya (Sankhya) xxviiic, purusha 338 rituals sadhu xxii, xxviiic, 373 379 Rudra 369 funeral rites 154 Aghori sadhus 15 Ajivikas 20 Sanskrit 381 Holi 190 avadhuta 56 Sri Anirvan 38 Sarasvati 387 Indus valley civilization funeral rites 154 anumana 40 Savitri (Vedic divinity) xviii Baba Hari Dass 179 buddhi 97 390 public xviii, xix Jayadeva 213 elements, five 148 Shakti 399 Rig Veda xviii–xix Swami Muktananda 295 guna 171 shakti pithas 401 samskara 380 muni 297 hiranyagarbha 188 Shudra 409 Vedic xx Naga sect 301 jivanmukta 215 Veda(s) 480, 481 Roman Catholic Church 115 Swami Ramdas 356 kaivalya 220 Yajur Veda 508 Roman Empire 10 Swami Satchidananda 387 Kapila 227 Yama 508 Romany 150 Sunyata 427 manas 275 Rishabha 366 Roy, Raja Rammohun xxxiic, vanaprastha 478 Vachaspati Mishra 291 Abu, Mount 4 367–368, 368 Sahajanand, Sri xxxiic, 430 Nyaya-Vaisheshika 317 Badami 63 Brahmo Samaj 93 Sahaja Yoga Center 373–374 prakriti 332 Bahubali 64 Christian-Hindu relations sahasrara chakra 374 purusha 338 Jain festivals 208 114 hatha yoga 181 tanmatra 435 Tirthankara 449 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak kundalini 252 Vedanta Sutra 485 rishi xix, 366–367 Sangh 361 muladhara chakra 297 samsara 379–380 Aditi 8 Rabindranath Tagore 433 yoga 512 brahmacharya 89 Adityas 8 United States 465 Saheb 40 Jainism 208 Agastya 13 Swami Vivekananda 495 Sai Baba of Shirdi xxxvc, 374, reincarnation/rebirth 364 Agni 15 RSS. See Rashtriya Swayam 375, 375 vairagya 473 Ahalya 17 Sevak Sangh mahavakyas 270 samskara 248, 380 Ajapa Yoga Foundation 20 Rudra 369 Satya Sai Baba 389 Samskritam. See Sanskrit apsaras 42 Adityas 8 United Kingdom 463 sanatana dharma 380–381 Ardhanarishvara 43 goddess 168 Saiva Siddhanta 375–376, 438 Arya Samaj 48 Arundhati 46 Kali Yuga 223 Saiva Siddhanta Church 185, Babji 62 Bhairava 75 manipura chakra 277 376 Society of Abidance in Brihaspati 94 Rig Veda xviii, 365 salt tax march 160 Truth 419 Daksha 117 Shiva 406 samadhi 377–378 Satguru Drona 138 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Sri Anirvan 38 Subramuniyaswami 425 Garuda 164 410 Ashtanga Yoga 50 World Vaishnavite gotra 170 Veda(s) 480 funeral rites 154 Association 505 Hiranyaksha 189 Rudrananda, Swami 369–370 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Sandilya xxviiic, xxixc Kanya Kumari 227 Adi Da Samraj 6 Society 166 186, 187 Kumbhakarna 251 Swami Chetanananda 106 Shree Maa 265 sannyasi (f. sannyasini) 381, lingam 260 Grace Essence Fellowship meditation 283 381 manvantara 278 170 Mother Meera 285 Swami Abhedananda 1 Maruts 279 Swami Muktananda 296 Swami Bhagawan Swami Abhishiktananda 3 muni 297 Rukmini 215 Nityananda 316 Amritanandamayi Ma 27

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 543 12/14/06 1:07:04 AM K 544 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

sannyasi (continued) Anga 37 tantrism 437 Saraswati, Swami Sivananda Arya Samaj 48 Sri Anirvan 38 Tattvartha Sutra 439 Arnaud Desjardins 126 ashramas 50 Ardhamagadhi 42 Tevaram 443 Holy Shankaracharya Master Charles 104 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam Thailand 443 Order 190 Swami Chetanananda 44 time in Hindu tradition Swami Omkarananda 320 106, 107 Aryan 47 447 Sarva Seva Sangh xxxvic Christian-Hindu relations avatar 57 Katherine Tingley 448 SAT (Society of Abidance in 115 Baul sect 69 Tirumurai 449 Truth) 419 Swami Dayananda bhakti 76, 77 Tulsidas 456 Satchidananda, Swami xxxvic, Saraswati 123 Bhartrihari 81 Judith M. Tyberg 458 387–388 diksha 134 Bhavabhuti 81 United Kingdom 461 Indo-American Yoga- International Society of Sri Krishna Chaitanya 101 Upanishads 472 Vedanta Society 194 Divine Love 200 Swami Chetanananda 107 Vach 473 Swami Shivananda International Yoga Swami Chinmayananda Vallabha 476 Saraswati 407 Fellowship 201 110 Vamana Avatar 477 Swami Turiyasangitananda Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Alain Danielou 118 varna 478 458 214 Eknath Easwaran 143 Vedangas 483 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Swami Jyotirmayananda Gitagovinda 167 vehicles of the divinities sat-chit-ananda (sacchidananda) Saraswati 216 Gorakhnath 170 486 388 Swami Krishnananda 245 Gunadhya 171–173 vidya 487 adhyasa 6 Sri Krishna Prem 246 guru 173 Vishishtadvaita 491 ananda 28 Swami Kriyananda 247 kaivalya 220 yajna 507 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Sri Mahendranath 272, Kali 221 yaksha 508 Shankara 402 273 Kalidasa 222 Sant Mat 383 Vedanta 483 Ma Yoga Shakti Kamban 226 Eckankar 145 Sati 388 International Mission Kathakali 230 Nirankari movement 313 Daksha 117 282 Jean Klein 235 Prem Rawat 363 Dasha Mahavidya 120 Swami Muktananda 295 Krishna 238 Kirpal Maharaj Singh goddess 168 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Swami Krishnananda 244, 417–418 Haridvar 180 Swami Ramdas 356 245 Sant Mat movement 383–384 Himalayan Mountains 184 Swami Rudrananda 369 Kshatriya 250 Sikhism 414 Kamakhya 224 sadhu 373 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Bhagat Singh Thind 446 Parvati/Uma 326 Saiva Siddhanta Church 273 Sant tradition xxiii Shaivism 396 376 mantra 277 saptamatrika 385 shakti pithas 400, 401 Swami Satchidananda 387 Ramamurti Mishra 290, sapta rishi 385 Shiva 406 Shankaracharya Order 402 291 Sarada Devi, Sri xxxiiic, 385– Tevaram 443 Shanti Mandir 403 Guru Nanak 303 387, 386 sati (suttee) 388–389 Swami Shivananda Nayanmars 309 Sister Nivedita 317 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Saraswati 407 Nimbarka 312 Sri Ramakrishna 349 Sati 388 Satguru Subramuniyaswami om 319, 320 Vedanta Societies 484 women and Hinduism 424 pancha makara 321 Swami Vivekananda 495 500 Swaminarayan movement puja 336 Sarada Math xxxiiic satsang 430 puranas xxi, 337, 338 Sarasvati xxviic, 387 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Swami Turiyasangitananda Purvas 338 Abu, Mount 4 Radhasoami Movement 458 Rakshabandhan 346 bija mantra 85 345 Vallabha 475 Ramanuja 352 Brahma 89 Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh 345 vanaprastha 478 Ramayana 353, 355 Dasha Mahavidya 120 sattva Swami Vivekananda 495 Ram Dass 358 goddess 168 guna 171 World Vaishnavite Raja Rammohun Roy Gunadhya 172 Samkhya 379 Association 505 368 Kamakhya 224 Shakti 399 Paramahansa Yogananda sadhaka 372 Manikkavacakar 276 Sattva Yuga 142 513 sadhana 373 Navaratri 309 satya 509 Sri Yukteswar 518 samskara 380 Shakta 398 satyagraha Sanskrit (Samskritam) xxviic– Savitri (Vedic divinity) Shakti 400 Vinoba Bhave 82 xxixc, xxxiic, 381–383 391 tulsi 456 ecology and Hinduism Adipurana 7 Ramprasad Sen 395 Vach 473 146 Swami Agehananda Shaivism 396 Vasanta Panchami 479 Mohandas Karamchand Bharati 14 shakti pithas 401 vehicles of the divinities Gandhi 159 Agni 15 Shankaracharya Order 486 Satya Sai Baba xxxvc, 389–390 Aitareya Upanishad 19 403 Sarasvati, Swami Dayananda Africa, Hinduism in 10 Allahabad 22 shanti 403 xxxiic Roy Eugene Davis 122 Alvars 23 Sita 418 Saraswati 214 Indra Devi 130 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, Society of Abidance in Saraswati, Swami Satyananda Europe 151 New York 29 Truth 419 201, 202 Guyana 175

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 544 12/14/06 1:07:04 AM Index 545 J

Indonesia 195 Self-Realization Fellowship temple 440 shakti pithas 400–401 Sai Baba of Shirdi 375 (SRF) xxxvc, 392–394, Tevaram 443 Benares 70 United Kingdom 463 393. See also Yogananda, Tirumular 449 Haridvar 180 Satya Yuga Paramahansa Tirumurai 449 Kamakhya 224 time in Hindu tradition Amrita Foundation 26 Tiruvacakam 451 Shakuntala (Kalidasa) xxixc, 447 Ananda movement 33, 34 Transcendental Meditation 222 Treta Yuga 452 Babji 61, 62 452 shalagrama 401–402 Savarkar, V. D. 186 Roy Eugene Davis 122 trimurti 453 Shankar, Sri Ravi 45, 46 Savitri (mythic princess) 390 Swami Kriyananda 247 United States 469 Shankara xxixc, 402 new moon/ full moon Kriya Yoga Centers 249 Vaishnavism 474 acharya 5 ceremonies 311 Sri Daya Mata 279 Veda(s) 482 adhyasa 6 Yama 508 Swami Shivananda Radha World Parliament of advaita 9 Savitri (Vedic divinity) 390, 342 Religions 503 avidya 57 390–391 United Kingdom 463 Shakta xxi, 397–398 Babji 61 Adityas 8 United States 468 goddess 168, 169 Badrinath 64 Ashvins 51 Self-Revelation Church of mantra 277 Bhaskara 81 Gayatri Mantra 167 Absolute Monism 394 maya 282 Dvaraka 142 Rig Veda 365 Sen, Keshab Chunder xxxiiic, pilgrimage 328, 329 Gaudapada 164 Surya 428 394–395, 465 Ramprasad Sen 395 hiranyagarbha 188 Veda(s) 480 Sen, Ramprasad xxxiic, Shakti 399 jivanmukta 215 Scandinavia 391–392 395–396 tantrism 437 jnana 215 seals xviii, 196 “Sepoy Mutiny” xxxiiic temple 441 Kanchipuram 227 secular state xxiv, xxv servants xxii United Kingdom 461 Madhva 266 seed mantra 85 seva 358 United States 469 mahavakyas 270 Sekkilar xxxc, 392 “Seven Mothers” seal xviii yoni 516–517 Mandukya Upanishad 275 Chidambaram 107 shabda 81 Shakti 399–400 math 280 Nayanmars 309 Shaivism xxixc–xxxic, Adi Da Samraj 6 maya 282 Periya Puranam 327 396–397 ajna chakra 21 Vachaspati Mishra 291 Tirumurai 450 Aghori sadhus 15 anahata chakra 28 Nimbarka 312 self 296. See also atman Akka Mahadevi 21 Anandamayi Ma 31 Ramanuja 352 self-realization 392 akshamala 22 Ardhanarishvara 43 Shankaracharya Order American Meditation Appar 41 Swami Chidvilasananda 402 Society 24 atman 51 109 Vallabha 475 Ananda Marga Yoga Bali, Hinduism in 66 cultic worship xxi Vedanta 483 Society 30 Swami Chetanananda 106 devadasi 128 Vedanta Sutra 485 Babji 61 Chittirai festival 112 goddess 168, 169 Vidyaranya 487 Saniel Bonder 88 Alain Danielou 118 Kali 221 Shankaracharya Order 402– Swami Chinmayananda facial markings 153 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 403 110 goddess 168, 169 kaula 231 Holy Shankaracharya Eknath Easwaran 144 Gorakhnath 170 lalata chakra 258 Order 190 Jainism 210 Guyana 175 manipura chakra 277 Shankara 402 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 hiranyagarbha 188 Meenakshi Temple, Shankarananda, Swami 11–12 Swami Krishnananda 245 Indonesia 195 Maduri 285 shanti 238, 403 Lahiri Mahasaya 255 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati muladhara chakra 297 Shanti Mandir 403 Laksmanjoo 257 213 Radha 341 Shantivanam ashram 113 Sri Mahendranath 272 Kanchipuram 227 Swami Rudrananda 369 Shanti Yoga Institute and Yoga Meher Baba 286 Kashmiri Shaivism sahasrara chakra 374 Retreat 125, 403–404 Metamorphosis League for 229–228 Saiva Siddhanta 376 Sharmishtha 129 Monastic Studies 287 Kedarnath 232 Shakta 397 Shashthi 404 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 Sri Mahendranath 273 shakti pithas 400 shastra 240, 404 Ramana Maharshi 351 Mauritius 281 svadhishthana chakra Shatapatha Brahmana xix, Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Nath Yogis 308 429 404–405 Sahaja Yoga Center 373 Pancharatra 322 tantrism 437 agnichayana 16 Self-Realization Fellowship pilgrimage 328, 329 vishuddha chakra 492 Aranyaka 42 393 puranas 337 Sri Yantra 510 Brahmana 91 Satguru Swami Rudrananda 369 shaktipat 400 horse sacrifice 191 Subramuniyaswami 424 Saiva Siddhanta 375–376 Swami Chidvilasananda Pancharatra 321 Taittariya Upanishad 435 Saiva Siddhanta Church 108 Veda(s) 481, 482 Temple of Kriya Yoga 442 376–377 Guru Amrit Desai 124 Shatkhandagama 134 Transcendental Meditation Sambanathar 378 Deva Foundation 128 sheaths, five 405, 435 451 Shankara 402 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Shesha. See Adishesha Vishva Hindu Parishad Singapore 416 Shanti Yoga Institute and Shitala 278, 405–406 493 Satguru Subramuniyaswami Yoga Retreat 404 Shiva xxviiic, xxxc, 406, Sri Yukteswar 518 424, 425 tantrism 438 406–407

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 545 12/14/06 1:07:04 AM K 546 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Shiva (continued) Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Tevaram 443 Parshvanath 325 abhaya mudra 1 214 Thailand 443 puja 336 Abu, Mount 4 Kailash, Mount 220 Tirumular 449 Tattvartha Sutra 440 Adishesha 8 Kali 221 Tirumurai 449 Tirthankara 449 agama 13 Kalidasa 223 Tirupati 450 Shvetashvatara Upanishad 410 Agastya 13 Kamadeva 223, 224 Tiruvacakam 451 Rudra 369 Aghori sadhus 15 Kamakhya 224 trimurti 453 Shiva 406 Aiyanar 19 Kanchipuram 227 vehicles of the divinities Shyam, Sri Swami ajna chakra 21 Kapila 228 486 Intergalactic Culture Akka Mahadevi 21, 22 Karttikeya 228 Virashaivas 489 Foundation 197 Amarnath 23, 24 Kashmiri Shaivism 229 Vishnu 492 International Meditation anahata chakra 28 Kathakali 230 vishuddha chakra 492 Institute 198 Anasuya Foundation 35 kaula 231, 232 Vishvanath Temple, Siddha xxxvic, 410–411 Andhaka 37 Swami Sri Kripalvananda Benares 493, 494 acharya 5 Annapurna 39 238 Sri Yantra 510 Anekantavada 37 Appar 41 kundalini 252 yoni 516, 517 Babji 62 Ardhanarishvara 43 Lahiri Mahasaya 255, 256 Shivananda Saraswati, Swami Swami Chidvilasananda Arjuna 44 lalata chakra 258 xxxivc, 407–408 108 Ayyappan 58 lila 259 Africa, Hinduism in 12 Gorakhnath 170 Babji 61 lingam xxiv, 260 American Yoga Association Lalleshvari 258 Bali, Hinduism in 66, 67 Mahabalipuram 268 24 meditation 283 Basavanna 68, 69 Mahashivaratri 269 Indo-American Yoga- Swami Muktananda 296 Benares 70 Malaysia 274 Vedanta Society 194 Nath Yogis 308 Bhairava 74, 75 Manikkavacakar 276 Lokenath Divine Life Swami Bhagawan bhakti 77 Mauritius 281 Mission 261 Nityananda 315 Bharata Natyam 79 Meenakshi Temple, Prana Yoga Ashram 334 Parshvanath 325 Bhubaneshwar 84, 85 Maduri 284, 285 Swami Shivananda Radha Tirumular 449 Birla Mandir 86 Meru, Mount 287 342 Transcendental Meditation Brahma 88, 89 Minakshi 289, 290 Rishikesh 367 451–452 Brihadishvara Temple 94 muladhara chakra 297 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Siddhanta Chandra 104 myths of creation 297 Centers 408 atman 51 Chidambaram 107 nagas 300 Judith M. Tyberg 459 Satguru Chittirai festival 112, 113 Naga sect 301 Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Subramuniyaswami 424 cultic worship xxi Nandi 304 Centers 407, 408 Siddhaswarupananda, Jagad Daksha 117 Nataraja 307 Shiv Sena 408–409 Guru 411–412 Dasha Mahavidya 119– Nayanmars 309 Hindu nationalism 186 Siddha Yoga xxxivc 121 Swami Bhagawan Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Australia 56 deva 127 Nityananda 316 Sangh 362 Swami Chidvilasananda Devayani and Yayati 129 om 319 Short, Larry C. 170, 171 108, 109 Divali 136 Pancharatra 321 Shrirangam 409 Swami Muktananda 295, Durga 139, 140 Parvati/Uma 326, 327 shruti 409 296 Elephanta 148, 149 “proto-Shiva” seal xviii Brahmana 91 shaktipat 400 Ellora 150 puranas 338 pramana 333 siddhi 412 Foundation of Revelation Rama 347 smriti 419 Anandamayi Ma 32 154 Rati 362 Upanishads 472 Siddha 410 Ganesha 161, 162 Rig Veda 365 Veda(s) xix, 481 Sikhism xxxic, xxxiic, xxxivc, Ganges 164 Rudra 369 shubha 23 xxxvic, 412–415. See also goddess 168 sacred cow 371 Shudra xxii, 409–410 Nanak, Guru Gunadhya 172 sadhu 373 Aryan 47 ahamkara 17 Guptas 173 sahasrara chakra 374 caste 100 Akal Takht 21 Hanuman 177 Saiva Siddhanta 375, 376 Nammalvar 302 Amritsar 27, 28 Haridvar 180 Sambanathar 378 papa 323 Yogi Bhajan 75 Harihara 180 saptamatrika 385 temple 441 Birla Mandir 85 hatha yoga 181 Sati 388 Tukaram 455 emergence of xxiii heaven 182 Ramprasad Sen 395 varna 478 guru 174 Himalayan Mountains Shaivism 396, 397 Shvetambara xxviiic, 410 Gurudwara temple 413 184 Shakta 398 Acharanga Sutra 5 Hindu nationalism 186 Himavat 184, 185 shakti pithas 400, 401 Anga 37 Jainism 211 hiranyagarbha 188 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Bhadrabahu 72, 73 karma 228 Holi 190 410 Digambara 134 moksha 292 Indus Valley civilization Singapore 416 Hemachandra 183 Nirankari movement 196 Sita 418 Jain festivals 207 312–313 ishta devata 204 Sundarar 426 Jainism 209 Radhasoami Movement ISKCON 199 tantrism 438 Mahavira 270–272 344

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 546 12/14/06 1:07:04 AM Index 547 J

samsara 379 Sorensen, Alfred Julius xxxviic, 99 Taj Mahal xxxic Sant Mat movement 383 Emanuel. See Sunyata Sursagar xxxic tamas Guru Gobind Singh South Africa xxxiiic, xxxvc Surya xxxc, 428 Dvapara Yuga 142 xxxiic, 21, 413, 414, Africa, Hinduism in 11, Aditi 8 guna 171 416–417 12 Adityas 8 Kali Yuga 223 stotra 423 Mohandas Karamchand Ashvins 51 Samkhya 379 temple 441 Gandhi 158, 159 Bali, Hinduism in 67 Shakti 399 Bhagat Singh Thind 446 speech xviii Mahabalipuram 268 Tamerlane xxxc sin 323 spells xix Savitri (Vedic divinity) 390 Tamil(s) xxviiic, xxxc Singapore 415–416 SRF. See Self-Realization tantrism 438 Alvars 23 Singh, Guru Gobind xxxiic, Fellowship Vishva Hindu Parishad Appar 41 416–417 Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Mandal 493 Tamil language xxviiic Akal Takht 21 420 Sutherland, George 446 Dravidian 137 Sikhism 413, 414 Sri Lalita sutra 428–429 puranas 338 Singh, Kirpal Maharaj 417–418 goddess 169 Mimamsa 289 women and Hinduism Eckankar 144, 145 Kamakhya 224 Nyaya-Vaisheshika 317 499 Radhasoami Movement Sri Lanka xxxvc Ramanuja 352 Tamil Nadu xxixc, xxxvc 345 Sri Ram Chandra Mission 325, Tattvartha Sutra 439 Mariyamman 278 Sant Mat movement 384 326, 421 Vedanta Sutra 485 Singapore 415 Singh, Shiv Dayal xxxiic, 383 Srirangam Yoga Sutra 514 Tamil Sangam age xxviiic Sita 347, 418–419 Andal 36 svadhishthana chakra 102, 429 tanmatra 148, 435–436 demonic beings 124 Cauvery River 101 swami 429 tantrism 436–439 goddess 168 Vishishtadvaita 490 ananda 28 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute Hanuman 177 Sri Sri Nathji 307, 421, 421, Baba 61 2 Kamban 226 422 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 advaita 9 Rama 347, 348 Sri Vidya 422 muni 297 agama 13 Ramayana 354 Agastya 13 puja 336 Aghori sadhus 15 Rameshvaram 359 tantrism 438 Rishikesh 367 ahamkara 17 Vaishnavism 474 Sri Yantra 510 sat-chit-ananda 388 akshamala 22 vehicles of the divinities states of consciousness 422 Scandinavia 391 Ananda Marga Yoga 486 Mandukya Upanishad 275 Satguru Society 30 women and Hinduism om 319 Subramuniyaswami 424 Australia 56 501 Sthanakavasi 422–424, 423 United States 467–468 avidya 57 Sivananda, Swami Guru Sushil Kumar 251 Vedanta Societies 484 Baul sect 69 Swami Chinmayananda Therapanthi 445 women and Hinduism Pierre Arnold Bernard 110 stotra 423 501 70–71 Swami Jyotirmayananda Subramuniyaswami, Satguru World Vaishnavite bija mantra 85 Saraswati 216 xxxvc, xxxvic, 424–425, 425 Association 504 Dasha Mahavidya 119 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 Hinduism Today 185 Swami Kuvalayananda Yoga diksha 135 Swami Krishnananda 245 Mauritius 281 Foundation 429 Ganesha 162 Swami Satchidananda 387 Saiva Siddhanta Church Swaminarayan movement Gitagovinda 167 smallpox 405 376, 377 xxxiic, 429–431, 430 goddess 169 smriti 419 Sufism xxiii, 138 Anoopam Mission 39 Gorakhnath 170 snakes. See also nagas Sukul, Deva Ram 425–426, Diaspora 133 Grace Essence Fellowship Garuda 164 468 United Kingdom 461 171 Nagapanchami 299–300 Sun, the. See also Surya Swaminarayan Temple hatha yoga 181 social class xxii–xxiii. See also Kali Yuga 223 (London, England) 462 International Yoga caste Pushan 338 Sweden 391–392 Fellowship 201, 202 Society of Abidance in Truth Surya 428 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati (SAT) 419 Sundarar xxixc, 426 214 Soma xix, 419–420 Chidambaram 107 T Kali 222 agnichayana 16 Nayanmars 309 Tagore, Rabindranath xxxiiic, Kamakhya 224 amrita 25 Periya Puranam 327 xxxvc, 433–435, 434 kaula 231–232 Ashvins 51 Tevaram 443 Baul sect 69 Khajuraho 234 Brihaspati 94 Tirumurai 449 Brahmo Samaj 93 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society Chandra 103–104 Sunyata (Alfred Julius Emanuel Alain Danielou 118 249 Indra 195 Sorensen) 426–428, 427 Keshab Chunder Sen 394 kundalini 252 Pushan 338 surat shabda yoga Sunyata 427 Laksmanjoo 257 rajasuya 345 Eckankar 144 Paramahansa Yogananda Sri Mahendranath 272 Rig Veda 365 Radhasoami Movement 514 mantra 277 Veda(s) 480 344 Sri Yogendra 515 Nath Yogis 308 songs xxxic Sant Mat movement 383, Taittiriya Upanishad 435 pancha makara 321 bhajans 75–76 384 om 319 Sri Ramakrishna 350 kirtans 235 Surdas xxxic, 428 sheaths, five 405 sadhaka 372

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 547 12/14/06 1:07:05 AM K 548 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

tantrism (continued) Temple of Cosmic Religion nagas 300 Twitchell, Paul sadhana 373 442 Neminatha 311 Eckankar 144, 145 Sanskrit 382 Temple of Kriya Yoga 442–443 Parshvanath 324 Sant Mat movement 384 Ramprasad Sen 395 Teresa, Mother 261 puja 336 Tyberg, Judith M. 458–459 Shakti 399, 400 Tevaram 443 puranas 337 shaktipat 400 Appar 41 Purvas 338 shakti pithas 400 Nayanmars 309 Rishabha 366 U shruti 409 Sambanathar 378 Shvetambara 410 Uganda 10 siddhi 412 Shaivism 396 temple 441 Uma. See Parvati/Uma Sikhism 415 shruti 409 varada mudra 478 UNESCO (United Nations Sri Vidya 422 Sundarar 426 vehicles of the divinities Educational, Scientific, and Veda(s) 482 Tirumurai 449 486 Cultural Organization) Vedanta 483 Veda(s) 482 Videha 486 Auroville 54 yantra 509 Thackeray, Bal 408, 409 yoga 511 Alain Danielou 118, 119 Sri Yantra 510 Thailand 443–444 Tirumular 449 Swami Dayananda yoga 512 Thakur, Bhaktivinode 165 Siddha 411 Saraswati 123 yoni 516–517 Theosophical Society xxxiic, Satguru Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Taoism 171 xxxiiic, 444–445. See also Subramuniyaswami 424 343 tapas (tapasya) 248, 439 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna Tirumurai 449 Kirpal Maharaj Singh 417 Tara 119 Hahn Tirumurai xxxc, 449–450 Unitarianism tat tvam asi 103 Australia 56 Manikkavacakar 276 Christian-Hindu relations Tattvartha Sutra 439–440 Alice Ann Bailey 64–65, Nayanmars 309 114 Jain festivals 208 445 Periya Puranam 327 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Shvetambara 410 Annie Wood Besant Sekkilar 392 United States 465 Telegu language 137, 138 71–72, 87, 246, 445, Tirumular 449 United Kingdom 461–463. See temple(s) xxxc, xxxic, xxxvc, 447, 466 Tiruvacakam 450 also British colonialism xxxviic, 440–442. See also Paul Brunton 95 Tirunavakkarasu. See Appar Diaspora 131–133 Golden Temple in Amritsar Jiddu Krishnamurti 242, Tirupati 450 Europe 150 Africa, Hinduism in 11 242, 243 Tiruvacakam 450–451 Swaminarayan Temple Australia 56 U. G. Krishnamurti 244 Manikkavacakar 276 462 Bali, Hinduism in 67, 68 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Saiva Siddhanta 375 United Nations Educational, Benares 70 Ma Yoga Shakti Tirumurai 449 Scientific, and Cultural Bhubaneshwar 84–85 International Mission T.M. See Transcendental Organization. See UNESCO Birla Mandir 85, 86, 86 282 Meditation United States xxxiic, xxxivc– Brahma 89 Henry Steel Olcott 72, 87, Tobago 99 xxxviic, 463–471 Brihadishvara Temple 94, 444, 445, 448 Tolkappiyam xxviiic Ananda Marga Yoga 304, 441 spread of Hinduism Tolkappiyar xxviiic Society 31 Diaspora 133 xxv–xxvi Transcendental Meditation Anoopam Mission 40 Elephanta 148, 149 Judith M. Tyberg 458 (T.M.) xxxvic, 451–452 Diaspora 131–133 Gurudwara temple 413 United States 466, 468, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Old Vedanta temple 464 Hindusim xxii 469 273 temple in Malibu, ISKCON 199 World Parliament of rishi 367 California 463 Jagannath Temple, Puri Religions 503, 504 Rishikesh 367 Bhagat Singh Thind 446 207, 232, 441 Therapanthi 445–446 United Kingdom 463 Vedanta Societies 484 Kailasanatha Temple 150 Thind, Bhagat Singh 446 Treta Yuga 452–453, 517 Vimalananda 488 Kailasa temple xxixc Thoreau, Henry David 159 Trika Yoga 107 Swami Vivekananda 495 Kamakshi temple xxixc time in Hindu tradition 272, trimurti 453, 453 World Parliament of Khajuraho 234–235 447 Trinidad xxxvc, xxxviic, 99, Religions 504 Konarak 236, 236, 237 Tingley, Katherine (Augusta 453–455 Sri Yogendra 515 Krishna 440 Westcott) 447–448 Tripurasundari 119 untouchability xxxvic, 471 Malibu, California 463 Tirthankara 448–449 Tukaram xxxic, 455–456 B. R. Ambedkar xxiv Meenakshi Temple, abhaya mudra 1 Vinoba Bhave 82 caste 100 Maduri 113, 284, 284– Abu, Mount 4 Sant Mat 383 Christian-Hindu relations 285, 441 Anekantavada 37 Vithoba 494 114 Old Vedanta 464 arhat 43 tulsi (tulasi) 36, 456 development of xxii puja 336 Badami 63 Tulsidas xxxic, 456–457 Mohandas Karamchand Saiva Siddhanta Church Bahubali 64 Benares 70 Gandhi 160 376 Digambara 134 Navaratri 308 Indian Constitution xxiv Shanti Mandir 403 Ellora 150 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 meat-eating 283 Swaminarayan Temple 462 Hemachandra 183 shalagrama 401 Nayanmars 310 Tirupati 450 Jain festivals 208 Turiyasangitananda, Swami pollution/purity 329 United Kingdom 461 Jainism 208, 211 (Alice Coltrane) 458 sacred cow 371, 372 Vishvanath Temple, Mahavira 270 Turkey xxviic, xxxc Shudra 410 Benares 441, 493–494 meditation 283 Tvashtri 8 temple 441

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 548 12/14/06 1:07:05 AM Index 549 J

Upadhyaya, Raimundo 115 Vaishnavism xxviiic–xxxic, Nathdwara 307 Aryan 47 Upanishads xx, xxviic, xxxiic, 474 Sri Sri Nathji 421 Arya Samaj 48 471–472 adrishta 8, 9 Surdas 428 Ashvins 51 Aitareya Upanishad 19 akshamala 22 Vallabhacharya xxxic Basavanna 69 Sri Anirvan 38 Alvars 22–23 Valmiki 477 Brahma 89 Aranyaka 42 Andal 36, 37 Kamban 226 Brahmana 91 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam Sri Madhava Ashish 49 Ramayana 353, 354 Brahmin 92 44 atman 51 rishi 367 Brihaspati 94 Bhagavata Purana 74 avatar 57 Sita 418 Caribbean region 99 Caribbean region 99 Baul sect 69 Tulsidas 456 caste 100 Chandogya Upanishad Bhagavata Purana 74 Vamana Avatar 477 Chandra 103 103 Swami A. C. Prabhupada Badami 63 demonic beings 123 Gaudapada 164 Bhaktivedanta 78 Bali, the asura 68 deva 127 Intergalactic Culture Cauvery River 101 demonic beings 124 dharma 131 Foundation 197 Sri Krishna Chaitanya 101 Mahabalipuram 268 Dvapara Yuga 141 jnana 215 Chittirai festival 112 Vishnu 491, 492 ends of life, four 150 Kshatriya 250 Dvaraka 142 vanaprastha 477–478 gandharvas 157 mahavakyas 269 facial markings 153 ashramas 50 Gaudapada 164 Mandukya Upanishad 275 Mohandas Karamchand Laws of Manu 259 Gayatri Mantra 167 Mimamsa 289 Gandhi 158 varada mudra 120, 478 goddess 168 myths of creation 297 Gaudiya Math 165 Varaha Avatar 478 Guptas 173 Prajapati 332 goddess 168 Badami 63 guru 173, 174 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Guyana 175 Hiranyaksha 189 icons 193 343 Baba Hari Dass 179 Mahabalipuram 268 Indra 195 Ramanuja 352 heaven 182 saptamatrika 385 Indus 196 reincarnation/rebirth 364 hiranyagarbha 188 Vishnu 492 Indus Valley civilization Raja Rammohun Roy 368 International Society of Varanasi. See Benares 196 samsara 379, 380 Divine Love 200 varna 478–479. See also caste Isha Upanishad 202 Sanskrit 382 jivanmukta 215 Brahmin 92 Jaimini 207 sat-chit-ananda 388 Jnaneshvara 215 caste 100 Kamadeva 223 Shakti 399 Kanchipuram 227 Shudra 409 Kama Sutra 225 Shankara 402 Sri Krishna Prem 246 Vaishya 475 karma 228 Shatapatha Brahmana 405 mantra 277 Varuna xxviic, 479 Lahiri Mahasaya 255 shruti 409 Mauritius 281 Aditi 8 Laws of Manu 259 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Mirabai 290 Adityas 8 mantra 277 410 Nammalvar 302 Agastya 13 meat-eating 283 Taittariya Upanishad 435 Nayanmars 309 Kubera 250 Mimamsa 289 tantrism 437 Nimbarka 312 Mitra 291 Mitra 291 United States 465, 469 Pancharatra 321, 322 Rig Veda 365 muni 297 vairagya 473 pilgrimage 328 rita 367 myths of creation 297 Vaishnavism 474 prasada 334 Veda(s) 480 Nachiketas 299 Veda(s) 482 puranas 337 Vasanta Panchami 479 Natya Shastra 308 Vedanta 483 Radha 341 Vasudeva 479–480 new moon/full moon Vedanta Sutra 485 Ramanuja 352 Balarama 66 ceremonies 311 Videha 486 Singapore 416 Devaki 128 Nyaya-Vaisheshika 317 vidya 487 Tiruvacakam 451 Krishna 238 pipal tree 329 Vishishtadvaita 491 trimurti 453 Pancharatra 322 Pushan 338 Yajnavalkya 507 United Kingdom 461 Vindhyavasini 489 rajasuya 345 yoga 511 United States 469 Vishnu 491 Ramayana 353 Urvashi 13 Veda(s) 482 Yashoda 510 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Ushas 472 Vedanta Sutra 485 Vasugupta xxixc Sangh 361 goddess 168 Vishnu 491 Vatsyanyana xxixc reincarnation/rebirth 364 Rig Veda xviii, 365 World Parliament of Vayu 480 Rig Veda 365 Shakti 399 Religions 503 Bhima 83 rishi 366 Surya 428 Vaishya 475 Hanuman 177 rita 367 Veda(s) 480 caste 100 Meru, Mount 287 sacred cow 371, 372 Gayatri Mantra 167 Veda(s) xviii–xx, xxviic, Sama Veda 378 sacred thread 372 xxxiic, 480–482 samsara 379, 380 V varna 478 acharya 5 sanatana dharma 380 Vach (Vak) 473 Vak. See Vach agama 13 Sanskrit 381, 382 goddess 168 Vallabha 475–477 Allahabad 22 saptamatrika 385 Rig Veda xviii advaita 9 amrita 25 sapta rishi 385 Vaikuntha 227 Bhagavata Purana 74 Sri Anirvan 38 Sarasvati 387 vairagya 473–474 Brindavan 95 Aranyaka 42 Shakti 399

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 549 12/14/06 1:07:05 AM K 550 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Veda(s) (continued) Swami Dayananda Vedanta Societies 483, 484 vidya 487 Shatapatha Brahmana Saraswati 122, 123 Swami Vivekananda 494 adhyasa 6 404, 405 Arnaud Desjardins 125 World Parliament of Dasha Mahavidya 119 shruti 409 dvaita 141 Religions 503 Vidyaranya 487 smriti 419 Gangaji 162 Vedanta Societies/Ramakrishna Vijayanagara xxxc, 487–488 Surya 428 Gaudiya Vaishnavite Math and Mission xxxivc, Harihara 180 Taittariya Upanishad 435 Society 166 483–484, 484 Kanchipuram 227 tantrism 436, 437 hiranyagarbha 188 Swami Abhedananda 2 Tirupati 450 temple 440 Christopher Isherwood Africa, Hinduism in 10, Vallabha 475 Tevaram 443 203 12 Vimalananda 488 Swami Turiyasangitananda jivanmukta 215 Amritanandamayi Ma 27 Vindhya Mountains 488 458 jnana 215 Ananda Ashrama and Agastya 13 United States 469 Sant Keshavadas 234 Vedanta Centre 29 Vindhyavasini 488 untouchability 471 Jean Klein 235 Australia 56 Vindhyavasini 488, 488–489 Upanishads 471 Madhva 266 Christopher Isherwood Vira xxxc Ushas 472 mahavakyas 269 203 Virashaivas 489–490 Vach 473 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Mauritius 281 Akka Mahadevi 21, 22 vairagya 473 273 Swami Narayanananda Basavanna 68–69 Vaishnavism 474 Mandukya Upanishad 306 caste system xxiii Vaishya 475 275 Swami Paramananda 323, Swami Muktananda 295 Vallabha 475 math 280 324 Shaivism 396–397 vanaprastha 477 maya 282 Sri Ramakrishna 350 Shiva lingam xxiv Varuna 479 Mimamsa 289 Sri Sarada Devi 386 women and Hinduism Vayu 480 Swami Muktananda 295, United States 467, 468 500 Vedangas 482 296 Swami Vivekananda 494, Vish (Vishya) xxii Vedanta 483 Swami Narayanananda 495 Vishishtadvaita 312, 490–491 Vidyaranya 487 306 Vedanta Sutra 484–485 Vishnu xxviiic, xxixc, 491, Vishnu 491 Nimbarka 312 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam 491, 492 Vishva Hindu Parishad Nisargadatta Maharaj 314, 44 Adishesha 7 493 315 Bhaskara 81 Adityas 8 Vyasa 496 Sister Nivedita 316 Vachaspati Mishra 291 Alvars 23 women and Hinduism Swami Omkarananda Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan amrita 25 499 320 343 Anasuya Foundation 35 Yajur Veda 508 Swami Paramananda 323 Shankara 402 Andal 36 yaksha 508 purusha 338 Tattvartha Sutra 439 Ayodhya 57 Yama 508 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Vedanta 483 Ayyappan 58 Vedangas 482–483 343 Vishishtadvaita 490 Badami 63 Vedanta xx, xxxc, xxxiiic, Sri Ramakrishna 350 Vedavyasa. See Vyasa Badrinath 64 xxxivc, 483 Ramana Maharshi 350 vegetarianism xxviic, 485–486 Balarama 65 Swami Abhedananda 2 Ramanuja 352 ahimsa 18 Bali, Hinduism in 66 acharya 5 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 Brahmin 92 Bali, the asura 68 adhyasa 6 sat-chit-ananda 388 caste 100 Bhagavata Purana 74 American Yoga Association Self-Revelation Church of H. Jay Dinshah 135 bhakti 77 24 Absolute Monism 394 ecology and Hinduism Bharata Natyam 79 ananda 28 Keshab Chunder Sen 146 Birla Mandir 85 Ananda Ashram, Monroe, 395 Mohandas Karamchand Brahma 88, 89 New York 29 Shankara 402 Gandhi 158 Buddha 96 Anoopam Mission 39 Shankaracharya Order Hinduism Today 185 Chittirai festival 113 Arsha Vidya Gurukulam 402, 403 ISKCON 199 cultic worship xxi 44, 45 sheaths, five 405 meat-eating 283 Dasha Mahavidya 120 atman 51 Shvetashvatara Upanishad Metamorphosis League for demonic beings 124 avidya 57 410 Monastic Studies 288 deva 127 Baul sect 69 Society of Abidance in pollution/purity 330 Divali 136 Bhagavata Purana 74 Truth 419 sacred cow 371 Draupadi 136 Bhaskara 81 states of consciousness Sai Baba of Shirdi 374 Durga 139, 140 Saniel Bonder 88 422 Sant Mat movement 384 Dvapara Yuga 142 brahman 91 temple, San Francisco, untouchability 471 Elephanta 149 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad California 464 vehicles of the divinities 486 Ganesha 162 93 Temple of Cosmic Religion Venkateshvara, Lord xxi Ganges 164 Chandogya Upanishad 442 VHP. See Vishva Hindu Garuda 164 103 Temple of Kriya Yoga 443 Parishad goddess 168 Swami Chidvilasananda United States 466 Victoria (queen of England) Guptas 173 108 Vallabha 475 xxxiiic Hanuman 177 Alain Danielou 118 Veda(s) 482 Videha 347, 486 Haridvar 180

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 550 12/14/06 1:07:05 AM Index 551 J

Harihara 180 Vamana Avatar 477 warriors xxii World Parliament of Religions heaven 182, 183 Vasanta Panchami 479 water 148, 148 xxv, xxxivc, xxxviic, hiranyagarbha 188 Vedanta 483 Watts, Alan 105, 106 503–504 Hiranyakashipu 188 vehicles of the divinities The Way of the Heart 6–7 Swami Abhedananda 1–2 Hiranyaksha 189 486 the West xxxiic, xxxvc. See Jainism 211 Holi 190 Vithoba 494 also Europe; North America; Sister Nivedita 317 ishta devata 204 Vishnudevananda, Swami 459 United Kingdom; United Satguru Subramuniyaswami ISKCON 199 vishuddha chakra 102, 492 States 425 Jayadeva 212 Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) Hindusim in xxv–xxvi United States 467 Kabir 219 xxxvic, 492–493 temple 441–442 Vedanta Societies 484 Kali Yuga 223 Bharatiya Janata Party 80 World Parliament of Swami Vivekananda 495 Kalki Avatar 223 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Religions 504 World Vaishnavite Association Kamban 226 Sangh 362 Paramahansa Yogananda (WVA) 412, 504–505 Kanchipuram 227 Scandinavia 392 512–513 WVA. See World Vaishnavite Kapila 228 Vishvakarma 493 Westcott, Augusta. See Tingley, Association Sant Keshavadas 233 Vishvanath Temple, Benares Katherine Krishna 238 441, 493–494 Wheeler, R. E. Mortimer Sri Krishna Prem 246 Vishwa Hindu Parishad 251 Indus 196 Y Kshatriya 250 Vithoba (Vitthoba; Vitthala) Indus Valley civilization yajna 507 Kurma Avatar 253 215, 494 196 Brahmana 91 Lakshmi 256 Vivasvat 8 White Yajur Veda xix Chandogya Upanishad lila 259 Vivekananda, Swami xxxiiic, Aranyaka 42 103 Mahabalipuram 268 xxxivc, 494, 494–495 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Guyana 175 mantra 277 Swami Abhedananda 1–2 93 heaven 182 Matsya avatar 280 Swami Agehananda Shatapatha Brahmana shakti pithas 400 Meenakshi Temple, Bharati 14 404 Veda(s) 480 Maduri 285 Christian-Hindu relations Veda(s) 481 Yajnavalkya 507 Meru, Mount 287 114–115 women and Hinduism Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Metamorphosis League for Kanya Kumari 227 499 93 Monastic Studies 287 Sant Keshavadas 234 Yajnavalkya 507 mahavakyas 270 Milk Ocean 288 Sister Nivedita 317 Yajur Veda 508 Yajur Veda xix, xxviic, 508 Mohini 291 Swami Paramananda 323 Whitman, Walt 465 adhvaryu 5 myths of creation 297 Sri Ramakrishna 349 widows agnichayana 16 nagas 300 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 sati (suttee) 368, 388– Aranyaka 42 Nammalvar 302 reform xxiv 389, 500 Brahmana 91 Narasimha avatar 305 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Keshab Chunder Sen 394 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Nataraja 307 Sri Sarada Devi 386 women and Hinduism 93 om 319 Satguru 500 Dvapara Yuga 141 Pancharatra 321 Subramuniyaswami 424 Wilson, H. H. xxxiiic Katha Upanishad 231 Parashurama avatar 324 United States 467 wind 148 mahavakyas 269 pilgrimage 328 Vedanta Societies 484 women and Hinduism xxxvc, Mimamsa 289 Prahlada 332 World Parliament of 499–502 Soma 420 Rama 347 Religions xxv, 503–504 Brahmo Samaj 93 Veda(s) 480–481 Ramanuja 352 Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet devadasi 128 Ramayana 353 de 464–465 Mother India 293, 294 women and Hinduism Rashtriya Swayam Sevak vows (vratas) 496 Sister Nivedita 317 499 Sangh 362 Vritra 123–124 pilgrimage 328 Yajnavalkya 507 Rig Veda xviii, 365 Vyasa (Vedavyasa) 496–497 post-independence reforms yajus 508 Raja Rammohun Roy 368 Bhagavad Gita 73 xxiv yaksha (f. yakshi) 508 saptamatrika 385 Bhagavata Purana 74 sati (suttee) 368, 388– Indus Valley civilization Sati 388 Bhishma 84 389, 500 196 shakti pithas 401 Dvapara Yuga 141 Swami Vivekananda 495 Shakta 398 shalagrama 401 Ganesha 162 women and Jainism Thailand 443 Shrirangam 409 guru 174 Digambara 134 Yama 508–509 svadhishthana chakra 429 Mahabharata 268 facial markings 153 Divali 136 temple 441 Rig Veda 365 Gorakhnath 170 Durvasas 140 Thailand 443 rishi 367 Woodroffe, Sir John (Arthur Katha Upanishad 231 time in Hindu tradition Vedanta Sutra 484 Avalon) 502–503 Kubera 250 447 Yoga Sutra 514 World Council of Churches Nachiketas 299 Tirupati 450 115 new moon/full moon trimurti 453 World Fellowship of Religions ceremonies 311 Tukaram 455 W Christian-Hindu relations Savitri (mythic princess) tulsi 456 Wallace, Charlotte 153 115 390 Vaishnavism 474 wanderers (ascetic) xxii, xxiii Kirpal Maharaj Singh 417 yama 50, 509

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 551 12/14/06 1:07:06 AM K 552 Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Yamuna (Jumna) River xxxic, Healthy, Happy, Holy Scandinavia 391 spread of Hinduism xxv xxxviic, 509 Organization 182 Self-Realization Fellowship Temple of Kriya Yoga 442, Allahabad 22 Hinduism Today 185 392 443 Ganges 163 Richard Hittleman 189 Shiva xviii United Kingdom 463 Krishna 238, 239 Indo-American Yoga- Swami Shivananda United States 468 Naga sect 301 Vedanta Society 194 Saraswati 407 Sri Yukteswar 518 pilgrimage 329 International Babaji Kriya Shivananda Yoga Vedanta Yoga Sutra xxviiic, 514–515 Sarasvati 387 Yoga Sangam 198 Centers 408 Ashtanga Yoga 50 Temple of Cosmic Religion International Yoga Siddha 410, 411 Baba Hari Dass 180 442 Federation 201 Jagad Guru hatha yoga 181 Vasudeva 480 Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati Siddhaswarupananda B. K. S. Iyengar 204 yantra 509–510 213, 214 411 jivanmukta 215 bindu 85 Swami Amar Jyoti 216 Sikhism 415 Kripalu Yoga 237 Dasha Mahavidya 120 karma 228 Sri Ram Chandra Mission Vachaspati Mishra 291 meditation 284 Sant Keshavadas 234 421 Patanjali 327 Shakti 400 Krishna 240 surat shabda yoga 144, pranayama 333 Sri Vidya 422 Swami Krishnananda 245 344, 383, 384 Samkhya 379 tantrism 438 Guru Sushil Kumar 250 sutra 429 Tattvartha Sutra 439 Yantra, Sri 510, 510 Lahiri Mahasaya 256 svadhishthana chakra 429 Vyasa 497 yantra 509 Lakshmanjoo 257 Swami Kuvalayananda yoga 511 yoni 517 lalata chakra 258 Yoga Foundation 429 Yogaville, Virginia 388 Yashoda 510–511 Lee Lozowick 262 tanmatra 435 Yogendra, Sri 263, 515 Balarama 66 Benedict Lust 263 tapas 439 yoni 515–517. See also lingam Devaki 128 Sri Mahendranath 272 Temple of Cosmic Religion Bhairava 75 Krishna 238, 239 manas 275 442 Kamakhya 224 Mahavira 271 manipura chakra 276 Temple of Kriya Yoga 443 lingam 260 Vasudeva 480 Ma Yoga Shakti Tirthankara 448 Shakta 397 Yashoda Ma 246 International Mission United States 467 shakti pithas 401 Yasodhara Ashram Society 282 Vallabha 476 Shiva 406 407 meditation 283 Vedanta Sutra 485 temple 441 yoga (yogi, yogini) xxxc, Metamorphosis League for vishuddha chakra 492 Yudhishthira 517 xxxivc, xxxvc, 511–512. See Monastic Studies 287 yama 509 Bhishma 84 also Ashtanga Yoga; hatha Mimamsa 289 yantra 509 dharma 131 yoga; kriya yoga; raja yoga Ramamurti Mishra 290 Yoga Institute of America 425, Duryodhana 141 Abhidhyan Yoga Institute Vachaspati Mishra 291 426 Mahabharata 268 2 The Mother 292, 293 Yoga International (journal) Pandavas 322 ahamkara 17 mudra 295 183 Yuga 517–518 Ajapa Yoga Foundation muladhara chakra 297 Yogananda, Paramahansa Dvapara Yuga 141–142 20 nadi 299 xxxvc, 512–514, 513 Kali Yuga 223 ajna chakra 21 Nisargadatta Maharaj 314 Amrita Foundation 26 Kalki Avatar 223 Sri Anandamurti 34 Swami Bhagawan Ananda movement 33, 34 Krita Yuga 246 Anoopam Mission 39 Nityananda 315 Babji 61, 62 mahayuga 272 Sri Aurobindo 53 om 319, 320 Saniel Bonder 88 manvantara 278 Babji 61, 62 Sri Parthasarathi Roy Eugene Davis 121, Thailand 444 Baul sect 69 Rajagopalachari 326 122 time in Hindu tradition Pierre Arnold Bernard 70 prakriti 332, 333 International Babaji Kriya 447 Bhagavad Gita 73 pranayama 333 Yoga Sangam 198 Yukteswar, Sri 518 Yogi Bhajan 75 purusha 338 Swami Kriyananda 247 kriya yoga 248 bhakti 77 Swami Shivananda Radha kriya yoga 248 Kriya Yoga Centers 248 Baba Premanand Bharati 342 Kriya Yoga Centers 248, Paramahansa Yogananda 80 Swami Rama Tirtha 353 249 513 bija mantra 85 Ram Dass 358 Kriya Yoga Tantra Society buddhi 97 Yogi Ramsuratkumar 360 249 Swami Chetanananda 107 reincarnation/rebirth 364 Sri Daya Mata 279 Z Swami Chidvilasananda sahasrara chakra 374 Swami Shivananda Radha Zanzibar 10 108 samadhi 377–378 342 Zen 171 elements, five 148 Samkhya 379 Self-Realization Fellowship Zend Avesta xxviic Grace Essence Fellowship Swami Satchidananda 392–394 Zoroaster xxviic 170 387 Self-Revelation Church of guna 171 sat-chit-ananda 388 Absolute Monism 394

525-552_hindu-idx.indd 552 12/14/06 1:07:06 AM