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Social Reality and Mythic Worlds Reflections on Folk Belief and the Supernatural in James Macpherson’s Ossian and Elias Lönnrot’s Kalevala Ersev Ersoy PhD THE UNIVERSITY of EDINBURGH OILTHIGH DHÙN ÈIDEANN 2012 Abstract This thesis investigates the representation of social reality that can be reflected by folk belief and the supernatural within mythic worlds created in epic poetry. Although the society, itself, can be regarded as the creator of its own myth, it may still be subjected to the impact of the synthesized mythic world, and this study seeks to address the roles of the society in the shaping of such mythic worlds. The research is inspired by an innovative approach, using James Macpherson’s Ossian (1760-63) and Elias Lönnrot’s Kalevala (1835-49) as epic models that benefit from mythical traditions. Through the examination and the comparison of these two epic collections, both of which seem to have a close association with social reformation and restructuring, the study explores the universality of human nature. It also reveals the extent mythic worlds may exhibit the ‘realities’ of their source-societies and how mythical tradition may become a reflection of a society’s transforming past modes of thinking. Moreover, the study devotes special attention to the influence of mythic heritage on national awakening and the construction of national identities. The research treats Macpherson as the re-inventor of Gaelic oral tradition with his Ossian, where he portrays a Romanticized image of a gallant past according to the norms of the eighteenth century. Therefore, the mythic world of the epic can be seen as a combination of an ancient heroic past and the aesthetic refinement of a polished age. In this framework, as the product of a society going through a transition period from traditional to modern, Ossian seems to reflect the society’s changing world-view, both celebrating, and mourning for a culture on the verge of extinction. Focusing on the Kalevala, the study analyzes its portrayal of Finnish folk belief. The Kalevala, like Ossian, is an attempt to recover ancient tradition, which seems to revolve around supernatural and divine elements, with hopes to establish a common social reality. It is an expression of Finnish language, belief and culture, whose production was prompted by the looming Finnish nationalism. Therefore, the evolving mode of thought represented in the mythic world of Kalevalaic poems, is expected and favoured by the society, enabling the epic to encourage a social reformation. Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. It has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification except as specified. Ersev Ersoy 2 April 2012 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ix List of Abbreviations xi List of Illustrations xii Chapter 1 General Introduction 1 Research Questions, Thesis Aims and Structure 1 Key Concepts 5 Chapter 2 Relations Between the Cultural-Political Contexts of Ossian and the Kalevala 15 Introduction 15 James Macpherson and the Scottish Highlands 17 Macpherson’s Ambitions and his Ideals in Europe 22 Elias Lönnrot’s Life 27 Macpherson’s Influence on Lönnrot 30 Analogies between The Poems of Ossian and the Kalevala 36 Tradition and Nature 36 Bardic Tradition and Rune Singing 38 ‘Joy of grief’ 45 ‘Liminal Spaces’: Border Zones 47 Ancestors and Origins 54 Conclusions 61 Chapter 3 Scottish Folk Belief and the Ossianic Supernatural World 65 Introduction 65 Critical Dissertations by Dr John Macpherson of Sleat 66 The Last Bard 69 Spirits 76 Spirits of the Hill 80 Spirit of the Storm 82 Spirit of the Wind 82 Spirit of the Mountain 83 The Fairy Tradition 84 Ossian and Native Gaelic Tradition 85 The Hunter (1756) and The Highlander (1758) 91 Circles and Need-fire 101 Second Sight 105 Conclusions 109 Chapter 4 The Returning Dead in Ossian 117 Introduction 117 Ghostly Apparitions 118 Ghosts Appearing on a Meteor 120 Ghosts Foretelling a Battle 122 Ghosts in Mourning 124 Silent Ghosts 125 Ossianic Ghosts and the Past 129 Ghosts of Ossian Compared with those in Homer, Virgil and Milton 140 Conclusions 152 Chapter 5 The Spirit of Loda 155 Introduction 155 Macpherson’s References to Loda 155 Fingal: Book III 156 Fingal: Book V 157 The Death of Cuchullin 158 Carric-thura 162 Temora: Book V 165 Temora: Book VI 166 Cathlin of Clutha 166 Sul-malla of Lumon 168 Cath-loda: Duan First 169 Cath-loda: Duan Second 171 Cath-loda: Duan Third 172 Oina-morul 173 Concluding Thoughts — Ossianic References to Loda 173 Ossianic Expeditions to Scandinavia 180 Lochlin 182 Inis-thona 184 Inistore 185 Berrathon 187 I-thorno 188 Fuärfed 189 Concluding Thoughts — Ossianic Expeditions to the Circle of Loda 190 Macpherson’s Sources on Scandinavian Gods 199 Macpherson’s Introduction (1771, 1772, 1773) 199 Conclusions 215 Chapter 6 The Supernatural World of the Kalevala 219 Introduction 219 Heroes and Heroic Exploits in the Kalevala 220 Väinämöinen’s Journey: Tuonela, Wisdom and Transition 221 Lemminkäinen’s Re-birth: Finnish Gods and Nature 241 Adventures of Ilmarinen: The Magic of the Sampo and Nature’s Joy 254 The Kalevala as a Shamanic Performance 264 Conclusions 271 Chapter 7 Conclusion 279 Bibliography 287 Appendix A 301 Appendix B 307 ix Acknowledgements I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Howard Gaskill, Peter Graves, Emily Lyle and Alan Macniven for their patience, encouragement and guidance, and for their unfailing inspirational support. I am also grateful to my lecturers: Maija Mackinnon, for introducing me to the beautiful Finnish language, and for kindly offering her valuable feedback on my studies; and to Sevgi Altay Erginel, for her generosity of spirit. I would also like to thank all the staff of the Scandinavian Studies department and the administrative staff of the Graduate School of Literatures, Languages and Cultures, especially Kate Marshall and Heather Elliott, for their help and advice during this doctoral project. Many of these pages were written at the National Library of Scotland and I would like to thank the friendly members of staff for their efforts in helping create such an inspiring atmosphere. My sincere thanks go to my good friends Guy and Silvia for our fruitful discussions and their solidarity; to Lee Ann, Natalie, Rudi and Yasemin for being my life away from this research over the past four years; and to those in Cyprus and Turkey: Deniz, Ece, Fatoș, Izzet, Kamil, Kemal, Mustafa, Nağme, Nurcan, Uyum and Zeynep, for their emotional support that reaches me from miles away; and to Șerefcan, whose love and presence in Edinburgh have become a great source of inspiration and motivation during the final stages of my PhD. Most of all, my warm thanks are due to my loving parents, Yener and Ersin, who have always encouraged me to follow my dreams, supported me and believed in me; and last but not least, to my brother, Erkal, who has always managed to make me laugh during our study-breaks and has always helped keep my spirits up. x xi List of Abbreviations Critical Dissertation Blair’s “A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, the Son of Fingal.” In PO [1763]: 343-401. Critical Dissertations John Macpherson’s Critical Dissertations on the origin, antiquities, language, government, manners, and religion of the ancient Caledonians, their posterity the Picts, and the British and Irish Scots (1768). Essays Anne Grant’s Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlands (1811). Introduction Macpherson’s An Introduction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland (1771, 1772, 1773). Pieces Percy’s Five Pieces of Runic Poetry translated from the Islandic Language (1763). PO Macpherson, James. The Poems of Ossian and Related Works. Ed. Howard Gaskill, 1996. Reliques Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry: consisting chiefly of old heroic ballads and songs, and other pieces of our earlier poets, (chiefly lyrical kind). Together with some few of a later date. 3 Vols. (1765). Report Mackenzie’s Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland, appointed to inquire into the Nature and Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian, with a Copious Appendix, containing some of the principal Documents on which the Report is founded (1805). xii List of Illustrations Figure 1: Different layers of ‘reality’ in Ossian and the Kalevala - - 12 Figure 2: Genealogical table showing the Ossianic characters - - 125 Figure 3: Map of Scandinavian homelands and other areas in the British Isles settled by Scandinavians - - - - 176 Figure 4: Map of the