Where is the Sphere of Finland? : The Relationship between Greater Finland and “Finnishness” during the World Wars Yuko ISHINO (Kanazawa University) Introduction “Greater Finland (Suur-Suomi in Finnish)” is seen as Finnish irredentism or expansionism, mainly towards Russian Karelia. This concept surfaced in the 19th century when Finland was under the Russian Empire. Greater Finland was related to Finnish ethnic ties to Karelians, mainly living in Russian Karelia, who seemed to speak a dialect similar to Finnish. Just before Finnish independence in December 1917, Russian Karelia became the target of irredenta for Finland. After the outbreak of the First World War, the movement towards annexation of this area and the absorption of Karelians into Finland began and continued until the end of the Second World War. In Finland, “Greater Finland” has been examined from a political perspective or the notion of common ethnicity with Karelians. However, the concept of Greater Finland paralleled the development of Finns’ national consciousness or “Finnishness” is seldom mentioned. Conversely, it is well known that Finnish intellectuals sought for their “Finnishness”, especially during the 19th century—the same time that Greater Finland appeared. But even after Finland became independent, Finnish intellectuals continued to seek Finnishness, which was by no means inferior to its European counterparts. Finland had been termed as backward, and has derogatorily called “Asia in Europe”. Such references were hardly reversed even after Finland gained its independence. Under these circumstances, Finnish intellectuals attempted at emphasizing the role of Finland in Europe. Considering the relationship between Greater Finland and Finnishnesss, this study examines the following points: First, this study provides an overview of the transition of Greater Finland. Second, this study focuses on how Finnishness was described in intellectual’s works, particularly Jalmari Jaakkola’s study on Finnish history associated with Greater Finland during the World Wars. This study is a key to considering why expansionism gained popularity not only in Finland, but also in other backward European countries during the World Wars. 1 1 The birth and transition of Greater Finland idea Though there are many theories about the origin of Greater Finland, idea it is clear that the expression itself appeared in the 20th century and it originates from the idea that a unity existed between Finns and their “kindred people.” We can see this kind of idea already in 1788 when Finland was under the Kingdom of Sweden. A professor of the Academy of Turku, Henrik Gabriel Porthan referred to the Finnish kindred people, then subordinated to the Russian Empire in the lecture at the Academy of Sweden: How delighted We, Finns are if many of our brothers who experienced severe fate more then Finns reunite us and shared common profit and fortune!1 Porthan intended to reunite the Finns with their Finnish brothers, the Karelians under the Kingdom of Sweden and he didn’t intend for the Finns and Karelians to be independent.2 Some Finnish intellectuals shared the kindred sympathy with Karelians under the Kingdom of Sweden. Though we can find this sympathy among Finnish intellectuals after Finland was ceded to the Russian Empire and became the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809, this sympathy was not shared by the Finnish people themselves. It is important to note that this kindred sympathy is tied with an anti-Russian sentiment. We can also see the anti-Russian sentiment in the fable about reuniting sisters written by August Ahlqvist, a professor of the Alexander University, in 1847 when Russia temporarily oppressed Finland. In the fable, he assumed the sisters to be Finns, Karelians and Estonians, and he also imagined the defeat of Russia.3 This kindred idea towards especially Karelians was shared not only with Finnish intellectuals but also Finnish people at the end of the 19th century. It was the Kalevala that triggered this spread of the kindred idea. 1 Mauno Jääskeläinen, Itä-Karjalan kysymys, Porvoo: WSOY, 1961, s. 22. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid, s. 43-44. 2 The Kalevala was complied in the stream of the literary movements referred to as Turku romanticism and the Helsinki romanticism, which started at the Alexander University in Finland.4 The Finnish intellectuals associated with those movements were in search for their own Finnish culture and pursued that search through the collecting of oral poetries. The Kalevala was complied at the height of these movements. The complier Elias Lönnrot tried to find “the life style of the Finnish ancestor” in Finnish poetries.5 He also tried to seek his own Finnish history before the Swedish conquest in the Kalevala.6 Though it was not easy to accept the Kalevala written in Finnish as Finnish national culture for Finnish intellectuals on the grounds that the majority of them spoke Swedish during that period, the Kalevala came to be accepted gradually, especially after gaining a reputation from abroad.7 It was used for the Fennoman movement that promoted Finnish language8, and became popular as the symbol for the Finnish art movement called Karelianism. The simplified books of the Kalevala were also utilized in the textbooks in Finnish schools after the Finnish language was added as a subject in 1843. The Language Act in 1863 prompted the spread of the Kalevala.9 In these movements, many intellectuals and artists travelled to Russian Karelia such as those on the pilgrimages at the end of the 19th century. Russian Karelia was recognized as the 4 These movements were influenced by the new Romanticism from Germany from the beginning of the 19th century. The Turku Romanticism was occurred during intellectuals and students in the Åbo Royal Academy. After the leader Adolf Ivar Arwidsson was exiled to Sweden in 1822 because of Russian oppression, Turku Romanticism came to end. Helsinki Romanticism came into being at the Aleksander University when the university moved from Turku to Helsinki and changed its name in 1827. Matti Klinge, Ylioppilaskunnnan historia 1 1828-1852: Turun ajoista 1840-luvun aktivismiin, Vaasa: Vaasa Oy:n kirjapaino, 1978, s. 86-97. 5 Pertti Karkama, “Oppinut mies kansan asialla: Elias Lönnrot ja aatteet”, Lönnrotin hengessä, Kalevalaseuran Vuosikirja(KV), 2002, s. 25. 6 The story of the Kalevala ended when the main character and a pagan symbol, Väinämöinen left Pohjola after the birth of a child imaged to the Christ. 7 The most famous evaluation came from Jakob Grimm in the Berlin Academy. See Pertti Anttonen ja Matti Kuusi, Kalevala-lipas, Helsinki: SKS, 1999, s. 47; 315. 8 Fennoman movement is the movement that promoted Finnish language and culture in the 19th century, under the rule of the Russian Empire. It developed politically at the end of the 19th century. Fennoman movement was influenced by the new German Romanticism under such thinkers as Johann Gottgried Herder. 9 According to the Language Act, the Finnish language became the official language equated with the Swedish language in the Grand Duchy of Finland. This status applied for the twenty years during the transition period. 3 birthplace of the Kalevala, that is to say the cradle of Finnish national culture. Karelians mainly living in Russian Karelia were regarded as Finnish kindred people who created the oral poetries of the Kalevala. The united idea of unification between the kindred people and the Finns developed politically when the Russian Empire changed policies towards Finland in the end of the 20th century. Under the political tension with the German Empire, the Russian Empire reinforced its militaristic defense in Finland. This resulted in the deprivation of Finnish autonomy. Finns began to oppose the so-called Russification policy in 1898 through the refusal of conscription and the disobedience of public servants. The Russian authority took severe measures against the Finnish opposition movement utilizing imprisonment or banishment to Siberia. Under these circumstances, the anti-Russian organization Aktivisti, which was formed in 1904, had an interest in Russian Karelia as a defense area against Russian oppression and saw this area as the target of Finnish irredenta. The Aktivisti claimed irredentism in the anti-Tsarism conference held in Paris in September 1904 and held the idea of a Finnish federation state including Russian Karelia after the Russian Empire became to constitutional monarchy.10 The Aktivisti envisioned the realization of a federation of Finland with Russian Karelia after the constitutional government was established in Russia.11 Thus the Aktivisti didn’t intend to be independent of Finland at the time. They saw Russian Karelia as a political target. On the contrary, the Finnish assembly had no intention to annex Russian Karelia one month before they declared the independence of Finland in 6 December 1917. They planned instead for a sphere in which Finland would be independent within the sphere of the Grand Duchy of Finland.12 However, their idea changed their idea in the process of negotiating with Germany. On 2 December Germany and the Bolshevik agreed to a truce and on 22 December the negotiations for so-called treaty of Brest-Litovsk began. Before the treaty, the Finnish 10 Antti Kujala, “March Separately- Strike Together: The Paris and Geneva Conferences Held by the Russian and Minority Nationalities’ Revolutionary and Opposition Parties, 1904-1905”, AKASHI Motojiro, Olavi K. Fält and Antti Kujala eds., Rakka ryusui: Colonel Akashi’s Report on His Secret